TRNG i hc chu vn an

I CNG

BI GING TIN HC

MC LC
CHNG 1: GII THIU CHUNG...........................................................................4
1.1. Khi nim thng tin (Information)..............................................................................4
1.2. Khi nim tin hc........................................................................................................4
1.3. Lch s pht trin ca my vi tnh...............................................................................5
My vi tnh mi ch c lch s pht trin khong 50 nm tr li y, song vi tc pht
trin nhanh, n mang li mt cuc cch mng thc s trong i sng x hi loi
ngi, iu m cha mt ngnh khoa hc no khc c th t c trong khong thi
gian ngn nh vy. Tnh n nay, my vi tnh tri qua ti 5 th h:..............................5
1950 1958, th h th nht: cc my tnh c lp rp bng n in t chn khng, s
liu c a vo bng ba c l, tc tnh vo khong 300-3000 php tnh/s.............5
1958 1964, th h th hai: b x l trung tm c lp rp bng mch bn dn, s liu
c a vo bng ba v bng c l. B nh ngoi bng trng t hoc bng t. Tc
tnh ton vo khong 10.000-100.000 php tnh/s. My c chng trnh dch v h
iu hnh n gin.............................................................................................................5
1965 1974, th h 3: B x l lp bng vi mch in t c nh, b nh trong bng
xuyn t hoc mng mng t, b nh ngoi bng a cng, tc tnh t t 100.000 n
1 triu php/s. My c h iu hnh a chng trnh, c cc knh vo ra iu khin
my in v b nh ngoi......................................................................................................5
1974 n nay, th h 4 v khi u ca th h 5: cc b vi x l c lp rp bng cc vi
mch nh, cc vi mch ny c ch to trong cng ngh vi mch c ln v rt ln. B
nh ngoi dng a mm v a cng. My thng c ch thnh hai loi: loi dng
thng thng cho mt ngi, a chc nng (Personal Computer) v loi chuyn dng a
chng trnh, a vi x l....................................................................................................5
My tnh th h 5 s l cc my tnh c tr khn nhn to, c nhng h suy din pht trin
v nhng h qun l c s kin thc, c kh nng hiu c ting ni,........................5
2.1 H 10 ( H thp phn: Decimal)...................................................................................5
2.2 H 2, 8, 16.................................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Biu din thng tin trong my vi tnh v cc n v o thng tin ................................7
2.4. i s gia cc h v cc php ton trong h 2...........................................................8
3.1. Tp (File)..................................................................................................................14
3.2. Th mc (Directory/ folder)......................................................................................15
4.1. Khi nim m v m ha...........................................................................................15
5.1. Khi nim mnh logic, bin logic, hm logic......................................................16
5.2. Cc ton t logic v biu thc logic..........................................................................17
CHNG 2: CU TRC CA MY VI TNH............................................................22
2.1. Mn hnh................................................................................................................... 23
2.2. Hp my.................................................................................................................... 25
2.3. Bn phm. (Keyboard)...............................................................................................30
2.4. Chut my tnh (Mouse)...........................................................................................31
2.5. My in....................................................................................................................... 32
CHNG 3: H IU HNH.......................................................................................34
1.1. Khi nim h iu hnh (Operating System).............................................................34
1.2. Phn loi h iu hnh..............................................................................................34
2.1 Mt s quy nh ca h iu hnh MSDOS...............................................................36
2.2 Cc lnh ca h iu hnh MS-DOS (Microsoft- Disk Operating Sytems)................37
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3.1 Cc thnh phn c bn...............................................................................................41

3.2. Cc thao tc lin quan n biu tng (Icon), th mc (Folder)...............................42
Kch chut phi................................................................................................................ 42
3.3. S dng hp thoi Control Panel...............................................................................43
CHNG 4: SON THO VN BN TRONG MICROSOFT WORD......................51
1.1 Khi ng, ra khi Word...........................................................................................51
1.2 Ca s son tho Word..............................................................................................51
1.3 Cc h thng Menu....................................................................................................52
1.4 Cc phm g tt..........................................................................................................55
2.1 B g ch Vit...........................................................................................................56
2.2 G cc k t c bit..................................................................................................57
2.3 Chn min vn bn v dch chuyn............................................................................57
2.4 Xa, chn, thay th on vn bn...............................................................................58
3.1 M tp........................................................................................................................ 59
3.2 Ghi tp........................................................................................................................ 60
3.3 ng tp..................................................................................................................... 61
4.1 nh dng ch............................................................................................................62
4.2 nh dng on vn bn.............................................................................................63
4.3 nh dng trang..........................................................................................................64
5.1 Cng c to bng........................................................................................................65
5.2 Thay i kch thc trong bng.................................................................................66
5.3 Cc thao tc nh dng ng k ..............................................................................67
5.4 Tnh ton, sp xp trong bng....................................................................................68
6.1 Vit cng thc n gin.............................................................................................70
6.2. Cc lnh v cng thc trong Microsoft Equation 3.0................................................71
PHN II: NGN NG LP TRINH PASCAL...............................................................74
CHNG 1: KHI NIM GIAI THUT V LU ................................................74
1.1. Khai nim giai thut..................................................................................................74
1.2. Tnh cht ca thut gii.............................................................................................74
2.1. Lit k cac bc : (Trong cc v d phn trn) ......................................................76
2.2. Lu ( s khi)..................................................................................................76
CHNG 2: CU TRC CA MT CHNG TRNH TURBO PASCAL...............80
Trong qu trnh gii quyt cc bi ton, ta c th gp trng hp chng trnh phi thc
hin lp i lp li mt cng vic no . Vic thc hin phi theo mt qui lut no . S
ln lp c th xc nh trc hoc khng xc nh. Sau y ta s ln lt xt cc lnh lp
dng ny........................................................................................................................... 95
Tng S s c cng dn theo th t t n n 1, tc l S=n+(n-1)++2+1...................97
2.1. Khai bo v cc php ton.......................................................................................108
2.2. Cc th tc v hm x l xu k t.........................................................................109
3. Kiu bn ghi (Record)................................................................................................114
3.1. Khi nim chung.....................................................................................................114
3.2. Khai bo.................................................................................................................. 114
3.3. Truy nhp................................................................................................................ 115
3.4. Lnh With...do........................................................................................................116
4. Kiu tp...................................................................................................................... 118
4.1. Khi nim................................................................................................................ 118
4.2. Khai bo.................................................................................................................. 118
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4.3. Truy nhp vo tp....................................................................................................119

4.4. Tp vn bn.............................................................................................................119
4.5. Tp c kiu.............................................................................................................. 125
4.5.1. Khai bo: ...........................................................................................................125
4.6. Tp khng kiu........................................................................................................126
4.6.2. Truy nhp:............................................................................................................126
4.7. Bi tp p dng.......................................................................................................127
CHNG 6: CHNG TRNH CON - HM V TH TC.....................................127

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PHN I: I CNG V TIN HC

CHNG 1: GII THIU CHUNG
1.THNG TIN V TIN HC
1.1. Khi nim thng tin (Information).
Thng tin c s dng hng ngy. Con ngi c nhu cu c bo, xem ti vi,
nghe i, i tham quan, du lch, tham kho kin ca ngi khc nhn c thm
thng tin mi. Thng tin mang li cho con ngi s hiu bit, nhn thc tt hn v cuc
sng x higip h thc hin hp l cc cng vic cn lm t ti mc ch tt nht.
V d: Khi tri n n my en chn tri pha ng bo hiu 1 trn ma ln sp
xy ra. Mu en ca my, tc vn chuyn ca my cha ng cc cc thng tin v kh
tng.
Thng tin l tp hp cc du hiu, cc c im, cc tnh cht cho ta hiu bit
v mt i tng.
Khi tip nhn c thng tin, con ngi thng phi x l n to ra nhng
thng tin mi, c ch hn, t c nhng phn ng nht nh.
V d: Ngi ti x chm ch quan st ngi, xe c i li trn ng, tt xu
mt ng, tnh nng k thut cng nh v tr ca chic xe quyt nh, cn tng tc
hay hm phanh, cn b li sang tri hay sang phi... nhm m bo an ton ti a cho
chuyn xe i.
Thng tin c th hin di nhiu dng thc khc nhau nh sng nh sng, sng
m, in t, cc k hiu vit trn giy hoc khc trn g, trn , trn cc tm kim loi ...
V nguyn tc, bt k cu trc vt cht no hoc bt k dng nng lng no cng c th
mang thng tin. Chng c gi l nhng vt (gi) mang tin.
D liu (data) l biu din ca thng tin v c th hin bng cc tn hiu
(signal) vt l.
1.2. Khi nim tin hc
Nc Php l ni t tn gi cho ngnh Tin hc, ngi ta nh ngha: "Tin hc l
tp hp cc khoa hc, k thut v vic x l t ng v hp l thng tin mang kin
thc ca con ngi lu gi v truyn gi chng".
T in Bch khoa (1986) ca Lin X c nh ngha: "Tin hc l mt lnh vc
khoa hc nghin cu cu trc v tnh cht ca thng tin khoa hc, cng vi vic thu
thp, x l, lu gi, bin i v truyn chng".
Tuy nh ngha c th khc nhau nhng ni dung ca cc nh ngha y u thng
nht mt im: Tin hc l khoa hc chuyn nghin cu v mt i tng c th: l
Thng tin v D liu.
Cng c khng th thiu i vi ngi nghin cu Tin hc l my tnh v cc
ngn ng giao tip
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My tnh bao gm hai phn:

- Phn cng (Hard ware): mt b Vi x l, cc mch kt ni, cc thit b ngoi vi.
- Phn mm (Soft ware): l cc chng trnh c lp ra bng ngn ng no ,
c ghi vo a mm hoc a cng v c gi ra theo yu cu ca ngi s dng.
1.3. Lch s pht trin ca my vi tnh
My vi tnh mi ch c lch s pht trin khong 50 nm tr li y, song vi tc
pht trin nhanh, n mang li mt cuc cch mng thc s trong i sng x hi
loi ngi, iu m cha mt ngnh khoa hc no khc c th t c trong khong thi
gian ngn nh vy. Tnh n nay, my vi tnh tri qua ti 5 th h:
1950 1958, th h th nht: cc my tnh c lp rp bng n in t chn
khng, s liu c a vo bng ba c l, tc tnh vo khong 300-3000
php tnh/s
1958 1964, th h th hai: b x l trung tm c lp rp bng mch bn dn,
s liu c a vo bng ba v bng c l. B nh ngoi bng trng t hoc
bng t. Tc tnh ton vo khong 10.000-100.000 php tnh/s. My c
chng trnh dch v h iu hnh n gin.
1965 1974, th h 3: B x l lp bng vi mch in t c nh, b nh trong
bng xuyn t hoc mng mng t, b nh ngoi bng a cng, tc tnh t t
100.000 n 1 triu php/s. My c h iu hnh a chng trnh, c cc knh
vo ra iu khin my in v b nh ngoi.
1974 n nay, th h 4 v khi u ca th h 5: cc b vi x l c lp rp bng
cc vi mch nh, cc vi mch ny c ch to trong cng ngh vi mch c ln v
rt ln. B nh ngoi dng a mm v a cng. My thng c ch thnh hai
loi: loi dng thng thng cho mt ngi, a chc nng (Personal Computer) v
loi chuyn dng a chng trnh, a vi x l.
My tnh th h 5 s l cc my tnh c tr khn nhn to, c nhng h suy din
pht trin v nhng h qun l c s kin thc, c kh nng hiu c ting ni,
2. H M TRONG MY VI TNH
H m c hiu l mt tp hp cc k hiu v nhng quy tc dng biu din
v tnh ton gi tr cc s. Chng ta quen vi hai h m thng dng l h m thp phn
v h m La m, ngoi ra cn cc h m: 2, 8, 16.
2.1 H 10 ( H thp phn: Decimal)
H thp phn l h m c s dng m v tnh ton trong i sng hng
ngy.

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H thp phn dng 10 s c s l 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 biu din cc con s.

Do s dng b 10 ch s nn h m ny c c s l 10.
Gi tr ca mi s c s ph thuc vo v tr ca n trong ch s. Nu cc s trong
ch s l ging nhau th gi tr ca s ng bn tri s ln gp 10 s ng bn phi, vd:
999, s 9 u tin bn phi c gi tr bng 9 n v, s 9 th hai c gi tr bng 90 n v
v s 9 th 3 c gi tr bng 900 n v.
Trong h thp phn cc con s c to ra bng cch ghp quay vng cc ch s c
s bt u t ch s th 2 tc l ch s 1, v d:
* Vng ghp th nht:
Ghp s th hai (tc l s 1) vi cc s c s ta c: 10, 11, 12,...19.
Sau ghp ch s th ba (tc l s 2) ta s c:
20, 21, 22,...29.
Lot ghp cui cng trong vng ghp u tin l:
90, 91, 92,...99.
* Vng ghp th hai:
Ta s ly ln lt cc s ca vng ghp th nht tc l: 10,11, ...99 ghp vi cc
ch s c s to ra cc ch s mi: 100, 101, 102,... 109
110, 111, 112,119

990, 991, 992,...999.

Tm li nguyn tc l: Ly cc s to ra trong vng ghp trc vi cc s c s
to ra cc s tip theo.
V tr cc ch s: Trong h thp phn, v d s 276,52 ta quy nh v tr cc ch s
nh sau: Ch s bn tri st du phy thp phn c v tr 0 (s 6), tip l v tr 1 (s 7),
v tr 2 (s 2)Cc s bn phi du phy s c v tr m.
276.52 = 200 + 70 + 6 + 0.5 + 0.02 = 2.102 + 7.101 + 6.100 + 5.10-1 + 2.10-2.
Nu ch mt cht ta s thy 10 2 , 101 , 100 , 10-1, 10-2 chnh l lu tha ca c s
h m ( y l h 10) s m ca lu tha l ch s v tr ca bn thn tng ch s.
Tng qut vi h m c s k (k>1) ta c th biu din s
N = (anan-1an-2....a0a-1a-2...a-m)k theo cng thc
N= an.kn + an-1.kn-1 + .... + a0.k0 + a-1.k-1 + .... + a-m.km (1.1)
2.2 H 2, 8, 16.
H 2 (H nh phn): My tnh khng bit m nh con ngi. My tnh lm vic
khi c in v ngng hot ng khi mt in, ngha l ch c hai trng thi ng - Ngt.
Cc vi mch hot ng cng ch c hai trng thi: c dng in chy qua v khng c
dng in chy qua. V th my tnh c th m cn to ra h m ch c hai ch s
tc l h m nh phn.
H m nh phn dng trong my tnh hin nay gm hai ch s l 0 v 1. tin
cho vic din gii sau ny,vi cc h m khng phi l thp phn ta s vit cc ch s
km theo mt ch s chnh l c s ca h m . C th: dng ch s 16 cho h m c
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s 16 (tc l s hc HEX -Hexadecimal ), ch s 2 cho h m nh phn (Binary) v ch

s 8 cho h bt phn. V d: 1 16 l s 1 trong h m c s 16, 1 2 l s 1 trong h nh

phn.
Vic to ra cc ch s mi trong h nh phn cng p dng nguyn tc nh sau:
Ch s c s l 0, 1
Vng ghp th 1: 10, 11
Vng ghp th 2: 100,101, 110, 111
Vng ghp th 3: 1000, 1001, 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111
.....
* H m c s 8: l h m hnh thnh t 8 ch s c s: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7, theo
nguyn tc quay vng d dng to ra cc ch s tip theo ca h m ny (cch ghp
cng ging nh h nh phn), v d: 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
* H m c s 16 (Hexadecimal): l h m 16 ch s c s, chng ta s khng
cp n vn ti sao phi dng h m 16 m ch nghin cu s b vic i cc s t h
16 sang cc h khc v ngc li.
H m 16 bao gm cc ch s nh sau: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F. Cng thc
hin theo phng php quay vng nh trn.
H 2
H 8
H 10
H 16
H 2
H 8
H 10
H 16

0
0
0
0

1
1
1
1

10
2
2
2

1011
13
11
B

1100
14
12
C

11
3
3
3

100
4
4
4

101
5
5
5

110
6
6
6

1101
15
13
D

1110
16
14
E

1111
17
15
F

.
.
.
.

111
7
7
7

1000
10
8
8

1001
11
9
9

1010
12
10
A

2.3 Biu din thng tin trong my vi tnh v cc n v o thng tin

n v o dung lng thng tin c nh ngha l Bit. Mt Bit c hiu l dung
lng cn thit lu tr c mt s nh phn 0 hoc 1.
Biu din cc s thp phn u tin (0 - 9) ta cn s nh phn c di 4 bit.
BYTE l mt nhm 8 bt. My tnh dng 8 phn t ghi nh 1 k t. Vy mi k
t ng vi mt BYTE (8 bt). Bt thp nht c s th t l 0
V d: k t A c m ASCII 6510 tng ng vi 10000012, c biu din trong 1
byte nh sau:
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
WORD (t): l mt nhm gm 2 hoc 4 bt (vi cc my tnh dng mch vi x l
80286 tr v trc mi t n gm 2 byte, ph hp vi cc loi thanh ghi 16Bt; vi cc
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my tnh dng mch vi x l t 80386 v sau mi t kp gm 4 byte ph hp vi thanh

ghi 32 bt).
n v o lng thng tin c cc n v b nh sau:
1 Bit = 0 hoc 1
1 Byte = 8 Bit
1 KB = 210 byte = 1024 Bytes
1 MB = 1024 KB
1GB = 1024 MB
1 TB = 1024 GB
2.4. i s gia cc h v cc php ton trong h 2
2.4.1. i s gia cc h
i t 10 sang h 2, 8, 16
* i t h 10 sang h 2: tc l i t h thp phn sang h nh phn, ta dng phng
php chia lin tip s chia cho 2 n khi kt qu chia bng 0. Ghp cc s d ngc
chiu t di ln trn ta c s nh phn cn tm.
V d: i s 156 sang h nh phn
156 : 2 = 78 d 0
78 : 2 = 39 d 1
39 : 2 = 19 d 1
19 : 2 = 9 d 1
9 : 2 = 4 d 1
4 : 2 = 2 d 0
2 : 2 = 1 d 0
1: 2 = 0 d 1
Vy 15610 = 100111102
Vi nhng s thp phn c phn l vic chuyn i phn l khng phi l chia m ta
nhn lin tip phn l vi 2 v gi li phn nguyn ca cc kt qu nhn. Qu trnh kt
thc khi phn l c cc kh nng sau:
- Phn l ca php nhn c gi tr bng 0
V d: i s 0.67872 sang h nh phn
0.67872 x 2 = 1.375 phn nguyn = 1
0.375 x 2 = 0.75 phn nguyn = 0
0.75
x 2 = 1.5
phn nguyn = 1
1.5
x 2 = 1.0 phn nguyn = 1 (phn l bng 0)
Vy 0.67875d = 0.1011b
- S ch s nh phn tm c t n chnh xc cn thit hoc bng s ch s
nh phn m my c th x l. V d my ch x l c 8 bit.
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V d: i s 0.6810 sang h nh phn

0.68 x 2 = 1.36

phn nguyn = 1

0.36 x 2 = 0.72

phn nguyn = 0

0.72 x 2 = 1.44

phn nguyn = 1

0.44 x 2 = 0.88

phn nguyn = 0

0.88 x 2 = 1.76

phn nguyn = 1

0.76 x 2 = 1.52

phn nguyn = 1

0.52 x 2 = 1.04

phn nguyn = 1

0.04 x 2 = 0.08

phn nguyn = 0

Vy 0.6810 = 0.1010 11102

* i t h 10 sang h 8: Ta cng thc hin php chia lin tip cho 8 n khi no
kt qu s chia bng 0 ta dng li v ghp cc s d theo chiu ngc li
V d: i s 10610 sang h 8
106 : 8 = 13 d 2
13 : 8 = 1 d 5
1 : 8 = 0 d 1 Vy 10610 =1528
* i t h 10 sang h 16: cng p dng nguyn tc chia s ca h m 10 cho c
s ca h 16 tc l chia cho 16
V d : i s 31 ca h 16 sang h 10
31 : 16 = 1 d 15
1 : 16 = 0 d 1
V s 15 ca h 16 bng F nn ghp cc s theo chiu t di nn ta c:
3110 = 1F16
i t h 2 sang h 10, 8, 16
* i t 2 sang h 10:
- Trong h m nh phn c s 2, ta c th i s nh phn thnh s thp phn, bng
cng thc (1.1)
V d: i s 11002 sang h 10
11002 = 1.23 + 1.22 + 0.21 + 0. 20 = 8 + 4 = 1210
Vy 11002 = 1210
* i t h 2 sang h 8:
- Nhm thnh tng nhm 3 bt mt t phi qua tri, nhm cui cng c th nh hn
3, sau i tng nhm sang h 8 tng ng.
V d: i 100101012 sang h 8:
Ta chia thnh 3 cm mi cm 3 bt 101, 010, 010 = 510, 210, 210
Vy 100101012 = 2258
* i t h 2 sang h 16:
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- Nhm thnh tng nhm 4 bit mt t phi qua tri, nhm cui cng c th nh hn
4, sau i tng nhm sang h 16 tng ng.
V d: i s 10 1110 1101 2 sang h 16.
Chia thnh 3 cm mi cm 4 bt l 1101, 1110, 10, tra bng ta c :
11012 = D10; 11102 = E10; 102 = 210.
Vy 10 1110 11012 = 2ED16
i t h 8 sang h 10, 2, 16
* i t h 8 sang h 10: p dng cng thc (1.1) v lu tha c s 8
V d: 1528 = 1*8 2 + 5* 81 + 2* 80 = 64 + 40 + 2 = 10610
* i t h 8 sang h 2: Tm ch s c s ca h m c s 8 khi chuyn sang h 2
dng nhiu nht 3 bt. Do vy khi i mt s t h 8 sang h 2 ta i tng ch s sang
dng m 3 bt, sau ghp cc kt qu li theo th t.
V d: i s 238 sang h 2
S 28 i sang h 2 di dng m 3 bt l 010, s 38 l 011.
Vy 238 = 010 0112
Th li: H 8 10 2
238 = 2*81 + 3*80 = 1910
010 0112 = 0* 25 + 1* 24 + 0 * 23 + 0 * 22 + 1* 21 + 1* 20 = 16 + 2 + 1 = 1910
* i t h 8 sang h 16:
Cc ch s ca h 8 h 2 s c biu din di dng m nh phn 3 bit. Cn
cc ch s ca h 16 h 2 s c biu din di dng m nh phn 4 bit.
i tng ch s ca h 8 sang h 2
Ghp cc s nh phn theo th t
Chia s nh phn va to ra thnh tng nhm 4 bit tnh t phi qua tri
i nhm 4 bt thnh s h 16, sau ghp kt qu li theo th t
V d: i 358 sang h 16
Tra bng ta c 38 = 0112 ; 58 = 1012 Do : 358 = 0001 11012
Tra bng tip tc ta c 00012 = 116; 11012 = D16
Vy 35 8 = 1D16
Th li: H 8 10 16
358=3.81 + 5.80 = 2910
2910=1D16
i t h c s 16 sang h c s 10, 2, 8
* i t h c s 16 sang h c s 10: theo cc phng php nu ta xt v d:
V d: 1F16 = 1.161 + F.160 = 16 + 15 =3110
Vy 1F16 = 3110
* i h c s 16 sang h c s 2: Cc ch s c s ca h m c s 16 khi
chuyn sang h 2 dng nhiu nht 4 bt.
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Vi cc s h 16 c 1 ch s (tc l 16 ch s c s) ta c th dng bng tra i.

Vi cc s c t hai ch s tr ln p dng phng php i tng ch s sang 4 bt
V d: i s AF16 sang h nh phn, tra bng ta c: A = 1010; F = 1111
Vy AF16 = 1010 11112
Th li: Chuyn tt c sang h thp phn
AF16 = A.161 + F. 160 = 10. 16 + 15 .1= 17510
1010 11112 = 1.27 + 0.26 + 1.25 + 0.24 + 1.23 + 1. 22 + 1. 21 + 1.20 = 17510
* i t h c s 16 sang h c s 8:
i tng ch s ca h 16 sang h 2
Ghp cc s nh phn theo th t
Chia s nh phn va to ra thnh tng nhm 3 bit tnh t phi qua tri
i nhm 3 bt thnh s h 8, sau ghp kt qu li theo th t
V d: A2B16 sang h 8
Tra bng ta c: A16 = 10102; 216 = 0010; B16 = 1011 Do :
A2B16 = 1010 0010 10112
Chia s 1010 0010 1011 thnh tng nhm 3 bt ta c: 101 000 101 011.
Tra bng ta c: 1012 = 58; 0002 = 08; 0112 = 38
Vy A2B16 = 50538
Th li: 16108
A2B16=10.162 + 2.161 + 11.160 = 260310
260310=50538
2.4.2. Biu din s m trong h nh phn
a. Biu din theo v tr cc bit
Trong thc t biu din s m ta dng du (-) t pha trc s .
Trong my tnh, biu cc s m ta khng th dng du tr t pha trc v nh
vy my s khng hiu c bi v my ch x l nhng m nh phn 0, 1, vy my c
th hiu c nhng s chng ta phi dng mt bit trong dy nh phn phn bit
du cho cc s nh phn .
- Quy nh biu din s m:
+) Bit u tin bn tri l bit mang du
+) S 1: du m
+) S 0: Du dng
VD: S 11112 khng mang du khi chuyn sang h 10
11112 = 1* 23 +1* 22 +1* 21 + 1* 20 = 1510
C du:
11112 = - 1* 23 +1* 22 +1* 21 + 1* 20 = -110
Nu quy nh v tr bit u tin bn phi l v tr 0 th v tr bit tri nht l 3, 7, 15 i
vi m nh phn 4, 8,16 bit
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M nh phn 4 bit biu din 16 ch s ca h thp phn.

Bit ln nht l: 1111 C du 01112 = 710
Bit nh nht l: 0000 C du 10002 = -810
Tng t, m nh phn 8 bit dng ln nht l: 011111112 = 12710
Nh nht: 100000002 = -12810
b. Biu din theo s b:
Nguyn tc biu din s b l: C mt s dng sau khi dng m b 2 ta s c
c mt s m tng ng
Quy tt tnh b 2:
+) Tnh B 1 = o cc bit ca s ban u
+) B 2 = B 1 + 1
V d: S 510 = 01012
- B 1 = 1010
- B 2=1010 + 1 = 10112 = -510
Nh vy, v bn cht ly c s m khi thc hin xong php b th ta vn phi
dng bit u tin xt du cho s nh phn . Vy c th ni, php c bn biu din
s m l biu din theo v tr.
0 101

Bit mang du +

1 011

S 510

Bit mang du -

S 3

2.4.3. Cc php tnh trong h nh phn

Php cng
Khi thc hin cc php tnh trong h nh phn cn lu vic chng ta s dng m 4,
8, 16 hay 12 bt. Nguyn tc cng nh sau:
0 + 0 = 0;
1 + 0 = 1;
0 + 1 = 1;
1 +1 = 0 nh 1 ln bt trn
V d: Cng s vi m 8 bt
0000 1001
0001 1001
------------0010 0010
Ch : Do php cng c thc hin trn m nh phn 8 bit m kt qu l 9 bit th
loi bit tha ch ly 8 bit lm kt qu.
Php tr
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Php tr trong h nh phn khng c nh ngha song c th thc hin php tr

thng qua php cng gia s b tr vi s b hai ca s tr. S b hai mt s thc cht l
s i (s m) ca s . Trong h thp phn ta c th vit php tnh sau y:
4 - 2 = 4 +(-2) = 2
Cc s b trong h m nh phn c nh ngha nh sau:
* S b 1 ca mt s nh phn l s c hnh thnh t s ban u bng cch nghch
o cc gi tr 0 thnh 1 v 1 thnh 0, v d s ban u l 1001(s 9 trong h 10). S b 1
ca 1001 l 0110
* S b 2 ca mt s nh phn c to thnh bng cch ly s b 1 cng thm 1, v
d s 2 ca 1001 s l:
0110 + 1 = 0111
V d: 10112 - 10012
B 1 ca 10012 : 01102
B 2 ca 10012: 01102 + 1=01112
10112 - 10012 = 10112 + 01112
V d: khi tnh ton chng ta c th p dng quy tc tr nh sau (khng khuyn
khch dng cch ny v my tnh khng thc hin bng cch )
0 - 0 = 0;
1 - 1= 0;
1 - 0 = 1;
0 - 1 = 1 nh 1 ln bt trn s tr
1000 0010
1111
------------0111 0011
Thc hin tng bit mt t phi qua tri
Php nhn
Php nhn thc hin theo nguyn tc
0 x 0 =0;
1 x 0 = 0;
0 x 1 = 0;
1 x 1 = 1;
Khi nhn ta thc hin nhn tng bt ca s nhn (s th 2) vi s b nhn, kt qu
ca mi ln nhn vit dch sang tri 1 v tr sau cng tt c cc gi tr trung gian.
V d: 1011*111

1011
* 111
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--------1011
(dch tri 0 bt)
+
1011
(dch tri 1 bt)
1011
(dch tri 2 bt)
---------------1001101
C th kim tra c rng:
10112* 1112 = 100 1101 = 26+ 23+22+20 = 64 +8 +4 +1= 77
Php chia
Php chia thc ra l php tr lin tip s b chia cho s chia, mi mt ln tr ta cng
mt n v vo kt qu, v d 1001 chia 11
V d: 36 chia 9
Php tr
Kt qu
36 - 9=27
1
27 - 9=18
1+1=2
18 - 9=9
2+1=3
9 - 9=0
3+1=4
Vy kt qu =4
V d 2: 10012 chia 112
B 2 ca 112 = 11012
Php tr
Kt qu
1001 + 1101 = 0110
1
0110 + 1101 = 0011
1 + 1=10
0011 + 1101 = 0000
10 + 1 =11
Nh vy, kt qu bng 112 = 310
10012 = 910
9 chia 3 = 310 = 00112
112 = 310
3. TP V TH MC
3.1. Tp (File)
* nh ngha tp: Tp l tp hp thng tin lin quan vi nhau v c lu tr trong
b nh ngoi, b nh ngoi thng dng l a t. Cc thng tin a vo my tnh nh
chng trnh, vn bn, d liu...u c lu tr trn a t di dng tp
V d: Mt bi th, bng im, mt chng trnh lu tr trn a t di dng tp
Mi tp c t tn duy nht, hai tp trong mt mc khng c trng nhau
* Tn tp: Gm hai phn l tn chnh v ui cch nhau bng du chm (.).
Tn chnh l mt nhm k t khng cha cc k t c bit: /, \, *, , :, . , ( ), tn
chnh dng phn bit tp v thng c chn ph hp vi ni dung ca tp
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Phn ui ca tp thng cha 3 k t khng cha du chm. ui phn bit

loi tp
Cc tp c ui: EXE, COM, BAT, PRG l cc tp kiu chng trnh
DAT, PDF .. l cc tp d liu
TXT, DOC l cc tp kiu vn bn
JPG, GIF.. l cc tp kiu ho
3.2. Th mc (Directory/ folder)
* Th mc l mt ngn logic cha tp trong cc thit b lu tr thng tin ca my
tnh. Mi th mc c t mt tn duy nht v 2 th mc khng c trng tn.
* T chc th mc trn a: th mc c t chc theo m hnh phn cp (m hnh
cy Tree): mi ngn cha c gi l th mc, ngn to nht bao trm trn ton b a gi
l th mc gc (ROOT), trong th mc gc c cha cc th mc con ca n v cc tp.
Tn th mc c t theo quy tc t tn ca tp nhng khng c phn ui m rng.
4. M ha
4.1. Khi nim m v m ha
M ha l qu trnh gn cho mt nhm i tng mt nhm ch s tng ng. Nh
vy m ha thc cht l mt qu trnh chuyn gia ngn ng ny sang ngn ng khc. V
d: nh s bo danh cho cc hc sinh trong phng thi l m ha, kt qu mi th sinh s
nhn c s bo danh c th.
Cc thng tin trong my tnh u c biu din dng h 2. Cc thng tin a vo
my tnh bao gm cc ch ci la tinh A.. Z, a.. z, cc s 0.. 9 v cc du (gi chung l k
t- character )
Cc k t s c m ho tng ng vi mt bng m s. S lng cc k t nh
hn hoc bng 256, nu dng m nh phn (s h 2 ) th ch cn dng khun 8 bt l
(c th biu din s t 0 n 28 - 1 = 255). Do vy m ho cc k t c a vo my
tnh, ngi ta dng khun 8 bt.
Thng tin

M ho

Tn hiu s

01011100..

Gii m

Thng tin

TB ra

Hnh 1.1: S m ha v gii m thng tin

4.2. M ASCII(American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
Bng m l bng m lit k tt c cc i tng ca mt ngn ng vi cc gi tr
m ha gn cho n. Cc gi tr ny chnh l s th t ca k t trong bng m. Di y
gii thiu mt s nhm k t v m ca chng trong bng ASCII
Cc k t
M s
Cc k t iu khin
0 31
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Khong cch (Space)

32
Du ! # $ % & ( ) + , - . /
33 47
Cc s t 0 n 9
48 57
Du : ; < = > ? @
58 64
Cc ch ci to A -> Z
65 90
Du [ \ ] ^ _
91 96
Cc ch ci nh a -> z
97 122
Du { | } ~ <DEL>
123 127
Cc k t c bit, k t k khung
128 255
y s dng s h 10 vit cho gn v d nh, trong my mi s s c biu
din bng mt nhm 8 bt trong h 2.
V d: K t A c m 6510 , biu din trong my tnh l 010000012
5. i s logic (i s Boole)
- i s Boole : ly theo tn ca nh ton hc ngi Anh Geogre Boole (18151864) ngi t nn mng cho mn i s ny.
- i s logic lm vic vi i lng ch nhn gi tr ng hoc sai.
- Trong i s ph thng :
Phng trnh/Biu thc=Ton hng + Ton t
Phng trnh/Biu thc=Ton hngMnh + Ton t(AND, OR)
5.1. Khi nim mnh logic, bin logic, hm logic
a. Mnh logic:
- L nhng biu thc ton hoc nhng cu ni nhm khng nh tnh chn l ca mt s
kin.
- Mi mnh ch nhn mt gi tr ng hoc sai.
Nu mnh nhn gi tr chn l ng gi tr = 1
Nu mnh nhn gi tr chn l sai gi tr = 0
V d: Paris l th ca nc Php mnh ng
3+4= 12 Mnh sai
- Trong thc t c nhng mnh m tnh ng sai ca n lun gn vi mt thi gian v
a im c th: N ng thi gian hoc a im ny nhng li sai thi gian hoc a
im khc. Nhng bt k thi gian hoc a im no cng lun c gi tr chn l ng
hoc sai.
V d: Tri ang ma
Hc sinh ang ngh h
Mt thng c ba mi ngy
- Cc cu hi, cu cm thn v cu mnh lnh u khng phi l mnh
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V d: i chi i
Hoan h cc bn
Bn kho khng ?
- C nhng mnh m ta khng bit hoc cha bit ng, sai nhng bit chc chn n
nhn mt gi tr.
V d: Trn sao ho c s sng
- Cc mnh c th lin kt vi nhau to nn mnh mi. Gia cc mnh tn
taih cc php ton c bn: AND, OR, NOT, XOR.
b. Bin v hm logic
* Bin logic ch c th nhn 1 trong 2 gi tr logic l ng TRUE (1) hoc sai FALSE (0).
- V d: X = s m l s m, trong v d ny X l mt bin logic v n c th nhn
gi tr TRUE hoc FALSE ty theo gi tr ca m
Nu m = -8 th X nhn gi tr TRUE (1)
m = 8 th X nhn gi tr FALSE (0)
* Hm logic: L hm cha cc bin logic, gi tr tr v trong khong 0 hoc 1.
Hm logic = Ton t logic + Ton hng (Mnh logic)
V d: Bin X = Sinh vin c h khu H Ni
Bin Y = Sinh vin c tui > 20
Hm F = X and Y c ngha l F = sinh vin c h khu H Ni v c tui > 20.
Nh vy ng vi nhng gi tr X, Y khc nhau th hm F s c cc gi tr khc
nhau v c m t theo bng sau:
X
F
F
T
T

Y
F
T
F
T

X and Y
F
F
F
T

5.2. Cc ton t logic v biu thc logic

Trong ton hc, biu thc tnh ton l s kt hp gia cc ton t v ton hng
to ra biu thc mi. Tng t nh vy, biu thc logic lin kt cc mnh logic vi
ton t logic to thnh biu thc logic mi. Cc ton t gi l ton t logic (AND,
OR, NOT.)
Cc ton t logic.
* Ton t NOT (ph nh hay nghch o): php o tc dng ln mt ton hng s cho
gi tr i nghch ca ton hng .
K hiu: Mnh a, ph nh ca a l a . ng khi a sai v sai khi a ng
Bng chn l:
a
NOT a
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F
T

T
F

V d: a = Paris l th ca nc Php
(T)
a = Paris khng l th ca nc Php
K hiu mch in:
a

(F)

NOT a

* Ton t AND: php v hay cn gi l php nhn.

- Php AND cho kt qu True khi v ch khi c hai ton hng u l True
Bng chn l:
X
Y
X AND Y
F
F
F
F
T
F
T
F
F
T
T
T
K hiu mch in
a

a AND b

AND

V d: - Lan hc gii v ngoan ngon

Biu din: F= a and b =True
Trong : a=Lan hc gii, b=ngoan ngon
- Ti c mt H Ni v Hng Yn
Trong : a=Ti c mt H Ni , b=Hng Yn
Biu din: F= a and b = False
Cu hi: Ti sao ni ton t AND l ton t nhn?
V i vi nhng php ton c bn th php AND v php NHN cho kt qu
ging nhau
Ton t AND
Ton t NHN
1 AND 1 = 1
11=1
1 AND 0 = 0
10=0
0 AND 1 = 0
0*1=0
0 AND 0 = 0
0*0=0
* Ton t OR (php hoc hay l cng).
Php OR cho kt qu l False (0) khi v ch khi ton hng u l False (0)
Bng chn l:
X

Y
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F
F
T
T
Mch in:

F
T
F
T

F
T
T
T

a OR b

OR
b

V d: 3 nh hn hay bng 4 M ng
20 l s l hay 20 chia ht cho 3 M sai
* Ton t XOR (php trit tiu).
Php XOR cho kt qu 0 (trit tiu) khi hai ton hng ging nhau.
X
Y
X AND Y
F
F
F
F
T
T
T
F
T
T
T
F
Th t u tin ca 4 ton t trn l: NOT, AND, OR, XOR
Mch in:
a
a XOR b
XO
R

b
V d:
Tri nng XOR tri ma (F=1 XOR 0 = 1 Tn ti s sng trn tri t)
Tri nng XOR tri nng (F=1 XOR 1 =0 Tri t s b trit tiu
Khng tn ti s sng)
in t cng du XOR in t cng du (F= 1 XOR 1 = 0 y nhau)
in t cng du XOR in t tri du (F = 1 XOR 0 = 1 Hai in cc
ht nhau)
Nam gii XOR n gii (F = 1 XOR 0 = 1 Tn ti)
V d nu dng ba th tc trn pha hai mu trng m mu 15 (1111) v nu
m mu 6 (110) ta c cc mu ln lt l nu (110), trng (1111) v xanh
lam sng (1001) (xem bng)

1111

1111
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AND
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OR 1 1 0
------------1111

XOR 1 1 0
------------1001

* Ton t ADD (Php cng hoc thm)

Dng cng cc s nh phn (thc cht l s kt hp gia php AND v php
XOR). Php cng nh phn nh sau
Php cng
Php AND
Php XOR
0+0=0
0 AND 0 = 0
0 XOR 0 = 0
1+0=1
1 AND 0 = 1
1 XOR 0 = 1
0+1=1
0 AND 1 = 1
0 XOR 1 = 1
1 + 1 = 10
1 AND 1 = 1
1 XOR 1 = 0
Nh vy, kt hp hai mch XOR v AND chng ta c th to nn mch cng cc
s nh phn
Mch in:

(1) a

XOR
(1) b

a ADD b
AND
1

Mch ADD trnh by trong bng trn ch cng c cc s nh phn c d di 1

bit. Khi cn cng cc s nh phn c di ln hn, v d: 8, 32 bit mch tng m u
vo gm 8, 32 mch ADD. Tip theo phi c cc mch ADD cng cc s nh ca bit
di ln bit cao hn. Mch ADD u vo s lm nhim v cng hai s nh phn c v tr
ging nhau trong ton hng x, y, tn hiu u ra s c gi tip vo cc mch ADD sau
.
Ton t NAND (T hp t mch NOT v mch AND trong ton t AND c
thc hin trc)

Php NAND
y
x NAND y

K hiu mch in
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b

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0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

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1
1
1
0

* Ton t NOR (T hp t mch OR v mch NOT trong ton t OR c thc hin

trc)
x
0
0
1
1

Php NOR
y
x NOR y
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1

K hiu mch in
a

AND

a NOR b

Biu thc logic:

Biu thc logic l mt biu thc ton trong cc ton hng bt buc phi l mnh
logic cn ton t gm 3 loi:
- Ton t s: +, -, *, /,
- Ton t so snh: =, <>, >, <,
- Ton t logic
Biu thc logic ch c th nhn gi tr TRUE(1) hoc FALSE(0).
Ch :
- Nhng php tnh trong ngoc ( ) c u tin s 1.
- Ton t NOT c u tin s 2, sau n AND, OR, XOR, ADD.
- Thc hin t tri qua phi.
V d:
(Sin2x + Cos2x > 2) AND (SQRT(9) = lg(1000) OR NOT(T>F)

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CHNG 2: CU TRC CA MY VI TNH

1. Chc nng v s cu trc ca my vi tnh
1.1.

Chc nng ca my tnh

My vi tnh (Micro Computer) l h thng thit b in t c lp rp bi cc linh

kin in t, thit b c hc v mch vi x l. My vi tnh hot ng theo chng trnh
nn gm cc chc nng sau:
- Trao i thng tin gia ngi v my tnh.
- X l thng tin hay bin i thng tin, y l chc nng quan trng nht ca my
vi tnh, thc hin nhim v t ng ha x l thng tin thay cho con ngi.
- Lu tr thng tin. Cc thng tin s dng trn my vi tnh nu cn s c lu tr
trao i thng tin cho nhiu ln sau.
Thut ng "My vi tnh" c dng vi mc ch ch cc my tnh c kch thc
nh v so vi th h cc my tnh in t th qu tht kch thc ca chng c thu
b mt cch ng k. Tuy nhin thut ng ny ngy cng tr nn khng ph hp khi cc
my tnh xch tay xut hin. Ngy nay ngi ta s dng thut ng Personal Computer
vit tt l PC ch cc my tnh dng cho c nhn. Do tnh lch s trong sch ny chng
ta vn dng thut ng "My vi tnh".
Nhn b ngoi, my vi tnh gm cc b phn sau y: (Hnh 2.1)
1. Mn hnh ( Monitor hay Screen)
2. Hp my (phn thn my bao gm b vi x l- Central Processing Unit - CPU,
a cng,...)
3. Bn phm ( Keyboard - Console )
4. Thit b chut ( Mouse )
5. My in ( Printer)

Hnh 2.1: Cc b phn ca my tnh

1.2.

S cu trc ca my vi tnh
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(xem li)
2. Cc b phn c bn ca my tnh
2.1. Mn hnh.
Mn hnh l mt khi thu tinh c dng hnh phu chn khng bn trong c mt
thit b phng tia in t. Mt trong ca mn hnh pha i din vi ng phng in t
c ph mt lp hunh quang. Lp hunh quang ny s pht sng khi cc in t p
vo vi mt cng ln. Mn hnh ca cc my vi tnh hin nay c thit k vi
nhiu chng loi khc nhau:
Mn hnh Monochrom, Hercule l cc mn hnh n sc
Mn hnh Ega, Cga, Vga, Tvga, Svga l cc mn hnh mu
Mn hnh ca cc my tnh c nhn thng thng u c chiu di ng cho 14
Inch (17 inch) v c thit k c th lm vic hai ch : ch vn bn
(Text) v ch ho (Graphic). Cht lng ca mt mn hnh th hin qua hai thng
s c bn:
a. phn gii: (Resolution).
L s im sng m mn hnh c th hin th. Mn hnh my tnh hin th nh theo
tng im ri rc rt nh, lin kt cc im cho php hin th cc nh theo nhng g ta
nhn thy. phn gii ca mn hnh my tnh l mt biu th s im nh hng ngang x
s im nh hng dc v d: 1024 x 768 c ngha l c 1024 im nh theo chiu ngang
v 768 im nh theo chiu dc. Mn hnh VGA phn gii l 640 x 480, mn hnh
SVGA 1024 x 720, Mn hnh Hercule 720x340.... Vi cc my tnh hin i phn gii
mn hnh c th thay i khi chn chc nng Settings trong Control Panel.
b. Mu sc:
Tu thuc vo b nh mn hnh m chng ta c s lng mu c th la chn, Mn
hnh VGA cho ta 16 mu, mn hnh Sgva cho 256 mu.
c. Tc lm ti:
Nguyn l hin th s chuyn ng ca hnh nh trn mn hnh my tnh cng ging
nh nguyn l chiu bng: Lm thay i nhanh cc hnh nh tnh trong mt khong thi
gian ngn li dng tnh cht lu nh trong vng mc ca con ngi ghp thnh cc
hnh nh chuyn ng.
Tc lm ti th hin s khung hnh t c trong mt giy. Tc lm ti
i vi cc loi mn hnh thng dng tn s 60, 75, 85 Hz (trong in nh: vi cc
phim nha, tn s thng l 24).
Tc lm ti nh hng n sc kho ca ngi s dng my tnh. Nu t
qu thp vi mn hnh CRT s c cm gic rung hnh, nhc mt dn n nhc u khi
lm vic lin tc. Thng thng vi mn hnh CRT nn t ti thiu 75 Hz trnh c
cm gic ny. Vi mn hnh tinh th lng lm ti 60 Hz cng t to ra cm gic rung
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hnh v nhc mt nh trn bi c ch to hnh nh ca n hon ton khc vi mn hnh

CRT.
d. Phn loi:
Phn loi theo nguyn l hot ng.
Mn hnh my tnh loi CRT (Cathode Ray Tube - ng phng tia in t)

Hnh 2.2: Mn hnh my tnh

Nguyn l hin th hnh nh.
Mn hnh CRT s dng phn mn hunh quang dng hin th cc im nh,
cc im nh pht sng theo ng mu sc cn hin th cn cc tia in t tc ng vo
chng to ra s pht x nh sng. ng phng CRT s to ra cc tia in t p vo
mn hunh quang hin th cc im nh theo mong mun.
u im: Th hin mu sc rt trung thc, tc p ng cao, phn gii c th
t c cao. Ph hp vi games th v cc nh thit k, x l ho.
Nhc im: Chim nhiu din tch, tiu tn in nng hn cc loi mn hnh
khc, thng gy nh hng sc kho nhiu hn vi cc loi mn hnh khc.
Mn hnh my tnh loi tinh th lng.

Hnh 2.3: Mn hnh tinh th lng

Mn hnh my tnh loi tinh th lng da trn cng ngh v tinh th lng nn rt
linh hot, c nhiu u im hn mn hnh CRT truyn thng, do hin nay ang c
s dng rng ri, dn thay th mn hnh CRT.
u im: Mng nh, khng chim din tch trn bn lm vic. t tiu tn in
nng so vi mn hnh loi CRT, t nh hng n sc kho ngi s dng so vi mn
hnh CRT.
Nhc im: Gii hn hin th nt trong phn gii thit k (hoc phn gii
bng 1/2 so vi thit k theo c hai chiu dc v ngang), tc p ng chm hn so vi
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mn hnh CRT (tuy nhin nm 2007 xut hin nhiu model c p ng n 2 ms),
mu sc cha trung thc bng mn hnh CRT.

Mn hnh my tnh loi khc

Ngoi hai th loi chnh thng dng trn, mn hnh my tnh cn c mt s loi
khc nh:
- Mn hnh cm ng
Mn hnh cm ng l cc loi mn hnh c tch hp thm mt lp cm bin trn
b mt cho php ngi s dng c th iu khin, lm vic vi my tnh bng cch s
dng cc loi bt ring hoc bng tay ging nh c ch iu khin ca mt s in thoi
thng minh hay Pocket PC.
Mn hnh my tnh s dng cng ngh OLED
L cng ngh mn hnh mi vi xu th pht trin trong tng lai bi cc u im:
Cu to mng, tit kim nng lng, p ng nhanh, tui th cao...
V c bn, ngoi hnh mn hnh OLED thng ging mn hnh tinh th lng nhng c
kch thc mng hn nhiu do khng s dng n nn.
Hin nay gi thnh ch to cc mn hnh OLED cn cao nn tuy c bn cc
mn hnh my tnh loi ny nhng cha c s dng rng ri. Cng ngh OLED mi
bt u c s dng trong cc mn hnh in thoi di ng.
Mn hnh my tnh cng nghip:
Loi mn hnh my tnh c nguyn l hot ng ging nh cc mn hnh CRT v
LCD thng thng, nhng c s dng trong cc my tnh cng nghip. Chng ch c
khc bit v kch thc (thng nh hn), v c thit k lm vic lin tc trong mi
trng bi, nng, m, rung ng...
2.2. Hp my
Hp my l mt thit b dng gn kt v bo v cc thit b phn cng trong my
tnh.Phn thn my bao gm b vi x l- Central Processing Unit - CPU, a cng,...

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Hp my.

Hnh 2.4: Hp my
a. Khi x l trung tm (CPU: Central Processing Unit)
Khi x l trung tm l b no ca my vi tnh. Nhim v ca khi x l l thc
hin cc php tnh ton s hc v lgic, ng thi quyt nh cc thao tc m chng
trnh i hi.
Xt v phng din thng tin mt b vi x l phi lun lun thc hin 3 nhim v
sau y:
- Nhp vo hoc xut ra cc s liu ca chng trnh
- Thc hin vic x l cc s liu a vo.
- Qun l v ct gi cc s liu vo cc thit b nh trong hoc ngoi
b. B nh RAM.

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RAM (vit tt t Random

Access Memory ) l b nh chnh ca
my tnh. RAM c gi l b nh
truy cp ngu nhin. Thng tin lu
trn RAM ch l tm thi, chng s mt
i khi mt ngun in cung cp.
Dung lng RAM c tnh bng MB
v GB, thng thng RAM c thit
k vi cc dung lng 128, 256, 512
MB, 1 GB, 2 GB... Dung lng ca
RAM cng ln cng tt cho h thng,
tuy nhin khng phi tt c cc h thng
phn cng v h iu hnh u h tr
cc loi RAM c dung lng ln, mt
s h thng phn cng ca my tnh c
nhn ch h tr n ti a 4 GB v mt
s h iu hnh (nh phin bn 32 bit
ca Windows XP) ch h tr n 3 GB.

Hnh 2.5: Cc loi RAM

c. a cng
a cng, hay cn gi l cng (Hard Disk Drive, vit tt: HDD) l thit b
dng lu tr d liu trn b mt cc tm a hnh trn, ph vt liu t tnh.
a cng l mt thit b rt quan trng bi n lu li ton b d liu ca ngi
s dng. Nhng s h hng ca cc thit b khc trong h thng my tnh c th sa cha
hoc thay th c, nhng d liu b mt do yu t h hng phn cng ca a cng
thng rt kh ly li c.
a cng l mt khi duy nht, cc a cng c lp rp c nh trong ngay
t khi sn xut nn khng th thay th c.

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Hnh 2.6: a cng

d. B ngun.
Ngun my tnh (Power Supply Unit hay PSU ) l mt thit b cung cp in nng
cho bo mch ch, cng v cc thit b khc..., p ng nng lng cho tt c cc thit
b phn cng ca my tnh hot ng.

Hnh 2.7: B ngun

Mt ngun cht lng km, khng cung cp cng sut hoc khng n nh c
th gy ln s mt n nh ca h thng my tnh (cung cp in p qu thp cho cc
thit b, c nhiu nhiu cao tn gy sai lch cc tn hiu trong h thng), h hng hoc
lm gim tui th cc thit b (nu cung cp in p u ra cao hn in p nh mc).
e. Bo mch ch (Mainboard/ Motherboard).

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Hnh 2.8: Bo mch ch

Bo mch ch l mt bn mch ng vai tr l trung gian giao tip gia cc thit b
vi nhau. Mt cch tng qut, n l mch in chnh ca mt h thng hay thit b in
t. C rt nhiu cc thit b gn trn bo mch ch theo cch trc tip c mt trn n,
thng qua cc kt ni cm vo hoc dy dn lin kt v d: Bus d liu, RAM, Main.
f. CDROM
- a CD (Compact Disc): L mt
trong cc loi a quang (d liu c ghi
c bng tia nh sng hi t), chng c
ch to bng cht do, ng knh 4.75 inch,
dng phng php ghi quang hc lu tr
khong 80 pht ghi m thanh hoc 700 MB
d liu my tnh c m ho theo k
thut s.
- CDROM (Compact Disc Read
Only Memory): L a CD ch c.

Hnh 2.9: a CD

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2.3. Bn phm. (Keyboard)

Hnh 2.10: Bn phm

Thut ng thng dng ch bn phm l Keyboard, tuy nhin mt s ti liu li
dng l Console.
Nguyn tc ca bn phm: khi n mt phm th gy ra s tip in gia mt dy dc
v mt dy ngang to ra mt xung in, xung ny chy qua chng trnh iu khin bn
phm s a vo my m ASC II ca k t phm
Bn phm gm 5 khu vc sau:
- Khu phm my ch gm cc ch, phm du v phm s nh cc phm trn bn
phm my ch trong c cc phm cch (Space bar).
- Khu phm chc nng F1, F2,...F12 c tc dng thc hin mt chc nng hon
chnh no khi ta g cc phm , tc dng ca n c ci t ty theo chng trnh.
V d DOS dng phm F1 nhc li tng k t ca cu lnh g trc, F3 nhc li
ton b cu lnh va g.
- Khu vc phm s bn tri bn phm
- Khu vc dch chuyn con tr mn hnh gm cc phm dch ln, dch xung, dch
tri, dch phi, dch v pha u mn hnh (Home), dch xung cui (End), dch ln trn
mt trang (PgUp), dch xung mt trang (PgDn), dch tri v xa (back Space), phm
TAB dch con tr i mt khong 8 ct (gi l mt tab)
- Khu phm iu khin:
+ ESC thot ra khi chng trnh hoc lnh ang thc hin
+ CapsLock chuyn i thng xuyn kiu ch nh sang ch to v ngc li
+ Shift c tc dng chuyn tm thi ch to thnh ch nh hoc ngc li khi gi
phm v g ch. Vi cc phm c 2 k t th nu g c cc k t di, nu Shift
v g th cho cc k t trn. V d: Mun c du hai chm : th ta n phm Shift v
phm hai chm : cng mt lc.
+ Insert - chn k t vo v tr con tr
+ Delete - Xa k t ti v tr con tr
+ Print Screen - In mn hnh
+ Scroll Lock - Bt hoc tt trng thi cun mn hnh
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+ Pause/ break - Ch hoc ngt chng trnh

+ Ctrl v Alt - m rng chc nng ca bn phm
+ Num Lock - Kch hot bn phm s, bn phm s c tc dng khi no n
Numlock sng.
2.4. Chut my tnh (Mouse)
- Chut my tnh l mt thit b ngoi
vi ca my tnh dng iu khin v
lm vic vi my tnh.
s dng chut my tnh nht thit
phi s dng mn hnh my tnh
quan st to v thao tc di chuyn
ca chut trn mn hnh
Hnh 2.11: Chut c
Cc nt trn chut my tnh:
Chut my tnh theo thit k ban u ch gm hai nt: Nt phi chut v nt tri
chut vi chc nng la chn v m rng. Theo nhu cu s dng, chut my tnh ngy
c b sung thm cc nt chc nng v cng dng.
- Nt gia: M rng tnh nng ca chut my tnh.
- Nt cun: Thng c b tr gia nt tri v phi ca chut. Nt thng c dng bnh
xe trn xoay hoc cng tc hai chiu. Nt cun thng c kt hp vi nt gia. Nt
cun thng s dng di nhanh chng cc thanh trt (scrollbar) - thng s dng
nhiu khi lt web, son tho vn bn hoc cc ng dng khc cn quan st nhiu hn
gii hn ca mn hnh hin th.

Cc loi chut my tnh

Chut my tnh phn loi theo nguyn l hot ng c hai loi chnh: Chut c v
chut quang.
- Chut c
Chut c s dng nguyn l xc nh chiu ln ca vin bi khi di chuyn chut
xc nh to ca con tr trn mn hnh my tnh.
Cu to v nguyn l hot ng ca chut bi c dy bao gm:
Vin bi c t ti y chut, c kh nng tip xc vi b mt bng phng ni
chut tip xc. Vin bi c th ln t do theo cc chiu khc nhau.
Hai thanh ln trong b tr tip xc vi vin bi. Bt k s di chuyn ca vin bi
theo phng no u c quy i chuyn ng theo hai phng v lm quay hai thanh
ln ny. Ti cc u thanh ln c cc a c l ng trc vi thanh ln dng xc nh
s quay ca thanh ln.
Hai b cm bin nh sng (pht v thu) xc nh chiu quay, tc quay ti cc
a c l trn thanh ln.
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Mch phn tch v chuyn i tn hiu. Dy dn v u cm theo kiu giao tip

ca chut truyn kt qu iu khin v my tnh.
- Chut quang
Chut quang hot ng trn nguyn l pht hin phn x thay i ca nh sng
(hoc laser) pht ra t mt ngun cp xc nh s thay i to ca con tr trn mn
hnh my tnh.
u im ca chut quang thng l:
+ phn gii t c cao hn nn cho kt qu chnh xc hn so vi chut bi
nu s dng trn cht liu mt phng di chut hp l (hoc cc bn di chuyn dng).
+ iu khin d dng hn do khng s dng bi.
+ Trng lng nh hn chut bi.
Nhc im ca chut quang thng l s kn chn mt phng lm vic hoc bn
di chut, trn mt s chut quang khng th lm vic trn knh. Nhng nhc im ny
s dn c loi b khi chut quang s dng cng ngh laser.
Ngy nay chut quang v cc loi chut khc ang dn thay th chut bi do chng c
nhiu u im v khc phc cc nhc im ca chut bi thng thy trn.

2.5. My in.
My in l mt thit b dng hin ra trn cc cht liu (giy vi my in vn
phng, la vi my in cng nghip) khc nhau cc ni dung c son tho hay c
thit k sn.
Loi my in vn phng:
- My in Laser:

Hnh 2.12: My in Laser

My in s dng cng ngh laser l cc my in dng in ra giy, hot ng da trn
nguyn tc dng tia laser chiu ln mt trng t, trng t quay qua ng mc (c tnh
cht t) mc ht vo trng, giy chuyn ng qua trng v mc c bm vo giy,
cng on cui cng l sy kh mc mc bm cht vo giy trc khi ra ngoi. My
in laser c tc in thng cao hn cc loi my in khc, chi ph cho mi bn in thng
tng i thp. My in laser c th in n sc (en trng) hoc c mu sc.

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- My in kim:

Hnh 2.13: My in kim

My in kim s dng cc kim chm qua mt bng mc lm hin mc ln trang
giy cn in. My in kim tr thnh lc hu do cc nhc im: In rt chm, phn
gii ca bn in rt thp (ch in c th loi ch, khng th in c tranh nh) v khi lm
vic chng rt n. Ngy nay my in kim ch cn xut hin ti cc ca hng, siu th in
cc ho n nh mt thit b nh gn cho cc bn in chi ph thp.
- My in phun:

Hnh 2.14: My in phun

My in phun hot ng theo theo nguyn l phun mc vo giy in (theo ng tn
gi ca n). Mc in c phun qua mt l nh theo tng git vi mt tc ln (khong
5000 ln/giy) to ra cc im mc nh th hin bn in sc nt.
a s cc my in phun thng l cc my in mu (c kt hp in c cc bn en
trng). in ra mu sc cn ti thiu 3 loi mc. Cc mu sc c th hin bng cch
pha trn ba mu c bn vi nhau.
Trc y cc hp mc mu ca my in phun thng c thit k cng khi, tuy
nhin nu in nhiu bn in thin v mt mu no s dn n hin tng c mt mu ht
trc, tip tc in cn thay hp mc mi nn gy lng ph i vi cc mu cn li cha
ht. Ngy nay cc hp mu c tch ring bit v tng s lng cc loi mu phi
trn (nhiu hn 3 mu - khng k n hp mu en) s cho bn in p hn, gim chi ph
hn trc.

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So snh trong cc th loi my in th my in phun thng c chi ph trn mi bn

in ln nht. Cc my in phun thng c gi thnh thp (hn my in la de) nhng cc hp
mc cho my in phun li c gi cao, s lng bn in trn b hp mc thp.
CHNG 3: H IU HNH
1. KHI NIM H IU HNH
1.1. Khi nim h iu hnh (Operating System)
H iu hnh l cng c giao tip gia my tnh vi cc i tng ngoi my tnh.
H iu hnh l phn mm iu khin ton b tin trnh xy ra trong my tnh. My vi
tnh hot ng khi h iu hnh c np vo b nh my. H iu hnh gip ngi s
dng my tnh d dng v hiu qa.
H iu hnh iu khin tt c hot ng ca my vi tnh v cc thit b ngoi vi,
l cu ni gia ngi s dng v my vi tnh
1.2. Phn loi h iu hnh
H iu hnh chia l 2 loi: h iu hnh my tnh c nhn v h iu hnh mng.
* H iu hnh my tnh c nhn l h iu hnh vit iu khin mt my tnh c
nhn cn gi l my tnh c nhn (PC). Cc h iu hnh my tnh c nhn thng dng:
MS -DOS, WINDOWS 95, WINDOWN 98, WINDOWN 2000, WINDOWN XP..
* H iu hnh mng l h iu hnh vit iu khin mt mng my tnh bao
gm mt my ch kt ni vi cc my trm, H iu hnh c ci t trong my ch.
Da theo khong cch a l phn ra cc loi mng my tnh: Mng cc b, mng th,
mng din rng, mng ton cu.
- Mng cc b (LAN - Local Area Network) l mng c ci t trong phm vi
nh hp nh c quan, trng hc, vi khong cch ln nht gia cc my tnh trn mng
trong vng vi km tr li.
- Mng th (MAN - Metropolitan Aera Network) l mng c ci t trong
phm vi mt th, mt trung tm vn ha x hi, c bn knh ti a khong 100 kim tr
li
- Mng din rng (WAN - Wide Area Network) l mng c din tch ph rng ln,
phm vi ca mng c th vt bin gii quc gia thm ch c lc a
- Mng ton cu (GAN - Global Area Network) l mng c phm vi tri rng ton
cu l Internet.
nghin cu cc lnh ca DOS v h iu hnh Window, chng ta cn tm
hiu th mc l g? Tp tin l g? Cc c im..
- Th mc l g?
+) Th mc l tp tin dng c bit, ni dung khng cha d liu thng thng
m cha cc tp tin v cc th mc khc.
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+) Mt my tnh c nhiu ngi dng chung v vy mi ngi cn c mt ci tn

ca mnh trong my tnh, v vy tn ca bn chnh l th mc, ngi ta v th mc nh
mt ci ngn t c tn, cn tp tin l ti liu c trong ngn t .
+) Nguyn tc t tn th mc.
Th mc khng nn t ti C, hay cha h iu hnh Windows
Trong 1 th mc khng c trng nhau
- Tp tin l g ?
+) Tp tin (vit tt cho tp thng tin; cn c gi l tp, tp tin, file) l mt tp
hp ca thng tin c t tn. Thng thng th cc tp tin ny cha trong cc thit
b lu tr nh a cng, a mm, CD, DVD. Ni cch khc, tp tin l mt dy cc bit
c tn v c cha trong cc thit b lu tr d liu k thut s (Digital: l cc gi tr
ri rc, lu tr d liu di dng cc s nh phn)
+) Tn tp
Khng c dng cc k t sau : \ / : * ? " < > | , du cch.
Phn tn v phn m rng (cn gi l phn ui).
+) Cu trc ca mt tp tin nh ngha cch thc m tp tin c cha, c
thc thi, v th hin trn cc thit b (nh mn hnh hay my in) gi l nh dng ca
tp tin.
nh dng ca tp tin ph thuc vo:
H iu hnh v kin trc my tnh: V d mt tp tin vn bn h iu
hnh Window khc vi h iu hnh DOS.
Mc tiu s dng: Cc tp dng trong cc ng dng khc nhau th c nh
dng tp khc nhau.
i vi nhng tp vn bn c nh dng .DOC,.TXT..khc vi
nhng tp hnh nh c nh dng . JPG,. BMP, .GIF
C nhng tp cng mc tiu s dng nhng nh sn xut khc nhau th cng
c nh dng khc nhau.
Th d: Trong cc tp tin hnh v ha th cc tp tin kiu Bitmap (cc tp
hnh c ui l .bmp) c nh dng hon ton khc vi cc tp tin kiu
Tagged Image File Format (ui ca loi tp tin ny l .tif) v cng khc vi
tp tin kiu Joint Photographic Experts Group (vi cc ui c dng .jpg
hay .jpeg).
+) Thuc tnh: l nhng c tnh v gii hn ca tp tin
Ty theo h thng tp tin m cc thuc tnh ny c th khc nhau.
Th d cc thuc tnh trn h thng tp tin FAT bao gm:
Archive: lu tr. Trn cc h iu hnh DOS th thuc tnh ny c nh khi
mi khi tp tin b thay i, v b xa khi thc hin lnh backup sao lu d
liu.
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Hidden: n. Khi mt tp tin c thuc tnh ny th cc chng trnh lit k cc

tp tin theo mc nh s b qua, khng lit k tp tin ny. Ngi s dng vn
c th lm vic trn tp tin ny nh bnh thng.
Read-only: ch c. Khi mt tp tin c thuc tnh ny th cc chng trnh x
l tp tin theo mc nh s khng cho php xa, di chuyn tp tin hoc thay i
ni dung tp tin. Cn cc thao tc khc nh i tn tp tin, c ni dung tp tin
vn c cho php.
System: thuc v h thng. Mt tp tin c thuc tnh ny s chu cc hn ch
bao gm cc hn ch ca thuc tnh Hidden v cc hn ch ca thuc tnh
Read-only, ngha l khng b lit k, khng th xa, di chuyn, thay i ni
dung. Thuc tnh ny ch yu dng cho cc tp tin quan trng ca h iu
hnh.
Sub-directory (hay directory): th mc con. Nhng tp tin c thuc tnh ny
c x l nh l th mc. Th mc l tp tin dng c bit, ni dung khng
cha d liu thng thng m cha cc tp tin v cc th mc khc.
+) c im:
Mt tp tin c th khng cha mt thng tin no ngoi tr tn v du kt
thc
di (kch thc) ca tp tin c th ch ph thuc vo kh nng ca my
tnh, kh nng ca h iu hnh cng nh vo phn mm ng dng dng n. n
v nh nht dng o di ca tp tin l byte

2. H IU HNH MSDOS
H iu hnh MSDOS gi tt l DOS ra i cch y kh lu v rt ph dng
trc khi c sn phm cng hng ca n l h iu hnh Windows ra i.DOS qun l,
lu tr thng tin di dng cc tp tin v th mc. Giao din ca DOS vi ngi s dng
l giao din dng lnh. (Command Line)
2.1 Mt s quy nh ca h iu hnh MSDOS.
Cc lnh ca DOS chia thnh 2 loi:
- Lnh ni tr v lnh ngoi tr.
- DOS t tn cc a bng ch ci bt u bng ch C. V d C:, D:, E:
- Phn tn tp c t nh hn hoc bng 256 k t.
- Phn ui tp nh hn hoc bng 256 k t.
- Cc k t c th l ch ci hoc ch s v phi vit lin nhau (khng cha cc k
t c bit, khng cha du cch). Gia tn v ui phn cch bng 1 du chm. V
d: COMAND.COM, CONFIG.SYS,
- Tn th mc khng gii hn k t v khng c phn ui.
- Khi t tn tp hoc th mc khng c s dng cc k t c bit, c th cha
s phn u.
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2.2 Cc lnh ca h iu hnh MS-DOS (Microsoft- Disk Operating Sytems)

2.2.1 Nhm lnh v th mc
Lnh xem th mc DIR (directory)
Hin th danh sch cc tp tin v cc th mc con c trong th mc.
C php: DIR [drive :] [path][/P][/W][/A : attribs][/O : sortorder]
Ghi ch:
/P : hin th tng trang mn hnh (Page)
/W : hin th theo hng ngang, lt b bt s liu v kch thc byte, ngy, gi.
/A : hin th thuc tnh (Attribut) ca file
/Option: cc nh hin th trt t sp xp:
N : theo alphabetic tn file;
E : theo alphabetic tn phn m rng
S : theo kch thc bytes (t nh n ln)
D : theo ngy thng v gi (t trc n nay)
G : theo nhm th mc trc

V d:
C:\>DIR A:
C:\>DIR D:\SINHVIEN\*.DOC / w
Xem cc tp c ui .DOC trong th mc SINHVIEN D
C:\>DIR D:\ TP / n
Ch : i vi nhng th mc c cha du cch th khng th xem c bng
lnh DIR
Lnh to th mc MD (Make Directory)
To mt th mc mi trong a hoc th mc hin hnh.
C php: MD [drive :][path]<tn th mc mi>
V d:
to th mc LOP trong thu mc KHOA trong D ta g:
D:\>MD KHOA\LOP
E:\> MD D:\KHOA\LOP
Lnh vo th mc CD (Change Directory)
vo 1 th mc ta dng lnh CD.
C php: CD [drive :] {path}
V d:
C:\>CD PASCAL s c C:\PASCAL>_
D:\CD KHOA
Ghi ch:
- T th mc con, mun tr v th mc cha, ta g: CD..
- Nu mun v thng th mc gc, ta g: CD\
- hin th ng dn hin hnh, ta g: CD

Lnh ra khi th mc
C 2 trng hp ra khi th mc:
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- Ra khi th mc hin thi tr v th mc gc: CD\

V d: D:\KHOA\LOP>CD\
- Ra khi th mc con tr v th mc mc cao hn
V d: D:\KHOA\LOP>CD..
Sau lnh ny du nhc h thng s l
D:\KHOA>
Lnh xa th mc RD (Remove Directory)
xa mt th mc cn phi m bo y 2 yu t sau:
- Th mc l th mc rng.
- V tr con tr hin thi phi nm mc cao hn so vi th mc cn xa
C php: RD [drive :] <path>
V d:
D:\> RD KHOA \ LOP
D:\> RD KHOA
2.2.2 Nhm lnh v tp
Lnh hin th ni dung tp (TYPE)
C php: TYPE [drive:][path]<file name>
Ghi ch:
- Lnh TYPE dng hin th mt tp tin vn bn cha m ASCII mi c c.
- Cc file cha m nh phn ca chng trnh nh cc file *.EXE, *.COM, *.BIN,... th khi g lnh TYPE s khng
c bnh thng c.

V d: TYPE D:\KHOA.doc
Lnh i tn tp REN (Rename)
i tn tp cn ch r ng dn t v tr hin thi ti ni lu tr tp.
C php: REN [drive:][path]<old_file> <new_file>
Ghi ch:
- <old_file> : tn tp tin c cn i <new_file> : tn tp tin mi
- Trng hp tp tin mi c tn ri hoc khng c tp tin c, my s bo:
Duplicate file name or file not found

V d: C:\REN D:\KHOA\LOP.doc SINHVIEN.doc

Lnh xa tp DEL (Delete)
C php: DEL Tn tp
V d: D:\KHOA\DEL LOP.doc
Lnh chp tp COPY
** C php 1: sao chp tp tin sang mt v tr khc.
COPY [drive1 :][path1]<filename1> [drive2:][path2][<filename2>]
Ghi ch:
- Mun copy mt nhm tp tin, ta c th dng cc k t i din ca tp tin l du * hoc ? trong <filename >
- Nu khng vit <filename 2> th my s hiu l sao chp m khng i tn tp tin. Khi a [drive1:] phi khc
[drive2:] hoc ng dn <path1> khc <path2>
- Khi khng ch r a v ng dn th my s hiu ang thc hin trn a v th mc hin hnh.

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V d:
D:\> Copy Khoa.doc C:\KhoaCNTT1.doc : Copy tp Khoa.Doc t D
sang C vi tn mi l KhoaCNTT1.doc
D:\> Copy Khoa.doc KhoaCNTT2.doc: Copy tp Khoa.Doc thnh
KhoaCNTT2.Doc trong cng D
D:\> Copy Khoa.Doc C:\ : Copy tp Khoa.Doc sang C vn gi
nguyn tn Khoa.Doc
** C php 2: cho php ni cc tp tin c sn thnh mt tp tin mi chung.
COPY <file 1> + <file 2> [+ ... + <file n>] [<new_file>]
V d: D:\> COPY KHOA..DOC + CNTT.DOC KHOACNTT.DOC
Khi trong D s c tp KHOACNTT.DOC c to bng cch ghp hai tp
KHOA..DOC v CNTT.DOC.
Ghi ch:
- Nu khng t tn tp tin mi th tt c cc tp tin s ghp chung vo <file >.
dung c s c thay bng ni dung mi.
- Tn <new_file > khng c trng vi tn cc tp tin cn ghp.

Nu <new_file > c th ni

**C php 3: sao chp tp tin ra my in.

COPY <filename> PRN

**C php 4: dng lnh COPY to ra mt tp tin vn bn n gin.

COPY CON <filename>

V d:

D:\> COPY CON CNTT.DOC

D:\> COPY CON KHOA.DOC

Khi trong D c tp CNTT.DOC v tp KHOA.DOC c to vi ni dung
do ngi dng nhp
Ghi ch:
- Sau khi g Enter, ta c th nh vo mt vi on vn trn bn phm ty . Mun kt thc, nh t hp phm Ctrl+Z
hay F6 v Enter lu tr.
- Khi g Enter xung dng, ta khng di chuyn con tr tr ln dng trn c.
- Li vn bn sai khng th sa ni dung trc tip khi lu, ngoi tr phi dng cc trnh son tho vn bn khc.

Lnh v thi gian

C php 1: TIME [hh:mm:ss]
V d: D:\> Time
Current time is 16:06:34
{Hin th gi pht giy hin ti }
Enter new date (mm-dd-yy) : _ {Nhp gi pht giy mi}
Ghi ch:
- Sau khi Enter, trn mn hnh s xut hin gi pht giy hin ti ca h thng.
- Nu khng cn thay i thi gian, ta nhn Enter xc nhn.
- Mun chnh thi gian, ta nhp gi : pht : giy ph hp ti v tr con tr.

C php 2: DATE [mm-dd-yy]

V d: D:\> Date
Current date is Sun 09-15-2006
Enter new date (mm-dd-yy) : _

{Hin th ngy thng nm hin ti }

{Nhp ngy thng nm mi}

Ghi ch:
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- Sau khi g Enter, trn mn hnh s hin ngy thng nm hin ti ca h thng.
- Kiu ngy thng nm do ngi s dng thit lp.
- Nu khng mun thay i ngy thng ca h thng, ta g Enter xc nhn.
- Nu mun thay i ngy thng, ta g theo th t s : thng-ngy-nm

Lu : khi g sai, my s bo : Invalid date (ngy thng khng hp l). Khi ngy thng ca h thng vn gi nguyn v ta
phi dng lnh DATE nhp li ngy thng cho h thng.
Cc my tnh Pentium hin nay u th hin phn nm l 4 con s, v d :
Current date is Fri 08-04-2000

Lnh khi to a - FORMAT

Lnh FORMAT c tc dng khi to khun cho mt a mi hay to li dng
khun cho a c. Khi thc hin lnh FORMAT xong th ton b d liu trong a c
hon ton b xo sch.
C php: FORMAT [drive :][/S][/U][/Q][/V[:label]]
Ghi ch:
- Tham s /S dng to ra a h thng. DOS s to dng v chp vo a 3
file h thng l COMMAND.COM (file hin), IO.SYS v MSDOS.SYS (file n).
- Tham s /U thc hin format khng iu kin (Unconditional)
- Tham s /Q thc hin format nhanh (Quick)
- Tham s /V[:label ] ch nh tn nhn (label) ca a
V d : mun format bnh thng a A:
C:\>format A:
Insert new diskette for drive A : (a a mi vo A: )
and press ENTER when ready ... (v n phm Enter khi sn sng ...)
Sau l qu trnh format. Ta c th quan st qu trnh ny qua s % thc
hin. Khi format xong, my s hin th dng yu cu cho tn a v bn c th cho tn a vi ti a 11 k t v c quyn s
dng k t trng, nu khng cn t tn, ta c th nhn Enter cho qua lun.

Checking existing disk format (Kim tra s tn ti a nh dng)

Saving UNFORMAT information Lu cc thng tin UNFORMAT
Verifying 1.44 M Th 1.44 M
(90% persent completed) (90% phn trm hon tt)
Format complete. Hon tt nh dng
Volume label (11 characters, Enter for none) ? Tn nhn (11 ch, Enter nu khng)?
1,457,644 bytes total disk space 1,457,644 tng s bytes trn a
1,457,644 bytes available on disk 1,457,644 bytes dng c trn a
512 bytes in each allocation unit 512 bytes trn mi n v allocation
2,847 allocation units avalable on disk 2,847 n v allocation cn trng trn a
Volume Serial Number is 2264 - 14E2 S s-ri ca a l 2264 - 14E2
Format another (Y/N) ? nh dng a khc khng (Y/N) ?
G Y nu mun nh dng da khc, N nu mun tr v.
3. H iu hnh Microsoft Windown 98/ 2000/ XP
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3.1 Cc thnh phn c bn

a. Cc thnh phn trn Desktop

Hnh 3.1: Desktop ca h iu hnh Windown XP

- Pha trn l cc biu tng ca h iu hnh v trnh ng dng. V d biu tng
My Computer, My Documentl biu tng ca h iu hnh. Cc biu tng nh MS
Word, Yahoo Messenger.l biu tng trnh ng dng.
- Pha di l thanh tc v (Taskbar)
Hnh 3.2: Thanh Taskbar
Thanh Taskbar cha:
Nt Start trong c cc menu khi ng cc chng trnh.
+) Program: cha cc chng trnh ci t ca my tnh
+) Document: Cc ti liu vn bn, ha mi c s dng
+) Setting: Thit lp chn cu hnh Control Panel, my in, Taskbar
+) Run: Gi chng trnh bng cc dng lnh
+) Turn Off: Tt my
+) Log Off: Thay i User
n cc chng trnh ang chy: dng chuyn i qua li gia cc chng trnh s
dng Alt + Tab.

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Khay h thng: cha biu tng ca cc chng trnh ang chy trong b nh v
hin th gi ca h thng.
b. M trnh ng dng
m 1 trnh ng dng ta c th thc hin 1 trong 3 cch sau:
- Cch 1: Click p chut vo biu tng ca trnh ng dng trn mn hnh chnh
ca Windows
- Cch 2: Chn nt START/ chn mc PROGRAM/ chn trnh ng dng
- Cch 3: Chn nt START/ chn mc RUN/ Chn BROWSE/ chn ng dn cho
file hoc th mc v trnh ng dng /chn OK.
c.Tt my
Chn nt Start/ Turn off Computer/ Shut down/Ok. Sau tt mn hnh
Nu trong qu trnh lm vic my b treo (khng hot ng tip), khi ng li
my ta n nt Reset (hoc n ng thi 3 phm CTRL, ALT, DEL)
3.2. Cc thao tc lin quan n biu tng (Icon), th mc (Folder).
a.To biu tng cho chng trnh .
- To biu tng cho cc chng trnh trn mn hnh Desktop:
+) Start/ Program/chn chng trnh m chng ta mun a ra mn hnh
+) Click chut phi vo vng trng trn Desktop New Shortcut
BroweChn ng dn n chng trnh Thc hin cc bc tip theo.
+) Start/Program/Chn chng trnh/Copy/Paste ra mn hnh Desktop

Kch chut phi

Hnh 3.3: a biu tng ra mn hnh

b. Thay i biu tng v tn biu tng
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* Thay i biu tng:

- a con tr n biu tng ny
- Nhn chut phi. Khi , hp thoi Properties xut hin
- Nhn chut phi vo nt change Icon thay i biu tng
- Hp thoi Change Icon xut hin: chn biu tng cn thit hoc c th nhn nt
Browse tm biu tng thch hp trong cc th mc khc.
* Thay i tn biu tng: thay i ta tin hnh cc cch sau:
- Nhn chut phi vo biu tng Chn Rename
- Nhn chut phi vo biu tng Properties General Thay i tn
3.3. S dng hp thoi Control Panel
Hp thoi Control Panel l hp thoi rt quan trng dng ci t /hu b cc
tham s lin quan n giao din ca Windows, phn mm ng dng, phn cng ca my..
m hp thoi Control Panel, tin hnh cc bc sau:
- Vo bng chn Start, chn mc Settings.
- Chn Control Panel. Khi ny, hp thoi Control Panel xut hin nh:

Hnh 3.4: Hp thoi Control Panel

* Thay i cch biu din Ngy, Gi, S, Tin t
thay i cch biu din ngy, gi, s, tin t trong cc chng trnh chy trn
Windows. Bn cn thc hin cc bc sau: (Khi ng Control Panel )
1. Bm p vo biu tng Regional and Language Options trn ca s Control
Panel
2. Trn trang Regional Options, click nt Customize

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3. Thay i dng thc s (Numbers); Tin t (Currency); Gi (Time); Ngy (Date)

trn hp thoi Customize Regional Options, Click OK
4. Click nt OK trn hp thoi Regional and Language Options ghi nhn cc
thay i.

Hnh 3.5:Thay i ngy, gi

* Qun l Fonts ch : Fonts c dng hin th vn bn trn mn hnh hoc my in.
Ta c th xa b nhng Font khng cn s dng hoc ci t thm nhng Font mi.
Bm p vo biu tng Fonts trn ca s Control Panel Xo Font khng cn
thit
Thm Font :
- Bm p vo biu tng Fonts trn ca s Control Panel

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1. Chn menu File

2. Chn mc Install New
Font...
3. Chn a cha Font
trong hp Drives
4. Chn th mc cha
Font trong khung Folders
5. Chn Font trong List of
Fonts
6. Click nt OK

Hnh 3.6: Thm Font mi vo h thng

* Thay i mn hnh nn trn Desktop
1. Click chut phi nn Desktop
Properties
2. Trong hp thoi Display
Properties, chn trang Destop.
3. Trong danh sch Background,
chn nh nn m bn thch.
4. Trong Position, Click mi tn
hng xung chn Center,
Tile hay Strech nh v
hnh trn Destop.
5. Click nt Apply hoc OK
Ch thch: Bn cng c th chn mt
nh nn khc trong th mc no
trn a, bng cch click nt
Browse
Hnh 3.7: Thay i hnh nn Desktop
* Thit lp chng trnh bo v mn hnh

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1. Click chut phi nn Desktop

Properties
2. Trong hp thoi Display
Properties, chn trang Screen
Saver
3. Click mi tn hng xung
trong danh sch Screen saver,
chn chng trnh bn thch.
Click Preview xem trc
Screen saver ny.
4. Trong hp Wait, nh thi
gian xut hin Screen saver.
5. Click nt Apply hoc OK
Ch thch: Bn c th mua cc
Screen saver khc hoc ti xung
min ph trn Web.

Hnh 3.8. S dng chng trnh Windows

Explorer
* M Windows Explorer: Click phi chut trn nt Start v click mc Explorer m
Windows Explorer.

Hnh 3.9: Mn hnh Window Explorer

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- Windows dng cc k t (A:), (B:) cho cc a mm; cc k t (C:), (D:) t tn

cho cc loi a lu tr khc.
- Mi a trn my tnh u c mt th mc (Folder) chnh c gi l th mc gc
cha cc tp tin trn a. Nhng d dng cho vic qun l cc tp tin, bn c th to
thm cc th mc con khc, lng nhau, cha cc tp tin theo tng th loi
- Mt th mc c th rng hoc c th cha cc tp tin v cc th mc con.
Khung phi hin th ni dung ca mc c chn bn khung tri.
- Click chn a bn khung tri hin ni dung ca th mc gc bn khung phi
- Click tn th mc bn khung tri hin ni dung ca th mc bn khung phi.
- Click du tr thu gn nhnh phn cp th mc con.
Ch : - Du cng bn cnh cho bit a hay th mc cn c cc th mc con
*Thay i hnh thc hin th trn khung phi
Click chn View v chn mt trong 5 hnh thc hin th:
1. Thumbnails : thng dng xem trc cc File hnh.
2. Tiles : Hin cc tp tin v cc th mc con dng biu tng ln
3. Icons : Hin cc tp tin v cc th mc con dng biu tng nh
4. List : Hin cc tp tin v cc th mc con dng lit k danh sch.
5. Details : Lit k chi tit cc thng tin nh tn (Name), kiu (Type), kch thc
lu tr (Size), ngy gi to hay sa (Modified).

Hnh 3.10: Thay i hnh thc hin th ca biu tng

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* Sp xp d liu bn khung phi

Click chn View\Arrange
Icons by v chn th t sp
xp
- Theo tn : Name
- Theo kch thc : Size
- Theo phn m rng : Type
- Theo Ngy thng to sa :
Modified

Hnh 3.11: Sp xp d liu

* Qun l th mc v tp tin

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To mt th mc:
+Nhy chut phi vo nt Start\Explore
+Nhy vo D l a nh to th mc.
+Nhy vo File\New\Folder.
+G tn th mc vo, n Enter.

Hnh 3.12: Qun l th mc

Cch to th mc con trong th mc ln
+Nhy chut phi vo nt Start\Explore
+Tm D
+Nhy vo th mc m bn cn to th mc con
+Nhy vo File\New\Folder
+G tn th mc mi v n Enter.
i tn mt th mc
+Nhy chut phi vo nt Start\Explore
+Tm D
+Nhy chut phi vo th mc nh i tn chn Rename
+G tn mi v n Enter.
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Xa th mc
+Kim tra trong th mc c tp tin no khng trc khi xa
+Nhy chut phi vo th mc nh xa chn Delete chn Yes
To tp tin:
+ Chut phi vo nn Desktop
+ Chn New
+ Chn dng tp cn to
* To Sortcut
Shortcut l mt file lin kt n mt i tng trn my tnh hay trn mng. i
tng c th l tp tin, th mc, a, my in hay my tnh khc trn mng. Shortcut
l cch nhanh nht khi ng mt chng trnh c s dng thng xuyn hoc
m tp tin, th mc m khng cn phi tm n ni lu tr chng.
1. M th mc cha tp tin chng trnh cn to Shortcut
2. Click phi vo tp tin
3. Chn Create Shortcut : nu to Shortcut ngay trong th mc ang m,
4. Chn Send to\Desktop(create shortcut): nu mun to Shortcut trn nn Desktop.
Ch : Cc tp tin chng trnh (Application) thng c phn m rng l .EXE.

Hnh 3.13: To Shortcut

Nhng chng trnh ca Windows c lu tr trong th mc Windows, nhng
chng trnh khc thng c ci t ti th mc Program Files.
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CHNG 4: SON THO VN BN TRONG MICROSOFT

WORD
1. GII THIU CHUNG
1.1 Khi ng, ra khi Word.

Khi ng: C nhiu cch khi ng Microsoft word:

- Cch 1: Kch p chut vo biu tng

trn nn mn hnh (Destop).

- Cch 2: Menu Start/Programs/Microsoft Word

- Cch 3: Kch chut vo biu tng ca Word trn thanh Microsoft Office Shortcut Bar
gc trn bn phi nn mn hnh.

Ra khi Word

- C1: n t hp phm Alt+F4

- C2: Kch chut vo nt Close

gc trn cng bn phi ca s lm vic ca Word.

- C3: Vo menu File/Exit

Nu cha ghi tp vo a th xut hin 1 Message Box, chn:
Yes: ghi tp trc khi thot,
No: thot khng ghi tp,
Cancel: hu lnh thot.
1.2 Ca s son tho Word

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- Thanh tiu : Thanh ny cho bit tn ca s ang lm vic (MS Word) v tn vn

Hnh 4.1: mn hnh son tho Word
- Thanh menu chnh (thanh thc n): Thanh ny trnh by cc thc n ngang, mi
mc chn trong thc n ngang s cho tip tc mt thc n dc.
- Thanh cng c (Toolbar): Trn thanh cng c l cc nt (Button), cc nt ny l cng
c giao tip thay cho vic chn cc thc n con trong thanh Menu.
- Thanh nh dng (Format): Thanh ny gm cc nt phc v cho vic nh dng vn
bn, cc chc nng nh dng vn bn thc ra cng c trong thc n Format nhng
nu s dng thanh Format s nhanh hn.
1.3 Cc h thng Menu.

File (Cc lnh v x l tp):

New: M ca s mi son tho vn bn.

Open: M vn bn ang lu tr trong a ra mn hnh.
Save: Ct vn bn ang son tho vo a.
Save As: Ghi li vn bn vi tn khc.
Close: ng vn bn ang son tho.
Find file: Tm tp trn a.
Summary Information: To thng tin tm tt v vn bn.
Templates: Chn khun mu trnh by vn bn.
Page Setup: nh dng trang vn bn, chn c giy, l in...
Print Preview: Xem trc khi in.
Print: In vn bn
Edit (Cc lnh phc v son tho):
Undo: B thao tc va lm
Repeat: Lp li thao tc va lm.
Cut: Ct on vn bn bi en.
Copy: Chp i tng chn hoc on vn bn bi en.
Paste: Dn i tng Cut hoc Copy.
Paste Special: Dn c bit
Clear: Xa on vn bn chn.
Find: Tm kim t hoc on vn bn.
Replace: Thay th on vn bn
Goto: Nhy n trang s..
Autotext: To on vn bn mu.
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Bookmark: nh du nh v trong vn bn.

View (chn ch hin th vn bn trn mn hnh):

Normal: Bnh thng

Layout: Hin l ngoi hoc vn bn km theo
PageLayout: Hin l ngoi.
Master Document: To vn bn chnh vi cc van bn con
Fullscreen: M ca s vn bn rng y mn hnh.
Toolbars: Cho hin hoc khng hin cc thanh cng c
Ruler: Thc k trn u ca s vn bn
Header and Footer: Cho hin tiu u v cui trang.
Footnote: Cho hin ch gii cui trang.
Annotation: Cho hin ch thch trong vn bn
Zoom: Thay i kch thc ca s son tho
Insert (Chn cc i tng khc nhau vo vn bn):
Break: Ngt trang
Page Number: nh s trang
Annotation: Cho hin ch thch trong vn bn
Date and Time: Ngy v gi
Field: Chn m trng c cha cc thng tin xc nh vo vn bn.
Symbol: Chn cc k t c bit
Form Field: Biu mu nh sn.
Footnote: Thm ch gii cui trang.
Caption: Chn ch gii cho ni dung chn'
Cross reference: Chn cc i tng qua tham kho cho trng hp lit k
Index and Table: Chn bng mu
File: Chn tp
Frame: Chn khung
Picture: Chn tranh nh
Objects: Chn cc i tng nh bng tnh, cc du ton hc...
Database: Chn c s d liu
Format (Chc nng nh dng vn bn):
Font: nh dng ch: kiu ch, kch thc, mu sc, dng ch.
Paragraph: nh dng on vn bn
Tabs: nh bc nhy khi nhn phm Tab
Borders and Shading: ng bao vn bn.
Columns: Chia ct vn bn.
Change-Case: Bin i kiu ch.
Drop Cap: Ch ci u tin.
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Bullets and Numbering: Nt gch v nh s u mc

Heading numbering: nh s tiu
Autoformat: nh dng t ng
Style gallery: nh dng theo mu
Styles: Kiu trnh by c sn
Frame: Khung bao
Picture: nh dng hnh nh chn vo vn bn.
Drawing object: nh dng cc i tng v.
Tools (Cc cng c tr gip):
Spelling: Kim tra li chnh t ting anh.
Grammar: Chnh l vn phm.
Thesaurus: Tm t ng ngha.
Hyphenation: t gch ni cc t mt cch t ng hay bng tay.
Language: Chn ngn ng vit vn bn
Word count: m t, dng, on vn bn
Autocorrect: Thit lp tn cho 1 cm t hoc tiu m ni dung ca n c t
ng sa li chnh t.
Mail Merge: Trn th
Envelopes and labels: To bao th cho vn bn
Protect Document: Bo v ti liu.
Revions: Hiu nh.
Macro: to cc v lnh
Customize: To cc nt cng c hoc menu ring.
Option: Cc phng n la chn tng hp trnh by vn bn.

Table (Thc n v to lp bng)

Insert table: Chn thm mt bng vo v tr con tr
Delete cells: Xa cc bi en.
Merge cells: Lin thng cc
Split cells: Phn chia
Select row: Chn hng
Select column: Chn ct
Select table: Chn bng
Table Autoformat: T ng nh dng bng.
Cell Height and Width: nh kch thc ca hoc hng, ct
Headings: Nhp tiu ct
Convert Text to Table: Chuyn vn bn thnh dng bng.
Sort text: Sp xp vn bn.
Formula: Tnh ton trong bng
Split table: Phn chia bng
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Gridlines: Li bng
Window (Cc lnh x l ca s vn bn):
New: M ca s vn bn mi.
Arrange all: Hin ng thi trn mn hnh ca s ca cc vn bn ang m.
Split: Chia ca s hin hnh thnh hai phn

Help ( Xem tr gip)

1.4 Cc phm g tt
CTRL + N: M ti liu mi
CTRL + O: M ti liu c
CTRL + S: Lu ti liu vo a hin thi
F12: Lu ti liu vi tn khc (Tng t Save As)
CTRL + x: Ct ti liu khi bi en
CTRL + Z: Phc hi vn bn khi xo nhm (Undo)
CTRL + V: Dn vn bn vo v tr con tr
CTRL + C: Copy ti liu vn bn khi bi en
CTRL + L: Cn l vn bn v pha tri
CTRL + R: Cn l vn bn v pha phi
CTRL + E: Cn l vn bn gia (Center)
CTRL + J: Cn u hai bn
CTRL + 1: to khong cch n gia cc dng
CTRL + 5: to khong cch mt dng ri gia cc dng
CTRL + 2: to khong cch i gia cc dng
CTRL + F2: Xem ti liu trc khi in (Preview)
CTRL + D: Chn font ch
CTRL + A: Bi en ton b vn bn
CTRL + G: Nhy n trang s hoc n F5
SHIFT + F5: Nhy n trang cui cng
CTRL + B: Tt/M ch m (B)
CTRL + I: Tt/M ch nghing (I)
CTRL + U: Tt/M ch gch chn
CTRL + SHIFT + H: Tt/M nh khng ra ch
CTRL + SHIFT + =: nh ch s trn M3, Km2, X2
CTRL + =: nh ch s di H2SO4, X2
CTRL + SHIFT + W: Tt/M ch gch chn n
CTRL + SHIFT + D: Tt/M ch gch chn kp
CTRL + SHIFT + K: In hoa nh
CTRL + SHIFT + A: In hoa c
CTRL + SHIFT + Z: Tr v font ch ban u hoc CTRL + phm gin cch
CTRL + SHIFT + F: i font ch
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CTRL + SHIFT + P: i c ch
CTRL + SHIFT + >: Tng ln mt c ch
CTRL + SHIFT + <: Gim xung mt c ch
CTRL + ]: Phng to ch khi c bi en
CTRL + [: Gim c ch khi c bi en
CTRL + F4 hoc CTRL + W hoc CLOSE: ng ti liu
ALT + F4: Thot (Exit)
CTRL + Enter: Ngt trang
SHIFT + Enter: Ngt dng
CTRL + ESC: Bt nt Start trong Windows
CTRL + F10: M ln ca s ti liu ra ton mn hnh
CTRL + Z: Khi phc nhanh vn bn xo nhm
ALT + SHIFT + T: Chn thi gian vo vn bn
ALT + SHIFT + D: Chn ngy vo vn bn
2. Son tho vn bn
2.1 B g ch Vit.
g c ting Vit cn c font ch ting Vit v chng trnh g ting Vit.
Cc b font ting Vit: ABC, VNI, Unicode
B font ABC gm cc font ch bt u bi .Vn
VD: .VnTime, .VNTIMEH, .VnArial
Cc font Unicode: Arial, Times New Roman,
Cc chng trnh g ting Vit: ABC, Vietkey, Unikey Hin nay b g Vietkey
v Unikey ang c s dng rng ri v c nhiu u im: dung lng nh, h tr
phng php g cho nhiu b font,
Chng trnh g Vietkey:
Sau khi ci t Vietkey, khi ng chng trnh v a biu tng Vietkey vo gc
di phi thanh Taskbar.
- Menu xut hin khi nhy chut phi vo biu tng Vietkey gc di phi nn mn
hnh:
Hin ca s Vietkey thit lp kiu g
(TELEX, VNI), cc tu chn, thng tin
Chn cch g Unicode khi dng font ch
Unicode
Chn cch g TCVN3 khi dng font ch
ABC
Chn ch g ting Vit hoc ting Anh
(Alt+Z)
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Hnh 4.2: B g Ting Vit

Cch nh ting vit bng cch s dng Unicode tng t nh s dng Vietkey
2.2 G cc k t c bit.
Cch g cc k t c bit:
aw

,
ow

aa

ee

oo

dd

Cch g cc du:
s: sc, f: huyn, r: hi,
x: ng, j: nng, z: thi b du
C th b du ngay sau khi g nguyn m hoc sau khi g xong t.
V d, g dng ch Trng Trung hc a chnh Trung ng II:
Truwowngf Trung hocj DDiaj chinhs Trung uwowng II
Mun g ting Anh m khng mun chuyn ch g, c th g thm k t c
bit 1 ln na, v d: g t New York nh sau: Neww Yorrk
G ch s v s m:
g ch s, s dng t hp phm Ctrl+= chuyn i gia ch g bnh
thng v ch g ch s. V d g x1 th t g phm nh sau:
x, Ctrl+=, 1, Ctrl+=,
g s m, s dng t hp phm Ctrl+Shift+= chuyn i gia ch g
bnh thng v ch g s m. V d g x2 nh sau:
x, Ctrl+Shift+=, 2, Ctrl+Shift+=,
2.3 Chn min vn bn v dch chuyn
- Chn min vn bn:
Bi en on vn bn bng cch gi chut tri r bao quanh on vn bn.
- Dch chuyn:
1. Chn on vn bn cn sao chp/chuyn
2. - Nu sao chp: n Ctrl+C /Ctrl + X (bm nt Copy, menu Edit/Copy)
- Nu chuyn: n Ctrl+X (bm nt Cut, menu Edit/Cut)
3. t con tr ti ni mun dn vn bn
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4. n Ctrl+V (bm nt Paste, menu Edit/Paste)

2.4 Xa, chn, thay th on vn bn.
- Xa on vn bn:
Chn on vn bn cn xa, sau nhn phm Delete hoc phm BackSpace...
- Chn k t c bit:
Nhiu k t mun a vo vn bn nhng khng c trn bn phm, v d: ta lm
nh sau:
t con tr chut ti ni mun chn.
Vo menu Insert/Symbol

2. Chn k t
c bit

1. Chn font

3. n nt Insert
chn

- Chn s trang vn bn:

Vo menu Insert/Page Numberxut hin hp thoi, bn thc hin theo cc thng s
sau:

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- Position: Chn v tr hin th: trn (Top) hoc di (Bottom)

- Alignment: Chn cn chnh: Center (gia), Right (phi)...
- Show number on first page: Hin/n s trang trang u tin
- Number format: Kiu nh th t trang
- Start at: Trang s bt u
- u trang (header) v chn trang (footer) l nh nhau trn mi trang ca mt vn bn:
Vo menu View/Header and Footer
G v nh dng vn bn bnh thng
- Thay th:
Nhn t hp phm Ctrl + H hoc Menu Edit > Replace s xut hin hp thoi thc
hin nh trong hp thoi hng dn
Replace: Thay th ch k t hay on vn bn tm c sau khi click vo Find
Next.
Replace All: : Thay th k t hay on vn bn trong ton b vn bn.

3. Cc lnh v tp.
3.1 M tp
M mt tp trng mi (New)
C nhiu cch cho bn m tp mi son tho.
- Cch 1: Kch chut vo biu tng New
trn thanh cng c (Toolbar).
- Cch 2: n t hp phm Ctrl+N
- Cch 3: Vo menu File/New/Blank Document
M tp ghi trn a
- Cch 1: Kch chut vo biu tng Open
- Cch 2: n t hp phm Ctrl+O
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- Cch 3: Vo menu File/Open

1. Chn ni cha tp
2. Chn tp cn m
3. Bm nt
Open m tp

Bm nt
Cancel hy
lnh m tp

Hnh 4.3: Ca s ghi tp

3.2 Ghi tp
Ghi tp ln a (Save)

- Cch 1: Kch chut vo biu tng Save

trn Toolbar.
- Cch 2: n t hp phm Ctrl+S
- Cch 3: Vo menu File/Save
- Nu tp c ghi t trc th ln ghi tp hin ti s ghi li s thay i k t ln
ghi trc (c cm gic l Word khng thc hin vic g).
- Nu tp cha c ghi ln no s xut hin hp thoi Save As, chn ni ghi tp
trong khung Save in, g tn tp cn ghi vo khung File name, n nt Save.
Ghi tp vi tn khc (Save As)
1. Chn ni ghi tp

3. Bm nt Save
Khi ghi tp vi 1 tn khc th tp c vn tn ti, tp mi c
toghi
ra tp
c cng ni dung
2. G
vi tp
c.tn mi cho tp
- Vo menu File/Save As...

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Hnh 4.4: Ca s lu tp vi tn khc

3.3 ng tp
Kch chut vo nt Close

gc trn cng bn phi ca s lm vic ca tp:

- Nu cha ghi tp vo a th xut hin 1 Message Box, chn:

- Yes: ghi tp trc khi thot,
- No: thot khng ghi tp,
- Cancel: hu lnh thot.
4. Cc thao tc nh dng
Mt s phm h tr son tho
- Tab: To 1 khong trng (ngm nh 0.5 inch), thng dng tht u dng
on vn bn.
- Caps Lock: Bt/Tt ch g ch hoa.
- Shift:
+ Gi Shift v g k t ch s cho ch in hoa
+ Gi Shift v g cc phm c 2 k t s cho k t trn.
+ Gi Shift v n cc phm di chuyn s bi en (chn) on vn bn.
- Delete: Xo 1 k t ng sau con tr
- Back Space: Xo 1 k t ng trc con tr
- Enter: xung dng g on vn bn mi.
- Home: a con tr v u dng.
- End: a con tr v cui dng.
- Page Up: a con tr ln 1 trang mn hnh
- Page Down: a con tr xung 1 trang mn hnh
- Ctrl+Home: a con tr v u vn bn
- Ctrl+End: a con tr v cui vn bn
- Ctrl+Enter: ngt trang bt buc (sang trang mi)
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Mt s quy tc chun khi son tho

.
- Khng c khong trng trc du phy (,), du chm (.), du hai chm (:), du
chm phy (;)
- C 1 khong trng sau cc du trn.
- Cc du nhy n, nhy kp, m ngoc, ng ngoc phi m st vn bn.
- V d g sai:
Cc k t in thng : a , b , , z( 26 k t ) .
- V d g ng:
Cc k t in hoa: A, B, , Z (26 k t).
4.1 nh dng ch.
S dng menu Format/Font:
Bi en on vn bn. Vo menu Format/ Font
- Font: Chn font ch
- Font style: Chn dng ch (bnh thng, m, nghing,
- Size: Chn kch thc ch
- Font color: Chn mu ch
- Underline style: Chn kiu gch chn
- Privew: Khung xem trc

Hnh 4.5: nh dng ch cho vn bn

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S dng thanh cng c

Bi en on vn bn (dng chut hoc dng phm Shift kt hp vi cc phm
dch chuyn).

Vit ch ngh thut

mu nn

Chn ng k

Chn mu ch

Hnh 4.6: Thanh cng c Drawing

Hnh 4.7: Thanh nh dng

4.2 nh dng on vn bn
S dng thanh cng c nh dng:
Bi en on vn bn:

Cn l tri (Ctrl+L) Cn gia (Ctrl+E) Cn l phi (Ctrl+R) Cn u 2 l (Ctrl+J)

Hnh 4.8: Thanh nh dng
S dng menu Format/Paragraph
- Bi en on vn bn, vo menu Format/Paragraph

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Hnh 4.9: Menu Format/Paragraph

- Alignment: Chn cch cn l
- Indentation: Khong cch tnh t l tri v phi
- Spacing: Khong cch vi on trc v sau
- Line spacing: Khong cch vi cc dng
4.3 nh dng trang
Vo menu File/Page Setup Tab Margins (l)

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Hnh 4.10: Ca s nh dng trang

- Top, Bottom, Right: Khong cch l: trn (top), di (bottom), tri (left), phi
(right)
- From edge: Khong cch u trang (header) v chn trang (footer)
- Default: Thit lp lm kch thc ngm nh cho mi vn bn
Tab Paper Size (kch thc trang giy)

Hnh 4.11: Ca s nh dng kch thc trang

- Page size: Kch thc trang giy (bnh thng chn A4)
-Orientation: Chn hng trang giy: Portrait (thng ng) hoc Landscape (nm
ngang).
5. K bng
5.1 Cng c to bng.
To bng:
- t con tr ti ni mun chn bng
- Vo menu Table/Insert/Table
- Number of columns: Nhp s ct
- Number of rows: Nhp s hng
- Fixed column width: Chn rng cc ct
- AutoFit to contents: rng ct t ng va kht ni dung
- AutoFit to window: rng ct va vi trang giy hay va vi ni dung
- Set as default for new tables: Ly cc thng s trn thit lp cho bng biu mi
- Autoformat...: Chn cc bng biu thit k sn
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Dch chuyn v chn min trong bng

- Dch chuyn:
+ Dng chut
+ Dng phm Tab hoc cc phm mi tn
- Chn min:
+ Chn c bng: t tr chut trong bng, vo menu Table/Select/Table
+ Chn cc hng k nhau: kch chut ngoi l tri ca bng, ngang v tr hng u
tin, gi chut di qua cc hng cn li.
+ Chn cc ct k nhau: di chut n st l trn ct u tin, con tr chut chuyn
t hnh ch I thnh mi tn en th kch tri chut, gi v di qua cc ct cn li.
5.2 Thay i kch thc trong bng
Thay i kch thc hng, ct:
- Thay i rng ct:
Di chut vo ng khung phi ca ct xut hin mi tn 2 chiu
Gi tri chut v ko n rng mong mun (c th kch p chut Word t
iu chnh)
- Thay i chiu cao hng:
Tng t nh trn vi ng khung di ca hng.
Nhp , chia
- Nhp cc thnh 1 (Merge cells)
Chn cc cn nhp
Nhy chut phi vo vng va chn, menu xut hin, chn Merge Cells (hoc
menu Table/Merge Cells)
- Chia 1 thnh nhiu (Split cells)
Chn (cc) cn chia
Nhy chut phi vo va chn, menu xut hin, chn Split Cells (hoc menu
Table/Split Cells)
Hp thoi Split Cells xut hin: Nhp s ct v s hng cn chia vo khung tng
ng Number of columns v Number of rows.
Thm ct, hng vo bng

Chn cc ct hoc hng, khng cn chn tt c cc (s ct/hng thm vo s

bng s ct/hng chn)
Vo menu Table/Insert/

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Hnh 4.13: Ca s thm ct, hng vo bng

- Columns to the Left: Thm ct vo bn tri ct hin ti
- Columns to the Right: Thm ct vo bn phi ct hin ti
- Rows Above: Thm hng vo bn trn hng hin ti
- Rows Below: Thm hng vo bn di hng hin ti
Xa ct, hng
- Chn ct, hng cn xa.
- Vo menu Table/Delete..

Hnh 4.14: Ca s xo ct, hng t bng

- Table: Xa c bng.
- Columns: Xa cc ct chn
- Rows: Xa cc hng chn
5.3 Cc thao tc nh dng ng k
S dng menu Format/Border and Shading
-Chn cc trong bng
-Vo menu Format/Border and Shading

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Hnh 4.15: Ca s nh ng k cho bng

- Preview: Khung xem trc v Cc nt k tng ng khung
- None: Khng k ng vin
- Box: Ch k khung bin ngoi
- All: K khung bao quanh tt c
- Custom: T k khung theo mun
S dng thanh cng c Tables and Borders
- Vo menu Table/Draw Table xut hin thanh cng c Tables and Borders.

Bt k Ty xo
dy
Merge
khung
ng k
Cells
Kiu ng k Mu ng k

Split Chiu cao

Cells cc hng
bng nhau

Chiu rng
cc ct bng
nhau

Hnh 4.16: Thanh Draw Table

- Chn kiu ng k, dy ng k,chn bt k khung con tr chut thnh
hnh ci bt.
- Di chut qua cc ng k mun nh dng.
Thng dng phng php ny xo hoc lm m ng k.
5.4 Tnh ton, sp xp trong bng
. Phng php tnh ton trong bng:
* Ta a chut v ca dng cn tnh, ri vo Table chn Formula xut hin hp
thoi sau hay dng t hp phm tt: Alt + A + O
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Hnh 4.17: Ca s tnh ton trong bng

- Formula: Nhp cng thc cn tnh
- Number format: Chn kiu s thp phn
- Paste Function: Chn cng thc tnh.
* Ch :
- Nu cc ct cn tnh tng m st nhau: Ta dng hm = Sum(left). tnh cc
hng tip theo, ta a thanh nhy v ca hng cn tnh ri n F4.
- Nu cc ct cn tnh m cch xa nhau: Ta dng hm:
= Sum(a ch ct, a ch hng)
tnh cc hng tip theo ta sao chp cng thc ca hng trc ri ch cn thay
a ch hng (Ctrl + C); (Ctrl + V).
- tnh tng cho mt ct: Ta a thanh nhy v cui ca ct cn tnh, ri dng
hm = Sum(Above). tnh cc ct tip theo, ta a thanh nhy v cui ca ct cn
tnh ri n F4.
Phng php sp xp theo th t.
- Ta bi en cc hay ct cn sp xp, ri vo Table chn Sort, xut hin hp
thoi sau: (lnh tt: Alt + A + S).

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Hnh 4.18: Ca s sp xp bng

- Sort by: Chn ct cn sp xp
- Then by: Chn ct tip theo cn sp xp
- Type : Chn kiu cn sp xp
- Ascending: Sp xp theo th t tng dn
- Descending : Sp xp theo th t gim dn
- Header row: Sp xp c hng tiu
- No header row: Khng sp xp c hng tiu
- Option: La chn ch sp xp
* Ch .
sp xp th t theo tn ta phi nhp "H v tn m" mt ct ring v "Tn"
vo mt ct ring.
6. Vit cng thc
6.1 Vit cng thc n gin
Vit cc cng thc n gin ta c th son tho bnh thng. C nhng k t c
bit v d , , , ta c th chn t hp thoi Symbol.
Vo menu Insert/ Symbol...xut hin hp thoi. Ta la chn 1 k t sau click
vo Insert chn vo cng thc.
Hp thoi Symbol nh sau:

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Hnh 4.19: Bng cc k t n gin

6.2. Cc lnh v cng thc trong Microsoft Equation 3.0
nh cng thc ton hc trong MS Equation 3.0 ta vo menu View/
Toolbars/Custormize...xut hin hp thoi:
Trong Categories chn Insert s xut hin mt danh sch cc la chn trong
Command.

Hnh 4.20: Thao tc ly bng cng thc ton hc

Trong Command chn biu tng Equation Editor, gi chut ko ln thanh cng
c. Sau khi ko ln s xut hin biu tng .Click vo biu tng ny son tho
cng thc ton hc.

Hnh 4.21: Bng cng thc ton hc

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7. Chnh l v in vn bn.
- Trc khi in vn bn bn phi xem ton cnh vn bn xem c phi chnh sa g
bng cch click vo biu tng
trn thanh cng c. Sau dng cc phm Page Up,
Page Down xem qua li cc trang.
- In vn bn:
Vo menu File/Print Preview xem vn bn trc khi in trnh vn bn in ra cha
va
Vo menu File/Print (Ctrl+P)

Hnh 4.22: Hp thoi in vn bn

- Page range:
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All: Chn in ton b vn bn

Current page: In trang hin thi
Pages: In trang nhp vo
Copies: S bn in ra

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PHN II: NGN NG LP TRINH PASCAL

CHNG 1: KHI NIM GIAI THUT V LU
1.Khai nim giai thut
1.1. Khai nim giai thut
Thut gii (hay cn gi l thut ton) l mt dy tun t cc bc x l gii quyt
mt bi ton cho n kt qu cui cng, hoc cc kt qu trung gian phc v cho mt tin
trnh x l khc.
V d 1:
C n vt th v mt chic cn a khng c qu cn. Hy xc nh vt th nng nht.
Phng php tin hnh l t hai vt th ln a cn, b vt th nh ra ch khc, gi
vt nng trn a cn. Ly tip mt vt th khc t ln a cn v li b vt nh i, lp li
qu trnh trn cho n khi ht vt th . Vt th cui cng cn li trn a cn l vt th nng
nht.
Phng php trn c m t theo cc bc nh sau:
1. t hai vt th ln hai a cn
2. B i vt th nh (vt th ny s khng tham gia vo qu trnh cn na)
3. Kim tra xem cn vt th hay khng
* Nu cn th t tip 1 vt th ln a cn trng, quay li thc hin bc 2.
* Nu khng th thc hin bc 4
4. Kt thc cng vic, vt cn li l nng nht
V d 2: Cc bc nu cm bp ci
B1: Vo go
B2: nc va vo ni, un si nc
B3: go vo ni, un si nh la.
B4: Cn nc, cm bng than cho cm chn u.

Nh vy: Cc bc thc hin trong v d trn c gi l thut gii, nu thay i cc

bc

th thut gii s khng thc hin c hoc khng thnh cng Thut gii c tnh tun t,
hiu qu.
1.2. Tnh cht ca thut gii
Qua hai v d trn ta c th nhn thy thut gii c nhng tnh cht c trng l tnh
tun t, tnh kt thc, tnh chnh xc, tnh hiu qu v tnh ph cp .
a. Tnh tun t
Cc bc ca thut gii c thc hin ln lt t trn xung di vic o ngc cc
bc khng cho ta kt qu hoc s dn ti kt qu sai. Trong c hai v d trn vic o
ngc cc bc v d gia bc 1 v 2 s lm cho thut gii tr nn v ngha, mt s trng
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hp khc vic o ngc vn lm cho thut gii c ngha song kt qu ca thut gii li
khng ng na.
b. Tnh kt thc
Mt thut gii phi bo m tnh kt thc sau mt s hu hn cc bc x l. S bc
c th l rt nhiu, thi gian x l c th l rt lu song phi l hu hn. Trong mt s
trng hp s bc x l ca thut gii rt t song khng kt thc nh v d sau y s dn
ti tnh trng l my tnh s lm vic chng no n cha b hng hoc cha b ct in.
V d: Thut gii quay vng v hn
1. c s n vo b nh
2. Tnh cn bc hai ca n, hin kt qu ln mn hnh
3. Quay tr li bc 1
Vi thut gii trn y r rng l chng ta c c kt qu tnh cn bc hai ca mt s
song chng ta khng c cch no kt thc c chng trnh tr phi phi tt my.
c. Tnh chnh xc
Thut gii lp ra phi bo m tnh chnh xc ca kt qu. S dng cng mt thut gii
trn hai b x l khc nhau phi cho kt qu vi chnh xc nh nhau.
d. Tnh hiu qu
Tnh hiu qu ca mt thut gii th hin ch n bo m sai s theo yu cu ca cc
kt qu tnh ton song thi gian x l l ngn nht, s dng t ti nguyn nht. Cng mt bi
ton c nhiu cch xy dng thut gii, ngi lp trnh gii l ngi bit la chn thut gii
no mang li hiu qu cao nht.
e. Tnh ph cp
Tnh ph cp th hin ch mt thut gii c th p dng cho nhiu bi ton ng
dng. Vi thut gii trong v d 2 chng ta c th m rng cho trung hp 55 vin si, mi
ln bc nhiu nht 6 vin v t nht 3 vin.....
lp trnh gii quyt bi ton trong mt ngn ng no chng ta phi phn tch
thut gii thnh nhng on thut gii nh hn, c th cho n khi khng th phn nh c
na. Nhng phn nh nht ca thut gii s tng ng vi mt cu trc lnh no
c thit k trong ngn ng m ta la chn lp trnh. Ni khc i chnh l cc lnh
m ta cn ng dng gii quyt bi ton.
V d 1: Tm gi tr ln nht ca mt dy s nguyn gm 10 phn t nhp vo t bn
phm.
Cch 1:
B1: Nhp a1..a10 ;
B2: Max:=a1;
B3: So snh Max :=a2; Nu Max < a2 Max:=a2;
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..
B11: Max:=a10 Tm c Max
Cch 2:
B1: Nhp a1.......a10;
B2: Gn gi tr ban u cho i, j, tg
B3: Cho i chy t 1 n 9
j chy t 2 n 10
B4: So snh a[i], a[j], Nu a[i] >a[j] i ch a[i], a[j].
tg := a[i];
a[i]:=a[j];

3 php gn, qua 9 ln thc hin phi thc hin 27 php gn

a[j]:= tg;
B5: Max:= a[10];
Nh vy cng mt bi ton c nhiu thut gii nhng thut gii no tn t b nh (x l)
Thut ton hiu qu hn.
V d 2: Tnh n!. Vi n l s nguyn dng
Cch 1: Dng vng lp For
Cch 2: Dng chng trnh con
So snh 2 cch thy cch 2 hiu qu hn
V d 3: Gii phng trnh bc nht mt n: ax + b = 0
B1: Nhp a, b
B2: Kim tra a = 0, Kim tra b = 0 Phng trnh v s nghim
Kim tra b 0 Phng trnh v nghim
B3: Kim tra a 0 PT c 1 nghim x:= -b /a
B4: Kt thc.
2. Cac cach din ta giai thut va thit k giai thut
2.1. Lit k cac bc : (Trong cc v d phn trn)
2.2. Lu ( s khi)
Lu trnh by mt chng trnh di dng cc khi, cc mi tn ch hng.
C 3 loi khi c bn sau:
1. Khi cc on chng trnh (k hiu bi hnh ch nht)
2. Khi chuyn nhnh (k hiu bi hnh thoi)
3. Khi lp li mt on chng trnh (k hiu bi mi tn vng lp bao quanh cc
khi khc).
4. Khi th hin s bt u hoc kt thc (Hnh ch nht ln trn hai u)

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Ngoi cc khi, trong ngn ng thut gii cn s dng mt khi nim gi l php gn.
Php gn k hiu l ":= ".
Php gn l vic chuyn gi tr (vit bn phi du gn) cho mt i lng c
nh ngha trc (vit bn tri du gn).
a. Bt u v kt thc chng trnh
th hin v tr bt u v kt thc mt chng trnh chng ta dng hnh ch nht
vi hai phn bn nguyt hai u
Bt u/Kt thc

b. Khi x l
y l khi cc lnh x l mt cng vic no bao gm vic nhp d liu, tnh ton,
vit kt qu ... khi x l t trong mt hnh ch nht

Khi x l chng trnh

c. Khi chuyn nhnh
Cn c vo nhng iu kin nht nh chng trnh s chuyn nhnh sang mt on
khc nu iu kin tho mn. C hai loi khi chuyn nhnh:
Cn c vo iu kin ng hay sai ca hm lgic chng trnh s chuyn sang thc
hin hoc cng vic 1 hoc cng vic 2 (Hnh a)
Cn c vo gi tr ca mt bin cho trc chng trnh s thc hin cng vic
tng ng (Hnh b).

Sai

Cng
vic

ng

a)

b)

d. Khi ch nh lp
Qu trnh lp thc hin nh sau: Nu iu kin cn ng th thc hin on chng
trnh, nu khng th ra khi cu trc lp thc hin tip cc lnh ca chng trnh sau cu
trc lp .
Cn mt cu trc lp khc vi s bc
, y khng c vic kim tra iu kin
Binlp
lpxc
<= nh
Gi_tr_cui
m ch kim tra s ln lp (Hnh 3.5).
ng
Cng vic

77
Ht lp

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3. Mt s vi du v thut giai
a. Thut gii tm s ln nht hoc b nht trong mt dy s
Dy s a1, a2, a3,.....an c xem l mt mng n phn t v c k hiu l a[i] vi i =
1, 2...n . Thut ton tm s ln nht trong mng c mt s khc bit so vi thut ton tm vt
th nng nht trnh by trn, y ta s dng mt i lng trung gian l TG, v mt
bin m l i.
Cc bc ca thut gii:
1. Nhp vo mng a[i] gi tr ca cc phn t a[1], a[2],....
2. Gn gi tr a[1] cho TG v gn s 2 cho i
3. So snh TG vi a[i]
4. Ly s ln hn trong hai s gn tr li cho TG
5. Tng gi tr i thm 1 n v
6. Quay v bc 3 cho n khi i = n th sang bc 7
7. Gi tr cui cng c trong TG l s ln nht ca dy s
8. Ghi kt qu ra thit b in
9. Dng chng trnh
Lu
Begi
n

TG:=a
1

Nhp a1..an

i:=2

Sai

i<
=n
ng
S

TG<a
[i]

i:=i
+1

TG:=a[
i]

b. Gii phng trnh bc hai : ax2 + bx + c = 0

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Cc bc ca thut gii:
1. Nhp a, b, c, x
2. Tnh Delta, Delta= b*b 4*a*c;
3. Xt iu kin ca Delta
Nu Delta < 0 Th PT v nghim
Nu Delta= 0 Th PT c nghim kp, x1 =x2 = - b / 2*a;
Nu Delta >0 Th PT c hai nghim phn bit, x1 =(-b + sqrt(Delta))/2*a,
x2=(-b - sqrt(Delta))/2*a.
4. Ghi kt qu ra thit b in
Kt thc
Lu
Begi
n

D:=b*b4*a*c

Nhp a, b, x

ng

Sai

D>
=0

x1 =(Kt thc
b+sqrt(D))/2*a
x2 =(-bHnh
3.8: Lu bi ton gii phng trnh bc hai
sqrt(D))/2*a

c. Tm trong dy s a1, a2, ... an mt s c gi tr bng k.

Nhn xt rng vic tm kim s dn n 1 trong hai kh nng:

- Tm thy mt s a[i] = k vi 1<= i <= n
- Khng tm thy mt s no bng k
Trong c hai trng hp d tm thy hay khng tm thy cng vn phi kt thc tm
kim, ngha l thut ton phi c hai kh nng kt thc.
Cc bc ca thut gii:
1. So snh s th nht vi k
2. Nu1
- bng nhau: Kt thc 1
- khng bng nhau
3. Kim tra xem cn s cha so snh hay khng
i:=1
Begi
Nu2
n
- cn: so snh s tip theo vi k

lp li bc hai
a[i]:
Kt thc
- ht: Kt thc 2
=k
1
Ht nu 1
S
Ht nu 2
i:=i+
4. Dng chng trnh
79

i<
=n

Kt thc
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Hnh 3.9: Lu bi ton tm s c gi tr k

CHNG 2: CU TRC CA MT CHNG TRNH TURBO PASCAL
1. Gii thiu v ngn ng lp trnh.
Ngn ng lp trnh bao gm mt h thng cc k hiu, cc quy tc c php v cu
lnh dng vit thut ton gii cc bi ton. Tp hp cc cu lnh hnh thnh cc chng
trnh, chng c lu tr di dng cc tp. Nhng lnh ca chng trnh s c thc hin
ln lt t trn xung khi chng ta ra lnh chy chng trnh.
C nhiu loi ngn ng lp trnh khc nhau, t ngn ng bc thp n ngn ng bc
cao.
Ngn ng lp trnh bc thp (ngn ng my): S dng h m nh phn tc l h
m ch c 2 ch s 0, 1 m ha mi i lng hay php ton. Ngn ng ny c u im
l chng trnh chy nhanh, khng phi bin dch, tuy nhin nhng chng trnh vit bng
ngn ng ny rt cng knh, tn nhiu thi gian, kh kim tra.
Ngn ng tp hp: Trong ngn ng ny mt s m nh phn c thay th bng cc
ch ci nn lp trnh d dng hn nhng vn cn phi c chng trnh dch t ngn ng tp
hp ra ngn ng my.
Ngn ng bc cao: M phng ngn ng t nhin ca con ngi nn d dng cho
ngi lp trnh, t ngn ng ny phi qua mt qu trnh dch sang ngn ng my do
chng trnh s chy chm. Ngn ng lp trnh bc cao u tin ra i nm 1958 c t
tn l ALGOL. Sau nhiu ngn ng khc ra i: FORTRAN, BASIC, PASCAL, C++,...
Pascal l ngn ng lp trnh do gio s Niklaus Wirth trng i hc k thut
Zurich, Thy S thit k vo nhng nm u ca thp k 70.
Pascal c coi l mt ngn ng lp trnh bc cao c cu trc v c tnh h thng:
Cc kiu d liu a dng, cc cu trc iu khin cht ch,cc cu trc khi trong chng
trnh r rng...
Pascal l ngn ng lp trnh c nh kiu: Cc i lng (bin v hng) c khai
bo s dng vi kiu d liu ny th khng th em dng ln vi kiu d liu khc.
2. Yu cu v phn mm v cch khi ng
Yu cu v phn mm
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Ton b cc tp ca Turbo Pascal 7.0 sau khi ci t chim khong 5MB, tuy nhin
c th lm vic vi Turbo Pascal k c phn ha chng ta c th chp mt s tp cn
thit vo mt a mm 1,44MB. Nu phi lm vic trn a mm th nn dng Pascal 5.0 v
Format a thnh a h thng sau chp vo cc tp sau:
- Turbo.exe: Chng trnh son tho, dch, lin kt menu...
- Turbo.tpl: Tp lu cc n v chun ca Turbo Pascal
- Graph.tpu: Tp lu cc n v ha chun ca Turbo Pascal.
- Att.bgi, cga.bgi; egavga.bgi,....
-........................
Cc tp .BGI l cc tp cha cc lnh iu khin v kiu mn hnh, nu ta dng c
nh trn mt my th ch cn chp vo 1 tp ph hp vi kiu mn hnh hin c.
Cc tp .CHR l cc tp cha iu khin kiu ch trong ha.
Khi lm vic vi Pascal, c hai tp c bit c sinh ra lu gi nhng quy nh
ca ngi s dng v cc thay i ca chng trnh l TURBO.PCK v TURBO.TP, nu
khng tht cn thit th khng nn xa cc tp ny i.
Pascal lm vic trong mi trng DOS
Khi kt thc lm vic vi Pascal th Window s c khi ng li.
Cch khi ng:
Tp chng trnh lm vic ca Turbo Pascal Turbo.exe, vic khi ng s ty thuc
vo vic ci t b chng trnh trn a ca ngi s dng, gi thit rng tt c cc tp
nu trn c ghp vo th mc TP ca a mm t trn A, lnh khi ng Turbo Pascal
l:
A:/>CD TP
A:\TP> TURBO
Nu Pascal c ci t trong a cng v Shortcut c trn Desktop ta ch vic
bm kp vo biu tng ny.
Nu biu tng chng trnh Pascal cha c trn Desktop th c th to ra theo cc
bc sau:
Bm phm phi chut, chn New, chn tip Shortcut.
Trong khung khai bo pha di ct Command line g vo ng dn v tn
tp khi ng chng trnh nh sau:
- C:\TP\BIN\TURBO
- Bm Next chuyn sang ca s k tip
- Di mc Select a name for the shortcut ta c th ty chn 1 tn cho biu
tng s hin ln Desktop v d Pascal 7.0
- Bm Finish kt thc
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Khi Desktop xut hin biu tng Pascal 7.0

Sau khi khi ng s xut hin mn hnh lm vic ca Turbo Pascal:
3. Nhng quy nh v cch vit biu thc v chng trnh
3.1 T vng v t kha
T vng c bn ca ngng ng Pascal c chia thnh ba nhm: Nhm ch ci,
nhm ch s v nhm k t c bit.
- Nhm ch ci: A, B, C,...Z, a, b, c...z
- Nhm ch s: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
- Nhm cc k t c bit: +, -, *, /, (, ), [, ], ....
Nhm cc t vng, trong Pascal xy dng mt s t kha s dng khi lp
trnh. Cc t kha ny bt buc phi dng ng c php v khng c php s dng vo
cc cng vic khai bo khc. Cc nhm t kha bao gm:
- T kha chung:
PROGRAM, BEGIN, END, PROCEDURE, FUNCTION
- T kha khai bo:
CONST, VAR, LABLE, TYPE, ARRAY, STRING, RECORD, SET, FILE OF.
- T kha dng trong cc cu trc lp trnh.
IF...THEN...ELSE...
CASE...OF
FOR...TO...DO...
FOR...DOWNTO...DO...
WHILE...DO...
REPEAT...UNTIL...
- T kha iu khin
WITH, GOTO
- T kha tn cc ton t
NOT, AND, OR, XOR, IN, DIV, MOD
3.2 Quy nh t tn
Tn dng t tn cho hng, bin, chng trnh...c php vit di nht l 127
k t v phi tun theo quy nh sau:
- Tn phi bt u bng mt ch ci.
- Khng c dng cc k t c bit.
- Khng c khong trng gia cc k t.
3.3 Quy nh v du cch v du chm phy
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Trong mt cu lnh cc t kha v tn hng, tn bin...phi vit cch nhau bi du

cch. Gia cc cu lnh phi dng du bo ngn cch ";", c th vit nhiu cu lnh trn
mt dng.
3.4 Du gn gi tr
gn gi tr cho hng, bin ta phi dng k hiu gn ":="
V d: Pi:=3.1416
Lam:= 'c'
3.5 Li gii thch
Trong chng trnh nhng ghi ch hoc li gii thch c th a vo trong du {...}
hay (*....*).
4. Cu trc mt chng trnh Pascal
Mt chng trnh Pascal thng thng phi gm 3 phn:

Phn tiu

Phn ny bt u bng t kha PROGRAM tip theo l tn chng trnh, sau tn

chng trnh l du ;. Sau tn chng trnh ta c th a vo cc dng gii thch hoc cc
li gii thch, nhng dng ny khng t cng trn mt dng vi tn chng trnh.

Phn khai bo

C tt c 7 tham s phi khai bo, tuy nhin ty tng chng trnh chng ta dng
loi no th khai bo loi .
USES: Khai bo s dng cc n v chng trnh.
LABLE: Khai bo nhn.
CONST: Khai bo hng
TYPE: nh ngha kiu d liu mi.
VAR: Khai bo bin.
PROCEDURE: Khai bo chng trnh con th tc
FUNCTION: Khai bo chng trnh con hm.
Phn thn chng trnh
Phn thn chng trnh c t gia hai t kha BEGIN v END., sau t kha
END phi c du chm bo kt thc chng trnh. Nu gia chng trnh c cc on
chng trnh s dng Begin v End th sau End l du chm phy.

5. Cc bc c bn khi lp trnh
- C 3 bc c bn khi lp trnh: Ghi, dch v cho chy chng trnh
Ghi chng trnh
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Trong ca s son tho chng trnh (Text Editor) cc chng trnh mi son tho
ln u u c tn ngm nh l NONAME00.PAS, ngha l cha c tn. trnh b mt
chng trnh khi my c s c hay b mt in chng ta nn ghi chng trnh vo a ngay
khi son tho c mt s lnh.
ghi chng trnh ta bm phm F2, khi xut hin ca s ghi.
Di mc Save File as g tn tp m ta mun chn sau bm OK chng trnh s
c ghi vo a vi ui ngm nh ca Pascal l .PAS.
Sau khi son tho xong mt chng trnh c th chy th ngay bng cch bm t hp
phm Ctrl - F9. Nu chng trnh b li my ra thng bo li v ta phi gi li chng trnh
sa. Sau mi ln sa bm F2 ghi li.
Cc chng trnh c nu mun ghi li vi tn khc th thc hin cc bc sau:
- Chon File - Save As xut hin ca s thay i tn
- G tn mi vo mc Save File As ri bm OK.
Dch chng trnh
Trng hp chng trnh chy tt khng b li, ta c th tin hnh dch v lu tr
v cc chng trnh ngun sang dng chng trnh c ui EXE, ngha l chuyn tp dng
vn bn sang tp thc hin (Execute File). Nhng tp chuyn sang ui exe thng c
dung lng ln hn tp ngun nhiu ln. V vy khi dch cn lu dung lng cn c
php s dng trn a. Nhng tp c dch sau c th cho chy trc tip tn tp.
dch chng trnh ta bm t hp phm Alt - C, khi Menu ct ca chc nng
Complie (chc nng dch) xut hin. Nu bn cnh ty chn Destination (ni se lu tp exe)
ta thy c ch Disk th ch cn chn Complie tin hnh dch, cn nu l Memory th ta
phi bm D chuyn thnh Disk sau mi chn Compile.
Tp c bin dch s c cng tn vi tp ngun nhng ui s c i thnh exe,
tp ny c ghi vo thng th mc vi tp ngun. Cn lu rng khi bin dch chng ta s
c hai tp cng tn (.PAS v .EXE) v khng th gi tp c ui EXE ra sa cha. Nu
ta tip tc sa cha tp ngun th phi tin hnh dch li sang ui EXE.
Chy chng trnh
C th chy th chng trnh sa cha li khi cha tin hnh bin dch. Sau khi
bin dch bn c th gi chng trnh vi tn t .EXE s dng.

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CHNG 3: CC KIU D LIU C S V CCH KHAI BO

1. Khi nim d liu, kiu d liu.
- D liu c hiu l tt c nhng g m con ngi a cho my tnh x l. D liu
c th l cc con s, ch vit, mnh logic...
- Mi mt phn mm ch c th x l c mt vi loi d liu c th ch khng
phi tt c cc loi. Tuy nhin, my tnh ch hiu c d liu m ha di dng m nh
phn. Nhng chng ta khng quan tm n vic chuyn i nh th no m ch cn quan
tm n vic khai bo v s dng cc d liu cho ng quy cch.
D liu trong ngn ng Pascal c phn chia thnh 4 nhm (kiu) c bn sau:
- Kiu v hng (kiu d liu n gin Simple type)
- Kiu d liu c cu trc (Structured type)
- Kiu chui k t (String)
- Kiu con tr (Pointer type)
Mi kiu li bao gm mt s kiu c s. Trong chng ny chng ta s kho st kiu
th nht l kiu d liu v hng.
2. Cc kiu d liu n gin.
Kiu d liu v hng l kiu d liu gm mt tp cc gi tr c sp xp theo mt
th t no . Kiu v hng bao gm kiu v hng chun (Standard types) l kiu
c Pascal nh ngha v kiu do ngi s dng nh ngha.
Kiu v hng chun bao gm 4 loi sau y:
2.1 Kiu logic (Boolean)
Kiu d liu Boolean l kiu d liu ch nhn mt trong hai gi tr TRUE, FALSE.
y khng phi l d liu kiu s nn cc ton t +, - , *, /...khng p dng c.
Cc ton t s dng vi kiu Boolean bao gm:
- AND: php "V" logic
- OR: php "hoc" logic
- NOT: php "o" hay "ph nh" logic.
- XOR: php "hoc trit tiu"
- Php AND cho kt qu TRUE khi v ch khi c hai ton hng u l TRUE.
- Php OR cho kt qu FALSE khi v ch khi c hai ton hng u l FALSE
- Php XOR cho kt qu TRUE khi hai ton hng khc nhau.
* Pascal quy nh th t ca cc k t v ton t nh sau:
1<2<3<4....
A<B<C<D...
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a<b<c<d...
F<T
Khi s dng ton t so snh ta c kt qu l d liu kiu Boolean.
Cc php so snh:
<>: khc nhau
=: Bng nhau
>=: Ln hn hoc bng
<=: Nh hn hoc bng
>: Ln hn
<: Nh hn
Cc ton hng khi a vo biu thc so snh phi c cng kiu d liu (tr hai kiu
s nguyn v s thc)
V d
123 < 456 cho kt qu TRUE
2*8 < 10 cho kt qu FALSE
FALSE < TRUE cho kt qu TRUE.
2.2 Kiu s nguyn
Kiu s nguyn l kiu s dng trong Pascal bao gm 5 loi vi cc t kha khai bo
khc nhau:
Kiu BYTE:
D liu kiu Byte c lu tr trong b nh bng 1 byte, s nh phn ln nht c th
x l l 1111 1111 tc l s 255 trong h thp phn, nh vy vi nhng bin kiu Byte
chng ta ch c th nhp vo cc gi tr tng ng t 0 - 255.
Kiu WORD:
Kiu Word s dng 2 bytes lu tr d liu v khng xt du, do cc s c th
x l l t 0 n 65535
Kiu INTEGER:
Kiu Integer l kiu s nguyn c du s dng 2 byte, cc s c th x l l t
-32768 n +32767.
Kiu SHORTINT
D liu kiu Shortint c lu tr trong 1 byte nhng l s c du do ch c th
x l cc s trong phm vi t -128 n +127
Kiu LONGINT
S nguyn kiu Longint s dng 4 bytes b nh trong bt bn tri nht l bt du,
phm vi biu din ca Longint s t -2147483684 n +2147483684.
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Cc php ton thng dng tc ng ln kiu s nguyn l:

+, -, *, /, DIV, MOD
2.3 Kiu s thc (REAL)
Kiu s thc l tp hp cc s thc c th biu din c trong my tnh v c
nh ngha vi t kha REAL. Pascal quy nh gia phn nguyn v phn thp phn v du
".". S thc c th vit di hai dng:
Dng thp phn bnh thng.
L cch vit bnh thng quen thuc m chng ta bit.
Dng vit theo s m
- Trng hp du phy tnh: Xt s: 1234.567, ch s ny c th vit di dng m
nh sau:
1234.567 = 1.234567E + 03
Trong phn s 1.234567 vi du chm gi l du nh tr, cn E + 03 l ly tha 3
ca 10 c gi l phn m.
- Trng hp du phy ng:
1234.567= 1.234567E + 03 = 12.34567E + 02 = 123.4567E + 01
Ch : Khi nh ngha mt s l Real th phi vit c phn s nguyn v phn thc
ca s .
2.4 Kiu k t (Character)
K t c hiu l tt c cc ch ci, ch s, cc du hiu phn cch m chng ta s
dng m ha thng tin. Trong Pascal kiu d liu k t c nh ngha bi t kha
CHAR. Mi hng k t khi khai bo phi vit gia hai du nhy v d 'A', '3',...
Hin nay cc phn mm thng dng trn th gii u s dng bng m ASCII
(Americain Standard Code for Information Interchange). Do vy vic khai bo bin ch c
th chn cc k t ca ASCII ch khng th chn cc k t ting Vit.
Cc k t trong bng m ASCII c nh s th t t 0, Pascal thit k hai hm
chun ORD v CHR xc nh mi tng quan gia s th t ca mt k t v dng biu
din k t trn mn hnh.
Hm ORD('A')=65
Hm CHR(65)=A
xc nh k t trc hoc sau k t hin thi trong bng m ASCII c th dng
hai hm c sn l Pred (trc) v Succ (sau).
V d: Pred(C)=B, Succ(C)=D
Ch : Mt bin khai bo dng CHAR khi gn gi tr cho bin ch c th gn tng k t ch
khng th gn c mt t, cch gn nh sau l sai:
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Var
Lam: char;
Begin
Lam:='yes';....
3. Cc khai bo
3.1 Khai bo hng.
Hng l cc i lng m gi tr ca n khng thay i trong sut qu trnh x l.
khai bo hng ta dng t kha CONST
V d:
CONST
Pi = 3.1416; (Hng kiu Real);
Lam = 'c'; (Hng kiu Char)
Suthat = TRUE; (Hng kiu Boolean)
3.2 Khai bo bin.
Bin (Variable) l nhng i din m ga tr ca n c th thay i trong qu trnh x
l. Mi bin c gn vo mt nh trong b nh ca my. khai bo bin ta dng t
kha VAR. Nu c nhiu bin cng kiu ta c th vit trn cng mt dng, mi bin cch
nhau mt du phy, gia phn tn bin v phn kiu d liu l du hai chm.
V d:
VAR x1, x2, x3: Real;
a, b, c: Integer
3.3 nh ngha kiu d liu mi
Ngoi nhng kiu d liu Pascal nh ngha v chng ta kho st, ngi lp
trnh c th t nh ngha mt s kiu d liu khc ty theo yu cu ca bi ton. Kiu d
liu mi c khai bo bng t kha TYPE phn u ca chng trnh. V d:
TYPE
Mau=(xanh, do, tim, vang);
VAR
Mauchu: mau;
4 Biu thc v cu lnh
4.1 Biu thc.
Biu thc c hiu l mt cng thc tnh ton theo mt quy tc no . Biu thc
bao gm cc ton t (-, *, +, /,=,...) v cc ton hng, ton hng y c th l cc hng,
bin, hm c nh ngha trong Pascal.
Biu thc c chia thnh hai loi:
Biu thc s hc: L biu thc cho ta gi tr bng s.
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Biu thc logic: L biu thc cho ta kt qu logic tc l mt trong hai gi tr TRUE
hay FALSE
Ch : Trong cc biu thc logic c s dng ton t so snh. Cc ton hng phi tng
thch vi nhau v kiu.
Th t u tin cc php ton trong Pascal:
Ton t
Mc u tin
(..)
1
NOT,
2
*, /, DIV, MOD, AND
3
+, -, OR, XOR
4
=,<>,<=,>=, >, <, IN
Ton t quan h cng mc u tin
V d: Tnh gi tr ca biu thc Boolean sau:
Not (30*2 > 50) Or ('B' < 'A') And (2>5 div 2)
4.2 Cu lnh
Cc cu lnh c vit phn thn chng trnh, cu lnh bao gm cc lnh n
hoc lnh c cu trc. Cu lnh nhm thc hin mt s cc cng vic no m ngi lp
trnh t ra cho my x l. Vic b tr cc cu lnh trn 1 dng hay nhiu dng l ty cch
trang tr ca ngi lp trnh min l cc cu lnh phi t cch nhau bi du phn cch ";".
V d:
CONST
Pi = 3.14;
VAR
X: DIENTICH:Real;
Y:Boolean;
Bankinh: integer;
Begin
Bankinh:=5;
DIENTICH:=Bankinh*Bankinh*pi;
...
END
Cc t kha trong Pascal c th vit ch thng hoc ch hoa hoc xen k ch
thng v ch hoa.

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CHNG 4
CC TH TC VO RA D LIU V CC CU TRC IU KHIN
1. Php gn gi tr.
gn gi tr cho bin ta dng cm k t ":=", cn lu phn bit php gn vi
phn khai bo hng sau t kha CONST. Trong phn khai bo ta ch dng k t ":=".
Khi gn gi tr phi m bo tnh tng thch gia kiu d liu v gi tr gn, v d
nu ta khai bo X l biu din INTEGER th khng th gn cho n X:=6.5.
Trong cc php gn c mt ngoi l l bin thc c th nhn cc gi tr nguyn
(integer).
2. Cc th tc nhp v xut d liu
2.1 Nhp gi tr cho cc bin khai bo
gn gi tr cho mt bin no c th s dng mt trong hai th tc chun ca
Turbo Pascal l READ(x1, x2,...) v READLN(x1, x2,...). Cc tham s x1, x2,...trong th
tc c phi l cc bin c khai bo v kiu, lnh c khng th gn d liu cho hng
hoc biu thc.
S khc nhau gia hai th tc ny l: vi th tc Readln th sau khi nhn Enter con
tr s chuyn xung dng tip theo cn Read th khng.
V d:
Var x,y: integer;
Begin
Write('Nhap gia tri x, y, x1, x2); Readln(x,y,x1,x2);
.....
End.
Trong chng trnh th tc READLN s c d liu cho ln lt cc bin x, y, x1,
x2, nu chng ta nhp s u tin khng phi l s nguyn.
Ngoi hai th tc trn cn th tc READLN;, th tc ny khng c tham s ngha l
khng nhp d liu no vo my, khi my s ch ta g phm Enter. Thc cht y l
mt lnh dng chng trnh ta kim tra, sau khi kim tra xong tip tc chng trnh.
2.2 Xut d liu ra mn hnh
Vit d liu ra mn hnh
C hai th tc xut d liu ra mn hnh l WRITE(a1, a2,...) v WRITELN(a1,
a2, ...)
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a1, a2 l cc d liu m ta mun vit ra mn hnh, cc d liu ny c th l hng,

bin, biu thc, mng, chui k t...
S khc nhau gia hai th tc trn l:
WRITE(a1, a2,...): Sau khi vit xong gi tr cui cng con tr nm nguyn ti v tr
kt thc khng chuyn xung dng di.
WRITELN(a1, a2,...): S vit a1, a2...trn cng mt dng sau khi vit xong con tr
c t ng chuyn xung u dng tip theo.
WRITELN: Khng vit g ra mn hnh, chuyn con tr xung dng di.
- Vit cc k t ra mn hnh.
Cc k t khi vit ra mn hnh phi t trong du ngoc n, nu khng c cc lnh
g khc th k t c vit bt u t ct 1 v chim mt khong rng ng bng di ca
chui.
Nu s dng cch vit ng quy cch ngha l quy nh di chui s vit ra th k
t cui cng ca chui s c cn theo l phi trong phm vi rng quy nh.
V d:
Var lam: char;
Begin
Lam:='Y';
Writeln(lam);
Wirteln(lam:7);
Writeln('ABCDE');
Writeln('ABCDE':8);
End.
Kt qu in ra mn hnh nh sau:
V tr: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Y
Y
ABCDE
ABCDE
Nu trong lnh Writeln('ABCDE':n) ta chn n nh hn di chui ( y l 5) th
my vn vit ra y c chui.
vit mt k t no trong bng m ASCII ta cn bit s th t ca n trong
bng, 32 k t u trong bng m l cc k t iu khin khng in ra c
V d k t s 7 l ting chung khi vit Write(char(7)) hoc write(#7) th my s
pht ra mt ting chung.
- Vit s ra mn hnh
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Cch vit cc s nguyn v s thc l khc nhau.

+ Trng hp khng nh kiu: Vi cc s nguyn my s vit ra y s ch s
k c du bt u t v tr ct 0 hoc v tr theo lnh gotoxy(x,y) nh.
Vi cc s thc my s dnh 18 v tr vit mi s theo quy nh sau: 2 v tr u
trng, tip n mt s phn nguyn, du chm phn cch, 10 v tr phn thp phn, ch E
biu hin phn m, du ca m v hai v tr cho s m. V d:
Write(-1234567);
Write(123.4567);
Kt qu: -1234567
1.2345670000E+02
+ Trng hp c nh kiu: Cch vit c nh kiu i hi ch cho my bit s v tr
m my phi vit d liu ra tnh t v tr hin thi ca con tr. Ring i vi s thc th phi
quy nh r s v tr cho ton b s v s v tr cho phn thp phn.
V d:
Write('So thu tu: '); Write(381:14:4);
Nu trong lnh vit s thc ta khng quy nh s v tr cho phn thp phn th my s
vit ra theo kiu m trong 4 v tr dnh cho phn s m, phn s s c lm trn vi
rng cn li.
V d:
Write(123.456789:8);
Kt qu:
1.23E + 02
Th tc trnh by mn hnh
Cc th tc trnh by mn hnh trong TP 7.0 c ghi thnh mt Unit c tn l CRT
t trong tp TURBO.TPL, v vy mun trnh by mn hnh u chng trnh phi khai
bo USES CRT;
Mt s th tc thng thng hay s dng:
Gotoxy(x,y): a con tr mn hnh n v tr c ta (x, y) trong x l honh
1<=x<=80, y l tung 1<=y<=25.
Clrscr: Xa ton b mn hnh, sau khi xa con tr c ta (1,1)
Textcolor(mau): Thit lp mu cho cc k t vn bn. TP 7.0 cho php la chn ti
a 15 mu, cc mu ny c nh s t 0 n 15.
Textbackground(mau): chn mu nn cho vn bn.
iu
3. Cu lnh iu kin.
kin
Mu lnh:
sai
a, Dng thiu:
ng
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IF <iu kin> THEN <Cu lnh>

b, Dng :
IF <iu kin> THEN <Lnh 1> [ELSE] [<Lnh 2>]
Trong :
<iu kin>: L mt biu thc Boolean.

ng

Sai

iu
kin

Lnh 2

Lnh 1

Cu lnh c thc hin nh sau:

- dng thiu: iu kin s c kim tra. Nu iu kin ng (true) th Cu lnh s c
thc hin, ngc li th Cu lnh s b b qua.
- dng : iu kin c kim tra. Nu iu kin ng th Lnh 1 s c thc hin,
ngc li th Lnh 2 s c thc hin.
V d: tm s ln nht (max) trong hai s a v b, c th thc hin bng hai cch nh sau:
- Dng cu lnh gn max:=a v lnh If-then dng thiu:
max:= a;
If b > a then max: =b;
- Dng mt lnh If-then dng :
If b > a then max:=b else max:= a;
c, Cu lnh ghp.
Trong trng hp, cu lnh sau t kho then hoc else khng ch l mt m gm
nhiu lnh, ta phi gp cc cu lnh thnh dy cu lnh t trong cp t kho Begin v End.
C php:
Begin
<Dy cu lnh>;
End;
V d:
Gii phng trnh bc hai ax2 + bx + c = 0
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Dng lnh iu kin dng thiu:

Program Giai_PTBH;
Use crt;
Var a, b, c, delta, x1, x2: Real;
Begin
Clrscr;
Writeln(Nhap vao cac he so a, b, c:);
Readln(a,b,c);
Delta:= b*b 4*a*c;
If Delta < 0 then Writeln(Phuong trinh khong co nghiem thuc:);
If Delta = 0 then
Begin
Writeln(Phuong trinh co nghiem kep:);
Writeln(x1=x2=,-b/(2*a):8:2);
End;
If Delta > 0 then
Begin
Writeln(Phuong trinh co hai nghiem phan biet:);
Writeln(x1=, -b + sqrt(Delta)/(2*a):8:2);
Writeln(x2=, -b - sqrt(Delta)/(2*a):8:2);
End;
Readln;
End.
Dng lnh iu kin dng :
Program Giai_PTBH;
Use crt;
Var a, b, c, delta, x1, x2: Real;
Begin
Clrscr;
Writeln(Nhap vao cac he so a, b, c:);
Readln(a,b,c);
Delta:= b*b 4*a*c;
If Delta < 0 then Writeln(Phuong trinh khong co nghiem thuc:);
else
If Delta = 0 then
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Begin
Writeln(Phuong trinh co nghiem kep:);
Writeln(x1=x2=,-b/(2*a):8:2);
End;
else
Begin
Writeln(Phuong trinh co hai nghiem phan biet:);
Writeln(x1=, -b + sqrt(Delta)/(2*a):8:2);
Writeln(x2=, -b - sqrt(Delta)/(2*a):8:2);
End;
Readln;
End.
4. Cc lnh lp
Trong qu trnh gii quyt cc bi ton, ta c th gp trng hp chng trnh phi thc
hin lp i lp li mt cng vic no . Vic thc hin phi theo mt qui lut no .
S ln lp c th xc nh trc hoc khng xc nh. Sau y ta s ln lt xt cc lnh
lp dng ny.
4.1 Lnh lp c s bc lp xc nh.
y l mt cu lnh c cu trc cho php thc hin lp i lp li mt cng vic (on
lnh) no vi s ln thc hin c xc nh trc. d hiu trc ht ta xt mt v d
sau:
Gi s ta phi vit ra cc s t 1 n 10, mi s chim 1 dng trn mn hnh. Ta c th
thc hin cng vic ny bi 10 lnh writeln nh sau:
Writeln(1);
Writeln(2);

Writeln(10);
y l cch vit di dng v n iu trong khi ta c th thc hin cng vic trn bi
mt dng lnh ngn gn:
FOR i:=1 TO 10 DO writeln(i);
ngha ca cu lnh ny l: cho mt bin nhn gi tr nguyn i chy t 1 n 10 (bin
i ln lt nhn cc gi tr nguyn t 1 n 10), vi mi gi tr ca i my s thc hin cng
vic sau t kha DO l in ra gi tr ca i.
a)

Dng lnh:
FOR Bin_lp :=Gi_tr_u TO Gi_tr_cui DO <Cng vic>;
FOR Bin_lp:= Gi_tr_u DOWNTO Gi_tr_cui DO <Lnh>;
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Trong Bin_lp, Gi_tr_u, Gi_tr_cui phi cng kiu d liu m c (nh

kiu s nguyn, kiu k t)
ngha ca cu lnh vi t kha TO l nh sau: Trc tin Bin_lp nhn gi tr khi
to l Gi_tr_u, my kim tra nu gi tr khng vt qu Gi_tr_cui th cho thc
hin <Cng vic> (Gi_tr_u<Gi_tr_cui). Thc hin xong lnh ny, Bin_lp c
tng thm mt n v, my li kim tra vi Gi_tr_cui nu vn cha vt qu
Gi_tr_cui th thc hin <Cng vic>, cn nu Bin_lp nhn gi tr vt qu
Gi_tr_cui th dng.
Khi t kha TO c thay bng DOWNTO th ngha hon ton tng t nh dng
trn, ch khc l Gi_tr u >Gi_tr_cui v Bin_lp nhn gi tr gim dn ch khng
phi tng dn, v iu kin kim tra l Bin_lp khng nh qu Gi_tr_cui.
S ln thc hin lp i lp li <Cng vic> c xc nh trc bi gi tr ca
Gi_tr_u v Gi_tr_cui nn cu lnh trn cn c gi l lnh lp c s bc lp xc
nh.
S ca lnh lp FOR:

Bin lp <= Gi_tr_cui

ng

Sai

DO Cng vic

b) V d

Ht lp

VD1. Vit chng trnh tnh tng ca n s t nhin u tin S=1+2++n theo phng php
cng dn.
Phng php cng dn c thc hin nh sau: ban u ta khi to S:=0, ri ly S
cng vi 1, ri cng vi 2,cng n n. Nh vy ta s phi s dng mt vng lp FOR vi
mt Bin_iu_khin i chy t Gi_tr_u l 1 n Gi_tr_cui l n. Ta s dng chnh gi
tr ca bin iu khin ny tnh tng S.
Cc bc thc hin chng trnh c th c c th nh sau:
1. S:=0;
2. i:=1;
3. S:=S+i;
4. i:=i+1;
5. Nu i<=n th quay v 3
Nu i>n th sang 6
6. Kt thc
Chng trnh c vit nh sau:
Program
Tinh_tong;
Var i,n:integer;
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S:real;
Begin
Write(Cho biet gia tri cua n: );
Readln(n);
S:=0;
For i:=1 to n do S:=S+i;
Writeln(Tong tinh duoc la S=,S:10:2);
End.
Bi ton trn cn c th c lm bng 1 cch khc m vn dng lnh lp c s bc
lp xc nh l s dng cu lnh sau:
For i:=n downto 1 do S:=S+i;
Tng S s c cng dn theo th t t n n 1, tc l S=n+(n-1)++2+1
VD2. Bi ton c:
Va g, va ch
B li cho trn
Ba mi su con
Mt trm chn chn
Lp chng trnh tnh s g, s ch.
Chng trnh:
Program
Ga_cho;
Uses crt;
Var g,c:byte;
Begin
Clrscr;
For g:=0 to 36 do
For c:=0 to 25 do
If (g+c)=36 and (2*g+4*c)=100 then
Writeln(So ga la: ,g,, So cho la: ,c);
Readln;
End.
VD3. Lp chng trnh tnh tng: S= 1/1! + 1/2! + 1/3! +...+1/n!, vi n nguyn nhp t bn
phm (n>=1).
Chng trnh:
Program
Tinh_tong1;
Var i,n:integer;
ms,S:real;
Begin
Write(Cho biet gia tri cua n: );
Readln(n);
S:=0;ms:=1;
For i:=1 to n do
Begin
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ms:=ms*i;
S:=S+1/ms;
End;
Writeln(Tong tinh duoc la S=,S:10:2);
Readln;
End.
4.2 Lnh lp c s bc lp khng xc nh.
trn ta xt lnh lp c s bc lp xc nh, tc l s ln cng vic lp i lp li
l c xc nh trc. Nhng trong khi lp trnh c nhng bi ton yu cu thc hin mt
cng vic no m s ln lp l khng th xc nh trc c, m ph thuc vo mt
biu thc iu kin no . C 2 dng lnh lp vi s bc lp khng xc nh.
a. Lnh lp vi iu kin trc
* Dng lnh:
WHILE <iu kin> DO <Lnh>;
ngha:
Khi gp cu lnh ny, trc tin my s kim tra <iu kin>. Nu <iu kin> c gi
tr ng (TRUE) th <Lnh> c thc hin. Thc hin xong lnh ny my s quay li kim
tra <iu kin>, nu <iu kin> ng th tip tc thc hin <lnh>,cho n khi <iu kin>
sai th dng.
S :

<iu kin>

Sai

ng
<Lnh>
* V d
VD1: Mt ngi gi tit kim khng k hn vi s tin ban u l A ng. Hi sau bao
nhiu thng ngi thu c s tin l B ng, bit rng li sut l 1.8%?
Phn tch bi ton: ta bit rng gi tit kim khng k hn th s tin thu c sau mi
thng s bng s tin thng trc cng vi li ca thng . Nu gi S l s tin thu c
sau mi thng, t l s thng gi, ls l li sut th ta c:
Nu t=0 S0 =A
(gi 0 thng)
Nu t=1 S1 =S0+S0*ls
(gi 1 thng)
Nu t=2 S2 =S1+S1*ls
(gi 2 thng)

y chnh l quy lut thc hin vng lp tnh s tin thu c. Nh vy ta phi so
snh s tin thu c S sau mi thng vi s tin cn t c B: nu S t hoc vt B th
ta c kt lun ca bi ton. y cng l iu kin dng vng lp. Ta s dng mt bin m t
m s ln thc hin lp, cng chnh l s thng gi.
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Chng trnh c vit nh sau:

Program
Gui_tiet_kiem;
Const ls=0.018;
Var
A,B,S:real;
t:integer;
Begin
Write(Cho biet so tien gui ban dau: );
Readln(A);
Write(Cho biet so tien can dat: );
Readln(B);
S:=A;
t:=0;
WHILE S<B DO
Begin
S:=S+S*ls;
t:=t+1;
end;
Writeln(Ban can gui it nhat la ,t, thang);
Readln;
End.
VD2. Ta c th vit li chng trnh tnh tng S=1+2++n s dng lnh lp WHILE
DO nh sau:
Program
Tinh_tong1;
Var
i,n:integer;
S:real;
Begin
Write(Cho biet gia tri cua n: );
Readln(n);
S:=0;
i:=1;
While i<=n do
Begin
S:=S+i;
i:=i+1;
end;
Writeln(Tong tinh duoc la S= ,S:10:2);
End.
Nh vy ta c th dng lnh lp c s bc lp khng xc nh thay cho lnh lp c
s bc lp xc nh. Tuy nhin khi bin iu khin vng lp khng t ng thay i m
ta phi a n vo thn vng lp (bin i trong VD trn).
VD3. Tnh S=1 + 1/2 + 1/3 +...+1/n cho n khi 1/n<e (e l mt s rt b c nhp t bn
phm, n l mt s nguyn dng).
b. Lnh lp vi iu kin sau
* Dng lnh:
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REPEAT <Lnh> UNTIL <iu kin>;

ngha:
Khi gp cu lnh ny, trc tin my s cho thc hin <Lnh>, sau kim tra <iu
kin>. Nu <iu kin> cha tha mn th quay li thc hin <Lnh>. Thc hin xong lnh
ny my li kim tra <iu kin> qu trnh tip din n khi iu kin c tha mn th
dng.
S :
<Lnh>

<iu kin>

Tha mn

Cha tha

* V d:
mn
VD1. Ly li VD gi tit kim trn. By gi ta s vit li chng trnh s dng dng lnh
lp vi iu kin sau. Chng trnh ch cn thay i mt cht lnh lp.
Program
Gui_tiet_kiem;
Const ls=0.018;
Var
A,B,S:real;
t:integer;
Begin
Write(Cho biet so tien gui ban dau: );
Readln(A);
Write(Cho biet so tien can dat: );
Readln(B);
S:=A;
t:=0;
REPEAT
S:=S+S*ls;
t:=t+1;
UNTIL S>=B;
Writeln(Ban can gui it nhat la ,t, thang);
Readln;
End.
Ta thy rng trong phn thn ca vng lp cc lnh t gia REPEAT v UNTIL
khng cn s dng cu lnh phc hp beginend;
VD2. Lp chng trnh nhp vo t bn phm mt s nguyn bt k, m v in ra mn hnh
s ch s ca s nguyn .
b. Cc lu khi s dng cc lnh lp WHILE v REPEAT
Trong thn vng lp phi c t nht mt lnh lm thay i gi tr ca biu thc iu kin
nhm dng vng lp. Nu iu kin lun c tha mn th lnh c th ri vo vng lp v
tn.
1. Trong lnh lp vi iu kin trc WHILE th thn vng lp (sau t kha DO) phi
s dng cu lnh phc hp beginend; cn trong lnh lp vi iu kin sau th khng cn.
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2. Trong lnh lp vi iu kin trc, my lun kim tra iu kin trc khi thc hin
lnh, do nu iu kin sai ngay t u th lnh khng c thc hin ln no. Cn trong
lnh lp vi iu kin sau, my lun thc hin lnh mt ln ri mi kim tra iu kin, d
ban u iu kin c th tha mn. Nh rng trong lnh lp vi iu kin sau lnh c
quay li thc hin ch khi iu kin cha tha mn.
3. Cc lnh lp c th vit lng nhau
4. Ngi ta thng dng cc lnh lp c s bc lp khng xc nh quay vng
thc hin nhiu ln c mt cng vic no hoc c mt chng trnh, cho php to s
tng tc gia ngi s dng v my.

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CHNG 5: KIU D LIU C CU TRC

1. Kiu mng.
Mc d Pascal khng c mt nh ngha chnh xc cho mng song c th hiu Mng
l mt tp hp hu hn cc phn t, cc phn t ny c cng kiu d liu l nhng kiu
d liu c nh ngha trc trong Pascal. C hai kiu mng l kiu mng 1 chiu v
mng nhiu chiu. Trc ht ta xt kiu mng 1 chiu:
1.1 Khai bo mng
khai bo mt mng cn ch r ba yu t sau y:
Tn mng (vit theo quy nh v tn trong chng 1).
S lng phn t ca mng (khai bo ch s).
Kiu d liu chung ca cc phn t mng.
C hai cch khai bo mng: Khai bo trc tip, khai bo mng bng cch nh ngha
kiu mng thng qua t kho Type.
Khai bo trc tip.
Khai bo nh cc bin thng thng thng qua t kho Var vi c php sau:
Tn mng: Array[ch s mng] Of Kiu phn t mng
V d:
A: Array[1..5] Of Byte;
B: Array[A.. E] Of String[10];
Nhn xt:
a. Ch s mng khng nhng cho ta bit s phn t ca mng m cn cho ta bit s th t
ca tng phn t trong mng. Kiu d liu ca ch s mng ch c th l kiu n gin v c
th nhn mt trong cc kiu d liu sau y:
Kiu k t
Kiu tp con (Integer hoc Char)
Kiu do ngi lp trnh t nh ngha.
Kiu Boolean.
Vi mng 1 chiu ch s mng bao gm hai gi tr: gi tr u v gi tr cui, cc gi
tr ny vit cch nhau bi 2 du chm. Gi tr u phi nh hn gi tr cui, nu chng ta c
tnh cho gi tr u ln hn gi tr cui th Pascal s thng bo li:
Lower bound greater than upper bound
b. Nu kiu d liu ca ch s thuc kiu k t th cc k t phi c t trong cp du nhy
n .
c. Kiu ca ch s khng c l kiu Real hoc mt kiu c cu trc khc.
d. Kiu phn t mng c th l bt k kiu d liu no c nh ngha trong Pascal.
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Khai bo mng bng cch nh ngha kiu mng

- Pascal cho php ngi dng c th t nh ngha kiu d liu thng qua t kho Type. V
d:
Type
SN = Array[1..100] of Byte;
Var
A: SN;
Cch khai bo trn cho thy rng chng ta nh ngha kiu d liu mi l SN
(s nguyn), kiu ny l mt mng 100 phn t, mi phn t l mt s kiu Byte, cn A l
mt bin, bin ny ch nhn d liu kiu SN do A l mt bin mng. Chng ta khng th
gn gi tr trc tip cho bin A bi cc lnh:
Read(A) hoc A:=5;
M ch c th gn gi tr vo tng thnh phn ca bin.
V d 4.1:
Cho dy s a1, a2,an. Cc s ny u thuc kiu Byte, lp chng trnh tnh tng v
trung bnh cng ca dy s .
Gi s dy s cho khng vt qu 100 phn t. Chng ta nh ngha kiu d liu
mi l kiu so_nguyen, kiu ny l mt mng ca 100 phn t, mi phn t l mt kiu
Byte, sau khai bo bin mng A thuc kiu d liu ny. Bin Tong dng cha tng
cc s a1, a2,an phi chn kiu Longint phng tng l mt s rt ln.
Program Vidu;
User crt;
Type
So_nguyen = Array[1..100] of Byte;
Var
A: So_nguyen; i, n: Integer; Tong: Longint;
Begin
Clrscr;
Writeln(Nhap so phan tu cua mang:);
Tong:= 0;
Readln(n);
For i:=1 to n do
Begin
Writeln(A[, i, ]=); Readln(A[i]);
Tong:=Tong + A[i];
End;
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Writeln(Tong so phan tu cua day la: , Tong);

Writeln(Trung binh cong cua day la: , Tong/n:15:1);
Readln;
End.
Khai bo mng kt hp gn gi tr ban u.
Gi s mng A lc u cha cc gi tr -3, -2, -1, 1, 2, 3 chng ta c th khai bo
mng km theo vic gn gi tr ban u bng cch s dng t kho CONST nh sau:
CONST
A: array[1..6] of Integer = (-3, -2, -1, 1, 2, 3 );
V d 4.2:
Program Tongbp_Tich;
Use crt;
Const
A: array[1..6] of Integer = (-3, -2, -1, 1, 2, 3 );
Var
i: Byte; tongbp, tich: Integer;
begin
clrscr;
tongbp:=0; tich:=1;
for i:=1 to 6 do
begin
tongbp:=tongbp + a[i]*a[i];
tich:=tich * a[i];
end;
writeln(Tong binh phuong: ,tongbp);
writeln(Tich cac phan tu mang: ,tich);
readln;
end.
1.2 Truy nhp mng.
Truy nhp mng c hiu l vic gn gi tr cho cc phn t mng hoc vic c d
liu t mt phn t bt k no ca mng.
Pascal khng c lnh gn d liu cho ton mng cng mt lc m ch cho php gn
d liu vo tng phn t ca mng. Vic truy cp vo mng s thc hin thng qua tn bin
mng v ch s phn t ca mng.
V d 4.3:
To ra mng A gm n s thc, n<=100, nhp gi tr c th ca n v cc phn t mng
t bn phm.
Program Mang_so_thuc;
Uses crt;
Var
i, n: Byte;
A: Array[1..100] of real;
Begin
Clrscr;
Writeln(Nhap vao phan tu mang n:); readln(n);
Writeln(Nhap gia tri cho cac phan tu mang A:);
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For i:=1 to n do
Begin
Writeln(A[,i,]=); Readln(A[i]);
End;
End.
V d 4.4:
Tm phn t ln nht ca dy s nguyn n phn t (n<=100)
Program Max;
Uses crt;
Type
Mang= array[1..100] of integer;
Var
n, i, max, chiso, tg: integer;
A: Mang;
Begin
Clrscr;
Writeln(Nhap so phan tu cua mang: ); readln(n);
For i:=1 to n do
Begin
Writeln(Phan tu thu: ,i, = );
Readln(A[i]);
End;
Max:=A[1]; chiso:=1;
For i:=2 to n do
If A[i]>Max then
Begin
Max:=A[i];
Chiso:=i;
End;
Writeln(Gia tri cua phan tu Max:,max);
Writeln(Chi so cua phan tu max:,chiso);
Readln;
End.
V d 4.5:
Sp xp dy s nguyn n phn t, n<=100.
var a:array[1..100] of integer;
i,j,n,tg,jmin,tmp:integer;
begin
write('Nhap so phan tu cua day n=');readln(n);
for i:= 1 to n do
begin
write('a[',i,']=');readln(a[i]);
end;
{------------------Sap xep lua chon_SelectionSort---------for i:=1 to n-1 do
begin
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jmin:=i;
for j:=i+1 to n do
if a[j]<a[jmin] then jmin:=j;
if jmin<>i then
begin
tg:=a[i];a[i]:=a[jmin];a[jmin]:=tg;
end;
end;
{-------------Sap xep noi bot_BubblueSort----------------------for i:=2 to n do
for j:=n downto i do
if a[j-1]>a[j] then begin tg:=a[j-1];a[j-1]:=a[j];a[j]:=tg;end;
{-------------Sap xep chen_InsertionSort -------------------------------}
for i:=2 to n do
begin
tmp:=a[i];
j:=i-1;
while (j>0) and (a[j]>tmp) do
begin
a[j+1]:=a[j];
j:=j-1;
end;
a[j+1]:=tmp;
end;
{------------------------------------------------------------------------}
write('Day sau khi sap la:');
for i:=1 to n do write(a[i]:3);
readln;
end.
V d 4.5:
Lp chng trnh nhp vo mng m1, n phn t v m2 m phn t. Ghp hai mng m1
v m2 thnh mng m3, sp xp m3 theo th t tng dn v vit kt qu ra mn hnh.
Program ghepmang;
Uses crt;
Var
m1, m2: array[1..100] of real;
m3: array[1..100] of real;
n, m, i, j: integer; btg: real;
begin
clrscr;
writeln(Cho biet so phan tu cua mang m1 va m2); readln(n,m);
for i:=1 to n do
begin
writeln(m1[,i,]=); readln(m1[i]);
end;
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writeln;
for i:=1 to m do
begin
write(m2[,i,]=); readln(m2[i]);
end;
for i:=1 to n do m3[i]:=m1[i]; (*ni m1 vo m3*)
for j:=1 to m do m3[j+n]:=m2[j]; (*ni m2 vo m3*)
for i:=1 to n+m-1 do (*sp xp m3 theo chiu tng dn*)
for j:=i+1 to n+m do
if m3[i]>m3[j] then
begin
btg:=m3[j]; m3[j]:=m3[i]; m3[i]:=btg;
end;
writeln(Thu tu cua mang ghep m3 khi sap xep:);
for i:=1 to m+n do writeln(m3[i]:5:1)
readln;
end.
1.3 Mng nhiu chiu
Khi nim v mng nhiu chiu cng tng t nh khi nim v ma trn trong ton
hc.
1. C php:
Tenmang: Array [Chi _so_dau..Chi _so_cuoi] of kieu_phan_tu;
V d:
Type
Mang1 = Array[1.. 30, 1.. 50] of Integer;
Mang2 = Array[1.. 3, 0.. 2] of Real;
Var
A : Mang1;
B : Mang2;
Trong s phn t ca mng s thc B l 3 * 3 = 9 phn t, sp t trong b nh nh
sau:
B[1, 0] B[1, 1] B[1 ,2]
B[2, 0] B[2, 1] B[2 ,2]
B[3, 0] B[3, 1] B[3 ,2]
Ch : Mng hai chiu cn gi l ma trn. truy cp n phn t hng th i, ct
th j ca mng hai chiu B ta dng cch vit: B[i][j] hoc B[i, j].
V d: Nhp mt ma trn m hng, n ct t bn phm. Tnh v in ra mn hnh tng
ca mi ct v tng ca mi hng
Const mMax = 30, nMax = 30;
Type
Mang = Array[1.. mMax, 1.. nMax] of Real;
Var
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n, m, i, j : Integer;
sum : Real;
a : Mang;
Begin
Write( Ban muon nhap ma tran bao nhieu hang va cot ? );
Readln( m, n );
For i := 1 to m do
For j := 1 to n do
Begin
Write( ' PT thu [ ' , i , ' , , j, ] = ' );
Readln( a[ i, j ] );
End;
For j := 1 to n do
Begin
sum := 0;
For i := 1 to m do
Sum := sum + a[ i, j ];
Write( Tong cot , j , = , sum : 0 : 5 );
End;
For i := 1 to m do
Begin
sum := 0;
For j := 1 to n do
Sum := sum + a[ i, j ];
Write( Tong hang , i , = , sum : 0 : 5 );
End;
Readln;
End.
2. Kiu xu
2.1. Khai bo v cc php ton
Xu (string) l kiu d liu c cu trc dng x l cc chui k t. Kiu String c
nhiu im ging kiu d liu mng nhng c im khc nhau l: S k t trong bin kiu
xu c th thay i cn s phn t ca kiu mng lun c nh.
a. Khai bo:
Var Ten_bien: String[n]
Trong : n l s k t ti a c th c ca xu (n<=255) nu khng khai bo
th mc nh l 255 k t
V d:
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Var

HoTen: String[20]; {H tn c th cha ti a 20 k t }

St: String; {st c th cha ti a 255 k t}
ch ra k t th i ca St ta vit St[i], cc St[i] u c kiu Char.
V d: St:= ABCD; th lnh St[3]= C
Cu trc ca String: Trong b nh n chim s Byte bng s k t ti a,
cng vi mt byte u tin (ti v tr s[0]) cha k t m m thp phn ASCII ca k
t ny s cho bit xu c di bao nhiu.
V d : HoTen:= Nguyen Van Anh;
Khi , di xu ch l 14, mc d di cc i cho php l 20. Cu trc nh
sau:
0

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Chr(13) N g u y e n

9 1
0
V a n

1
1

1
2
A

1
3
n

1
4
h

1
5
*

1
6
*

1
7
*

1
8
*

1
9
*

20
*

K t (*) biu din k t khng xc nh

b. Nhp v in xu:
In k t dng Write(St)/Writeln(St)
c k t cho xu St vi di thc l s k t nhp vo t bn phm:
Readln(St). Nu nhn enter m khng nhp g th St l xu rng
c. Cc php ton trn xu:
Php gn: Bien:=Biu_thc
Biu_thc: Phi c t trong du nhy n nu l xu dng hng.
Php ni String: K hiu bng du +
V d: Turbo + Pascal=Turbo Pascal
Php so snh:
Khi so snh hai xu, cc k t ca hai xu c so snh tng cp mt t tri
qua phi theo gi tr trong bng m ASCII. Nu ging nhau th chuyn n k t tip
theo. Nu gp k t khc nhau th xem k t no trong bng m ASCII c v tr ln
hn th chui ln hn v ngc li. Hai chui ging nhau, chui no c di
thc ln hn th chui ln hn.
V d:
ABC = ABC c gi tr True.
ABC = AB c gi tr l False.
ABCD < ABED c gi tr True.
ABC > AD c gi tr False.
- Khong trng cng c xem l mt k t so snh.
2.2. Cc th tc v hm x l xu k t
a. Cc th tc:
Delete(St , Pos, Num): Dng xa khi xu St mt s Num k t bt u t v tr Pos.
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Trong :

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- St (String): Bin kiu String.

- Pos (Position): Bin kiu nguyn .
- Num (Number): Bin kiu nguyn
Nu St = ABCDEFG; th:
Delete(St, 2, 4); St = AFG.
Delete(St, 2, 10); St = A.
Delete(St, 9, 3); St = ABCDEFG.

Insert(St2, St1, Pos): Chn xu St2 vo xu St1 v tr Pos. Trng hp Pos vt

qu chiu di ca st1 th st2 s c ni ui vo st1.
V d: St:=ABCD th sau lnh Insert(TFG, St, 3) ta nhn c st:= ABTFGCD
Trong : - St2 v St1: Bin kiu String.
- Pos: Bin kiu nguyn.
Str(Value, St): Dng i gi tr s Value sang kiu xu ri gn cho St
Trong : - Value: L biu thc nguyn hay thc c nh dng in ra mn hnh
- St: Bin kiu String
V d: i:= 1234;
Str(i:5, St); {Ta c St= 1234 c 5 k t }
X:=123.4567890;
Str(x:10:5, St); {ta c St = 123.45678}
Val(St, Value, Code):
Trong : - St: Biu thc kiu String
- Var: L bin kiu nguyn hay thc
- Code: Bin kiu nguyn
Cng dng: i xu St thnh s v gn cho bin Value, Code l bin nguyn dng
pht hin li: Nu php bin i ng th Code= 0, nu sai do St khng biu din ng s
nguyn hay thc th Code s c gi tr bng v tr ca k t sai trong xu St.
V d 1: Gi s: St:= 234, i,e l 2 bin nguyn
Val(St, i, e); { cho ta i=234v e=0}
Nu st:= 21X th val(st, i , e); {Cho ta i khng xc nh v e=3, tc l k t th 3
gy li}
V d 2: Dng th tc Val c s nguyn t bn phm
Procedure InputInteger(Var i : Integer);
Var
St : String[6];
e : Integer;
Begin
Repeat
Readln(St); { Nhap vao xau so nguyen}
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Val(St, i, e);
If e < > 0 then
Writeln(#7, Loi nhap lieu ! );
Until e = 0;
End;
b. Cc hm:
Length(St):Cho ta di ca xu k t St. V d: vi St = ABCDEFG th
length(St)=7
Copy(St, Pos, Num): Tr v mt xu mi t xu St, hm bt u chp t v tr Pos v
chp Num k t. V d: St:= ABCDEF th lnh Copy (St, 3, 2) = CD v
Copy (St, 4, 10) = DEF
Trong : - St: Biu thc kiu xu k t
- Pos, Num : Biu thc kiu nguyn
*** Ch :
Nu Pos + Num > Length (St) th hm tr v cc k t trong xu St
Nu Pos > length(St) th hm Copy s tr v mt xu rng
Concat(St1, St2,..., Stn): Ghp xu St1,st2.....thnh mt xu theo th t cc i s
trong
hm
*** Ch :
S lng i ca hm Concat phi >=2
Nu tng s chiu di cc xu m ln hn 255 th my s bo li
C th dng php cng ghp cc xu.V d: St:= Concat(St1,St2 + N);
Pos(St1,St2):Tr v s nguyn biu din v tr u tin ca St1 gp trong xu St2.
Nu khng tm thy th Pos= 0.
Trong : St1, st2: l biu thc xu k t.
V d: Nu St:= ABCDEFGBCD th Pos(DE,st) = 4
c. Cc v d:
1. Vit chng trnh nhp vo t bn phm mt xu k t v in ra mn hnh xu k t
ngc tng ng. V d: nhp TRUONG DAI HOC CHU VAN AN, in ra mn hnh l NA
NAV UHC IAD GNOURT .
Program DaoChuoi;
Uses CRT;
Var
Cau : String[80];
i : Byte;
Begin
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Write( Nhap vao mot cau : );

Readln(Cau);
For i := Length(Cau) DownTo 1 do
Write(Cau[i]);
Readln;
End.
2. Hin th chui con trong chui m c nhp vo t bn phm, v tr v s k t hin th
cng c nhp t bn phm.
Program SubString;
Uses CRT;
Var
St : String;
Pos, Len : Byte;
Begin
Write( Nhap vao mot chuoi : );
Readln(St);
Write( Muon hien thi xau tu vi tri nao : );
Readln(Pos);
Write( Do dai xau ky tu con : );
Readln(Len);
Write( Xau ky tu con la : ,Copy(St, Pos, Len));
Readln;
End.
3. Vit hm chuyn xu k t thnh ch hoa hoc ch thng.
Function ToUpper(s : String) : String;
Var i : Byte;
Begin
For i := Length(s) do
s[i] := Upcase(s[i]);
ToUpper := s;
End;
(******************************)
Function ToLower(s : String) : String;
Var i : Byte;
Begin
For i := Length(s) do
If s[i] In ['A'..'Z'] then
s[i] := Chr(Ord(s[i]) + 32);
ToLower := s;
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End;
4. Lp chng trnh
1. c vo xu bt k
2. a xu ra mn hnh
3. c vo 1 k t bt k thng bo trn mn hnh s ln xut hin ca k t
PROGRAM demKT;
Var
S : String[255];
KT : Char;
i,dem:Integer;
BEGIN
Write('cho xau KT:');Readln(s);
Writeln(s);
Write('ki tu can tim:');Readln(KT);
For i:=1 To length(s) Do
If s[i]=KT Then dem:=dem+1;
If dem=0 Then Write('khong co ki tu',KT)
Else
Writeln('ki tu ',KT,' xuat hien ',dem,' lan');
Readln;
END.
4. Trong lp c n sinh vin (n<=100). Lp chng trnh
1. c n sinh vin v h tn sinh vin t bn phm
2. Ra mn hnh danh sch gm : TT
ho ten
3. Tm 1 sinh vin c g vo t bn phm, thng bo trn mn hnh c hay khng.
PROGRAM thamhoi;
Var
h:Array[1..100] Of String[25];
i,n:Integer;
ST:String[25];
B:Boolean;
BEGIN
Write('cho so sv:');Readln(n);
For i:=1 To n Do
Begin
Write('ten:');
Readln(h[i]);
End;
Writeln('DANH SACH LOP');
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For i:=1 To n Do
Writeln(i,' ',h[i]);
Write('Ban tim ai:');Readln(ST);
B:=false;
For i:=1 To n Do
If h[i]=ST Then b:=true;
If b Then Writeln('co ban ',ST)
Else Writeln('Dang tiec khong co ban ',ST);
Readln;
END.
3. Kiu bn ghi (Record)
3.1. Khi nim chung
- Bn ghi (Record) l mt cu trc bao gm nhiu thnh phn. Cc thnh phn c th thuc
cc kiu d liu khc nhau v lin quan ti nhau gi l cc trng (Field), mi trng u
c t tn.
V d: Bng im ca mt lp gm cc thng tin (trng): H tn, ngy sinh, im
ton, im l, im ha...
- Nu kiu d liu ca cc trng ging nhau, khi khai bo c th vit cch nhau bi du
phy.
3.2. Khai bo
TYPE
<Ten_Kieu> = RECORD
<Trng 1>: Kiu d liu
.........................................
<Trng n>: Kiu d liu
END;
Trong :
- <Ten_Kieu>: Kiu d liu bn ghi
- <Trng 1>,....,. <Trng n>: Cc trng d liu ca bn ghi
Tn ca <Ten_Kieu>, <Trng 1>,....,. <Trng n>: Phi tun theo quy tc t tn
V d: M t nhn s ca phng t chc ta dng cc trng: Hodem, Ten, Ngaysinh, Luong.
Type
NhanSu = Record
HoDem: String[20];
Ten: String[7];
NgaySinh: Date;
Luong: Real;
CoGiaDinh: Boolean;
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End;
Var
NV, NV1: NhanSu;
DS: Array[1..100] of NhanSu;
{Dan sach tren la kieu mang mo ta nhan su cua mot co quan c ti a 100 nhan
vien}
3.3. Truy nhp
- Khai bo bin: <bien_banghi>: <Ten_kieu>
V d:
ds: NhanSu;
- Truy nhp vo trng: <bien_banghi>.<Ten_truong>
V d:
ds. Hodem= Trn Th
- truy cp ngn gn v tit kim thi gian ta dng lnh With ... do
V d 1: Nhp l lch nhn vin ca mt c quan
..
Writeln( NHAP HO SO NHAN VIEN );
Write( So nhan vien tai co quan: );
Readln(SoNV);
For i:=1 to SoNV do
Begin
ClrScr;
Write( Ho dem: ); Readln(DS[i].HoDem);
Write( Ho dem: ); Readln(DS[i].Ten);
Write( Ngay sinh: / /);
GotoXY(14,3); Readln(DS[i].NgaySinh.Ngay);
GotoXY(17,3); Readln(DS[i].NgaySinh.Thang);
GotoXY(20,3); Readln(DS[i].NgaySinh.Nam);
Write( Luong: ); Readln(DS[i].Luong);
Write( Co gia dinh (Y/N) ?: ); Readln(GD);
If Upcase(GD) = Y then
DS[i].CoGiaDinh := True
Else
DS[i].CoGiaDinh := False;
End;
Readln;
End.

Ch :
- Cc bin Record cng kiu c th gn cho nhau. V d: NV:=NV1;
- C th so snh hai bin cng kiu;
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If NV=NV1 then write(Cung mot nhan vien);

Hoc:
If (NV.Hodem=NV2.Hodem) and (NV.Ten=NV2.Ten) then
Write(hai nhan vien trung ten);
- Khng c dng cc thao tc sau:
+) Th tc c v ghi cho c mt bin kiu Record nh Readln(NV) hoc Write(NV)
+) S dng php ton quan h nh: <, > , >= , <=. Nhng c th s dng cc php
ton <> hoc = cho cc bin Record cng kiu.
+) Cc php ton logic v s hc.
3.4. Lnh With...do
C php: WITH <Tn bin kiu record> DO <Cc lnh>
END;
Gii thch:
- <Tn bin kiu record >: c khai bo l bin kiu Record trn
- <Cc lnh>: Cc lnh x l cng vic, nu lnh cn ly ra tn trng th ch cn
vit tn trng cn ly m khng phi gi li bin.
V d: T v d 1 ta c th vit ngn gn nh sau:
Uses CRT;
Type
NhanSu = Record
HoDem: String[20];
Ten: String[7];
NgaySinh: Date;
Luong: Real;
CoGiaDinh: Boolean;
End;
Var
DS: Array[1..100] of NhanSu;
i, SoNV: Byte;
GD: Char;
Begin
ClrScr;
Writeln( NHAP HO SO NHAN VIEN );
Write( So nhan vien tai co quan: );
Readln(SoNV);
For i:=1 to SoNV do
With DS[i] do
Begin
ClrScr;
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Write( Ho dem: ); Readln(HoDem);

Write( Ho dem: ); Readln(Ten);
Write( Ngay sinh: / /);
With NgaySinh do
Begin
GotoXY(14,3); Readln(Ngay);
GotoXY(17,3); Readln(Thang);
GotoXY(20,3); Readln(Nam);
End;
Write( Luong: ); Readln(Luong);
Write( Co gia dinh (Y/N) ?: ); Readln(GD);
If Upcase(GD) = Y then
CoGiaDinh := True
Else
CoGiaDinh := False;
End;
Readln;
End.
Ch :
- Nu A, B cng kiu Record, nhng B l mt trng ca A ta c th vit:
With A do
With A, B do
With B do
Begin
Begin
....
.....
End;
End;
V d: on chng trnh v d 1 ta c th vit:
....
For i:=1 to SoNV do
With DS[i], NgaySinh do
Begin
ClrScr;
Write( Ho dem: ); Readln(HoDem);
Write( Ho dem: ); Readln(Ten);
Write( Ngay sinh: / /);
GotoXY(14,3); Readln(Ngay);
GotoXY(17,3); Readln(Thang);
GotoXY(20,3); Readln(Nam);
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Write( Luong: ); Readln(Luong);

Write( Co gia dinh (Y/N) ?: ); Readln(GD);
If Upcase(GD) = Y then
CoGiaDinh := True
Else
CoGiaDinh := False;
End;
.....
4. Kiu tp.
4.1. Khi nim.
- Tp d liu l mt dy cc phn t cng kiu c sp xp mt cch tun t.
- Tp d liu c ct gi b nh ngoi di mt tn no .
nh dng tp = ten_tep . Mo_rong (Trong ten_tep c di ti a 8 k t, phn
Mo_rong ti a 3 k t).
- Tp tp hp trong cc phn t c cng cu trc ging mng nhng khc mng l s
phn t ca tp cha c xc nh.
- Khi khai bo mt bin kiu tp th ng thi phi khai bo mt tp d liu c lu trn
thit b nh ngoi.
- Lu d liu nhp vo t bn phm cng kt qu x l c trong b nh RAM ra tp
dng nhiu ln. Cc kiu d liu hc ch hin th trn mn hnh v my in, sau khi tt
chng trnh th d liu nhp vo v x l u b mt.
- Pascal c 3 loi tp c s dng:
+) Tp c nh kiu
+) Tp vn bn
+) Tp khng nh kiu
- Tp c kiu: l tp m cc phn t ca n cng di v cng kiu d liu. Vi kiu tp
ny ta c th cng mt lc c d liu t tp ra hoc nhp d liu vo tp.
- Tp vn bn: Dng lu tr d liu di dng cc k t ca bng m ASCII, cc k t ny
c lu thnh tng dng, di ca cc dng c th khc nhau.
V d khi lu s 2003(kiu Word) vo tp vn bn Pascal cn 4 byte cho bn k t
ch khng phi 2 byte.
- Tp khng nh kiu: l tp khng cn quan tm n kiu d liu ghi trn tp. D liu ghi
vo tp khng cn chuyn i. Kiu d liu ca cc phn t trong bin kiu tp c th l bt
k tr kiu d liu chnh n.
4.2. Khai bo.
Tp c kiu c nh ngha sau t kho TYPE cn bin kiu tp c khai bo sau
t kho VAR.
a. Cch 1: nh ngha sau t kho TYPE vi t kho FILE OF
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Type
Ten_tep : KDL;
Bien_tep = FILE OF Ten_tep

V d:

Type

MSN = Array[1..100] of integer; {nh ngha mng s nguyn}

TSN = FILE OF MSN; {nh ngha tp TSN}
b. Cch 2: nh ngha trc tip
C php:
Var
Ten_tep: FILE OF KDL;
V d:
Var
Tep1:FILE OF Array[1..5] of String[80];
Trong : Tep1 l mt bin kiu tp, tp ny c 5 phn t, mi phn t l mt
chui c di ti a 80 k t.
4.3. Truy nhp vo tp
- Truy nhp tun t: p dng cho tp vn bn
- Truy nhp trc tip: p dng cho tp nh kiu
4.4. Tp vn bn.
4.4.1. Khai bo:
Var Bien_tep: text;
4.4.2. Truy nhp
Gm : - Nhp d liu vo tp
- Ghi d liu ra thit b nh ngoi
- c d liu c ra mn hnh, my in.
a. M tp ct gi:
Assign(bien_tep, ten_tep) ; (1)
Rewrite(bien_tep);
(2)
Trong :
(1) Lin kt bin tp vi mt tn tp s c ghi vo thit b nh ngoi
(2) To bin tp rng ghi d liu vo
- Bien_tep: l tn bin kiu tp c khai bo sau t kho Var
- ten_tep: Do ngi dng chn ghi d liu vo a (Theo quy nh ca Dos).
V d:
Assign(f,hoso.txt ); {Gn tn hoso.txt cho bin tp f}
Rewrite(f);
{M tp hoso.txt, tp cha c phn t no}
Sau khi m tp xong, tp s khng c phn t no, ca s ca tp s khng c gi tr
xc nh v n tr vo cui tp (EOF).
Ch :

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- Khi m tp, nu trn b nh ngoi(cng ng dn) c sn tn tp trng vi tn ca tp

c m th ni dung c s b mt.
- Ten_tep nu khng c ng dn th mc nh lu vo th mc hin thi C:\TP\BIN
b. Ghi gi tr vo tp
C php: Write(ten_tep, gia_tr1, gia_tri2,); (1)
Writeln(ten_tep, gia_tr1, gia_tri2,); (2)
Writeln(ten_tep);
(3)
Trong :
- gia_tr1, gia_tri2,: L cc gi tr cn ghi vo tp
- Lnh (1): Ghi cc gi tr vo bin ten_tep, cc gi tr c kiu d liu n gin: Nguyn,
thc, k t, chui, logic.Khng c du hiu v u dng, xung dng vo tp.
- Lnh (2): tng t lnh (1) nhng c thm du hiu v u dng v xung dng vo tp.Lnh (3): Ch thc hin a du hiu ht dng vo tp
V d 1: Ghi vo tp chucai.txt cc k t t a ti z:

Assign(F1, ChuCai.txt);
ReWrite(F1);
For ch:= a to z do
Write(F1, ch);
...
V d 2: Thc hin ghi vo tp Vanban.txt vi dng nh sau:
Chao cac ban den voi ngon ngu lap trinh Pascal
Truong Dai hoc Chu Van An
------------------------Var F: Text;
Begin
Assign(F,VanBan.txt);
Rewrite(F);
Writeln(F,Chao cac ban den voi ngon ngu lap trinh Pascal);
Writeln(F, Truong Dai hoc Chu Van An);
Writeln(F, ------------------------- );
Writeln(F);
Close(F);
End.
Ch :
- Mt tp cng c th c khai bo trong chng trnh con nhng phi c
t sau t kho Var.
- Kiu d liu c cu trc nh Array, set, Record, File khng lu d liu kiu
tp vn bn c.
- C th trnh by theo nh dng cc s trong Pascal.
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c. c d liu t mt tp c
i vi tp vn bn, ta khng th va ghi va c d liu cng mt lc. M sau khi
ghi d liu ta ng li sau c th c d liu t trong tp ra
C php: Assign(bien_tep, ten_tep) ;
Reset(bien_tep);
Sau lnh Reset, nu ten_tep tn ti, ca s tp tr vo con tr u tin ca tp, chng
trnh s sao chp cc phn t ca tp c tr sang bin m ca ca s. Nu ten_tep cha
tn ti trn a th my s bo li.
Lnh c d liu t tp ra:
Read(bien_tep, Var1, Var2,..., VarN);
Trong : Var1, Var2,..., VarN l cc bin c cng kiu thnh phn vi bien_tep.
c d liu t v tr hin thi v gn cho bin tng ng.
Read dng c gi tr ca tp gn cho cc bin.
Vic c phi tho mn phn t khng l phn t cui cng ca tp tc l EOF.
Kim tra bng c php:
If NOT EOF(f) then Read(f, X);
Hoc mun c cc phn t ca tp:
While NOT EOF(f) do
Begin
Read(f, X);
{X l cc bin X nu cn};

End;
V d:
1) Gi s tn ti tp nguyen.txt cha cc s kiu byte v c t nht 3 phn t. Thc hin
c ra gi tr th nht v th 3 ca tp v gn cho bin A, B tng ng.
Program DocSo;
Var A, B: Byte;
F: File Of Byte;
Begin
Assign(F,Nguyen.txt);
Reset(F);
Read(F,A); {Doc phan tu thu nhat cua tep cho bien A}
Read(F,B); {Doc phan tu thu 2 cua tep cho bien B}
Read(F,B); {Doc phan tu thu 3 cua tep cho bien B}
{ Luc nay B khong giua gia tri thu 2 nua}
Close(F);
End.
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V y l tp c cu trc tun t nn mun c phn t th 3 ta phi c qua phn t

th 2. Thay 3 lnh Read trn bng lnh: Read(F, A, B, B).
2) c tt c cc phn t ca tp cha s nguyn, ghi ra mn hnh th t cc s , cui
cng ghi ra s phn t ca tp.
Program DocTepSo;
Uses CRT;
Var i, SoPT: byte;
F: File Of Byte;
Begin
ClrScr;
Write('Tep can doc la gi ? (Tep so nguyen):');
assign(f,'e:\songuyen.txt');
rewrite(f);
for i:=1 to 100 do
write(f, i);
close(f);
{Mo tep de doc}
Assign(F, 'e:\songuyen.txt');
Reset(F);
SoPT:= 0;
While Not EOF(F) Do
Begin
clrscr;
Read(F,i); {doc mot phan tu cua tep ra bien i}
Write(i, '' );
Inc(SoPT); {dem so phan tu}
End;
Close(F);
Writeln;
Write('So phan tu cua tep ',FileName,' la ',SoPT);
Readln
End.
3) M tp Vanban.txt c v in ra mn hnh ni dung tp vn bn .
Program Doc_File_Text;
Uses CRT;
Var
F: Text;
Line:String[80];
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Begin
ClrScr;
Assign(F,VanBan.txt);
Reset(F);
While Not EOF(F) Do
Begin
Readln(F, Line);
Writeln(Line);
End;
Close(F);
Readln;
End.
d. M tp c thm dng:
C php: Assign(bien_tep, ten_tep) ;
Append(bien_tep);
M tp vn bn them dng. iu kin l ten_tep phai tn ti b nh ngoi. Khi
thm s thm vo cui ca tp
V d: Thm hai dng vo cui tp vn bn vanban.txt
Var F: Text;
Begin
Assign(F,Vanban.txt);
Append(F);
Writeln(F,Day la dong thu nhat them vao.);
Writeln(F,Day la dong thu hai them vao.);
Close(F);
End.
e. V d: Xt on chng trnh sau y
Var
F:text;
Hoten:string[25]; heso:real; socon:byte; t:string;
Begin
Hoten:=' Tran Van Tam'; Heso:=4.25; Socon:= 2;
Assign(f,'hoso.txt');
Rewrite(f);
Witeln(f,hoten,' ',heso:4:2,' ',socon);
Close(f);
Reset(f);
Readln(f,t);
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Writeln(t);
Readln;
End.
T r a n

V a n

T a m

4 .

2 5

2 CR LF

EOF

Chng trnh trn y c mt s iu cn phi lu nh sau:

1. Lnh ghi vo tp:
Writeln(f,hoten,' ',heso:4:2,' ',socon); s ghi tt c d liu trn mt dng.
Nhn vo hnh v d dng nhn thy rng chui Hoten chim 12 Bytes, Heso chim 5
Bytes v Socon chim 1 Byte. Trong thc t cc s kiu Real c di l 6 Bytes nhng v
chng ta yu cu Pascal ghi Heso di 4 k t trong c hai s l nn khi ghi vo tp,
Heso ch chim 4 Bytes. Gia cc bin c hai khong trng do tng chiu di ca dng l
19 Bytes.
Lnh c d liu t tp Readln(f,t) s c c dng hin thi vo bin t v lnh vit
Writeln(t) s a ra mn hnh c dng ngha l ta li nhn c ton b dng nh trn. Cn
phn bit rng d liu vit ra l cc k t ca bng m ch khng phi cc ch v s nh ta
nhp vo.
Trng hp bin t khng di cha ht c dng th s k t tha s b ct
b.
2. Nu chng ta vit lnh c:
Readln(f,Hoten,' ',Heso,' ',socon);
th my s bo li: Error 106 : Invalid Numeric Format
Ngha l khng th cng mt lc c t tp ra mn hnh c bin kiu k t v bin
kiu s.
3. Nu chng ta vit li lnh ghi d liu:
Witeln(f,hoten);
Writeln(f,heso:5:2,' ',socon);
ngha l ghi ring d liu kiu "ch" trn mt dng cn d liu kiu "s" trn dng
khc, gia cc s c mt khongcch, sau dng lnh c:
Readln(f,hoten);
Readln(f,heso, Socon);
th li nhn c thng bo li dng Readln(f,heso, Socon);
Error 106 : Invalid Numeric Format
ngha l cc s ghi vo tp trn cng mt dng th cng khng th c chng nh l
cc bin.
4. Chng ta sa li lnh ghi mt ln na
Witeln(f,hoten);
Writeln(f,heso:5:2);
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Writeln(f,socon);
Ri dng lnh c
Readln(f,Hoten);
Readln(f,Heso);
Readln(f,socon);
sau l lnh vit
Writeln(Hoten, ' ', Heso:5:2,' ',socon,' ' ,Heso*290000);
th chng trnh s khng bo li .
n y c th rt ra kt lun l:
* Mun ly li kiu ca d liu nhp vo tp vn bn th tt nht l mi bin phi
nhp trn mt dng, cng c th nhp nhiu bin cng kiu trn mt dng.
* Vi cc bin kiu s ghi ring r trn mt dng khi gi ra Pascal s t ng
chuyn i t dng k t thnh dng s v ta c th a cc s ny vo cc biu thc tnh
ton bnh thng. Trong v d trn chng ta tnh Lng bng cch ly Heso*290000.
* Trong b nh ca my d liu c ghi lin tc trong cc nh, phn bit cc
dng Pascal dng cp k t iu khin CR v LF. Ni cch khc d liu c lu tr lin
tc ch khng phi di dng bng, khi ly d liu ra chng ta cng ly lin tc nhng li
c th b tr trn mn hnh sao cho trc quan v d theo di.
4.5. Tp c kiu.
4.5.1. Khai bo:
4.5.2. Truy nhp:
a. Th tc Seek(bien_tep, i)
Truy nhp vo tp trc tip bng th tc Seek(bien_tep, i); vi i = 0, 1, 2n-1
V d 1: Tp c 50 dng, mun truy nhp vo dng th 50 ca tp th gi
Seek(bien_tep, 49)
V d 2: Gi s tp Nguyen.txt trn a hin hnh c 100 phn t t 1 n 100. Kim tra
xem phn t th 2 (tnh t 0) ca tp c bng 3 khng. Nu khng th sa li bng 3.
Var
i: Byte;
F: File Of Byte;
Answer: Char;
Begin
Assign(F,Nguyen.txt);
Reset(F);
Seek(F,2); { Dat cua so tep vao vi tri thu 3}
Read(F,i);
Writeln(i = ,i);
Write(Ban muon sua lai khong ?(C/K):);
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Readln(Answer);
If Answer In[c,C] Then
Begin
Seek(F,2);
Write( Ban muon sua lai bang bao nhieu ?);
Readln(i);
Write(F,i); { Thay doi gia tri cua phan tu hien tai }
End;
Close(F);
Readln
End.
b. Hm FileSize(FileVar):Hin th s phn t ca tp, hm nhn gi tr 0 khi tp rng
c. Hm FilePos(FileVar): V tr hin ti ca con tr tp, mun a con tr vo v tr cui
cng ca tp ta dng hm sau: Seek(FileVar, FileSize(FileVar));
d. Th tc Erase(FileVar): Dng xo tp trn a vi tn FileVar
V d:
...
Write(Cho biet ten tep can xoa:);
Readln(FileName);
Assign(F, FileName);
Erase(F);
...
Ch : Khng c xo teeph ang m
e. Th tc Rename(FileVar, Str): Thay i tn tp bng tn mi bng bin Str kiu String
V d: i tn tp File1.dat bng tp File2.dat
Asign(F,File1.dat);
Rename(F,File2.dat);
Ch :
- Tn mi phi khng trng vi tn tp a
- Khng c i tn tp ang m
4.6. Tp khng kiu.
4.6.1. Khai bo:
Var bien_tep: File;
4.6.2. Truy nhp:
a. M tp ghi - c
Ghi: Assign(bien_tep, ten_tep) ; (1)
Rewrite(bien_tep,n);
c: Assign(bien_tep, ten_tep) ; (1)
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Rewrite(bien_tep,n);
Trong : n l ln tnh theo Byte do ngi dng quy nh ghi(c) d liu ca tng
phn t. Ngm nh n= 128.
b. c tp khng nh kiu:
BlockRead(bien_tep, biennho, i, j);
c. Ghi tp khng nh kiu
BlockWrite(bien_tep, biennho, i);
d. Truy nhp: Dng th tc Seek(bien_tep,n)
4.7. Bi tp p dng
1. Lp chng trnh nhp im cho hc sinh v ghi kt qu vo tp c tn l DIEM.DAT.
Chng trnh nh ngha mt kiu d liu mi l Bangdiem (Kiu Record) vi cc trng:
Stt, Hoten, Diachi, Gioitinh, Lop, Toan, Ly, Hoa. Bin tp Ds thuc loi tp c kiu.
2. Xy dng mt chng trnh n gin qun l cng chc. D liu nhp vo bao gm
H tn, H s lng v S con. D liu xut ra mn hnh bao gm H tn, H s lng, S
con v Lng thng, Lng thng y tnh theo quy nh ca nh nc = heso*290000.
Chng trnh t ra hai kh nng la chn:
a. Nu tp d liu tn ti th nhp thm ngi
b. Nu tp cha c th m tp mi
Trong c hai trng hp u yu cu cho bit s ngi cn nhp.
D liu in ra di dng bng.
3. To tp vn bn t tn l Baitho.txt lu tr mt bi th c n dng, dng cui cng ghi
"Nam 2003"

CHNG 6: CHNG TRNH CON - HM V TH TC

1. Khi nim
Khi lp trnh, c nhng on chng trnh cn dng nhiu ln. trnh vic vit li
on ny, ta nn chuyn on chng trnh ny thnh mt chng trnh con v mi ln cn
thc hin cng vic th ta gi n thng qua tn.
- Chng trnh con l mt chng trnh Pascal hon chnh nm trong thn chng
trnh chnh.
- Trong thc t c rt nhiu hm v th tc c Pascal xy dng sn nh:
+) Sqrt(9): Hm tnh cn bc hai ca 9, trong 9 l tham s truyn vo cho hm, gi
tr tr ra l 3.
+) Sin(x), Cos(x), tang(x)..Trong x l tham s truyn vo cho cc hm
+) ClrScr: Th tc xo mn hnh, th tc ny khng c tham s truyn vo v khng
tr ra gi tr c th
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+) Write(x), Readln(x), ReadlnTh tc c v ghi d liu ra mn hnh, th tc c

tham s truyn vo l x, v khng tr ra gi tr c th.
* Nh vy ngoi nhng hm v th tc c sn trong Pascal, linh hot trong qu
trnh s dng ngi ta vit nhng chng trnh con nhm thc hin mt cng vic no
.
Cu trc ca chng trnh Pascal
PROGRAM tn_chng_trnh;
USES tn cc UNIT; (*khai bo cc n v chng trnh cn dng*)
LABEL
(*khai bo nhn*).
CONST
(*Khai bo hng*)
TYPE
(*nh ngha kiu d liu mi*)
VAR (*khai bo bin*)
FUNCTION
{Khai bo hm}
PROCEDURE
{Khai bo th tc}
BEGIN
(*bt u chng trnh chnh*)
..........
END.
2. Hm v th tc
2.1 Hm
- Khi nim:
Function (Hm) l mt loi chng trnh con cho kt qu l mt gi tr v hng.
Khi gi tn Function vi cc tham s hp l ta s nhn c cc gi tr, bi vy tn hm c
th a vo cc biu thc tnh ton nh l cc ton hng.
- Khai bo:
FUNCTION Tn_hm(TS 1: Kiu; TS2: Kiu..):Kiu;
Var Cc_bin_cc_b;
Begin
Cc lnh tnh ton;
..;
Tn_hm:=Gia_tr;
End;
- V d: Lp hm tnh c s chung ln nht (USCLN), sau dng hm ny tnh
USCLN v bi s chung nh nht (BSCNN) ca hai s c nhp t bn phm.
Var m, n, usc, bsc: Integer;
(************ Function USCLN *************)
Function USCLN(a, b : Integer): Integer;
Var r : Integer;
Begin
While b < > 0 do
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Begin
r := a mod b;
a := b;
b := r;
End; { a hien tai la USCLN cua a va b ban dau }
USCLN := a;
End;
(********* bat dau chuong trinh chinh *********)
Begin
Write( ' Nhap so thu nhat : ' );
Readln(m);
Write( ' Nhap so thu hai: ' );
Readln(n);
usc := USCLN(m, n);
bsc := m * n div USCLN(m, n);
Writeln( ' Uoc so chung lon nhat cua ', m, ' va ', n, ' la : ', usc);
Writeln( ' Boi so chung nho nhat cua ', m, ' va ', n, ' la :', bsc);
Readln;
End.
2.2. Th tc
- Khi nim:
Procedure (th tc) l mt chng trnh con khi thc hin khng cho ra kt qu l
mt gi tr, mi Procedure nhm thc hin mt nhm cng vic no ca chng trnh
chnh, v vy tn ca Procedure khng th a vo cc biu thc tnh ton. Mi chng
trnh con c th c son tho ring v chy th trc khi ghp vo thn chng trnh
chnh.
- Khai bo:
PROCEDURE Tn_th_tc(TS1, TS2:Kiu; Var TS3, TS4..: Kiu);
Var Cc_bin_cc_b;
Begin
Cc lnh;
..;
End;
- V d:
Xy dng chng trnh con: Nhp mng s nguyn n phn t, Tm gi tr ln nht, nh
nht, sp xp mng theo chiu tng dn.
PROGRAM TIM_TRI_CUC_DAI;
USES CRT;
TYPE dayso = array[1..n] of integer;
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(*nh ngha kiu d liu dayso l mng gm n phn t nguyn*)

VAR
a: dayso;
(*khai bo bin ca chng trnh chnh*)
n: integer;
{Khai bo th tc nhp s}
PROCEDURE nhapso(m:integer; var x:dayso);
(* Nhp dy s cn tm cc i vo mng mt chiu x[i]*)
Var i:integer;
(*khai bo bin ca chng trnh con*)
Begin
writeln('nhap day so gom 15 so kieu integer);
For i:=1 to m do
(* Gi tr m c truyn t chng trnh qua tham s thc n*).
Begin
write('PHAN TU a [,'i,']; realln (x[i]);
End;
End;
{Khai bo hm }
FUNCTION MAX(m: integer; b:dayso): integer;
(* Hm MAX dng tm s ln nht trong dy s nhp, kiu gi tr ca hm l
kiu integer *)
VAR
i,t: integer;
(* Bin ring ca hm MAX *)
Begin
t:=b[1]; (* Gn cho bin t gi tr ca phn t th nht ca mng b[i]*)
For i:=2 to m Do
if t<b [i] then t:=b[i];
Max:=t;
(* Gn gi tr cho chnh hm Max*)
End;
Function Sapxep(m:integer; var b: Dayso): Integer;
Var i, j, tg: integer;
Begin
For i:= 1 to m -1 do
For j:=I + 1 to m do
Begin
If b[i] > b[j] then
Begin
Tg : = b[i];
b[i]: = b[j];
b[j]: = tg;
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End;
End;
End;
BEGIN
(* Thn chng trnh chnh *)
Write('Tong so phan tu cua day so = ');
Readln(n);
NHAPSO(N, A);
Writeln (' So lon nhat trong day so da nhap = ', MAX(n,a):5);
Writeln(Ham sau khi duoc sap xep theo chieu tang dan la: , Sapxep(n,a));
Repeat until keypressed;
END.
Nhn xt: Trong v d trn c 3 chng trnh con
- CTC1: Th tc nhp s gm 2 tham s: Tham tr m l s phn t ca mng, tham
bin a l bin mng s nguyn, mng a s thay i trong chng trnh con bi tham s hnh
thc x[i].
- CTC2: Hm Max gm 2 tham s hnh thc, hm c gi v thng qua tn hm.
- CTC3: Hm Sapxep gm hai tham s hnh thc, sp xp dy s b theo chiu tng
dn. Hm ny c gi thng qua tn hm
Ch : Khi xy dng cc chng trnh con cn lu mt s im sau y:
1. Kiu ca tham s trong chng trnh con phi l kiu c nh ngha sn trong
Pasacl hoc c nh ngha trong phn u ca chng trnh chnh. Trong bn thn
chng trnh con khng th nh ngha kiu d liu mi.
2. Chng trnh con c cn tham s hay khng ? Nu chng trnh con ch s dng
cc bin c khai bo trong chng trnh chnh (bin ton cc) th khng cn tham s.
Nu chng trnh con thc hin nhiu cng vic trn cng mt loi i tng (ngha l li
gi chng trnh con c lp li nhiu ln trn cng mt nhm bin) th cn khai bo tham
s hnh thc.
3. Nu khng mun thay i gi tr ca cc tham s thc trong chng trnh chnh
khi truyn n cho chng trnh con th tham s hnh thc trong chng trnh con phi l
tham tr (trong phn khai bo kiu khng c t kho Var). Nu cn thay i gi tr ca tham
s trong chng trnh chnh v nhn li gi tr m chng trnh con x l th tham s
trong chng trnh con phi l tham bin (tn tham s phi t sau t kho Var.
Ch :
- Cc chng trnh con v nguyn tc cng bao gm cc phn khai bo bo nh i
vi mt chng trnh chnh, phn no khng cn thit th khng khai. iu khc nhau c
bn l thn chng trnh con nm gia hai t kho Begin v End; (sau End l du ";" ch
khng phi l du "." nh trong chng trnh chnh) ngoi ra chng trnh con cn, c th
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thm phn khai bo cc tham s hnh thc, cc tham s hnh thc c t trong du () v
vit ngay sau tn chng trnh con.
- Tn cc tham s cng kiu c t cch nhau bi du "," ri n kiu cc tham s
vit sau du ":" .
- Mt chng trnh con c th c gi n t chng trnh con khc vi iu kin
chng trnh con phi c khai bo trc hoc nu vit sau phi c t kho Forwark
S khc nhau c bn gia hm v th tc l :Hm l mt loi chng trnh con cho kt qu
l mt gi tr v hng, gi tr tr v thng qua tn hm, hm c th tham gia vo cc biu
thc tnh ton.
Th tc l mt loi chng trnh con khi thc hin khng cho ra kt qu l mt gi
tr, mi th tc nhm thc hin mt nhm cng vic no ca chng trnh chnh, v vy
tn ca th tc khng th a vo cc biu thc tnh ton.
3. Truyn tham s cho chng trnh con.
3.1 Cc khi nim.
Cc tham s c khai bo sau tn hm v tn th tc gi l cc tham s hnh thc
(hay cn gi l i). Trong th tc, cc tham s hnh thc c hai loi: Cc tham s c
khai bo sau t kho Var gi l tham s bin (tham bin), cc tham s khai bo khng c t
kho Var trc gi l tham s gi tr (tham tr). Trong hm ch c khai bo tham tr.
Trong th tc, cc tham s gi tr thng l cc bin cha d liu a vo th tc;
cc tham s bin l cc bin m kt qu tnh ton ca th tc s cha vo khi ra khi th
tc, ta c th dng chng tnh ton tip.
Tham s thc s l cc tham s dng trong li gi hm hay th tc. Danh sch cc
tham s thc s trong li gi hm phi tng ng vi danh sch cc tham s hnh thc trong
phn khai bo chng trnh con v chng phi tng ng v kiu.
- Bin ton cc, bin cc b:
- Bin ton cc l bin c khai bo u chng trnh chnh, tn ti trong sut
thi gian hot ng ca chng trnh. Ta c th s dng v lm thay i gi tr ca bin
ton cc nh cc cu lnh trong chng trnh chnh cng nh trong tt c chng trnh con
- Bin cc b l bin c khai bo u chng trnh con. Chng c cp pht b
nh khi chung trnh con c gi n v gii phng khi my thot khi chng trnh con
. Bin cc b c gi tr trong chng trnh con v tt c cc chng trnh con khc nm
trong chng trnh con ny.
- Nu tn bin cc b ca chng trnh con trng vi mt tn bin ton cc th my
s dng hai nh khc nhau lu tr hai bin, khi ra khi chng trnh con, bin cc b
t ng c xa.
3.2 Truyn tham s cho chng trnh con.
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- Khi gp mt li gi n chng trnh con, my s thc hin cc bc sau:

+) Cp pht b nh cho cc i, cc bin cc b
+) Truyn gi tr ca cc tham s thc s cho cc tham s gi tr tng ng, truyn
a ch cc tham s thc s ng vi tham s bin cho cc tham s bin ca th tc.
+) Thc hin lnh trong chng trnh con, trong khi thc hin chng trnh con, cc
bin cc b v cc tham s gi tr c th b bin i nhng khng nh hng n cc bin
bn ngoi. Tri li, mi thay i ca tham s bin trong chng trnh con s ko theo s
thay i ca tham s thc s tng ng. Do , khi thot khi chng trnh con, cc tham
s thc s ng vi tham s bin vn gi c gi tr mi nht do chng trnh con to ra.
- Thc hin xong cc lnh ca chng trnh con, my xa tt c cc i v cc bin
cc b v tr v lnh k sau ni gi n.
Vic ly kt qu thc hin chng trnh con nh sau: Nu l hm th ly kt qu
thng qua tn hm, nu l th tc th kt qu tham s thc s ng vi tham s bin. Khi
cn ly duy nht mt gi tr t chng trnh con th ta lp mt Function, khi cn ly t hai
gi tr tr ln t chng trnh con hoc khng ly gi tr no th ta phi lp Procedure.
V d 1: Cch s dng tham s gi tr v tham s bin:
Var a, b, c, d: Integer;
Procedure Chuyen(x, y:Integer; Var u, v: Integer);
Begin {T kho bt u th tc chuyn}
x:= 2*x;
y:=3*y;
u:=4*u;
v:=5*v;
End;
BEGIN {T kho bt u chng trnh chnh}
a:= 10;
b:=10;
c:=10;
d:=10;
Chuyen(a, b, c, d);
Write(a=, a ,b=, b , c=, c , d= , d);
Readln;
END.
Kt qu:
a=10, b=10, c=40, d=50
4. Tnh quy ca chng trnh con:

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Trong mt chng trnh con c th c li gi ti chnh tn chng trnh con . Tnh

cht ny c gi l tnh qui ca chng trnh con. V d kinh in nghin cu tnh
quy l php tnh giai tha.
5! = 1*2*3*4*5
Tng qut n! = 1*2*3*.....*(n-2)*(n-1)*n
c bit nu n = 0 th 0! = 1
C th d dng suy ra rng:
n! = (n-1)!*n t tnh cht trn ta lp chng trnh tnh n!
PROGRAM GIAITHUA;
Uses crt;
Var n: integer;
FUNCTION GT(M: integr): integer; (* Hm GT tnh giai tha ca n*)
Begin
if m=0 then GT:=1 else GT:= m*GT(m-1); (*Gi qui ca GT *)
End;
{Bt u chng trnh chnh}
BEGIN
CLRSCR;
WRITE ('TINH GIAI THUA VOI n = '); Readln (n) (*Dc gi tr n*)
write(Giai thua cua ,n, = GT(n));
(* Vit gi tr hm GT *)
repeat until keypressed;
End.
Ch :
1. Hm GT c xy dng tnh giai tha vi tham s hnh thc m, kiu ca m l
kiu Integer. Gi tr m sau ny s c thay th bng tham s thc n qua li gi GT(n) trong
chng trnh chnh.
2. Khi nh ngha kiu ca GT l Integer th n ch c chn nh hn 8 v 8! = 40320
vt qu gi tr m Pascal c th x l (32767). c th tnh giai tha vi n>=8 ta phi
nh ngha function GT c kiu Real, khi lnh vit gi tr ca giai tha phi l vit s
thc vi phn l bng 0, v d:
Write (GT(n):12:0);
3. Vic tnh ton c th s dng php quy c thc hin nh sau:
Khi c lnh gi kiu quy my s s dng b nh kiu LIFO (Last In - First Out )
l b nh kiu xp chng. d hnh dung ta xt vic tnh 3!

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FUNCTION GT (n) vi n = 3 c lnh gn GT(3): = 3*GT(2), n y my s ghi vo

LIFO cc d liu c lin quan n vic tnh GT(3) sau tip tc tnh GT(2). Vic tnh
GT(2) li lin quan n tnh GT(1) theo cng thc quy nu, my s ghi tip cc d
liu phc v vic tnh GT (2) vo LIFO v chuyn sang tnh GT (1). Theo cng thc quy
GT (1): = 1*GT(0), gi tr GT (0) = 1 theo nh ngha giai tha, do GT(1) = 1. n y
din ra qu trnh tnh ngc t Gt(1) my tnh ra GT(2), t GT(2) tnh ra GT(3).
4. Qu trnh tnh ton theo thut ton quy i hi ngi lp trnh phi hiu cn k
vn v phi c mt t duy logic sng sa, v vy nu s dng cc vng lp c th gii
c bi ton th nn dng vng lp. Tr trng hp bt buc phi gii bi ton khng c
tnh lp hoc bi ton c kh nng truy hi.
V d 1 : Lp chng trnh tm c s chung ln nht ca hai s nguyn n, m. c
s chung ln nht ca hai s n v m tnh theo cng thc :
n nu m = 0
USC(n,m)
=
USC(m, phn d ca n/m ) nu m <> 0
V d n= 4, m=8
USC(4,8) = USC(8, 4) = USC(4,0) = 4
Chng trnh c xy dng nh sau:
Program timUSC ;
Uses crt;
Var
n,m : word;
Lam: Char;
FUNCTION USC(a,b:word): word;
Begin
If b=0 then USC := a Else USC := USC(b,a mod b);
End;
BEGIN
Repeat
clrscr;
Textcolor(5); Textbackground(White);
Write(' Hay cho hai so "n" va "m" can tim uoc so chung ');
Readln(n,m);
Writeln(' Uoc so chung lon nhat cua hai so ',n,' va ',m, ' la ',USC(n,m):5);
Writeln;
Write('Tim tiep hay thoi ? C/K '); read(lam);
Until Upcase(lam)='K';
END.
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5. n v chng trnh (Unit)

Khi xy dng mt chng trnh ln chng ta c th nhm mt hoc mt s chng
trnh con cng vi cc khai bo kiu, bin, d liu thnh mt n v chng trnh. Cc n
v chng trnh c lu tr trong tp ring v c gi ra s dng bi lnh uses. Nu
chng ta s dng trnh bin dch COMPILE dch cc chng trnh ngun sang dng m
my th chng trnh chnh s c ui l .exe cn n v chng trnh s c ui l .TPU.
Turbo Pascal 7.0 thit k sn mt s n v chng trnh thng dng nh: SYSTEM,
GRAPH, DOS, CRT, PRINTER, OVERLAY, MEMORY, VIEWS, DIALOGS,
DRIVERS,..... cc n v ny c gi l n v chun v c lu tr trong tp
TURBO.TPL . Ngoi ra Turbo Pascal 7.0 cn mt s n v chng trnh c lp trong
th mc nh GRAPH.TPU, BOLD.CHR, EGAVGA.BGI....
tm hiu mt n v chun cha nhng th tc g hoc lm cng vic g c th s
dng mt phn mm son tho vn bn bt k (Bked, nc....) truy nhp vo th mc con
DOS trong th mc chng trnh Turbo Pascal 7.0, k gi cc tp c tn tng ng (ui
tp l .INT) ra mn hnh xem. Mi chng trnh con cha trong cc n v chun u c
li gii thch km theo kiu cc tham s phi khai bo ngi lp trnh tin tham kho.

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TI LIU THAM KHO

1, Gio trnh PASCAL, TS. Dng Xun Thnh, NXB Giao thng vn ti, 2004.
2, Gio trnh Tin hc i cng, TS. Dng Xun Thnh, NXB Giao thng vn ti, 2004
3, Nhp mn tin hc, ThS. Th M, NXB i hc Nng nghip I H Ni.
4, Gio trnh Pascal cn bn

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