Migration: An Anthropological Perspective With Special References To North Bengal, India

Migration: An Anthropological Perspective with Special References to North Bengal, India
By
ASHOK DAS GUPTA
International E Publication
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Migration: An Anthropological Perspective with Special References to North Bengal, India
By
ASHOK DAS GUPTA
FISCA, UGC FELLOW, DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF NORTH BENGAL PO. NORTH BENGAL UNIVERSITY, RAJA RAMMOHUNPUR, SILIGURI, DT. DARJEELNG, WEST BENGAL, INDIA 734 004 Email ID: nbu_ashokanthro@rediffmail.com, ashok.dasgupta@yahoo.com
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Preface Anthropology is a holistic study of mankind with both social-cultural and biological endowments. If we follow more or less scientific approach, we should study the ecosystem, the available biodiversity, mode of exploitation of this nature with or without feedback, mode of production, division of labour, socio-economic institution and politico-religious organization. But there are many more information traits that could be understood only in terms of realization- experiencing the folk life, unwritten books of existing cultures and prehistorical data, decoding the symbols and realizing the cognate. We have deal with local history and time line also. We could see this with social, economic, political and religious perceptions in accordance to time line. But how be this illustrated? Moving away from the scientific efforts in order to understand the historicity, anthropologists should prefer teleological view of history with progressivist spirit and moral certainty as well as consider both the space and time scales to understand culture and cognate of the entire social system. We can follow on the table A. Table A: Pre-Agrarian, Agrarian and post-agrarian parameters addressing mode of production, socio-economic, socio-political and socio-religious issues Parameter Mode of Production PrepreAgrarian agrarian/agr arian Socio-economic issues Human resource, forest produces and minerals, beginning of agriculture Agriculture and trade; use of Gold Socio-political issues Pre-Vedic and often non-Brahminical Socio-religious issues Racism, bloodsheds and fertility cults following animism Brahmanism and its alternative in form of Buddhism (contemporary to Jainism and Judaism) Puranic versions and their alternatives in form of Vaishnavism, Christianity, Islam and again
Agrarian
Mostly agrarian
Brahminical, Pre-Vedic Aryans, Little republics in sub-Himalayas and Pakistan-Afghanistan regions, Aryan innovations, influence of Buddhism and Jainism over the state Post-Vedic and postIranian, innovations made by Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians, IndoParthians, system of Satrapas, Kushans leading to establishment of Shahi
PostAgrarian
Industrial
Post-agricultural scenario, Industrial revolution, further ramification in the cognate of Gold
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and Shahanshai concepts among the South Asians; continuation of Shahi throughout Buddhist, Hindu and Islamic timelines; formation of Kushan Shahi, Kabul Shahi, Rajput Shahi, Deccan Shahi (for example, Hindu Pad Padshahi of the Marathas), TurkAfghan Shahi under Delhi Sultanate, Mughal Padshahi, Lucknow Shahi and various Nabobs, Gorkha (or Gurkha) Shahi of Nepal; marginalization of nonShahis and their gradual incorporation in the manner of subShahis; Indian colonies in South East Asia; magical-Buddhist-Arab nexus, Crusade between Arabs and Holey Roman Empire, breakdown of Byzantium followed by Russo-Ottoman warfare; Colonialism with transformation of magical domains into Christianity and various changes in Arab and Buddhist worlds; World Wars and beginning of postColonial period with stages like pre-Russian, with Russian and postRussian Indian situations; ArabInternational Science Congress Association iv
Christianity with widespread impact
Christian-Buddhist nexus with various modifications still valid; persistence of Shahi in mainland and sub-Shahis in the peripheral zones; postUSSR period characterized by CIS, new oil and gas pipelines, Central Asian Turkic nations, European Union and united Germany, PPP model, global market economy and recessions, war against terrorism, economic expansion of China, ASEAN and BRICS, SAARC in South Asia, ethnic-minorityregional sentiments in Indian subcontinent, Babri mosque demolition and subaltern polity, undemocratic sentiments, etc. The Book is a further approach to search in relevance of the above model of 3 4 mentioned in able-A from historical perspective where migration is playing an important role. Here, three case studies have also been incorporated from North Bengal region of west Bengal state of India, South Asia. North Bengal is sub-Himalayan territory and at the same time a typical cross-border region surrounded by Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet (now in China), Sikkim (now in India), Bangladesh and North East India way towards South East Asia, Indo-Malaya and Tibeto-Burmese plateau. A series of books and articles has also been prescribed for further reading with future task on cultural values effecting the process of migration and vice versa.
Ashok Das Gupta

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Table of Content
Page No. 1 71 81 105 130
Migration in South Asia with Special Reference to North Bengal, India Why to Know about Gandhi in Response to (Tribal) Movements in South Asia Factors and Trends of Social Change of a Migrated Tribal Community in North Bengal Torsa River and Ontology of Toto Primitive Tribal Group: Line of Optimism Geo-political Importance of North Bengal with special references to Bidhannagar pocket of Siliguri Sub-division and Mekhliganj borderland of Cooch Behar: Impact of Globalization Further Reading Future Task About the Author
157 164 166
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Migration in South Asia with Special Reference to North Bengal, India

Migration
Shift from one place to another in a general way is treated as migration. Migration may take place on individual basis or at community level. It might be temporary or permanent. It may occur at a small scale or in a huge parameter. It may also be seasonal. Migration may be compelled due to any pressure or as a cause of self-reliance. Those who migrate are treated as migrated. Migration might be a continuous process and at that case we say: community is migrating. Migration is a common feature for living beings. Every living creature on earth thus migrate and if not so, it shows movement but never be in an actual static mode for its whole life cycle. Animals and other fauna in ecosystem migrate. Spores and seeds of plants also shift from place to place. Microorganisms spread to another place and often cause diseases and epidemics. From a biological point of view, with migration, genes are flowing from one to another gene pool causing change in allelic frequencies in a specific ecosystem. Presence of huge number of alleles or genes in a very small population of a restricted area results into genetic drift. In this way, we can see change in genetic (allelic) frequencies of a population. Ultimately, new verities of a species may develop. Varieties occur due to mutation, genetic recombination (crossing over of non-homologous chromosomes in a heterozygous condition) and linkage. Varieties only become permanent, when they occur in gametes or sex cells; altered genome has to be successfully inherited to next filial generation through successive processes of fertilization, zygote formation, embryosis and successful birth of fetus. New verities may undergo positive natural selection or not. Varieties can be developed artificially by hybridization process. Variety migrated to a place may form hybrid after mating with local variety. Or the migrated variety can prefer inbreeding or assertive mating, which could result into expression of recessive lethal alleles of a gene. New hybrids may undergo positive natural selection or not. Inbreeds generally face negative natural selection.
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Vogel and Motulsky (1997) have discussed the factors like migration and gene flow, founder effect and genetic drift as well as natural selection: these factors reason behind genetic variations and origin of (new) varieties or hybrids. Harrison et.al. (1988) have cited the fact: the collective unit of evolution is the population and it is in populations that all the forces we have considered operate (p.326). Populations have variations and produce new varieties that adapt and finally promote evolution. The (new) variety or hybrid would try to acclimatize as well as undergo polymorphism and adaptation. This continuous but lengthy process would lead us to macro-evolution. Mourant et.al. (1976) have focused on distribution of different human varieties (or races) on the basis of blood groups and polymorphic traits. Mourant et.al. (1978) have treated human blood groups as genetic markers and showed human variations on the basis of distribution of diseases. There are variations that are reasoned by numerous genes and alleles (not calculated yet) in addition to environmental factors (quantitative genetics), for example human stature. According to Cummins and Midlo (1943), dermatoglyphics is such a character; however it is outside any environmental impact. Holt (1968) also supported this. Variations in anthropometric and morphological traits are also are basically part of qualitative genetics. Under the domain of biological anthropology, such variations are included together with various known genetic markers and polymorphic traits. Biological anthropologists with the help of genetic markers, polymorphic traits, complex traits and environmental factors, anthropometric and morphological traits try to understand the ethnic and geographic variations of human species. Anthropometric measurements and genetic analyses of fossil remains of historic and prehistoric periods, archaic human and human ancestors are crucial to imagine evolution and ways of migration in past.
Discussion
The population of India and other South Asian countries is distributed into so many ethnic, caste, religious and linguistic groups that are not entirely independent; an individual should belong to two or more of these groups. People of different groups admix but not for all the time. They staying side by side for several hundreds to thousands of years often try to retain their separate entities by practicing endogamy. Walter and Bhasin (2001) have tried to analyze trends in genetic variations, occurrence of varieties or hybrids, polymorphism,
adaptations and micro-evolutions in South Asia including India. They have viewed the entire issue in respect to natural regions, climatic factors, climatic regions, political division of India, ethnic groups, traditional occupations and linguistic groups. They have highlighted history and pre-history of South Asia and discussed trends of migration. They have even mentioned cultural markers, such as pottery. They have briefly mentioned about racial classifications of the South Asian peoples (pp 3-36). Conroy (1997) has stated that throughout the last two million years, evolution of Australopithecus into Homo was not just a biological process but a bio-cultural one. Australopithecus species were categorized into robust and gracile forms. Australopithecus afarensis of gracile type evoluted and became the Early Homo (like Homo habilis and Homo rudolphensis). Early Homo forms were followed by several forms of Homo erectus. Earlier ape fossils like that of Ramapithecus and Proconsule have been found outside Africa. But fossils of Australopithecus and Early Homo were constrained within specific locations of Africa. Olduvai Gorge of Kenya was so important showing Villafranchian fauna throughout different pluvial and interpluvial stages of the Old Stone Age. Homo erectus fossils rather have been found outside Africa, such as in Modjokerto of Java, Indonesia and Zoukoutien of China (Java Man and Peking Man respectively). Homo erectus fossils were also there in Europe but not in too good conditions. It is assumed from fossil remains that probably cannibalism was practiced. Eurasia at that time was passing through glacial and inter-glacial stages and tools were basically of early or old Paleolithic period. Archaic human or Homo sapiens sapiens originated in Africa and then moved throughout the globe. They simultaneously differentiated into many varieties that gave rise to modern races. Another contemporary hominid form to archaic human was Homo sapiens neanderthalensis or Neanderthal Man that in Europe got extinct at around 30,000 years back. Rhodesian Man of southern Africa showed anatomical similarities with Neanderthal Man and they also were extinct. Neanderthal Man was probably originated from Homo hidelbergensis that was an advanced form of Homo erectus in Europe. However, it is mostly believed that modern man was of the same origin and that is from Africa and thereafter from Near East spread throughout the globe. These people in Holocene developed domestication of plants and animals and invented Neolithic culture. Human is the only creature on earth which belongs to a society with culture. Human in this long course, has innovated so many techniques and by applying these techniques produced so many tools. These techniques acquired by human beings are the result of their unintentional and organized experimentations followed by trial and error method. Those techniques and innovations are kept inside the mind as knowledge. They communicate with one another to share their knowledge traits and transmit to the next generations through the teaching and learning methods. To make those information and knowledge traits long lasted, they have mixed them up with their belief, values, norms and customstogether these things are nothing but culture. They make the law. They documented the information in forms like sign, symbol, art and script and in order to express used vocabulary, word, speech and language. Society with no script has to depend more on gesture, behavior and personality. They use their culture as a book and the only book. Their culture can use so many performances and be expressed through folk song, folk
music, folk art, folk myth, folk lore, fairy tale, legends, epics, folk rhyme, folk riddle, folk games, folk religious rituals, folk subsistent economy, folk polity, folkways, folk norms and values, folk customs, folk taboos, folk prohibition, folk education, ethno-medicine, folk proverbs, folk material culture and all other aspects of folk life. In a particular ecosystem, a group of people with community sentiments utilises the resources there to fulfill their psycho-biological needs and according to their organizations and institutions. In doing so, they build up a World View in their mind. They also classify themselves in gender and age groups and then various types of divisions of labour from simple to complex forms; hierarchical and quasi-egalitarian. People had been primarily nomads and semi-nomads before they learnt how to domesticate plants and animals, utilize seasonal cycle and initiate permanent village life. Skill of writing actually helps in good quality of documentation and with freedom in mind people are able to think off new things as never before and create Civilization. People indulged into trade and various trade routes were established. Trade brought in and out people from place to place. On the other hand villages became village clusters, big settlements, sub-centers and centers, urban points and state. Some people remained pre-state and few Nation-State. Many others considered state machinery welfare and another group unjustified. People had property concepts of both individual and community types. So, people initiated new types of migration: village to village, village to urban centers, state to state, settlement to resource sectors, to the mines and forests, to new river valleys and fertile plains, to new grazing lands, to new islands and isles and so forth. People became travelers, strangers, monks, sailors, adventurers, treasure hunters and enslaved other groups in order to supply human resources. Various types of stratifications have evolved: age group, gender, slavery, estate, caste, class, ethnicity of various types, race, nationality, regionalism and locality, occupation, settlement and ecosystem. Among so many ethnic features, language and religion are the two most important features. So many ecosystems, so many way of living, so many (traditional) knowledge systems and so many cultures promote a multicultural situation. Migration may happen from one culture area to another: cultural diffusion, cultural conflict and acculturation through culture contact may arise. Cultural diversity has eventually become the reason behind multiculturalism. Migration is basically of two types: in-migration and out-migration. This is highly relativistic. Migration to my place from another place is in migration of a person or community in my view and the opposite process would be outmigration. We-feeling and they-feeling can be visualized in these two types of migration. Migration from one country to another is immigration. When immigration takes place due to certain political or other pressure, then it is called emigration. Those who immigrate are immigrants. Those who emigrate are the emigrants. Emigration is a global phenomenon that could include more than two countries. The word emigration comes out of the French term migr which was used to indicate those persons or families who left France during French Revolution. This term is generally associated with war, civil war, refugee, war victim, state-less people and such persons suffering from identity crisis in other country where they have taken the shelter. Emigration is not a non-biased or secular term. It is related to political shelter in another country. An emigrant can get the status of immigrant, when he or she got legal permission to stay in the new country. Emigration has no time limit: it may be for a shorter period or for thousands of years. Emigrants can move back to their motherland when the war is over. That process would also be political. Migration may also seem like innovation and successive innovations. Behind migration or
immigration, there may be so many reasons: economic, educational, marriage, trade, job opportunity, army deployment, search for a stress-free life, resources, better quality of living and such expectations. We know about exodus when the Jew left Egypt and established in Near East. There they formed a country in the name of Israel. People from time to time left their old place in search of new habitat where they could stay with new set of ideas. Transformation and Renaissance might be motivational forces behind such huge type of migration when the set of people used to think that they had no need of the past. Socio-cultural, ideationaland structural change within a closed or fixed social system could facilitate only status mobility but not the transformation. People should think to which cognition they actually belong: human resource, Gold and mines, cattle, crop, preagricultural, agricultural, post-agricultural, kind, cash, barter and reciprocity, credit and what else. Are they pre-state, pro-state, anti-state, Nation-State, state or extra-state! whether they belong to micro-financing, macro-economy, global market, transnational trade, Nationalized economy, mixed economy of trade and production, of micro and macro economy, or of public and private, closed, semi-closed, liberal, El Dorado, Roman Gold, Black Gold, Shrine Gold, African Gold, Gold of Buddhist World, Jewelry, Treasure Hunters and so forth. Should they migrate through land or water? Do they believe in Cannibalism as Law of the Sea or not! Do they mummify the dead or burry it or perform cremation of the corps? What are their Rites-de-Passage? Do they believe in nature, soul, spirit, ghost, angel, genie, magic and poison? Do they believe in agriculture? Bhasin and Walter (2001) stated that in anthropology there are two schools of thought on the origin of man and major racers- the polycentric and the monocentric schools. The polycentric theory (Franz Weidenreich, USA) claims that modern man evolved in several regions relatively independent of one another; people in each region have been originated from their ancestral forms. Ultimately, they overall give rise to major races: Europoid, Negroid, Australoid, Mongoloid, etc. The monocentric theory rather supports the common origin of modern man. Scholars like Henri-Victor Vallois and G. Olivier in France, Francil Howell in USA, Kenneth Okaley in Britain and Vsevolod P. Yakimov in Russia (formerly USSR). The archaic Homo sapiens did not possess clearly distinguished traits of any of the modern races. The races only evolved in course of time due to migration of human groups to various geographies and ecosystems as well as a result of acclimatization, polymorphism and adaptation. Nei and Roychoudhury (1982) stated that divergence between Negroid and Caucasoid-Mongoloid groups took place about 110,00034,000 years ago; divergence between the Caucasoid and Mongoloid groups occurred around 41000 5,000 years ago (contemporary to Classic Neanderthals). Long et.al. (1990) have discussed the entire issue in an elaborate manner. They have opined that over a million years back Homo erectus entered from Africa to Asia as we can find their fossils in China as well as Java; those earlier forms probably reached into pockets of Europe from southwest Asia. Then a group from archaic human beings of Africa entered into Asia around 0.1 million years ago. Then Homo sapiens of Africa entered into Asia from Africa around 100 thousand years back and differentiated gradually into various races. Two major races were Caucasoid and Mongoloid apart from Australoids. Had the Australoid group performed as the common Caucasoid-Mongoloid form before it was diverged into two basic types around 40,000 ybp gradually leading into present-day
Caucasoid and Mongoloid races? (Or) Was the Australoid group differentiated from that common form at around 65,000 ybp? Was the Australoids truly an archaic form of Caucasoid peoples? Overlap of Australoids and Mongoloids is also interesting as present in South East Asia. Presence of Negrito racial elements in the same South East Asia and Melanesia (i.e., outside Africa) is of great query. Mountain et.al. (1995) stated that Homo sapiens underwent two major expansions:
Table1: First and Second Expansions of Homo sapiens First Expansion Second expansion within Africa outside Africa; occurred in or close to Indian subcontinent 100 thousand years back 65 thousand years back Archaic Homo sapiens developed into Anatomically modern human (AMH) Homo Negrito racial elements with time in Africa sapiens gradually developed into and other branch moved out of Africa Australoid, Caucasoid and Mongoloid races Associated with evolution of symbolic Austric language speaking group primarily; language developed Dravidian, Sino-Tibetan and Indo-European language groups with time !Kung, Pygmy and other Africans confined The complex form in Asia was progenitor within Africa as Negrito racial elements; of Australoids found in New Guinea and whereas the other complex form migrated Australia, Proto-Australoids in India and into Asia and underwent divergences and Mongoloids of Far East, Caucasoids of differentiations Eurasia and other Asian types (such as in Indonesia).
Ballinger et.al. (1992) and Bhasin and Walter (2001: 3) however opined that the second expansion of Homo sapiens outside Africa around 65,000 ybp was from southern China (instead of India or nearby area). Mourant (1983) believed that Caucasoid-Mongoloid divergence happened in Asia and large number of Caucasoid people moved into western parts of Asia and Europe where they replaced the Neanderthals. They simultaneously moved into the Mediterranean region including North Africa where presently we found Mediterranean people. Mongoloids being the largest race of mankind were the ancestors of Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Ainu with some intermixing. From the Far East, some moved into south China, Indo-China, Malayan Peninsula and Indonesia next to the Australoids whom they pushed out. Those Mongoloid innovations from Far East were the Indonesians, the Mon-Khmers, the Tibeto-Burmans and the Thai (all within 1000 BC). Therefore, Australoids (if from southern China) had moved into South-East Asia. Australian aborigines probably took the path from South East Asia to Java and then Australia some 40,000 years back to reach Australia. That was the same path through which Homo erectus had traveled long ago. Both in times of H. erectus and Australian aborigines, there were dry land connections between mainland Asia and Australia due to
low sea level. Similarly, dry Bering straight due to low sea level accompanied by the last glaciations, people from northeastern Siberian mountains moved into Alaska peninsula and spread throughout the New World. Another route through frozen Antarctic Ocean was from North Siberian Lowland and Poluostrov Taimai to Hudson Bay and Canadian Shield, Labrador and Qubec, Newfoundland and Appalachian mountain, Pennsylvania and Atlantic Ocean, Great plains of North America upto Florida and Latin America. Australoids (if from India or nearby) moved into South East Asia through the passage from India to Burma (Myanmar). Rather glaciations in Himalayas and Tibet did not permit them to directly communicate with Mongoloids of Far East. Mongoloid elements in Far East had got the full opportunity for complete differentiation. We could not say Mongoloids of South East Asia and Indonesia typical to that in China. They were rather intermixed form often treated as Other Asians. Australoids in South East Asia or Proto-Australoids in South Asia gradually became marginalized and they were pushed back into Papua New Guinea and Australia as well as South India and Sri Lanka. They were marginalized by peoples with more advanced technologies: Dravidian (Paleo-Mediterranean), Irano-Afghans, Eurasian (Eurasiatic), Alpo-Carpathian and Pamiri, Alpino-Dinaric Brachicephals and Armenoid-Anatolian, Proto-Nordic and Mongoloids groups. Proto-Australoids are basically treated as the earliest modern human in South Asia. Sewell and Guha (1929) have said of blending up of Proto-Australoid and Proto-Negroid behind the origin of Tamils and Veddas. To them, the best example is Nal race. In Harappan skeletal remains, Proto-Australoid types have been discovered. Hutton (1933) in his census report on South Asia have reported Veddas of Sri Lanka as typical Proto-Australoids. The latter is also recognized as Australoid-Veddaic, Weddid and Pre-Dravidian. Krik (1976) have studied on some genetic markers (Transferrin allele TF CHI and abnormal haemoglobin BH*E) and established that these are common for both Veddahs of Sri Lanka and Australoid groups in South East Asia, but lacking in Veddoids of South India (however, occasionally TF*CHI present among North East Indians and HB*E within certain tribes of Deccan (like Oraons, Konda Reddis and Koya Dora). Simmons (1976) on the basis of blood group markers has opined that Veddoids or Proto-Australoids of South India are more related to Indian populations rather than Australian aborigines and Ainu. Roychoudhuri (1984) have estimated genetic distance and found that Veddahs of Sri Lanka and Veddoids like Toda, Irula and Kurumba of South India are rather closer than aboriginals of Malay, New Guinea and Australia. Pietrusewsky (1990) has also supported this by saying that Australian aborigines are closer to inhabitants of New Guinea and Melanesians rather than other Pacific Ocean islanders as well as peoples of South East Asia and South Asia. Cavalli-Sforza map of human distribution on basis of heterozygosity levels of 82 genes of 42 indigenous population clusters (1994) also support this. Mixing between Proto-Australoid and Mongoloid is frequent in Bengal, Assam, Myanmar; even among Mundari as well as Dravidian speaking tribes of Chotonagpur, Eastern India and Deccan and even within Harappan people as suggested by one skeletal remain and terracotta figurines from so far the lowest stratum. Rakshit (1965) strongly opined in favour Proto-Australoid/Australoid/Archaic Caucasoid origin of Mongoloids in Asia. If
being the earliest inhabitants of South Asia, Negroid elements were totally replaced by or admixed with Proto-Australoids or Veddoids. Negrito elements outside Africa could be found in remote hills and forests of Andaman islands, Malayan peninsula, Philippines and New Guinea that are again similar to Pygmies and Bushmen of Africa. Coon (1965) has commented that this type of similarity is due to similar type of adaptation rather than by common descent. Nei and Roychoudhuri (1982) also supported this. Mountain et.al. (1995) have worked out average linkage algorithm based on simple genetic distance where they have illustrated Eurasian, Chinese and Indian people being almost equally close to one another and maintaining distance from New Guineans and other Asians. South Indian Proto-Australoids or Veddoids will then be much closer to various Eurasians and Mongoloid elements rather than Australian aborigines, Australoids in New Guinea and Melanesia, certain elements in Malaya and South East Asia, few groups in North East and Deccan India as well as Veddahs of Sri Lanka. Cavalla-Sforza et. al. (1994) in their mammoth task on global genetic history have worked on 42 indigenous population aggregates, selected 82 gene loci, studied their genetic variations, calculated heterozygosity(-ies), arranged the results into 8 genetic frequency distribution ranges (0.37 0.35, 0.35 0.33, 0.33 0.29, 0.31 0.29, 0.29 0.27, 0.27 0.25 and 0.25 0.23) and on basis of that, brought forth the map of geographical distribution.
Table 2: Geographic distribution of 42 indigenous population aggregates worldwide on the basis of 8 genetic frequency distribution ranges of heterozygosities of 82 genes (CavallaSforza et. al., 1994) Range Geographical distribution 0.37 0.35 Northwestern India, Kashmir and Indus valley, Iranian-Afghan plateau, Central Asia, Middle-East, Near East, Arabian Peninsula, Eritrea-Somalia region of African horn, Atlas mountain (Africa), Anatolia, Armenia, Greece and Italy, Alpino-Adriatic and Alpino-Carpathian zones, Balkan Area and Slav populations, Austro-Hungary, river systems of Danube-Dnieper-Volga of Continental Europe, Ural Mountain, Black Sea and Caspian Sea, Central Asia and Chinese Turkistan (Takla Makan Desert) 0.35 0.33 Sri Lanka, extreme south of India, Deccan, Eastern and North East India, Bangladesh, Brahmaputra valley and Tibet, Western China and Mongolia (Gobi Desert), Lake Baikal, Ob and Tunguska river systems of Western Siberia, Scandinavia, Baltic nations, Northern European Plains, Western Europe including Germany and Frank, Pyrenees and Iberian peninsula, Great Britain, Scotland, Ireland, Iceland and North Africa 0.33 0.29 Irrawaddy and Salween river-ways of Myanmar, Mainland China, Manchuria, Korea, Central Siberian plateau, subSaharan Africa and Ethiopia-Kenya region of African horn 0.31 0.29 South East Asia (mostly Indo-China), South China, Kamchatka peninsula, mountainous eastern Siberia, Bering Sea region, North Siberian lowland and Poluostrov Taimai, Canadian Shield and Prairie on Hudson Bay, Qubec and
0.29 0.27
0.27 0.25 0.25 0.23 0.23 0.21
Labrador, Great lakes and St. Lawrence River, Appalachian Mountains and Newfoundland, river flood-lands associated with bays and inlet sounds on western shore of Atlantic Ocean, Florida, Pennsylvania and MississippiMissouri Great plains of North America, Brazilian highlands, Bahia Blanca of Argentina, Senegal, Gulf of Guinea and River Niger, Cameroon, Congo Basin, Namib desert, Kalahari desert, Okavango delta, Orange river, South Africa, Zambezi river system, Great Rift Valley, Mt. Kilimanjaro and Tanzania-Zanzibar Alaska, Permafrost zone of Canadian Arctic and Greenland, Rocky and Coast Mountains, bays and sounds along with islands and archipelagos on eastern shore of Pacific Ocean, Cascade range, rift and gulf of California, Mexico and Yucatan Peninsula, Sierra Madre and Cordillera Central, Isthmus of Panama, Caribbean islands and archipelagos, Guiana highlands, Amazon and Paran river systems, Pampas and Patagonia plateau andes Mountain, fjords of Chile Pockets of Latin America (Gran Chaco of Bolivia-Paraguay, Lake Titicaca of Peru, Atacama desert of Chile, Amazons of Brazil and Guiana Heights of Venezuela Eastern Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand New Guinea and Western Australia
The study reveals that India falls within the genetic frequency distribution ranges of 0.370.35 and 0.35-0.33. Habib (1992) have listed a series of discoveries occurred outside India that equipped those innovators migrating into various parts of the world and diffusing their inventions. India was never untouched by such major migrations. In chronological order, the most relevant innovations are as follows: Evolution of symbolic language (100 thousand years before present/ kybp) in Africa (by archaic Homo sapiens); Domestication of wheat, barley, cattle, pig, goat, sheep (10 kybp) in middle-east; Domestication of rice and buffalo (8 kybp) in China and South East Asia; Domestication of horse (6 kybp) in Central Asia; Use of iron (5 kybp) in Anatolia; Use of stirrup for horse riding (2 kybp) in Central Asia; Use of gunpowder (2 kybp) in China; Use of canons and guns in war in Arabia in 15th Century AD
10
I would also like to add industrial revolution in (Western) Europe in 18th Century AD, boom in Organic Chemistry first in Germany in the end of 19th Century AD and invention of computers in 20th Century AD. Cavalla-Sforza et. al. (1994) further mentioned that origins of domestication in Near East (wheat, barley, cattle, goat, sheep, etc.) as well as in China and South East Asia (rice, cattle, buffalo) at around 10 kybp and 8 kybp respectively empowered local inhabitants to migrate throughout a wider region, marginalize or absorb the earlier inhabitants (basically hunter-gatherers). 69 genes in 42 indigenous population aggregates have been chosen to trace out the footprints of probable migrations from Near East and South East Asia-South China throughout Asia. From these nuclear centers, people migrated radially fanning out. Two major entry points in South Asia were therefore Khyber Pass in present-day Pakistan and Manipur in North East India. Barley, wheat, peas, lentils and chickpeas in Near East; rice, millets, sorghum, yam, groundnuts, dates, coffee and melons in Africa; rice, bananas, sugar cane, citrus fruits, coconuts, taro and yam in South East Asia; various millets and rice in China; maize or corn, squash, beans and pumpkins in Mesoamerica; lima beans, potatoes, sweet potatoes, manioc and peanuts in Latin America; goosefoot, swampweed and sunflower in North America actually represented various nuclear zones of crop cultivations (cf. Hole, Jones et.al, 1992, p:376).
Table 3: Evolution of Domestication in Old World and New World (cf. Clutton-Brock, Jones et.al, 1992, p: 384) Time (kybp) 12 10 Old World Time (kybp) New World
6 5 4
Dog (Near East) Wheat, barley, oat, rye, 9 lentil, pea (Near East); sheep and goat (Near East, post 10 kybp) Rice, gourd, millet (China); post 8 gourd, water chestnut (South East Asia); rice, millet, sorghum, yam, groundnut (Africa); cattle and pig (Near East) Donkey (North Africa), Horse (Central Asia) Camel (Arabia and Central Asia); cat (Near East) Chicken (South Asia) Post 4
Chili paper (Andes); squash and gourd (Meso America)
Llama and alpaca (Andes); corn (Mexico)
Sunflower, goosefoot, swampweed and Turkey (North America); guinea pig (Latin America)
11
Gadgil et.al. (1997) have found that there are four major migrations not directly from Africa: (1) Austric language speakers (65,000 years before present) from North East India; (2) Dravidian language speakers (6,000 ybp) from Near East (with knowledge on cultivation of crops like wheat and domestication of animals like cattle, sheep and goat); (3) Sino-Tibetan language speakers (6,000 ybp in several waves) from the Orient (with knowledge on cultivation of rice); (4) Indo-European language speakers (4,000 ybp in several waves) from Eurasia (with knowledge of iron technology and control over horses). All these language families have each a spread inside and outside India. Most have been originated outside India. If Australiods diverged from any earlier complex form of archaic human or so differentiated around 65,000 ybp near or inside India, then Austric language should have an Indian origin. However, 98 per cent of Austric speakers today stay inside South East Asia. Most of Australoids in India were severely marginalized, especially by the Dravidians who show maximum distribution in India (Brahui in Baluchistan and Elamic in Iran also falling under Dravidian language family). Dravidians, being older inhabitants of Indian subcontinent, were pushed southwards by Indo-European (IndoAryan) speakers and therefore many accepting this Indo-European language. The latter also intrudes among mongoloid communities replacing their Sino-Tibetan languages. Nahali (a tribal language of Madhya Pradesh, India) and Burushaski (spoken off by a small group in Pak-Afghan borderland) do not resemble however any of the four language families. Archaeological evidences in both glacial and pluvial zones of Indian subcontinent have been evidenced dating back upto half a million year (last phase of second glaciation). That was basically tools of Old Stone Age or Lower Paleolithic period used probably by Homo erectus out of Africa. Again, around 45-50 thousand years back Homo sapiens definitely entered into the subcontinent with Middle Paleolithic or Middle Stone Age tool industries followed by Late Stone Age even comprising of microliths, Neolithic elements of New Stone Age, Veddoid/Veddid/Proto-Australoids, Mediterranean groups and Caucasoid elements. They entered India from North West India more profoundly if compared with north east innovations (Fuches, 1973, pp: 9-10). Fuchs (1973) has divided South Asian prehistory broadly into Early Stone Age (ESA), Middle Stone Age (MSA), Late Stone Age (LSA), Indian Neolithic, Indus Valley Civilization, post-Harappan development, Megalith building of South India and the Aryan immigration. Sankalia (1974) have classified South Asian prehistory differently: (1) Primitive food collection stage (ESA and MSA); (2) Advanced food collection stage (LSA/Mesolithic); (3) Transition to incipient food production (Early Neolithic); (4) Settled village communities (Advanced Neolithic/Chalcolithic) and (5) Urbanization (Bronze Age along with Neolithic-Chalcolithic traditions and Ochre Coloured Pottery).
Table 4-A: Stone ages in South Asia ESA (500 kybp-) MSA (50 kybp-) LSA (20 8 kybp) Soan valley (Potwar plateau Soan valley (later stages), Baluchistan, Punjab,
Sind
12
lake deposition, Pakistan, by H. De Terra and T.T. Paterson, 2003); Beas valley (Punjab, India, by B.B. Lal, 1956); Adamgarh (near Hoshangabad, Narbada valley, in Madhya Pradesh, by R.V. Joshi, 1978); Attirampakkam (near Madras, Tamil Nadu, South India, by V.D.K. Krishnaswami, 1949); riverbeds of Cauvery and Vaigai (in Tamil Nadu, India, India); Khandivili [near Bombay (Mumbai), by K.R.U. Todd, 1938]; north of Narbada, India; upper reaches of Sone (tributary of Ganges, from Chotonagpur plateau, in Bihar, India; site bear Allahabad, India; Mayurbhanj (Odisha, India, by D. Sen and N.K. Bose, 1948).
Adamgarh, Khandivilli, Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh, India), Nevasa (Maharashtra, India), Wainganga basin (Maharashtra), GundlaBrahmesvaram (Andhra Pradesh, India), Luni River basin (Rajasthan, India: Baridhanj, Thob, Mogara, Nagri, Jalor), Rojadi (Gujarat, India), LasbelaJerruk-Rohri (Sind, Pakistan), Sanghao Cave (North-Western Frontier Province, Pakistan).
of Pakistan; Punjab in India; Central and Southern India; Langhnaj, Gujarat. Neolithic sites in Indian Subcontinent are found at Afghanistan and Baluchistan (e.g., Kili Ghul Mohammad, Quetta; Rana Ghundai, Loralai valley; Anjira and Siah-damb, Surab valley; Mundigak, south-east Afghanistan); Kashmir (e.g., Burzahom); Krishna river system in Karnataka; Indus valley (e.g., Amri, Kot Diji and Kalibangan) as well as North India, East India, North East India frequently.
Tools showed resemblances with that of Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) associated with hand-axe and large flakes. Soan valley hominids used chopper-chopping pebble common in China. Also common were Acheulian and post-Acheulian tools (discoid cores, pointed flakes, cleavers and scrapers). Madras industry was featured by heavy handaxe gradually improved into pear shaped, bifase core with zig-zag cutting edges. Tool makers of Indian ESA were thought to resemble hominids of Olduvai
Prepared core tools on platform and leaf-shaped pointed flakes in association with variety of scrapers/borers/cleavers and Mousterian tool traditions of Neanderthal Man.
miscellaneous cores, variety of scrapers, well-developed cleavers, burins on bipolar techniques and microliths (point-on-flake; complex points-crescentic, bimarginally retouched, leafshaped, shouldered and tanged; blades on fluting techniques and by using soft hammers- parallel sided, penknife type, plain or retouched) [cf. R.V. Joshi in Allchin and Allchin, 1968, p.85].
13
Gorgebut with larger percussion grip (Sankalia, 1962, p: 278).
Raw materials were basically quartzite and/or volcanic rock. For ESA hominids, handaxes were used by lowlanders as well as flakes by highlanders in relatively cooler climate. Hand-axe, large flakes and hollow scrapers were probably used for digging up roots and tubers and even for notchings trees in order to climb on (Zeuner, 1958, p: 292).
Raw materials were jasper, Raw materials were jasper, chert and chalcedony. quartzite, adzes and chalcedony. For MSA hominids, they LSA was characterized by use were out of Africa: of microliths used by archaic Homo sapiens from anatomically modern human northern and southern (AMH). Tools were Cave art pockets of Sahara, Africa. of Bhimbetka (Madhya They were hunter gatherers Pradesh, India) was so using spear-heads exclusive. Langhnaj provided (Sankalia, 1962, p: 123). 13 skeletons combining Mediterranean and Veddoid racial features. Besides advanced tools and microliths, Langhnaj comprised of a copper knife, ring-stone (on digging stick) and bone articles. That site in Gujarat was attached with superior cultures, probably the pre-Harappan culture and Neolithic traditions.
New Stone Age (NSA) or Neolithic tradition was characterized by domestication of several crops and animals. Neolithic sites in Near East and Middle East were Catal Huyuk in Turkey, Jericho in Palestine and Jarmo in Iraq: these all were nuclear zones from where Dravidian or Paleo-Mediterranean stalks entered into South Asia. People preferred to use polished tools on grinding and polishing technique.
Table 4-B: Harappan, post-Harappan, Early Aryan and Megalithic Traditions in South Asia Harappan PostHarappan Duration: 4.3-3.75 3.8 3.0 kybp kybp Brief description: Sudden emergence of Following Pre- cultures so far Harappans of eastern suppressed by Megalithic 3.0 2.5 kybp Early Aryan 3.5 2.8 kybp onward
Megalith builders on Originated probably in tomb; south-west Siberia/ southern Eurasian steppe/ Danube-Oxus (Amu) river 14
Iran-Baluchistansouth Afghanistan regions then with frequent raining; Harappan culture in Punjab and Sind reached to the level of Civilization (renowned by Indus Valley Civilization) showing its impact in Kalibangan-Rupar of North India, Lothal of Gujarat and Kayatha of Malwa a bit later;
Harappan Civilization;
zone/ Caspian sea area; Constrained in Deccan, South India, north-east part Domestication of horse of Central around 6 kybp; India(Chotonagpur) and North East India; Being Eurasiatic/ European brachycephal/ Alpine elements classified Several influence into 1) Alpo-Carpathian hypothesis was there (Slavs and Cevenoles), 2) (Allchin and Pamiri (Wakhi, Tajik, Allchin, 1968, p Galacha, etc), 3) Illyrio229): Anatolian (intermixed with Armenoid in (1) locally Anatolia and 4) developed stone Dinaric/ Adriatic/ Illyrian alignment (Proto- elements in Balkan) (Das, Australoid?); (2) 1961, pp:354-355) that associated with NeolithicChalcolithic groups; (3) stone cist graves Spread out from Alpine (with or without to Pamir (Tajikistanport-holes): proving Kyrgyzstan); maritime contact with Dravidian/ paleo-Mediterranean agricultural groups Crossed Caucasus to of Near East and reach Near East Levant, Middle East and Middle East; and coastal southern Arabia all later overlapped with Armenoid-Anatolian Anatolian learned iron use Caucasoid around 5 kybp; elements; (4) that resembling that is Central Asia, Caucasus (Armenoid Armenoids mixed up with and Anatolian) and Alpine as well as Nordic, Iranian: Indo- Classic Mediterranean European influence and Indo-Afghans (Das, 15
Flourished in Gujarat and throughout a larger part of India locally;
Influence of Dravidians over local ProtoEarlier phases of this Australoids; Civilization showed presence of Mongoloid elements in terracotta figurine; People anthropometric associated analysis of skeletons with both proved presence of agriculture Protoand hunting Australoid, Mediterra and prefer nean and one local raw Mongoloid features; materials like skeletal remains of jasper wild horses found; at and agate in later stage might have making of association of Indo- Neolithic sto Aryans; ne tools
Associated with Neolithic tool industry and microliths, various types of pottery with Harappan ware, earthen kiln, granary, terracotta of animal
Massive entry of agriculture (such as of rice, millet and lentils);
and human figurine, idols of female Goddesses and protoShiva, planned urbanization with sewerage system and bath, palaces with barracks, probable state formation and centralized rule, graveyard, traces of agriculture and pastoralism and cotton industry, ornament, precious stones, copper implements, seals and external trade, shipyards and proto-historic writings;
Massive influence of Chalcolithic culture over local Neolithic traditions and therefore co mplex NeolithicChalcolithic era began and continued for thousand year in Indian Peninsula; in GujaratRajputanaMalwa regions, the Chalcolithic tradition over dominated previous Neolithic era or replaced the same completely (as in Ahar, RajputanaAravalli region);
bringing in horses 1961, p. 349); and especially iron;
Showing remarkable continuity with Neolithic sites of South India for thousand year, NeolithicChalcolithic sites; usage of iron implements along with bronze and brass (remarkable difference with previous preagrarian and agrarian traditions);
Dinarics mixed up with Alpine as well as AtlantoMediterranean, Nordic, Armenoid and even IndoAfghans (Das, 1961, p. 348);
Baer Folk (Bronze Age men) in Europe intermixing of Alpine and Nordic (Das, 1961, p. 347);
Influenced by PaleoMediterranean or Dravidian unknown of using iron and horse; replaced by Indo-Aryan to Central India, Deccan and so forth during postHarappan stages and gradually those IndoDravidians were associated with Aryan stalks and South Indian Megalith From Indus builders; Valley Civilization ----------------------(IVC) probably Associated with Dravidian marvelously painted people with pottery of early, Neolithicmature-I and mature- Chalcolithic
Anthropometric analysis of associated skeletons indicates to various races including Veddids or ProtoAustraloids as well as early groups of Mediterranean
Iranians composed of Tajik (Brachicephalic/ Pamiri) as Parsis, ProtoNordic as Farsi (Dolichocephalic) and Mediterranean as Lori (Irano-Afghan and IndoAfghan) along with Armenoids, Kurds and Arabs (Das, 1961, p. 362);
Dravidian language either originated in or outside India, but Dravidian people or PaleoMediterranean groups entered with agrarian techniques from Near and Middle East through Iran 16
Indo-European Brachicephals from Pamir gradually moved into Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Sind, Gujarat, western coast, Kanara, Deccan, Tamil Nadu and even into Bengal; Brachicephalic race of Alpino-Dinaric type (Illyrio-Anatolian?) entered North
II stages of Indus traditions close to Caucasus: Valley Civilization entered into Brahui language (IVC) Gujarat group in Baluchistan through and stone cist grave Cutch and with port-hole there Major sites: they at Bela are the missing links EarlyMundigak, gradually 1963, Amri, Kot Diji and spread over (Fairservis, pp: 22-29); Sarai Khola, Rahman Aravallithousands of stone Dheri, Kalibangan Rajputana, port-hole stone cist (last one producing Malwa, have been found in pottery with pedestal); Narbada valley and Krishna river system and further south in Mature I- Mohenjo- Central daro and entire Sind Indian hills, Indian peninsula; province, Sutkagen South India and Andhra ------------------------Dor (Baluchistan), Harapp as well as a as well as Indian following sites like Lothal- eastern coast Associated with red Rangpur, Desalpur- entered into and black ware (RBW) pottery Surkodata, Rojidi, Bengal; found in Malwa, Kalibangan-Rupar; Aravalli, Narbada, Central India, Mature II- previous sites with copper Early Aryans Deccan andhra and implements, red also followed nearly entire eastern sandstone and bronze this path after coast reaching up the to Bengal. idols, limestone sculpture, ornaments, Dravidians entering in terracotta and seals Gujarat thro ugh Sind and thereafter (Allchin and Allchin, moving into Konkana or 1968, pp: 131-225) western coastline to reach Kanada (Mysore): from there they spread over various parts of Deccan, Tamil Nadu
India(Fuchs,1973, p. 16);
Fraction of pre-Vedic Aryans (Indo-Europeans) crossed Gangetic North India and then Brahmaputra valley to reach into western China and Indo-Chinese peninsula giving rise to Brachicephalic Mongoloids like Chakma in Tripura and Mog(h) in Arakan-Yoma hills back from Burma (Myanmar) (Fuchs, 1973, pp:35-36);
Kamboja (part of Kashmir) was the earliest Vedic and Brahminical center for the IndoAryans: from this settlement easy access to India, IranoAfghanistan, Central Asia and Sino-Tibet was there;
Hastinapur, Ahicchetra and Kaushambi were the earliest Indo-Aryan settlements in North India with aid of pre-Aryan associates (probably Dravidians of Harappan Civilization rapidly colonized Gangetic plains; in that sense Dravidians of Indus valley were treated post-Vedic in
17
and even Bengal;
North India --------------------------------------
PostHarappans from PunjabRajputana accompanied early Aryans of North India to reach into central Gangetic region together upto Bihar; ---------------------Associated regional variation of Harappan ware (Banas ware and Kayatha ware of Rajputana and MalwaCentral India respecti vely); postlocal pottery systems in postHarappan Rupar and Kalibangan of North India as well as various pockets of GujaratDeccan
Aryans primarily used ochre coloured pottery (OCP:3.2-3.1 kybp) followed by painted grey ware (PGW:3.1-2.8 kybp), mud-brick wall and hunting plus animal husbandry and ultimately led to northern black polished ware (NBPW: pre-Mauryan and Mauryan periods), iron implement, copper and silver coins throughout the North India.
NB. Chinese corded ware was prevalent throughout Myanmar-North East Indiaeastern Bangladesh coveri ng Brahmaputra, BarakSurma-Meghna and FeniHaora river systems as well as Meghalaya plateau and ChittagongArakan track. Such pottery apart from perHarappan, Harappan, post-Harappan localite, black and red ware of south Indian megaliths as well as OCP, PGW and NBWP related to IndoAryans.
18
emerged out.
Majumdar (1951) has illustrated that how several major settlements or Mahajanapadas were brought in form: Gandhara (Pakistan), Kamboja (Kashmir), Kuru (Delhi-Hariyana), Matsya (Aravalli-Rajputana), Pancahla (Rohilkhand sub Himalayas), Kosala (Oudh sub Himalayas), republican tribes of Mallas of Paba (Gorakhpur sub-Himalayas), Vajjian republican confederacy ( northern Bihar sub Himalayan including Licchavis / Vaishali and Videhas / Mithila), Sursena (Mathura), Batsya (Allahabad Gangetic plain), Kashi (Vanaras Gangetic plain), Magadha (Bihar Gangetic plain), Anga (Bhagalpur-Munger of Bihar Gangetic plain way to sea trade), Avanti (Malwa), Chedi (Bundelkhand) and Ashmaka (Deccan India). Eventually, PGW was replaced by NBPW initiated on around 2.8 kybp and all these settlements along with some minors like Mauriyan/ Mauriyan/ Moriyan of Pipphalivana were in full bloom till 2.6 kybp. Possibility of an imperial structure based on an essentially agrarian economy was developed in the mind of these settlements and after a long competition, Magadha assured its win over these Mahajanapadas after its control over transnational trade centered around neighbouring Anga as well as iron ores throughout the Chotonagpur plateau. Expansion of Magadha was contemporary to utter occurrence of Buddhist and Jain philosophies and on the other hand, spread of Achaemenidians of Iran throughout Middle and Near East who then also controlled Aria (Heart), Archosia (Kandahar) and Gandhara (West Punjab) upto Indus valley, Sind and Indus delta. Imperfectly Aryanized but Magadha-Anga block gradually incorporated all the republican tribes of sub-Himalayas and directly or indirectly took over larger part of the subcontinent.
Table 5: Cultural Markers like Agriculture, Pottery and Iron Chronology Pre-Harappa 4.3 kybp) Agriculture (before Agriculture (developed in Near East and Middle East around 10 kybp) had spread throughout Indus valley, Kalibangan 19 Pottery Pre-Harappan painted potters (hand made) noticed in nearby southern Afghanista Iron Use of iron invented in Anatolia (6. 0 kybp) by Caucasoid
Rupar, Punjab and n and Baluchistan Rajasthan, Gujarat ranged from and Kashmir where coastal Iran to Sind Harappan Civilization and other Neolithic cultures emerged out soon
elements (ArmenoidAnatolian); In Indus valley and adjacent western Indian and Kashmir, only pottery and neolithicmicrolithic tools found; but no iron traces Characterized by pottery, bone tools, microliths, neolithic tools, lime stone, sand stones, terracotta, seal, copper implements, bronze idols; at the end days of Harappan Civilization iron entered in nearby IranoAfghan regions (3.9 kybp)
Harappa (4.3-3.8 kybp)
Spread over Narbada valley, Konkana western coast and Mysore(4.0 kybp) creating the way for immigration of Dravidians and few IndoAryan tribes there in post-Harappan times
Harappan ware painted pottery developed throughout the Indus valley with certain regional variations (such as in Gujarat and KalibanganRupar,India)
Post-Harappa (3.8-3.0 kybp) Accompanied by foundation of MitanniHurrian (Aryan) state in Near and Middle East (3.5 kybp) Knowing use of iron, Aryan occupancy
Spread in various neolithic pockets of Deccan (3.5 kybp) that created the platform for emergence of megalithic traditions of neolithicchalcolithic, Mediterrane an and Indo-Aryans added to local ProtoAustraloid forms
Harappan ware shifted to Malwa plateau and transformed into Banas and Kayatha ware apart from various local pottery systems in Deccan and Central India (including red and black ware RBW);
20
over Indus valley (3.93.1 kybp) early forms of Aryans set up ochre coloured pottery system (OCP) during 3.2-3.1 kybp; OCP gradually replaced by painted grey ware (PGW) during 3.1-2.9 kybp
Iron reached Indus valley (3.1 kybp)
Megalithic South India (3.0-2.5 kybp)
Spread in Central PGW in India with 2.8 kybp northern India (2.92.8 kybp) completely Aryan occupancy over overruled OCP; Irano-Afghanistan and Indus valley completed PGW spread maximum in northern India (2.82.75 kybp);
Iron reached in Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Konkana and Mysore (3 .0 kybp); in southern India, iron associated with the megalith RBW further shifted builders in various new spread pockets of Iron southern India inclu into Malwading Andhra- Aravalli Kalinga eastern region previously coast; occupied by northern black post-Harappan polished ware pottery forms (NBPW) initiated including (2.9 around 2.8 kybp and RBW would soon
21
dominate PGW and kybp) RBW Iron definitely spread over the earliest Aryan settlements in North India along with PGW (2.8 kybp); Iron reached into Central India, Narbada and Deccan wi thin 2.7 kybp where agriculture entered only in 2.8 kybp Spread NBPW spread over Iron industry throughout Deccan withi north India touching became crucial n 2.3 kybp and the the Chinese corded for Magadha f extreme south till 2.0 ware diffused in or making kybp; north weapons; eastern India and Nanda Empire touched and overlapped eastern Bangladesh there utilized huge iron ore the agrarian tradition of of Bengal, eastern and north Chotonagpur east India from plateau (north southern China and Sout east of h East Asia within 8.0central India); 6.0 kybp Mauryans would be known for imperialism and unification, administrative control and intelligence agency, centralized
Persian occupancy in Indus valley completed (2.5 -2.33 kybp) Emergence of Buddhism, Jainism and power house of Magadha (eastern I ndia)
Alexander The Great Spread throughout the NBPW continued to occupied Persian subcontinent exist; Empire and arrived at Punjab (326 B.C.) Mauryan Empire (321-185 BC) from Magadh covered PGW and RBW pockets throughout India an d incorporated Kalinga, Kashmir,
22
Indus valley and authority, Greek colonies states in Afghanistan. assistance to Buddhism, foreign policy, Indo-Greek Tamil kingdoms in relation, extreme south: Persian Cholas, Pandyas, immigration, Brahmi script, Keralputra, urbanization, Satiyaputra tax collection system, state control over mine and forest, use of scripts for Pamiri-GreekIranians, Kalinga war, protection to pastoralists, trade relations, equal justice and Welfare State, contract theory and autocracy, serf-like systems in semiautonomous rural systems, trade, industry and guild, currency system, bureaucracy, army, nonviolence, concept of Dhamma incorporating Buddhism, folk religion and Aryan
23
tradition.
It seems that the agriculturists were followed by urbanites again followed by early Aryan horse risers and thereafter iron users who gradually moved throughout Indus valley, Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Konkana, Karnataka, Malwa and Aravalli, OCP and PGW areas of early Aryans in North India, fertile areas of Deccan and gradually occupied on iron ore of Bihar-Chotonagpur basis of an subcontinental Empire incorporating KalingaAndhra regions (RBW). Possehl (1979) indicated to interrelationships among IndoEuropean tribes (Arya the Vedic people), Dravidians (Dasyu) and Proto-Australoids (Dasa or Austric speaking hunter-gatherers); the main reason was struggle on controlling over fertile land. Indo-European languages are at least of two major streams: first one bringing in languages traveled through Kashmir or Kamboja and Gujarat-Deccan-Bengal; whereas the next comprising of those directly entered through Punjab and Rajasthan to North India. The first stream comprises of Kashmiri, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Odiya (Oriya) and Bengali; whereas the second consists of Punjabi, Rajasthani and Hindi with various regional variations. (Gupta, 1979; Misra, 1973; Srein, 1984; Jha, 1981; Paraser, 1992). Dube (1990) has referred to B.S. Guhas six major racial elements of Negrito, ProtoAustraloid, Mongoloid, Mediterranean, Western Brachicephalic and Nordic; S.R. Rao, a notable archaeologist excavating the Lothal site (Gujarat) of Indus Valley Civilization, who opined a multiethnic origin hypothesis of Proto-Australoid, Mediterranean, Alpine and Mongoloid racial elements; supported gradual entry of Mediterranean people followed by Western Brachicephals (Alpinoid, Dinaric and Armenoid) and finally, Nordic groups; pointed out primary classification of the Indo-Aryans into the Rajanya or Kshatriya (warriors and the aristocracy), the Brahman (priests) and the Vaishya (cultivators) later followed by service category Surda (progeny of union between pre-Aryan inhabitants or Dasas and Indo-Aryans) and even an out-Varna or fifth-Varna for remaining heavily suppressed category; advocated thousands of castes or Jatis summarized by Aryans into four Varnas and the excluded fifth or Pancham Varna; highlighted on Vratya tradition and methods of absorption (alternative systems like Pancha Brahma, marital relationship and granting high power cum status to the post-Aryan successors or Mlechchhas); ruled in six basic features of caste system including service-endogamy-behavioural pattern; marked alternatives to Hindu orthodoxy (Buddhism, Ajivik, etc.); identified Kirata designation to Mongoloid people and establishment Aryan Diasporas there (e.g., Pragyotishpur in Assam); mentioned various Mongoloid segments like Bodo, Chetia and Moran, Kuki-Chin and Thai or Shan; noticed prey to Shakti cult and other Hindu warship and interpreted Muslim and Christian populations in India. Human races are like varieties and not even subspecies. Taking case from India, it is justified that India comprises of over 4,000 Mendelian populations, of which 3,700 endogamous groups are structured in the Hindu caste system as jatis. Outside the preview of caste system, there are a thousand odd Mendelian populations which are tribal autochthones and religious communities. Considering data on morphological traits of
24
several Indian population groups, racial as well as racial-linguistic classifications have been made by Thurston (1909), Risley (1915), Guha (1935), Sarkar (1954) and others. These studies have been further progressed by statewise classifications on regional surveys: Mahalanobis et.al. (1949) on Uttar Peadesh (undivided); Majumdar and Sen (1949) on Gujarat; Karve and Dandekar (1951) on Maharashtra and Majumdar and Rao (1960) on West Bengal. Further, a huge number of blood groups, serum proteins and enzyme polymorphisms has been taken on account besides anthropometric, somatometric, demographic and other complex genetic parameters (Bhasin and Walter, ibid, pp: Preface). In this way, thousands of tribe like endogamous groups in a complex agricultural and (now) industrial/ post-agrarian society have formed. Some groups are dominant or superordinate, whereas others are subordinate or subjugated. Many of these groups have got religious assistance by Hindu 4-fold Varna system and considered as different Jatis or castes. Outside Hinduism, these stratifications may not get religious assistance and remain simply as occupational groups. These groups construct the agrarian social structure of India. Castes might have relatedness with Brahmanism, Racial concepts, religious influence, indigenousness, occupational groupings and so many. Senart (1930) has mentioned A caste system is one whereby a society is divided up into a number of self contained and completely segregated units (castes), the mutual relations between which are ritually determined in a graded scale. Srinivas (1962) and Dube (1968) have pointed out to the process of status mobility within the close-ended caste hierarchical stratification in terms of Sanskritisation as well as structural mobility in terms of Dominant Caste. Sharma (1997, 2006) discussed the scope of social mobility in caste system by virtue of modernization, constitutional safeguard, downward social mobility, agrarian rural system, caste-class-power nexus, bourgeois and proletariat concepts. Bougle (1971) treated caste system unique to India, integral part of Hindu society, hereditary specialization, hierarchical organisation, reciprocal repulsion and in terms of purity. Migration and foreign invasion affecting more status relationship, marriage system, elite section of a given society that we could see in case of Indo-Aryans being pastorals in Vedic time, settled agriculturists in Mauryan period and moving to urban economy during the Guptas; Indian society was not actually too hierarchical, suffered from the dilemma of actual and ritual or ideal status (cf. Jha and Sharma 1974 eds., Thapar, p: 95). Rawlinson (1952) opined that the Aryan tribes were merely immigrants and nor always organized army. Tribal groups in India are even divided into Hinduized and indigenous lower sects; often the latter moving towards religious conversion to Christianity and as a whole the tribal society which is supposed to be the aboriginals suffer from economic and social constraints before solidarity. Shift from pre-agricultural to agrarian social structure and establishment of trade connectivity have rather increased the difference between Hinduized section of tribal society with a notion of social stratification and its actual tribal form holding the real ethnic identity (lineage and clan) thus suffering from roles played by intermediaries, feudalism, money lending process, new politico-economic systems and newly developing class stratification with Christianity (cf. Gupta, 1991, ed., Thapar and Siddiqui, pp: 419430). Caste Hindus believing in 4-fold Varna system used to consider some other people (Harijans) untouchables who are again divided into various strata according to their own social norms such as feudal and forced labourers: caste-class-power often provokes
25
violation of human rights regarding Varna-Harijan interaction (Sharma, 1994, pp:263274). Koshambi (1955: 36) have stated that a practical calendar, fair meteorology and sound-working knowledge of agricultural technique associated with Brahminical rituals were rather unknown to primitive tribal groups who never went beyond the digging-stick or hoe. Koshambi (1958, pp: 86-87) have found out class character of Indian society in all ancient, medieval and modern period respectively in terms of interrelationship among state, production system, trade, cities, banking, factory and guild organisation; whereas agriculture is just an important production system and caste is a part of this. Gadgil and Guha (1992) have stated that in India dominant groups generally try to isolate the subjugated groups rather than absorbing or eliminating them. This is the reason of cultural diversity which is favoured by ecological diversities as well as genetic variations.
Table 6: Post-Mauryan Immigration (200 B.C. 300 AD) Bactrian Greeks Fall of Persian Empire in the hands of Alexander The Great was accompanied in India by formation of Mauryan Empire (321-185 AD) which was again followed by attacks of Bactrian Greeks from Irano-Afghanistan crossing Baluchistan and Indus valley, revival of Kalinga and emergence of local powers like Sunga and Kanva in North India as well as Andhra Satavahana in Andhra-Deccan and probably Pallavas in further south. Greeks in this post-Alexander phase developed various colonies in northern and central Indian mainland reaching up to sub-Himalayas and eastern India. They with them brought the message of syncretism as well as union of east and west, accepted either Buddhism and/or Vaishnavism, established good terms and conditions with Kanvas of Magadh-Vidisa and started worshiping Vishnu. Though, searching similarity between Jesus Christ and Vishnu or Krishna has often been strongly criticized. Taxila, Gandhara and Mathura art forms developed showing sculptures with Mongoloid, Greek and Indian features. Few Bactrian Greeks also expressed their faith on Buddhism, such as Minendar. Some Greeks even settled colony in Sri Lanka. Scythians from Central Asia also penetrated into Iran, Afghanistan, Kashmir and Indus valley. From Parthian Greek colony of Iran, Prtho-Scythians entered into southern Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Sind and Gujarat. From classic text Periplus of Erythraean Sea was clear the link of Gujarat and India with rest part of the world including first Christian state in Ethiopia or Abyssinia. Parthian ruler Gondophernes accepted Christianity and people from Ethiopia and Zanzibar might settle colony in Indus delta. All Greek and Scythian elements in Pakistan and India were dissolved
Partho-Scythian Greeks
Kushana
26
Satraps
by the Kushanas or Yu-chi (Yeh-chih) again from Central Asia. They reached Bactria within 1st Century B.C. Within 1st Century AD, they established control over Partho-Scythian colonies throughout the Indus and those of Bactrians in mainland India. Kushanas actually ruled over Silk Route, governed diamond and other mines of central part of India and Spice Route, approached towards western China, incorporated Central Asia and Irano-Afghanistan, nourished and provide state sponsorship to Buddhism, arranged third world congress of Buddhism from where Sanskrit language was started to be used in and Mahayana philosophy emerged out. However, Scythian Satraps of Malwa-Gujarat from Ujjain existed upto 4th Century AD They probably became subordinates of Kushanas, struggled against Satavahanas of Deccan-Andhra; controlled ports of Gujarat and basically belonged to Shaiva sect of Hinduism. These warrior clans were often added to warrior class and Kshatriya warrior Varna for the Hindus. (Temporarily) being Kushanas associate Satrapas of Malwa-Gujarat ultimately destroyed Satavahanas of Deccan-Andhra.
Abhirs, Pallavas, Satavahanas in Deccan were replaced by Chutus of Banabasi, Nala Chalukyas and Aryan Ikshvaku of Dakshina Kosala: Pallavas and Abhiras of Indian peninsula were often treated as North Indian and of foreign in Indian Peninsula origins (Bhasin and Walter, 2001, p: 16). Elements like Chalukyas of Deccan and Pallavas of extreme south might have wrongly Partho-Scythian connectivity. So, post-Aryan in-migration in India through Khyber Pass again initiated and continued for 500 years (AD 200- B.C. 300). All these elements gradually amalgamated into Indian population. In their Golden period, Kushanas during 1st and 2nd Centuries AD remained key factor for diffusing Buddhist philosophy to Irano-Afghanistan, Central Asia and Far East further spreading into South East Asia and Tibeto-Burmese belt, Kashmir and Brahmaputra valley. They had done more in favour of that religion in comparison to Mauryans and Buddhist segment of Bactrian Greeks sending missions to Sri Lanka. Kushanas ruled over Zoroastrian, Hindu, Greek and Buddhist communities; backed Kharoshthi inscription; formulated a cosmopolitan culture (composed of Iraian, Indian, Hellenistic and Chinese); were doing trade with Roman Empire and linked up with Saka (Scythian) era of AD78 (Basham, 1975, pp: 44, 432-33). ShahanoIn the Mehruli iron pillar inscription of Delhi, it hinted Kushanas as Shahi and Sassaninas in Iran being Shahi of all the Shahis or shahi, Sassanoid, Shahanoshahi.. This concept was as influential as that of Alexander The Great for all the invaders from Irano-Afghan plateau for rest of Kushan the time.
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Shahi,
Kushanas depicted such terms like Shahanoshahi (such as Shahanoshah Basudeva, Kushan in Gold coins of Basudeva I). Kiderite, Afghan They in Sind-Baluchistan later became Kushana Shahi (IndoSassanoid) under Shahanoshahi of Sassanoid dynasty of Iran. and Kamboja Minor Kushanas or Kidar Kushanas (Kiderite) sustained long in Afghanistan and they in long course of time became Turk Shahi to Hindu Shahi. They were restricted in Kapisha nearer to Bamiyan and Jaguda or Jabul or Kabul. The horse breeders in Pakistan-Afghanistan region opposed such activity and self-addressed as Afghans indicating to Sanskrit term Ashmaka or horsemen. Kamboh or Kamboja tribe of them was exclusive.
Table 7: Migrations from the Gupta Regime till Turk-Afghans (350-1200 AD) Gupta-Lichhavi Opposition of the Vaishnavas in Mathura, fragmentation of alliance versus North India into various small states and occurrence of tribal Kushanas warlords in borderlands within 340 AD, Emergence of the Guptas in Magadh (AD 350-500), Brahminical tradition, marriage between Guptas and Lichhavis (Mongolian descent?), unity over entire eastern coastline of India; Sassanian Empire formation in Iran (Shapur III) making the Kushanas subordinates GuptaVakataka Guptas (350-500 AD) being probably from Vaishya Verna also alliance versus Satraps : combined with Brahman Vishnubrinda or Vakataka of Central Roman Trade India Deccan (Vishnukundarins) plus Kadamba of Karnataka (Banavasi) and ultimately defeated Satraps of Malwa-Gujarat that opened the access to Roman Gold and Indian prosperity: but the regime shifted from strict Brahminical values to Buddhism and Vaishnavism. Avar Gupta control over Gujarat was contemporary to Aka The Avars of Hepthalite Khanate occupying Indo-Sassanid Kushanshah, Kidarites of Kapisha (Kidar Kushan), Kashmir and Chionite (White Hun) dominated Central Asia. Gupta-Mandasor versus Huns in Central Asia moved towards Europe and (White) Hun attacked Western Roman Empire and Germans advocated feudalism on estate-and-serf. Ye thas or White Huns (Chionites) from Bactria-Kapisha around 425 AD under attacked fragile Gupta Empire under Toramana and Mihirakula and destroyed the Buddhist heritage in northern India throughout 5th and 6th Century AD, but were ultimately defeated by Gupta coalition including Yashodharman of Mandasor.
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During 7th Century AD, there were several states: Gupta fractions, Later Gupta, Maukharis, Maitrakas, Thanesar and Taank that ruled North Indiaincluding Punjab-RajputanaGujarat. Post-Guptas: Buddhist ruler Harshavardhana of Thanesar allied with Kamrupa Harsha, Kashmir, Tibet, of Brahmaputra valley and fought against Bengal and Gupta Arab fragments for control over Kannauj (a status symbol in Indian politics, presently near Kanpur and Jajmau of Gangetic plain). Tibet and Kashmir also interfered in Bengal and Kannauj in post-Harsha regime and Sind was gone to the Muslim Arab rulers. Chalukya Post-Vakataka Deccan consisted of Chalukya-Rashtrakuta combination; Kalachuri, Mauryas of Konkana, Dakshina Kosala and Nal as usual; Kalinga and Kangeda kings, Kadamba or Kuntala rulers and Vengi princes at other pockets of Indian Peninsula; Gupta fragments Chalukyas of Haritiputra and Manavya gotra (clan) often described as owing to in-migrated Scythian element for their origin; they unifying entire Deccan and set up Solankis in Gujarat and another branch in Andhra or Vengi. They fought long with Pallavas of extreme south for Raichur basin, Vengi and autonomous Mysore; Ganga dynasty ruled in Mysore, while another branch in Kalinga. Gujjara-Pratihara vs. From 750 AD, Palas in Bengal, Rashtrakutas in Deccan and Pala vs. Rashtrakuta: Gujjara-Pratiharas of Gujarat-Rajputana fought during 750-1000 Rajput and pro-Rajput AD for control over Kannauj. Gujjara was an early associate of Scythians and Huns; with their establishment over Kannauj; various Rajput states like Gahadavalas at Kannauj, Paramaras at Malwa and Chauhans at Delhi-Ajmer emerged out at North India. Central India and Deccan were filled up by their fellow kinsmen Kalachuris, Chandellas and Chalukyas (later); few others were Baghelas, Guhilots, Solankis, Rathors (north Indian relatives of formerly Rashtrakutas) and Tomars. Chauhans were of high status as they can claim as Chau tribe of the Huns or Chionite or truly White Hun who was blessed with Sisodia or Sassanoid legacy. Buddhist and Vaishnava Palas (750-1165 AD) in eastern India faced problems with Kamboja immigration from Kapisha into North Bengal, warfare with Rashtrakuta and Gujjara Pratihara, Kaivarta agitation in North Bengal, regional sentiments in
Bengalduring Palas (750-1165 AD)
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Mithila or Trihut and Brahmaputra valley plus Bangladesh (East Bengal), movement of the feudal lords, clashes with coastal Odisha (Utkal, Odra and Kalinga), Som-vamshis of Dakshina Kosala and even the later Chalukyas along with various Rajput and pro-Rajput elements from North and Central India. Pala Empire was divided into Chandra, Barmana, Pala and Sen. Chandras in East Bengal controlled trade and used silver coins: connections were with all Magical, Buddhist and Arab elements. Arabs formed colonies within 10th Century AD (Wink, 1990, pp:65-86) Arab vs. Cholas (850- Interrelationship among Arabs, Byzantium (Eastern Roman 1200 AD) Empire) and Holey Roman Empire (on formerly Western Roman Empire) caused the Arabs increasing trade with the orient. Arab colonies in Indian coasts, Sri Lanka and Indian oceans, Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea areas, Malacca and Indonesia as well as South China Sea was opposed by the Cholas of the extreme south primarily being associates of Pallavas. Cholas continued clashes with Deccan over Mysore, Raichur and Vengi (Andhra); conquered entire eastern coast and made Palas in Bengal subordinate; converted Bay of Bengal a Chola lake; settled colonies in South East Asia and Indonesia and finally, introduced huge number of Tamils in northern Sri Lanka. Such movement by a Tamil power house was remarkable. India before Islamic Chola or Later Chalukya influence empowered Sens in the thorn innovation as Turk- of Bengal and Eastern India. Strict Hindu code of conduct and Afghan Shahi ameliorating Buddhist values created vacuum in Bengal and eastern part of India. Fall of Chola (850-1200 AD) in extreme south as well as breakdown of Chalukya-Rashtrakuta powerhouse throughout Central India, Narbada valley, Deccan, Telengana and Andhra into Bijjala Kalachuris (1167 AD), Yadavas (1187-91 AD), Hoyesala (1190 AD) and Kakatiya (1199 AD) created a blank in Indian peninsula also. Rajput warlords could not unite themselves. Kidar Kushanas had moved back into Taank in vicinity of Kashmir and transformed from Turk Shahi to Hindu Shahi due to spread of Islam in Central Asia (Maverannahar) and Afghanistan.
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Table 8: Migrations during Delhi Sultanates, Mughal Padshahi and British East India Company (1206-1857 AD) Pre-Sultanate Ghaznavid Turks, House of Ghor, Mahmum of Ghazni (998-1030 AD) showed interest in wealth of Hindu Shahi of Kidar Kushana, Rajput states, Himalayan hidden routes like Kangra temple and Gujarat. Muhammad of Ghor was the founder of Delhi Sultanate whose Slave Viceroy established the Slave Dynasty (1206-1290 AD) The Slave Dynasty (1206-1290 AD) was followed by The Khalji (1290-1321 AD), House of Tughlak (1321-1412 AD), The Sayyids (1416-1451 AD) and finally Bahlul The Lodi (1451-1525 AD). Most of the ruling class and administrators were Turks and Tajiks, Iranian and Turanian, in association with Turk-Afghan (Lodi), pro-Indian (Khalji) and Sayyids. During Delhi Sultanate, regional states in North India were Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Kashmir and Narbada (Khandesh) together lasting for roughly 1200-1600 AD The South Indian provinces were Orissa, Bahamani Kingdom and Poligars of Vijayanagaram together lasting for 1300-1600 AD During 13th Century AD, Chingiz Khan of Central Asia formulated Mongol Empire throughout Eurasia, Central Asia (Kwarazm), IranoAfghanistan, Middle East, Near East, Levant, Anatolia-Armenia and Indus Valley Civilization. It also spread into Siberia, Manchuria, China, Korea, South China and Vietnam (IndoChina). Various Mongol elements throughout the rule of Slave Dynasty and Khaljis tried their best from Irano-Afghanistan (Empire of Halagu) to capture Indus valley, Punjab, Delhi and ancient Aryan settlements in adjacent sub-Himalayan areas. Mostly, they were defeated and pushed back. Many surrendered, accepted Islam and settled in Delhi as NeoMuslims. Monglos did not follow the path from Sind(h) to Deccan via Gujarat (also known as Balavi) or Narbada-Malwa regions. Timur and Timur also established Turk Empire throughout Eurasia, Shahrukh defeated Delhi, ended up the Tughlaks, conquered Indus valley, made Delhi a subordinate and his successor Shahrukh established the Sayyids followed by Afghan warlords and house of elites during the Lodi. What happened Gahadavalas at Kannauj during the progress of Turk-Afghans of Delhi to the Rajputs? Sultanate into North India shifted to Rohilkhand (Panchala) and Himalayan track of Gaharwal hills. Chauhans at Delhi-Ajmer blessed with Sassanoid dignity continuously tried to unite other Rajput kingdoms of Rajputana-Malwa-Central India protesting against
Sultanates
Chingiz Khan
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progress of Turk-Afghan Shahi that eventually occupied MalwaGujarat trade route. Rajput confederation was better treated as Rajput Shahi. Pandya-Arab With the fall of Cholas during 1200 AD, Pandyas increased influenced vs. Khalji- in extreme south. Their capital Mabar within 1300 AD went into the Tughlak: hands of Arab traders who settled colonies successfully in coasts Foundation of of India and South East Asia as well as islands and archipelagos from BahmaniAfro-Asia to Pacific. Khaljis entered into Malwa, Gujarat, Central Shiite states India, Narbada (Khandesh), Deccan (Ratnagiri, Daulatabad, and Aurangabad, etc.), Telengana-Andhra to reach Mabar. Vijayanagaram - Poligars During the Tughlaks who showed interest in Central Asia-Iran-Egypt and Indo-Tibet borders, shifted capital in Deccan but failed to control over there. Deccan was soon under Bahmani Dynasty (converted Brahman) from Gulbarga. Shiite influence rapidly developed there (Berar, Berar, Golkunda, Ahammadnagar and Bijapur) with relations with Arabs, Iranians, Portuguese, Abyssinians, Turks and Tajiks. Throughout historicity of Deccan, there were influences of peoples who passed through Irano-Afghan plateau. That would lay down the future pedestal of Deccan Shahi that would soon become a Hindu Pad Padshahi. Extreme south and Andhra coast united to form Vijayanagara that ultimately broke down into local Poligars after the battle of Talikota or Banihatti in Rajchur basin with combined force of Shiite states of Deccan in mid-16th century (1565 AD); that was much closer to Mughals final win in 1556 AD over Turk-Afghan in concentration to Bengal-Bihar on control of Delhi. Bengal Immediately after occupancy over Delhi, Turk-Afghans Shahi and Tibet elements reached eastern India under Muhammad Bakhtiyar (2004-06), destroyed Buddhist heritage of Eastern India (Bihar), defeated Sen Hindu Dynasty in Bengal, crossed Ganges to reach Lakhnauti, the power center of North Bengal on Mahananda river basin and approached further towards ancient routes between Bengal and Tibet. Bughra Shah During the Slave Dynasty, Prince Bughra Khan or Bughra Shah and (128187 AD) started living in Pundrabardhana of North Bengal. PundrabardhanaBogra Pundrabardhana and its urban center Pundranagara were both named after Bughra Shah (128187 AD). Till now it is Bogra district with Bogra town plus ruins of Pundranagara town and the biggest Buddhist archaeological site (Mahasthangarh) in Bangladesh. Post-Bughra Mostly from Gour, various Turk-Afghan dynasties ruled regimes over Bengal throughout Delhi Sultanate in semi-independent manner in
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in Bengal durin post-Bughra period until Emperor Akbar of Mughal Padshahi g Delhi combined with the Rajput Shahi in last half of 16th Century AD Those Sultanate dynasties were Balbani Dynasty (12871301), Firuz Shahi Dynasty (130142), Ilyas Shahi Dynasty (13421415), Raja Ganesh Dynasty (141533), Restored Ilyas Shahi Dynasty (143386), Abyssinians (148693), Husain Shahi Dynasty (14931538), Sher Shah Sur And Successors (153864) and Karrani Dynasty (156475). Uzbek vs. Pushed by Uzbek Sultan Shaybani Khan, Turko-Moguls moved Mogul into Afghanistan, entered India and replaced the Lodis (Mughal) from Delhi (1526 AD) Sher Shah and Turko-Mongols or Mughals spread throughout North India, reached Akbar Bengal-Bihar region, faced repulsion from the autonomous TurkAfghan rulers there under Sher Shah Suri, fled to Iran, established good ties with the Sassanoid tradition, returned back and finally conquered Delhi (Akbars rule throughout second half of 16th Century AD); implemented various achievements of previous Suri and Khalji, aliened with many of the Rajputs, founded the base of Mughal-Rajput Shahi under supremacy of Mughal Padshahi, aware of jungle starts like Gondwanaland, interference into Shiite States of Deccan in postTalikota phase and also understood the importance of syncretism, agrarian system of India, European traders coming to India, Welfare State and state beyond religion (Secularism?) as well as conceptualized development of one nation. However, religious conservatism, Iranian influence, international policy to expand throughout the world, clashes for power within and outside, regionalism and wish to establish direct control over Bengal and Indian peninsula, excessive expenditure and lavishing life of the Mughal Dynasty and its associates and growing influence of Portuguese and other European traders along with their native collaborators were challenges. Iranian traditions, orthodox opposing the policy of synthesis, Sufism, praying to the sun and fire, rollback of taxation on rich Hindus, Theocracy beyond Islam, crisis of 1580 AD, Nurjahan, Tajmahal, loosing Kandahar to Iran, extra-dependence on Rajput elements, failure in Central Asia movements, revolts by several Afghan tribes including Afridis, Portuguese-Mog(h) pirates controlling over river and sea routes of Bengal, semi-autonomous attitude of Bengal, revolt of Shivaji in Deccan and Indian peninsula, growing impact of Radical Muslims in Delhi, temporary shift of capital from Delhi-Agra to Aurangabad Deccan were additive to gains and losses of Mughal Padshahi. Resistances were from Deccan, North East India and Tibet-Myanmar belt. Killing of pro-Iranian Prince Shah Suja at the position of Governor of Bengal Presidency in Arakan was very disgraceful to the
Mughal Bengal,
33
Mughal Deccan,
dignity of the state and the Mughal reign as descendant of both Chingiz Khan and Timur Lang.
Irano- Afghan region during ... the Mughals, Nabobs of different Suba (Provinces), Nizam in Hyderabad Deccan, British-French Portuguese-Dutch imbroglio over trade in South Asia followed by mercantile Anglo-French rivalry leading to war on control over America, Arab influence in extreme south and Mysore, emergence of Hindu Pad and the British Padshahi in Deccan just beneath the Mughal-Rajput supremacy, expansion of Marathas from Odisha to Malwa-Gujarat and from Crown Gwalior control over Delhi to Rajasthan and entire North India and outbreak of warrior clans (Pindari, etc) on ancient trade routes were evidenced strongly. Growing influence of Iran in Afghanistan and Indus valley, emergence of Sikhism, Baluchistan-Sind and Kashmir going their own ways, formation of Rohil(l)a Turko-Afghan colonization in the subHimalayas and their establishment and formation of Gorkha Shahi in Central Himalayas with notion of pan-Himalayan statehood beginning from Nepal state were enough to dilution of Mughal dignity. Bengal Nabob family was originally a converted Brahman of peninsular India raised up by Nizam of Deccan. Maratha attacks on behalf of Hindu Pad Padshahi of Deccan from Nagpur-Chotonagpur belt over different pockets of Bengal Presidency then under the Nabobs and secondly, exclusion of Orissa (Odisha) from Bengal to Deccan were consequential. .. Attacks by Iran and Afghans on Delhi, emergence of Sikh estates followed by Ranjit Singh of Lahore in western Punjab and Patiala in eastern part, independent attitudes by Sind-Baluchistan as well as Multan-Taank-Kashmir, Jat agitation in Agra-Delhi region and semiautonomous behaviour of native states and estates, probability of Russian innovation in Irano-Afghanistan and Indus valley through Uzbekistan and even Tibet were lethal for Mughal interest in South Asia. .. Similarly, post-revolution France during Napoleon tried to exaggerate
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throughout Eurasia and also attacked Egypt- the knot of ancient Silk and Spice Routes from Mediterranean. French influence in extreme south as well as dominance of Arab elements in Mysore who again communicated with Iran and France followed by clashes among Nizam, Maratha and Mysore Arabs were to be intervened. Lucknow emerged out as a major power center in North Indian Central Gangetic plain which was actually situated in ancient Kosala or Oudh near the sub-Himalayas and notified as an important Aryanand-Bactrian settlement. Nearby Jaunpur during the Delhi Sultanate and Gorakhpur as origin of Nathism were renowned. Lucknow was a place of Sufism and other religious syncretism. Nabob here was Shiite and of Iranian descent. Lucknow maintained independent policies regarding Bengal, British company, Mughal Padshahi, Rohila Pathan (Turk-Afghan) colony in ancient Panchal (sub-Himalayan Rampur and the way to Gaharwal hills). British East India Company got landholding in coastal areas of Bengal within 1692 AD which was much after French colonization in Malabar Coast of extreme south (1664 AD). The setting up of Calcutta in Murshidabad ruled Bengal, the Black Hole of Calcutta, the battle of Plassey, British control over Bengal Presidency and Bengal frontiers as well as Andhra coast, British supremacy over Bay of Bengal and Bengal trade, British expansion in whole out of India one by one, their policies regarding Himalayan buffer states and Gorkha Shahi of Nepal, their approach towards Sino-Tibet as well as Tibeto-Burmese belt enveloping North East India and eastern Bangladesh, creation of Madras and Bombay Presidencies (apart from the Bengal Presidency), assimilation of native states and estates or permitting their existence on condition (vied doctrine of lapse and policy of subsidiary alliance), incorporation of various Rajput states and Lucknow-Rohilkhand, formation of Commonwealth throughout Afro-Asiatic region and Australasia, ruling over the ancient magical world up to Caribbean islands, strategist regarding Buddhist and Arab nations and finally tactful dealing with other Europeans who had been taking interests in Eurasia, Irano-Afghanistan, Indus Valley, Sind-Baluchistan, TibetoKashmir frontiers, Mysore, other parts of Indian peninsula, South East Asia, Indonesia and various islands were all success of British company showing loyalty to both British crown and however Mughal Padshahi. British rather entered into India through Bay of Bengal than Khyber Pass. A two way entry from Bengal and extreme south
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was noticed. British established business in Bengal within first half of 18th Century AD after getting special permission from Mughal Padshahi in 1717 AD at a time when kind of Nabobi rule was forming there on behalf of Hyderabad Deccan. British tactfully observed quarrel among South Indian and Turk-Afghan and Mughal elements on the issue of control over Bengal Nabob. They indulged into seven year long battle (1740 1748 AD) with France in Europe over Austria. French established puppet governments in Kudappa, Arkot and Hyderabad in Indian peninsula and started controlling entire eastern coat directly or indirectly. The eventually set up good relationship with Arab elements in Mysore politics. British-Tiruchchirappally coalition supported by Maratha elements in extreme south (such as Thanjavur, Cauvery/Kaveri delta) resettled puppet government in Arkot after war against the French lobby (17511754 AD). Regarding their colonies and trade interests all over the world, especially Bay of Bengal, British and French again indulged into battle (1756-1763 AD). Bengal Nabob conquered British colony Calcutta, but British assisted by Dutchmen reoccupied it and took over French colony and the Nabob of Bengal (1757 AD, the battle of Plassey) and moved in all over Arkot and Hyderabad Nizam getting direct control over Andhra coast. Irano-Afghan elements and Mysore Arabs had alliance; Afghan Shah attacked Mughal Padshahi and defeated its combined force in 1761 AD That was followed by revolt of Bengal Nabob aided with an Armenian troop (1964 AD) and secondly, by a seven-year running five battles conducted by Mysore against the Deccan Marathas (1764-1771 AD). Baluch and Rohila tribes entered into Sind and Rohilkhand (1771 AD). In 1965 AD, British singed pacts with Nabob of Oudh and Mughal Padshahi to protect them against Afghans as well as with Hyderabad Nizam over Guntur. British assured Padshah and other provinces to protect them against any possible attack from Maratha elements of Deccan and therefore established de jure control over Bengal separating administration and taxation departments from each other. In this way, there initiated commercial imperialism that would soon to be converted into sub-imperialism and later a
36
geographical imperialism. British Arkot approached against Mysore Arabs (1767-69), but was defeated. Mughal Padshahi expressed confidence over the Marathas again (1771 AD). British withdrew facilities to Mughal Padshahi. Afghan colony in Rohilkhand (ancient Aryan sub-Himalayan establishment Panchal situated among Delhi, Oudh and Gaharwal hills and possible soft target for both Maratha and Irano-Afghans, 1972-73). They in 1768 AD during the battle offered Nizam the territory of Balaghat previously at the point of Mysore-Arkot dispute. British in 1975 AD established their colony in lower Sind. They in same 1775 AD charged for commercial support from Banaras subsidiary (also Varanasi, another ancient Aryan settlement in central Gangetic plain after Allahabad) and properties of Begums of Oudh Nabob. That was similar to a decade before activity by pro-Deccan elements of Bengal Nabobi against royal women and aristocracy allegedly in favour of British in Bengal. British in Bombay interfered into internal disputes of Maratha Deccan and Anglo-Maratha began (1775-1782 AD) that ended up with British interests in India with their lowest watermark. British and French again faced one to one and second Anglo-Mysore war (1778-1784 AD) occurred during Anglo-Maratha war of 17751782 AD and primarily got support from Nizam and Maratha. Sind grew its power being a subsidiary of Afghanistan till 1783 AD During 1790s, Mysore dealt with France, Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan; planted Tree of Liberty and supported French Revolution; was accused of having an entente with the French who regarded Tipu Sultan of Mysore the Citizen King and Napoleon prepared to move into Russia and Egypt. Wars of 1790-92 AD and 1798-99 AD resulted complete defeat of the congenital enemy Tipu Sultan who could not have an alley with either of Nizam and Maratha and his family was then shifted to Calcutta. Mysore was sliced among Company, Nizam and Maratha with original part under the original crown as princely subsidiary. British left Sind in 1792 AD and spread throughout Sind-BaluchistanRajasthan (partly). Afghans allied with Tipu could not break the Sikh shield in Punjab during 1790s and that later reasoned behind rise of Sikh power house at Lahore. However, western part of Oudh like Ganges-Yamuna
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basin, Allahabad and Rohilkhand were directly incorporated in British India and Nabob of Oudh remained confiner in eastern part after signing in treaty of subsidiary alliance (1801 AD). Most of Rajput and Gujarat estates became princely states under British. Within first two decades of 19th Century AD Napoleon was completely defeated and British succeeded to secure their Commonwealth that incorporated a large part of ancient Spice and Silk Routes. On the other hand, One Nation hypothesis of the Mughal Imperialism was stated taking shape in form of Pax Britannica or British Paramount in South Asia depending too much on foreign policy. British applied the policy of subsidiary alliance on Nizam (1798 AD) just before the war and with Jaipur, Surat, Arkot and Thanjavur (1800-1801 AD) after Napoleon and Tipu Sultan. They again went on a pact with Nizam in 1800 AD and held back parts of Mysore given to it. With the treaty of Bassine (1802 AD), they made Maratha Peshwa a subsidiary likewise Nizam and Badoda. They did the same also with other Maratha leaders in their Watans like Nagpur (1803 AD), Gwalior (1803, 1805 AD), Bharatput Jat (1805 AD) and Holkar (1806 AD). French troops in Maratha army were abolished. British within first two decades of 19th Century AD successfully incorporated Nabobs and estates of Central India, Rajasthan-Gujarat areas, Jat areas of Delhi-Agra region, eastern Sikh provinces (included Patiala) and broke down peripatetic military state of semi-nomad Pindari tribes (also Shahi Pindari) over various ancient trade routes under Maratha control. Parsis and Gujaratis were emerged out as British associates in port areas of Gujarat-Konkana and main buyers of Deccan cotton. Peshwa was sent in exile in Kanpur near to Kannauj for what Deccan fought for long. Marathas of Indore (Malwa) resisted for the longest period, but they also laid down their arms and became subsidiary alliance. Marathas left their demand over Rajput states and Bundelkhand. Even, they handed over Narbada valley and Gujarat. Except a few pockets and Chambal valley, they were devoid of Malwa. Marathas of Nagpur handed over Odisha to Bengal Presidency under the British. Nagpur also handed over Bidar to the Nizam. Entire Indian peninsula, coastal areas, Gujarat-Rajasthan, Deccan-Central India, Aravalli-Jatland, Narbada-Malwa and eastern Punjab were incorporated into British India. British even created Satara province for original successor of Shivaji Maratha. British were aware of Napoleon-Russia pact of 1807 AD and Russias growing influence over Irano-Afghanistan. Russia occupied all the central Asian Khanates (including Uzbekistan) and reached upto the borders of Caspian sea, Iran, Afghanistan, Armenia, Mongolia, China and Tibet. British
38
also brought in Sind under subsidiary alliance (1809 AD). British came into understanding with Sikhs (1809 AD) at Lahore of Western Punjab who started controlling Multan, Peshawar and Kashmir also and was a combination of Muslims, Dogra Rajputs, Sikhs and even a few Gorkhas. Sikhs checked Gorkha progression from Nepal to Kangra that we know as Himachal Pradesh. Sikh province was the entrance into India from Khyber Pass and IranoAfghanistan. British tried to set up a puppet government in Afghanistan, but failed again and again. However, Shah Suja of Afghanistan (1803-1809 AD) in post-Tipu Sultan period of South Asian situation could hardly think off about breaking down of SikhSind buffers. British decided Sind-Gujarat borderline (1820 AD), set up trade relationship with Sind (1825 AD), provided it security from Afghan and Punjab interferences (1832 AD), put war-treaties of 1838 AD on both Sind and Oudh during Anglo-Afghan war (1838-39 AD) and after severe setback in the war, made responsible and conquered Sind (1943 AD). British till the defeat of Maratha (1818 AD) said to be The Servant of Mughal Emperor and maintained Native State System with a policy of watching and waiting. Till 1835 AD they used the name of Mughal emperor in coins. British had battles with Himalayan state of Nepal came into existence since last half of 18th Century AD Within 1814-1816 AD, Gorkha Shahi of Nepalwas converted into an alliance partner of the British to maintain the Himalayas. Various Terai or foothill pockets and Gaharwal-Shimla regions were incorporated into India. British in 1817 AD got southern portion of Sikkim that they shaped into Darjeeling district. They also integrated remote pockets of Bengal and Central India. From Dinajpur-Rangpur of Rajshahi, they got a reliable alliance in the form of Koch Bihar Dynasty. Then they approached towards Bhutan, Sikkim and Tibet; incorporated Bhutan foothills Duars that they would break down into Assam and Bengal Duars. The latter after fixing with Koch Bihar (Cooch Behar) pockets developed another district Jalpaiguri. In the meantime, Anglo-Burma was of 1826 AD marked British win over coastal and delta Myanmar including Arakan as well as North East India. Assam was formed on Chetia-Ahom dominated areas incorporating tribal dominated Himalayan and Arakan mountainous borderlines and Meghalaya-Kuchhur-Jayantia hilly plateau. Besides Brahmaputra valley, Barak-Surma river course was integrated. Princely states like Manipur and Tripura were recognized. Sri
39
Lanka, Maldives, Malabar coast, Lakshadweep and so many trade pockets they had to integrate. British established tea estates in Terai, Duars and Darjeeling as well as on Nilgiri hills of extreme south and Sri Lanka. Economic and demographic alterations along with ecosystem altered conditions of those included borderlands. They sold Indian opium in Chinese market. Tibet was under British influence. In 1952 AD, British fought second war with Burmese and reached its internal territory full of forest and mineral resources. They always opposed Russian involvement in Irano-Afghanistan. They developed Gurkha (Gorkha) and Sikh regiments in Army of British India. Jammu, Kashmir, Baltistan and Tibet Heights under Dogra Rajput subsidiary and Punjab as a non-regulated province were appreciated. In 1950s British lapsed Jhansi of Bundelkhand, Sambalpur of inner Odisha, Berar, Satara, Peshwam Thanjavur (Tanjore), Arkot, Nagpur and Oudh. They sent Bengal regiment to Surat. Success in anti-opium movement in China and brutal suppression of agrarian tribal Santhal (Santal) agitation were most disgraceful for the company. Various local leaders with vested interests, patriots, native army and even peoples basically of North India and at separate isolated pockets were decided to raise voices. That led to Sepoi Mutiny of 1857 AD That was also suppressed but at the cost of power transition from a company to British crown. This has been truly said The nations which had merchant ships to send and gun boats to accompany them knew no law except their own (Maiti vol.II, 1990, p: 337). However, British followed the doctrine of non-intervention and neutrality, forward policy and policy of consolidation to cross this long way when they could say half of India under them leaving the rest becoming enemy. They for sure followed reverse that way in most of the time immigrants from Khyber actually had used. They did not take too much time, as they developed factories in Britain after industrial revolution (1760-1790 AD) and sold their goods throughout the British colonies including Indian market. Doing this, however, they destroyed local handicrafts, collected maximum rent from production systems that even caused severe famine of 1770 AD, faced peasant and tribal agitations, ruled over all the ancient trade routes, replaced native traders other than the collaborators, facilitated the Plassey plunder, introduced monetary system in place of traditional economies (barter, slavery, Gold, cow and crop-share), converted the wealth into monetary system and drained it in a single direction towards industrial revolution. A new section of money lenders and landholders were emerged out especially in Bengal. British India followed several ways to rule the places under
40
their direct control: conservative, liberal (and sensitive as well), reformative utilitarian and evangelist. They set up P.W.D, railways and telegraph, postcard, produced middle class intelligentsia, urban centers and ports. These actions were criticized to be for more trade in a one sided tax free condition reaching local markets of interior regions. The company after all errors was treated as bringing in spirit of British freedom in oriental despotism. They with a masterly as well as masterful mind turned British Empire in India into British Empire India. British laid down three types of land settlements: (1) Zamindari/Permanent Settlements where they allowed estates with permanent landholding and rest part of the society being suppressed under a huge pyramid of intermediate strata and leading a life of tenant or serf; (2) Ryotwari Settlement with provision of collecting tax from big farm houses and (3) Mahalwari Settlement with direct revenue from village units. There were separate tenancies in Punjab and Oudh.
Table 9: Marital Relationship in Politics influencing Migration During the Epics (before 2.6 kybp) Women played crucial role in that period as we can mention the names like Sita (Seeta) from Ramayana as well as Draupadi from Mahabharata. Birthplace of Sita was located in Indo-Nepal sub-Himalayas of Mithila (Vajjian Confederacy); she was married to Rama of Oudh; due to certain causes they were sent into exile; younger brother Lakshmana accompanied them; there we could find out the routes from North India to Indian peninsula through Central Indian jungles upto Sri Lanka; the island kingdom was named as Lanka literary meaning spices; also the island state had piles of cloth (silk?) abundant to burn the whole city made of Gold; battle between Rama and islanders for Sita has been mentioned and "sub-Human" elements also accompanied Rama as allied force; stories related to ethno-medicine, snake and bird deities, cannibalism, magic, bridging up the sea, martial art (including water-fire-air-earth pending) and dangerous sea zones like Bermuda Triangle have been so far hinted. Now the unsolved questions are: Was Sita a symbol of pre-Vedic Aryan presence in Tibeto-Himalayan region? Was a Rama symbolic to Indo-Aryan trace in North India? Were there any indication to glacial periods (best for moving into new islands due to low see levels), trade of ethno-medicines and life-saving drugs propagated in sacred groves, Spice and Silk Routes, El dorado, blood sacrifices and magical powers and unsolved mysteries like Bermuda triangle indicated to? Is there any indication to worldwide spread of bird and snake
41
worshipers? Migratory birds were like natural compass and people in jungle and marshlands had to fight against ferocious animals including reptiles and snakes that they denoted as Dragon. Was that indicating to harsh climate leading to cannibalism? Does it indicate to a link between semi-nomadic forest-dwelling folk life and Civilization on trade routes at a pre-agricultural stage? Rama might be the symbol of agrarian social structure. Mithila might be the gateway to South Asia from Tibet. Sri Lanka might be a link among orient, Afro-Asia and Mediterranean. Following agriculture, urbanites in post-Harappan period and ironsmiths had been entered into South India in within 3.8-3.0 kybp and developed megalithic culture (3.0-2.5 AD) that was vehemently replaced by cremation of the corps. Aryan settlements were flourished within 3.2-2.6 kybp in North India along with Vajjian Confederacy and other republican tribes in sub-Himalayas as well as Askmaka in Deccan. Magadha in eastern Indiaincreased its power using marital relationships with Vajjian Confederacy. Magadha eventually occupied transnational business center of Anga (or Rajmahal of present day). Anga was again within another confederacy of Anga, Vanga, Sumbhra, Pundra and Kalinga. Magadha competed long with Kalinga being a part of Indian peninsula (2.5-2.0 kybp). Still now, contemporary megaliths are found in tribal belts of Odisha (Kalinga), Chotonagpur plateau andhra coast, Meghalaya plateau (North East India) and parts of Central India (Bhasin and Walter, 2001: 12). Subsidiary elements were established in Indian peninsula and Sri Lanka by Rama. Entire rites de passage of Sita was not mentioned It is true that after cremation, ash is buried with a kind of megalithic structure among the Tibetans. Smith regarded Licchavi Dynasty of Tibeto-Mongoloid origin fell under Hindu caste structure (Maiti vol. I, 1990: 99-100). Why is the epic still so famous in Indonesia where animists and Hindus have already been superordinated by Buddhist, Muslim and Christian populations? Is that because of the reason that islands of Indonesia were connected during last glaciation and probable route for the Australoids to Australasia? Had that been previously the route of early Homo to Java during the first expansion of Hominids from Africa (500 kybp)? When the Australoids arrived at those areas (6.5-4.0 kybp), they might have faced off such early Hominids. In later days, we could see existence of Dakshina Kosala [or Oudh of the South, under Ikshvaku Aryan Dynasty who also ruled Oudh (Maiti vol. I, 1990: 97) communicating coastal Odisha (Utkala, Odra, Kalinga, Ganjam) with Andhra coast and Tamil Nadu. Kalinga has been mentioned in ancient Indian history again and again. During the pre-Mauryan and Mauryan, it was flooded with Jainism or Buddhism later replaced by Hindu values, Vaishnavism and tribal beliefs. Guptas (350-550 AD) invaded that coastal belt through the same Dakshina Kosala after marrying Princess of sub-Himalayan Licchavi fallen under Vajjian Confederacy. Andhra coast was an important part of Chalukyas in Deccan. Pallavas for long resided that territory. Cholas
42
established marital relationship with Chalukya branch of Vengi (Andhra coast) to confirm their security allover Bay of Bengal. Vijayanagaram Empire of 14th-16th Century AD also took its origin there. Hyderabad Nizam allotted this coastal belt to French during Anglo-French war (1740-1748 AD); then the coast was handed over to the British during second and third Anglo-French war (1751-55 AD and 1756-63 AD). The entire coastal belt contained a huge number of ports. Mediterranean, Arab and European traders did their business. In another Indian epic of Mahabharata, Draupadi was shown as Princess of the Panchal (sub-Himalayan Aryan settlement). She was married to five brothers (polyandry). Her and her brothers births were from sacred fire (Aryanisation). Her friend was Krishna of Mathura-Dwarka clearly showing trade route from sub-Himalayas to Gujarat. Followers of Krishna were treated as Yadu who believed in pastoralism and agriculture also. Of the five brothers, all were originated from blessings of various Gods; Arjuna of them married other Princesses (Manipur, Naga and Yadu); whereas Bhima to Rakshasa. All of them ruled over different trade routes or route entries. On that trade route, was the Aryan kingdom of Matsya whose Princess was married to the son of Arjuna and sister of Lord Krishna. Silk and cloths were available to this trade route. In Tibet, polyandry is still practiced. Five brothers (Pandavas) turned towards matrilineality, whereas their cousin brother of ancient Aryan settlement Kuru were highly in favour of patriarchy and formed union of hundred brothers establishing marital and strategic relationships with Aryan settlements of Indus valley, Sind, Anga and its eastern Indian confederacy, Pragyotishpur (North East India on Brahmaputra valley and minor fractions of Yadu. Magadha was mentioned as a superpower in Gangetic plains from eastern India made up of non-Aryan and Aryan compositions. Snake clans prevailed and forest dwellers were also there. Earlier Hominid forms, cannibals, rock climbers, Tibetans, Central Asians were all hinted here. Naga, Garuda, Rakshya, Yaksha, God (Deva), Daitya, Man (Manava), Danava, Sura, Asura, Kinnara, kirata, Vanara, Apsara, Gandharva were different races. Gold was mentioned again and again. Urbanization was a common trend besides Brahmanism and agricultural relationships. Bonfires were practiced to establish new settlements. Molestation of Draupadi was the key reason behind war between matriarchy and patriarchy. Mountainous routes and dog (dog sledge?), fishing community moving on the river ways, vanara (rock climbers?), pre-Aryan Shiva cult as Lord of rivers and jungles and jungle routes have been mentioned in the epic. Food and wealth were crucial factors as two important economic sources viable for states hostility. Indra, Varuna, Yama, Brahma and Kuvera were mentioned as wealthiest. Hunter-gatherers and wood cutters were the factors that Krishna had to face off during further entrance in interior parts of India. That might be from Gujarat into Narbada valley full of ferocious animals, snakes and hunters at that time. Hunters made wooden sculptures of Krishna as the Lord all humanity. During his death, from the mouth of
43
Balarama (elder brother of Krishna) thousand-headed snake came out and went into the sea. Was that symbolic to occupying thousand trade routes all over the world? Kalinga from Pre-Aryan days remained a major trade center and now Krishna with his brother and sister are being worshiped there in modern Odisha: sculptures are made up of wood; the temple might be of Jains or Buddhists long ago with a different conceptualization and remarkably there are no hands in each of the three idols. Clashes between pre-Aryans thriving on ancient routes and Aryans settling new colonies on the borders and inside the jungles have been made. PreIn Magadha, Bhattiya was founder of Harshanka Dynasty that might be of Mauryan Indo-Tibet origin and king Bimbisara was highly influenced by Buddhism period (and Jainism). Those religions were other than Hinduism and took birth in (2.6-2.3 sub-Himalayan Vajjian confederacy by Kshattiyas. That might be traces of kybp) pre-Vedic Aryan innovations through Tibeto-Himalayan terrains where Bhot or Bhote tribe was residing. Like Hapsburg Dynasty of Austria (Alpo-Dinaric region on the same axis with Himalayas), marital relationship played key role in expansion of Magadha. Bimbisara married Princesses of Kosala and various sub-Himalayan republican states like Licchabi, Videha (Mithila) and Madra in Punjab (Maiti vol. I, 1990: 104-110). The legend of Parasurama indicates that there were wars on behalf of Brahmanism against non-Brahmanic alliance led by the warrior Kshatriyas. The latter were defeated and took shelter to Kashyapas in Kashmir which was another block of Brahmanism parallel to North India and much closer to Tibet-Himalayas. Many of them took Kashyapa as clan. Many of these Kshatriyas demoralized with decrease to an excluded status quo (Bratya Kshatriya). Bimbisara appreciated Buddhism and successfully incorporated the trade center of Anga (gateway to Bay of Bengal, South East Asia and far East). Imperialism initiated in this way continued until Kalinga was incorporated. That was contemporary to Indo-Iranian occupancy in Indus valley region and got support from republican states. Sub-Himalayan Buddhist republican confederacies were occupied by Magadha who also captured KoshambiBatsya region from the control of Avanti. Elements of Buddhist republican confederacy then occupied Magadha, but replaced by Nanda Dynasty. Nandas were Sudras (servant category) and not from either of Brahmans and Kshatriyas. Buddhist Kshatriyas menaced Vedic religion and Brahmanism but were replaced by Sudras. According to Greek sources, Nandas were in clash with Buddhist Kshittriyas due to certain women related issues (Maiti vol. I, 1990, pp: 104-110). Interesting to see that British East India Company during Anglo-French war of 1756-1763 AD established de facto rule over Bengal (1757 AD) and also set up puppet governments on Arkot and Hyderabad. That was just after Anglo-French war of 1740-1748 AD on enthronement in Austria and then
44
again another war of 1751-1755 AD on dominance over Indian ports. In 1764 AD, Afghans at that time attacked India (1748-1767 AD), defeated Marathas (1761 AD) and established control over Indus valley. Mysore allegedly collaborating with both Irano-Afghans and French indulged into fighting against Marathas (1764-1771 AD) in which British also later got involved for a shorter period (1768-1969 AD). At the same time, subordinated local government of Bengal shifted its power center to Munger (formerly Anga) and with the aid of its Armenian troop revolt against the British and also got temporary support from Oudh (formerly Kosala) and Mughal Padshahi (1764 AD). British got de jure control over Bengal (1765 AD), brought Oudh and Padshahi under treaty to protect them from Irano-Afghans and also Marathas from Malwa (formerly Avanti). They occupied Kara-Allahabad (formerly Koshambi or Batsya). Was Nanda-Kshatriya clash similar to various affairs regarding royal families in Bengal during Mughal Padshahi that probably caused appointment of a converted Deccan Brahman Murshid Quli in Bengal in first half of 18th Century AD instead of any Mughal-Rajput or Turk-Afghan element? Mauryan Clash between Sudra Nandas and Mauryas of Kshatriya-Brahman (IndoPeriod Aryan) lobby during Greek occupancy over Irano-Afghanistan (2.3-2.2 and Indus valley) was also fired by women related issue. Mauryas were kybp/ probably from sub-Himalayan Pipphalivana republic of Malla confederacy 321-185 and later grouped up with Greeks. Mauryas later established marital relations B.C.) with Greeks. They praised Buddhism and Jainism, but asked for syncretism and linked between Aryan values and folk belief (such as concept of Dhamma). Mauryas probably gathered resources from Punjab and MalwaNarbada regions before occupying Nanda Empire already spread nearly all over India except extreme south of Indian peninsula. Mauryas only expanded further into Gujarat, Indus valley, Kashmir, Afghanistan populated by Aryan elements, Indo-Iranians, Greeks and ancient Aryans speaking Khorosti (Kyrgyz?) as well as Pundrabardhana (North Bengal) and Nepal gateways to Tibeto-Burmese belt. From Bengal they progressed into Sri Lanka and won Kalinga (Odisha) after a brutal battle. Many Persians fled to Magadha and in its end days Bactrian Greeks spread over North Indian sub-Himalayas preferring however Vaishnavism more than Buddhism. Brahman elements started ruling Magadha. That union of sub-Himalayan confederacies and Irano-Afghan elements had not been succeeded during Persian Empire (Maiti vol. I, 1990, pp: 122-152).
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Gupta period (350550 AD)
Guptas from Magadha were highly supporting Brahmanism and they similarly emphasized on marital relations with Licchavis and Vakataka. Clash on woman was again the factor of Gupta-Satrap war and occupancy of Gujarat that was contemporary of Aka the Avars kingdom over Kiderite Kushana of Afghanistan, Indo-Sassanoid Kushanshah of Sind, Kashmir and Hun areas of Central Asia. India became wealthy through Indo-Roman trade. Thereafter, Huns and their associates expanded throughout Eurasia, South Asia, Roman Empire and Mediterranean. In both pre and post-Gupta period also exhibited importance of marital relationships, such as Satrap-Satavahana, Thanesar-Maukhari, PalaRashtrakuta, Chola-Chalukya (Vengi). Clash was there between Sisodia (Sassanoid) Chwa tribe of White Hun (Chaudharis) of Delhi-Ajmer and Gahadavalas of Kannauj was substantial proof of clashes on women during Rajput periods. Slavery was a usual phenomenon that facilitated various migrations. People from Abyssinia and Zanzibar were remarkable. During Delhi sultanate, Razia Sultan ruled India for a few years and she was assisted by her Abyssinian officer with whom Razia had allegedly some e personal attachments. Abyssinians had also ruled Bengal for a short time. Mughal Prince Jahangirs secretly loved Nurjahan of Iranian origin, but Padshah Akbar opposed that relationship and organized her marriage with Turk-Afghan warlord Sher Afghan Aliquli Israzul in Bengal. There are tombs of Jahangirs brother and Aliquli side by side in Bengal. Nurjahan was sent back to Agra in Mughal Harem and four year later Jahangir married her. Jahangir also killed his son Khasru supported by Rajputs, Iranians, TurkAfghans, Bangash Afghan tribe, Sikhs and eastern Indians (Maiti, 1990 vol. I, pp. 81-85). Shah Suja of Mughal Dynasty was administrator of Bengal (1639-1660) and united entire Bengal and large parts of North East India, sub-Himalayas and coastal regions. He was very much pro-Iranians and his wives were of Iranian origin. He got involved into the battle for Mogul Thorn with his bothers and was defeated. He fled to Arakan, where he was brutally killed with his family members, his properties were looted and women were misbehaved (Benglapedia free encyclopedia of Bangladesh on Shah Suja; Maiti, 1990 vol. I, pp. 187). Portuguese elements enslaved the common people and sold them in different corners of globe: from Europe to America. They believed in forceful conversion into Christianity and even dare to capture women of Mogul Harem. Portuguese then fled to Arakan and their river-port in Hoogly went into the hands of Mughals (1632 AD) (Maiti, 1990 vol. I, pp: 186-89). Arakan in 1459 AD conquered Chittagong and its coast and from 16thCentury AD onward in combination with Portuguese, the Mog pirates ruled the river ways of Ganges and Brahmaputra of Bengal. Mughals reoccupied Chittagong and destroyed vested interest of Arakan-Mog there
Muslim period (12001857 AD)
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with the help of Portuguese (1666 AD). Mughals permitted British to establish port in Kolkata (1690AD). [Maiti, 1990 vol. I, p: 1889]. Political expansion of British company in India was not from Khyber but Bengal. British East India Company had got the special business facilities from Mughal Padshahi proved to be Magna Charta for them in Bengal Presidency since 1717 AD That was the same time when newly formed Bengal Nabob was indulged into strengthening feudalism, collection of huge amount of tax over there, sending revenue to Delhi and causing deflation, famine, impoverishment and leaving his people at a stage of subhuman creature. However, Nabob and his associates including the bankers accumulated huge quantity of wealth but not actually for the common people (Maiti, 1990 vol. II, pp: 108-10). Bengal Nabob divided the Presidency into East Bengal, West Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. The South Indian elements in Bengal polity were ruled out as Alivardi Khan assassinated grandson of Murshid Quli Khan appointed by Hyderabad Nizam. Quli was a converted South Indian Brahman and founder of Bengal Nabob. . Qulis grandson was accused of having an afire with lady from Alivardis family (Maiti, 1990 vol. II, p. 117). Maratha elements from Deccan again and again attacked Bengal, looted commoners and bankers at Murshidabad and other urban centers, created anarchy in parts of Bengal and Alivardi had to give up Odisha; Alivardi was also facing protests from Turk-Afghan elements of Bihar and Odisha in eastern India and they killed Alivardis brother, nephew who was also his sonin-law and captured his daughter. Marathas also destroyed various Vaishnava temples; a fear regarding Hindu Pad Padshahi always prevailed there among the Muslims especially those who supported Alivardi. Many fled to East Bengal. Alivardi made a pact with Marathas by which he would be bound to pay regular tax to them. After him, Siraj-ud-daulah became Nabob and made rivalry with bankers, British, pro-British elements of royal family and power center in East Bengal. He was replaced by British puppet after battle of Plassey, 1757 AD Nadir Shah from Iran attacked Mughal Padshahi (1738-39 AD), made it a subsidiary, occupied Indus valley and Afghanistan-Baluchistan, drained the wealth, demolished Delhi and married Mughal Princess. That was followed by warfare between British and French companies (1740-1740 AD). Afghans for nine times attacked India (1748-1767 AD) and defeated Marathas (1761 AD). That were contemporary to Anglo-French was of 1751-1755 AD, that of 1756-1763 AD, British de facto rule on Bengal (1757 AD), Mysore-Maratha war (1764-1771 AD), final war of Bengal (1764 AD), British de jure rule on Bengal (1765 AD) and expansion of Gorkha Shahi (1764 AD), Clash between Tipu Sultan of Mysore and Hyderabad Nizam was also concentrated on Tipus proposal for establishing a marital relationship during 1780s (cited by Wilks, History of Mysore) (Maiti, 1990 vol. II, p: 197).
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So, gender issues in royal families were responsible for disharmony in Mughal Empire and power gradually shifted to the British. The classification between civilian and native was nothing new, but had come from pre-British period. Racism and series of successive immigration widely affected Indian polity.
Table 10: Muslim Peopling and Immigration in Bengal Facts In 1872 AD of undivided Bengal, Bogra district however noticed the highest Muslim concentration (80-90 per cent) followed by Chittagong, Noakhali, Rajshahi, Pabna (7080 per cent); Coomilla, Bakarganj, Maimensingh, Rangpur (60-70 per cent); Jessore, Khulna, Faridpur, Dhaka, Sylhet, Dinajpur (50-60 per cent); Malda, Murshidabad, Nadia, Twenty-Four Parganas (40-50 per cent); Jalpaiguri (3040 per cent); Hawrah, Hoogly, Kuch Bihar (20-30 per cent); Birbhum, Burdwan (10-20 per cent); Midnapur, Bankura, Purulia and Darjeeling (0-10 per cent) (Beverley, 1872, pp. 1215). Probable Reason Might this be due to anti-caste rigidity sentiments rather than immigration (Beverley, 1872: 132). There were however evidences of immigration of Islamic culture and Muslims from Arabs, Turk-Afghan regions and conversion of high caste Hindus of politico-economic dominance (including Rajputs) and hence immigration theory cannot be totally rejected and we could not assumed that all of Muslims were from lower-caste (Kaibarta and Chandal) or of caste origin. The Muslim masses are there in the delta long before thirteenth century. This led some to embrace a hybrid theory that combined elements of both the Immigration theory and the Religion of Social Liberation thesis. In this view, ashrf immigrants had settled in the land and become naturalized Bengalis, while at the same time masses of ethnic Bengalis were attracted towards the quasi-egalitarian attitude of Islam. Mutual accommodation facilitates omitting social differences between the ashrf and the masses. This theory of mutual accommodation became ideologically convenient for the unity of all Muslims residing within borders of East Pakistan (formerly East Bengal and later Bangladesh) in post-independence scenario (Ali, 1985, pp: 75088). Vast majority of the Muslim cultivators and lower sections of the community are descended at a comparatively recent date from the aboriginals like the Rajbansis (including Koches) in North Bengal and the Chandals, Pods and other castes of non-Aryan origin in East Bengal. From blood group distribution, that 48
Muslim population showed higher concentration in eastern and southern Bengal, even more than in earlier Muslim power centers like Malda-Murshidabad and those places had mostly
agrarian social system (Wise, has been more or less evident that Muslims of Twenty1892, p: 28). Four Parganas were of rural origin were mostly from their low-caste Hindu neighbours, the Mahisyas and Bagdis; whereas Bengali Muslims locating in urban sectors were serologically closer to the distant nonBengali immigrants (Chatterji and Mitra, 1942, p: 197, 201-2). Tribal and scheduled caste non-Muslim groups of Bengal could be the possible origin of the Muslim population in Bengal rather than outside and even from North India. Especially, pre-partition data of 1945 (prior to 1947) showed that East Bengal groups, both Muslim and non-Muslim, differed fundamentally from West Bengalis (Majumdar and Rao, 1960, pp: 96-114). Forcible conversion theory is Gait (1902) found that impoverishment, extensive also there. trade, formation of new settlements, higher facilities, escaping from criminal punishment and slavery might be other causes. Chatterji (1963, p: 160-61) has supported the theory of religious conversion which was not always peaceful and quite similar to Spanish Catholic conquistadores in Mexico and Peru and elsewhere in America, sought to destroy the culture and religion of the land as the handiwork of Satan destroying pillages, destruction of temples, palaces, images and libraries, abduction and enslavement of men and women, wholesale massacres and forcible conversion. To me that was quite similar to the Hun destruction of western Europe as well as abolition of Buddhist heritage by White Huns in North India: only in Bengal throughout the Pala regime (750-1165 AD) till 1200 AD the Buddhist values could exist eventually collaborating with the Hindus and even as a branch of Hinduism and Tantric versions (magicoreligious). Majumdar (1973, p: 196-97) has highlighted on one way conversion from Hinduism and pro-Hindu versions to Islam in both sustained and forceful ways.
Table 11: Immigration in Included Parts of Bengal Area Formation Migration

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Darjeeling district British in 1814-1816 AD brought Gorkha Shahi of Nepal in own favour, demarked Indo-Nepal border, secured Sub-Himalayan pockets, included areas like Gaharwal and Shimla, intervened in the clash between Sikkim and Nepal and opposed political expansion of Gorkha (Gurkha) throughout pan-Himalayas initiated since 1764 AD Formation of Gorkha Shahi was contemporary to Afghan attacks in India 1748-1767 AD, Maratha-Afghan war of 1761 AD, Anglo-Bengal wars of 1757 and 1764 AD, Maratha-Mysore war of 1764-71 AD, Anglo-French war of 1756-1763 .D., Anglo-Mysore war of 1768-1770 AD, establishment of Sind-Baluchistan and Rohilkhand in 1771 AD, de jure establishment of British in Bengal in 1765 AD, removal of British impact on Delhi by Marathas in 1771 AD after Marathas defeating Mysore, BritishOudh joint attacks on Rohilkhand in 1771-1772 AD. British within 1799 AD defeated Mysore and within 1809 AD ruled out all possibilities of any French innovations. All over Indian states either became subsidiary alliances or brought in subsequently in favour of the British (Arkot, Maratha, Tanjore, Nizam, Surat, Jaipur, Jat, Sind, Sikhs, Oudh). Within 1818 AD Marathas and their allied forces of Pindari groups, the estates of Rajasthan-Gujarat, Ajmer and many others were made into subsidiary. Anglo-Nepal relationship in this context was very important. In 1817 AD, by signing a separate treaty, British increased its control over Sikkim and got its southern part Darjeeling-Kurseong. That part was added to foothill to provide a shape of Darjeeling district. British instead of
British allowed ethnic communities of Nepal Himalayas to enter into Darjeeling district. Those people would be treated as Nepalis. They with their notion of Gorkhahood joined army in British India. They had a separate regiment (Gurkha Regiment). They contributed to protection of Indian interest in Himalayas. Indo-Nepal relations were so good that even direct from Nepal they could join the force. They also acted as human shield in Indo-Tibet borders. Nepalis also altered demography of Sikkim. Nepali ethnic groups were mostly Hindu castes along with various animistic and also Buddhist sections. Shepra, Denzongpa, Monpa, Drukpa are some of the Tibetan communities residing in Nepal, Sikkim, eastern Himalayas and Bhutan. Lepchas were original inhabitants of Sikkim. Gorkha (also Gurkha) and Nepali peoples marginalized them and later incorporated into their social fold. Nepali Matoalis were followed by Tagadharis. Nepalis also joined as working class in tea gardens of Darjeeling Himalayas and introduced settled cultivation in hilly terrains instead of shifting cultivation/ agroforestry. Fruits, flowers, spices, forest produces and medicinal plants were alternative economies. The urban centers of hills were gradually overcrowded by these Nepalis much higher than mainland Indians, plain people, Tibetan, Kashmiri and Chinese Diasporas. Hill stations were connected by roads and narrow gauge rail service. Those were tourism hubs and also good for health recovery.
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older pockets like Bondorgocch (now Phansidewa), Chathat and Matigara; built up Siliguri in the foothill as their main center. They also set up various hill stations including Darjeeling town. Siliguri had been targeted by native Koch Bihar dynasty also. Koch Bihar but later settled in Jalpaiguri where they developed their Raikat branch. Siliguri foothill is continuous with Terai or foothills of Nepal. Easternmost part of Nepal foothill is Morang and it together with Siliguri foothill lies on Mahananda and its various tributaries. Mechi-Mahananda basin covers Siliguri foothills and all the rivers of this basin originate from Darjeeling-Kruseong region: most important of them are Mahananda, Mechi and Balason. Bhimbar-Sonapur on this basin is said to be the origin of Kaibarta agitation during Pala Empire (750-1100 AD). During the initial stages of British Bengal throughout second half of 18th Century AD, they had to face off agitation from local monks or Sanyasis. A strong shelter of those agitators was the Mechi-Mahananda basin covered with dense jungle. Jalpaiguri district After establishing full control over Bengal (1757-1765 AD), British from Malda, Rajshahi, Pabna, Bogra and Dinajpur further approached towards Rangpur and Koch Bihar that were set up on Teesta-Torsha waterways from Sikkim-Tibet-Bhutan. Koch Bihar was a native state that had kept friendly relationship with Mughal Padshahi and Rajput elements. They once spread on Rangpur and huge part of Brahmaputra valley and other pockets of North East India. Koch-Rajbanshis were enthroned there that was a Tea, timber, small townships, road and railways connectivity, bridges and outside people were introduced into Duars. Previous economies on transnational trade, forest collections, agro-forestry, slash-and-burn cultivations were gradually marginalized. Various caste people and even agrarian tribal groups entered in Duars for low cost land for cultivation. Tea estates were established in both Assam Duars and Bengal Duars. Most of them were under the British and a few under the native collaborators. British also established tea estates in Nilgiri hills of extreme south of Indian peninsula, Sri 51
combination of Rajbanshi caste and Lanka and Kenya near the horn ofAfrica. Tea Koch tribe. gardens were later established in Nepal, western Himalayas, other pockets of North There were various tribal pockets like East India, Varind Highland , Meghalaya, that of Toto, Dhimal, Mech, Rabha, Kalimpong and Sikkim. Chinese monopoly on Bodo, etc. (Dalton, 1872; Risley Vol. I, tea trade was lost for ever. Darjeeling tea was 1891) in and around Koch Bihar along known for its flavour. British established in Bhutan, Tibet and its border residents occupied Malaysia, Singapore and Burma (My with Bhutan Himalayan Kingdom. anmar). Koch Bihar in Mughal period was contemporary of British allowed Nepalis in Duars as labourers. Ahom kingdom of North East India. The But they more brought the Proto-Australoid previous statehood was Kamtapur which and Dravidian tribal communities from Central India, Odisha also originated at Gossanimari in Chotonagpur, vicinity of Cooch Behartown. That had and Deccan. Mostly Mundas and Oraons were been ruled by Khen people also treated brought into. They were followed by caste as Teli. Khens were contemporary to people also. Many tribal groups and castes Bengal and Delhi Sultanates and also entered into this land for new opportunities. Chetia migration from Thai-Burmese Tribal communities in Central India and territories to Chotonagpur were mostly treated as the Brahmaputra valley of North East India. Adivasis many still maintaining the megalithic Chetia and Ahoms in North East India constructs at least in miniature or indigenous were linked in with Turk-Afghans and forms. Muslim people of various ethnic Mughal-Rajput elements in Bengal by identities also entered into the place. In tea Kamtapur-Koch Bihar set ups. These garden areas, Adivasi and Nepali combination native statesmen also connected with developed. Mymensingh and Susanga-Durgapur (nest to Meghalaya plateau), Kucchur Land measurement techniques were mostly the (next to Jayantia hills), Srihatta or Sylhet khud-kathi system that was highly altered due (on Barak-Surma-Meghna water system to incorporation of monetary economy and next to Manipur), Coomilla (on Feni- permanent settlement in tribal belts. Peasants Haora river system next to Tripura), became tenants, burdened with debt, altered Chittahong (Arakan coast and Arakan from indebted to bonded labours like serfs, range). The belt exhibited Bodo-Kamta were brought to work in construction and or Kok-Borok elements. Dynasty usually railways and left without any legal provisions. used the surname Barmana. Aar-kathi system emerged out that facilitated those bonded labourers to move into Duars in Rajbanshi agrarian community search of a new life. (believing in caste and Kashyapa clan) used to pilgrim to Jalpesh where we In tea gardens, they were nothing more than could found an underground megalith. serfs, but free from tax paying, staying in They were believed to be mixed up with quarters, getting wage, buying goods in local Kirata people (Mongoloid) and weekly markets, a section being converted into treated as Desi people. Christianity, partly changing previous intertribal relationships, practicing matrilocal
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Rajbanshis also believed in their links with Pundra who were as old as Nishada, Savara andhra and other ProtoAustraloid groups. Pundra had developed Pundranagara (the city of Pundrabardhana: other than Harappan Civilization). That is now the Bogra town of Bogra district. Like VajjianMalla-Kosala confederacies, Pubdrabardhana was once an important center of Buddhism exhibiting ruins at Mahasthangarh and Paharpur. Rajbanshis believed in the stories of Parasurama and Kashyapa. Interesting to see is existence of Brahmanical traditions at Mithila (Vajji), Varind (North Bengal) and Kamrup (Pragyotishpur Aryan settlement at Brahmaputra valley). That might be influenced by Brahmaism of Kashmir and magical versions of Tibet. There might be Diasporas of pre-Vedic Aryans along with Proto-Australoids and PaleoMongoloids later accommodated with Indo-Aryan, Mediterranean and PaleoMediterranean (Dravidian) groups. Rajbanshis therefore could be treated as excluded Kshyattriya (Bratya Kshayattriya), related to Mon-Khmer traditions, Kashyapa clan holders and formerly Buddhist or pro-Buddhist communities or simply animists.
family system (in few cases), changing status quo and also gradually altering the entire demography of Duars interior. Extreme remote pockets next to Bhutan were however filled up by sporadic Nepalis. Nepalis and Adivasis often moved into agrarian structures of Rajbanshis and Bengali castes. British initiated tea plantation in Duars at around 1730s and 1740s. In 1850s, British faced anti-opium protest in China and European companies were targeted for selling opium in China. Company collected opium from Chotonagpur and Central India and exported it into China and other countries. Ancient trade center Anga which was then Rajmahal area of Chotonagpur was severely hit by Santhal agitation. Santhals or Santals belonged to Adivasi society. They were then agriculturists. Rajmahal was also considered as Kajangal which for sometimes was power center in Muslim rule in Bengal. Munger was not far from there that was capital of Bengal during 1764 AD when Anglo-Bengal war was finalizing the fate of Bengal. Opposite to Rajmahal was Murshidabad which was the capital of Bengal Presidency during the Nabobs. It was closer to Katihar where Koshi river from ancient Vajjian confederacy and present-day Indo-Nepal region. Kajangal was probably invaded by Greeks and Kushanas. The place was a Buddhist center also. However, Sandals mostly agitated against the Permanent settlement system, exploitation of landlords from outside and money lenders, monetary system, indebtedness and bonded labour, illegal labour supply to railways, PWD and tea gardens as well as they hoped for their Golden days in an indigenous statehood when they ruled over all the forests and mines of Chotonagpur plateau.
There was link with Tibet via Jele La Himalayan pass. Jalpaiguri and Jalpesh probably connected with that. Kushana or pro-Kushana element Jalpa is a myth. Rajbanshis sing Kushana song. Rajbanshis are now basically Hindus. Jalpai in local language means olive which is the symbol of the Greeks. Most of the Pundra-Rajbanshis (Pod) groups have now been converted into Muslims of Rajshahi besides immigrant groups. Rajshahi is a fertile marshland reaching to Bengal delta and nourished by rain- The agitation was crushed, but British allowed
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fed rivers of Dinajpur highland. This highland was actually a Highland separating Mechi-Mahananda and Teesta-Torsha on western and eastern sides. Dinajpur heights were known for forestry, Gold mines and Varendri Brahmans; Rajbanshis were rather preferred to stay in river plains and propagated huge agricultural biodiversities. Pundra is one of the five settlements of Anga-Vanga-Kalinga-Pundra-Sumbhra. Pre-Mauryans and Mauryans started occupancy from Anga and ended in Kalinga. Pundra has been mentioned in Mahabharata also. Various pockets here are in association with another great Indian epic Ramayana. Gupta, Later Guptas and post-Guptas like the Palas and Senas also ruled here. Palas faced protest from Kaibarta community. Merely, that had relations with Rajbanshis. Varendri Brahmans are often shown to be associated with Sannyasi agitation in sub-Himalayas and by Muslim Fakirs in Dinajpur-Rajshahi during the first phase of British India. Pulia is a section of Rajbanshis. Rajbanshis were associated with production of areca, lime, betel, jute, silk, fruits, rice, pulses, sugar cane, bamboo, banana, dry fish, cloth, wooden implements and so forth. Kambojas of Kapisha (Afghanistan) had attacked North Bengal during the Palas and set up Kamboja-Pala dynasty before Khen and Koch elements arose. There were long border disputes between Koch Bihar and Bhutan. Transnational trade routes of Bhutan foothills covered with dense canopy of forest were inhabited by forest dwelling nomads practicing slashand-burn or shifting cultivation. British
setting up a separate Santhal zone (Santal Parganas) in Rajmahal. British understood the importance of tribals and tribal areas in South Asia. Later Sepoi Mutiny was organized in 1757 AD and that was end of both company and Mughal Dynasty that was then handed over to British crown. Chances of Russian attacks were then over, Burma had been conquered and various Nabobs and native states were being lapsed. Santals spread over the agrarian sectors of Bihar, Bengal Delta, North Bengal, East Bengal, Assam and Tripura. Oraons as typical agriculturists also moved into various pockets. Adivasi tribes were also there in VarindDinajpur. There is a section of Adivasis in North Bengal who never worked in Tea Estates. Whereas few left tea plantation and entered into agrarian sector, moved into higher job strata in tea estates, went to defense sector and railways, started living in sun-urban and urban sectors. Varendris also chose to join high rank services in tea estates. Multiculturalism developed in the included area of Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling but with Adivasi and Gorkha numerical dominance in various pockets. Agricultural sectors however were dominated by Rajbanshi social fold and various Bengali and a few other caste groups. Towns showed a mixed population.
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along with native collaborators invaded Duars (Bhutan foothills) and within 19th Century AD included into India. In 1820s, British included North East India and defeated Burma (Myanmar) and the state of Assam was formed. Duars in 19th Century AD was divided into Assam Duars and Bengal Duars. The latter was treated as Alipurduar and added to Jalpaiguri estate to form the Jalpaiguri district. Jalpaiguri also incorporated northern portions of Dinajpur Highland (also Varind): Thakurganja, Panchagarh and Boikunthopur forest. Jalpaiguri till now consists of Boikunthopur separating Teesta from Mahananda. Boikunthopur is attached to Siliguri township of Darjeeling district. The mountainous path to Jelep-La was Kalimpong that British also rescued from Bhutan, but instead fixing it to Jalpaiguri, added in Darjeeling district.
Nationalism gradually emerged out in shape of various movements by great national leaders who believed in either Home Rule (Dominion Status) or total independence. But they differ on various issues: Was the aggressiveness of the Germans over western colonialists and continental socialists in first half of 20th Century AD due to scientific break out and immense possession of coal (another industrial revolution outside Britain)? Was the socialist movement in Russia model if applied in the subcontinent would hamper to Indian unity in diversity laid out by Mughals and finished by British Crown and the Commonwealth? Were Irano-Afghanistan and Indus valley going to be soft targets? What would be the roles of Kashmir, Tibet, Himalayas and sub-Himalayan pockets? What would be the impact on Bengal, especially Eastern Bengal and Noakhali-Chittagong, where the incident of Shah Suja had been occurred? Bengal was no doubt in good book of European traders as well as those who were willing to immigrate in South Asia through Khyber or even TibetoBurmese belt Why was the blueprint of Communist Movement in India laid down in Uzbekistan? (Keep it in mind that Uzbeks had been responsible of removal of Mughals from Central Asia).
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How to counter back the probable spread of Germans throughout the globe? Was the Scandinavians play some roles on moral ground? Was there any possibility of Holey Roman Empire that had actually suffered a lot due to constant tension between the Crown and the Pope during Crusade? What would be role then of the Ottoman Turk Empire that in post-Crusade situation had occupied Eastern Roman Empire, became political center of the Sunni Muslims instead of the Arabs and made the religious center of Orthodox Christianity shifted from Greece to Moscow? What would be the fate of Silk Routes and Spice Routes from Afro-Asia to Pan-Pacific then mostly under the British Commonwealth and other colonialists? What would be the fate of Bay of Bengal? And obviously of Bengal? What would be the fate of so many buffers and human shields along Indo-Tibet, IndoMyanmar and Indo-Afghan borderlines? What would be the fate of Shahanoshahi Iran and various Shahis in India? Where would then the subcontinent go: with Germans or with Scandinavians (especially when the thing is being with the real Aryan)? Would the subcontinent accept challenge of being with ancient Silk and Spice Routes and form a Panchasheel with policy of non-alliance or that of the Third World? Would the subcontinent proceed towards the Second World or Soviet Russia? If so, what would be the model: Kashmir to ancient sub-Himalayan republics, Indo-Greek, IranoAfghan and Indus Valley, Uzbek, or Bengal? Would the subcontinent remain with the First World like United Kingdom or United States of America? What would happen to Tibet? We in 20th Century AD met with several consequences: India got independence in 1947 AD with partition of the subcontinent. The other part, Pakistan, went in favour of with China, Indonesia, Egypt and Yugoslavia postulated World composed of post-colonial countries. the First World. India along the model of Third
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Emergence of Jewish state Israel and presence of burning issues like Taiwan-Tibet-Timor were there. Sino-Indian war on border disputes, Chinese occupancy on Tibet, Tibetan immigration from Tibet to India, formation of Tibetan government in exile and declaring Tibet an autonomous territory by China which was not beyond controversies (1960s). Communist government formation in Kerala. Naxalite movement said to be a pro-Chinese approach that occurred in sub-Himalayas of Darjeeling district and spread into wider parts of India following ancient trade-routes. Presents were in control of politics. Demand of land reformation mostly in densely populated states like West Bengal, Tripura and Kerala. Along with partition of country, Bengal was also broken down East Bengal and West Bengal. East Bengal went to Pakistan and treated in 1955 AD as East Pakistan. West Bengal fell in Indian side. Bengal frontier or North Bengal was divided into portion of West Bengal (India) and Rajshahi plus Rangpur Divisions of North West Bangladesh. West Bengal, one of 29 states and 6 Union Territories of India till date consists of 19 districts of which 6 northern are in North Bengal (containing Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, Cooch Behar, Uttar Dinajpur and Dakshin Dinajpur (collectively West Dinajpur) and Malda. Rajshahi and Rangpur in Bangladesh contain 16 upa-zilas. Tripura where many Bengalis stayed has been included in North East India. Silchal fell under Assam and Sylhet in East Pakistan. North East India was in India and connected with mainland India by the tiny chicken neck of northern West Bengal. Before that in 1911 AD, the capital of British India was shifted to Delhi (New Delhi) and Bihar and Orissa (Odisha) were excluded from Bengal Presidency. But partition of Bengal was however delayed till independence of British India. Russia became a strategic partner of India and Iran was treated as a good friend. In that context, anti-Russia approach in Pakistan and Afghanistan were remarkable. Arab Nations, U.S.A. and China were also active. Iran-Iraq was broke out. Cold War between First World and Second World came to see in. In 1971 AD, Sikkim was incorporated within Indian federation and East Pakistan got freedom to independent country of Bangladesh. Political turmoil was there in Bangladesh immediately after its independence. General Zia of Bangladesh Army who was from Bogra led the country. North East India and Kashmir faced several challenges. Bank Natioanlisation, micro-financing, rural banking, Self-Help Groups, cooperatives, decentralization of power in primary levels, Green Revolution, alternative politics in Bengal and Bihar, that in Lucknow and Bangalore, ethnic clashes in Sri Lanka and Khalistani Movement were different parameters of Indian politics for that time.
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India came into the First World. What would be roles of U.S.A., Arab Nations and China as Soviet Union was no more? Germany was reunited and Euro Zone in European Economy emerged out. United Kingdom stayed outside the EU as the supreme of Commonwealth. Babri Mosque (the symbol of Mughal Padshahi) was demolished. Besides national party congress (Indian National Congress), various regional parties and big parties brought into the coalition politics in Indian Parliamentary democracy.
Table 12: Indigenous Factors affecting Migration in India Economic Human resource, Gold, cow, crop and currency are different types of economic resources. In respect to the state, it might be traditional, Swadeshi, mixed, macro economic, micro financing and global. The latter is again is of neo-liberal, semi-closed and closed nature. Credit and equities are certain ways to used the capital. Gold could be conceptualise as of shrine, pre-Aryan or pre-Vedic (Buddhist? Dalit?), El Dorado, Roman, Black Gold and of the Orient. State, pre-state, republicans, empires, pro-state, anti-state, villages, urban sector, have political entities. Alexander, Shahanoshahi and various Shahis such as Kushana, Dinajpur-Rajshahi, Rajput, Turk-Afghan, Mughal, Deccan or Hindu, Gorkha and Lucknow are different political aspects. Some pockets might be beyond the Shahis. Other factors might be Silk and Spice Routes. Magical, Buddhist and Islamic influences are important. Migrations of Mon, Khmer, Bodo, Bhote, pre-Vedic Aryans, pre-Aryans, Aryans and post-Aryans are so important. European traders of the Mediterranean, France, British, etc. and their point of views were equally important. Germans, Turks, Russians, Armenians were involved. Even we cannot deny Abyssinia and Zanzibar as well as South East Asia and Far East. We have to whether the religion is agriculture oriented or not. In other case, it would turn towards all magical, Buddhism, Jainism, Judaism, Vaishnavism, Christianity and Islam. Or there might be overlap. Gender is a crucial factor. Medical practice we can link with life and death and therefore religion. Whether it is a community or a society in fullest form we have to see. The have to see the mode of production ad division labour. Whether it is according to the native way of caste or appreciates other forms like class, power, estate, slavery, nation, ethnicity, gender, religion or some kind of overlaps we have to check it out. Status mobilization is a factor. In case of caste, that might be upper caste, dominant caste, out caste and dominant community.
Political
Religious
Social
Migration in Post-Independent India:

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Migrations might be in-migration, out-migration, immigration from a state to the next and politically induced migration or emigration. Partitions of India and Bengal leading to formation of Bangladesh have caused again huge scale of migration. That partition was marked on religious identities. That was the Two Nation Theory behind the partition. That might be between Muslims and non-Muslims, Muslims and Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs and in this way it worked. Or was it between the people who prefer to go with First World directly and prefer to go not? Islam would obviously a trade oriented religion that overrode Magical, Buddhist, Vaishnava values and Christianity at least at local levels. Did the Muslims prefer to implement estate system in agricultural sector rather than caste-like indigenous agrarian stratification? Das Gupta (2012) truly indicated that caste system is a kind of Indigenous Knowledge System related to agrarian structure of the subcontinent and has received a religious support from Hinduism. But that would not mean that non-Hindus may not have caste. Again, Hindus may not have the caste bondage. Hindus could move to trade or implement estate in agrarian sector. Indian National Congress (INC) was in favour of secularism, but Indian Muslim League (IML) was asking for a separate state for the Muslims. There were various princely states also who had own choice to be independent or go to either of India and Pakistan. Muslim concentrations were maximum in Indus valley, Baluchistan and East Bengal. Again, those places were not only borderlands, but gateways of migrations from Irano-Afghanistan and Tibeto-Burmese belt. Did IML thought that those entry points should be in hands of only and only the Muslims? That would then provide their community (Muslims) and Turk Afghan Kushan Shahi and also the religion Islam the authority to decide the foreign policies of the sub-continent. If they stayed in undivided India, they would then become minority. And in democracy what the Hindu or non-Muslims or pre-Muslims decided in foreign policy, they would have to follow unutterably. So was the partition on the basis of hold on foreign policy(-ies)? Could we think that Turk-Afghan-Kushan Shahi is getting out of Mughal-Rajput Shahi with both secularism and Hindu dominance (at least numerical) in various pockets? That might be the reason that instead of Dalit Movements, foundation of Neo-Buddhism and Indian constitution laid out by a Dalit (backward) leader Babasaheb Ambedkar of Deccan; the Scheduled Castes in East Bengal primarily preferred to be with Pakistan. Mr. Jogendra Nath Mandal, the minister of Law and Labour, of Liaqut Ali Khans cabinet (Pakistan) was the leader of Scheduled Castes in Bengal who was the flag bearer of Scheduled Caste Muslim unity in Bengal. Could we see partition punishing the Bengali Hindus and the Punjabi Sikhs for their independent nature enjoying control over the checkpoints? If we consider Sri Lanka, Tibet and Kashmir other such checkpoints; we can clearly see bloodshed in the island nation and separation of Maldives in Indian islands from the Lankans, Chinese occupancy over Tibet and Sino-Indian border disputes and tensions among Pakistan-China-India on Kashmir.
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Time to time, there were violence in North East India and various pockets of the subcontinent. But these incidents have caused both out and in migrations in the forms of emigrations and immigrations. The best example is Bengal partition and huge bulk of people from East Bengal fleeing inside India. West Bengal was created as a non-Muslim majority state in 1947. On 20 June 1947, Bengal Legislative Assembly got divided into East Bengal Legislative Assembly and West Bengal Legislative Assembly. Muslim-majority Pakistan and later Bangladesh became Islamic countries while West Bengal under federal structure of India emerged out with holding non-religious constitution. Riots were there throughout the first half of 20th Century AD in Bengal between Hindus and Muslims. Actually, that was a kind of class struggle against the estate holders by the peasant section, that later was directed into a movement against the domination of Hindu landlords by the numerical majority Muslim poor. That religious line was followed to oppose if any pro-Russian or pro-German so called conspiracy was there in the name of freedom from British rule but actually destroying the values laid by the Mughals to unify the nation. East Punjab (Indian part of Punjab) had 33.09% of Muslims in 1941 which got reduced to 1.8% in 1951 after partition and independence in 1947 AD But in case of West Bengal (western part of then Bengal), we can see that Muslims with 29.5% in 1941 that got reduced to 19.5% in 1951 and again has shot back to 25.5% in 2001 (Census data in Religious Demography of India Centre for Policy Studies Chennai, 2003). The emigrants in 1950s were mostly from Caste Hindus. They started staying in thatched huts on a marshy land leaving the huge farm house in East Bengal. Refugee movement slowly more violent and the communists initially controlled the movement and opposed against Anglo-American Neo-Colonialism. UCRC (United Central Refugee Council) 1952 adopted a list of resolutions which included: vii) Exploitation of the country by foreign powers and against Russia and China in the field of international trade must be ended discrimination
vii) Equipment should be imported from Russia for the improvement of indigenous heavy industries. On 18 October 1952, UCRC meeting at Wellington Square condemned demand for sanctions against Pakistan. On 7 April 1953, UCRC presented a charter of demands to the West Bengal Legislative Assembly with many demands including Rehabilitation of displaced Muslims and grant of interim relief to them (Chakrabarti, 1990: 142-43, 151, 329-404). Throughout 60s and 70s, communist and socialist movements increased day by day in West Bengal actively participated by the Upper Caste refugees. Probably, their extreme pro-Russian or pro-German stands were two major causes for the entire partition issue. Their neutral stand on communal violence in East Pakistan (if any) ensured the future emigrations and illegal immigrations of those who would be considered as
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Scheduled Castes by Indian Constitution. Syama Prasad Mookerjee, the minister of Industries and Supply in Nehrus cabinet, stated in the Parliament on 14 April, 1950: as many as 16 to 20 lakhs of Hindus were sent away to India from East Bengal. About a million of uprooted Hindus had also to come away from Sind. During this period a large number of Muslims also came away from Pakistan mainly influenced by economic considerations. The economy of West Bengal received a rude shock and we continued as helpless spectators of a grim tragedy. Anti-Hindu riots in Bangladesh (1964) started in East Pakistan by Bihari Muslims after the alleged theft of Prophet Mohammads hair from Hazaratbal Mosque in Kashmir. Sheikh Mujibur Rahaman declared freedom of East Bengal as Bangladesh on 26 March 1971 after a war of independence against Pakistan. Pakistan was with First World and in the other hand, India that actively helped in freedom struggle was in association with Second World. Though many Bengali Muslims were killed, there was a plan to kill as many Hindus as could be done by the Pakistani Army and their associates in East Pakistan. Hamoodur Rahaman Commission, chaired by Hamoodur Rahaman, Chief Justice of Pakistan, revealed documents ordering genocide of the Hindus in East Pakistan (Roy, 2001: 227). Then there were nearly 10 million refugees, about 13% of then East Pakistans populations. There were 6797615 refugees in the government camps and 3101660 were on their own as per government record. Out of the refugees in camps 92.7% were Hindus. Bangladesh census of 1974 shows the number of Hindus as 967300, whereas total number of Hindu refugees in West Bengal was 9176627 (Ray, 2009: 5). About 2.5 million Hindus and 0.5 million Muslims were killed. Gender violations were at huge scale. Bihari Muslims were also massacred. Immigrations and emigrations were associated with famines and riots affecting millions of lives. A Refugee is defined in Article 1 of the 1951 UN Convention (amended by the 1967 Protocol) as: "A person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it.." The 2005 UN data shows that in India there are 77200 refugees from China, 50730 from Sri Lanka, 9700 from Afghanistan, 1471 from Myanmar and 104 from Somalia. Interestingly, none of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh has signed in UN Declaration of Refugee. According to the Sec 5.1(a) of Citizenship Act 1955, persons of Indian origin who are ordinarily resident in India and have been resident for five years immediately before making an application for registration would be treated as Indians. Till 25 March 1971, the Hindus who crossed over to India from East Pakistan were issued a receipt as the proof of their refugee status, treated as legal refugees and subsequently granted India citizenship. After independence of Bangladesh, many people both emigrated and if not, immigrated in India from that newly formed country and they therefore would be treated as illegal refugees or undeclared refugees even if they could manage citizenship, voters card, ration card, etc. Children of the undeclared refugees would be however declared as Indian citizen if born after 1986 in India. Barkat (1997) estimated about 6.3 million Hindus were missing
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from Bangladesh population during 1971-1991. On July 14, 2004, in reply to a question in the Parliament, the Congress Minister of State for Home Affairs Sri Prakash Jaiswal informed that there 1 crore 20 lakhs 53 thousand and 950 illegal Bangladeshi in the country. Out of that West Bengal has 57 Lakhs of the illegal Bangladeshi. These would be then the undeclared refugees in India spread out in Assam, North East India, West Bengal and other parts of the country including capital Delhi. If two third of these people settle in West Bengal, the number of undeclared refugees would be 4.2 million. Many went to Gujarat and Mumbai (Maharashtra) from where they were pushed back into West Bengal and even Bangladesh. After Babri Mosque demolition, there were riots in Bangladesh in 1991. In Indian politics, Hindu radicalization was observed. To some, that was temporary breakdown between Rajput and Mughal Shahi sentiments. Mushrooming of mosques funded from outside throughout entire Indo-Bangladesh border, large scale infiltrations, relative decrease in Hindu population in comparison to that of the Muslims, possibility of anti-state activities by both Muslims and non-Muslims infiltrators and localites due to growing disparities in global market economy and involvement of various foreign and Indian elements to secure their vested interest have been pointed out. These problems are being tried to be solved legally, politically and apolitically as well. Some of the Islamic militant groups of Bangladesh like the Harkat-ul-Jihad-e-Islami, Shahadat-alHikma, Jamait-ul-Mujahideen and the Islami Manch make no secret of their aim to establish a transnational Islamic state comprising Bangladesh, Muslim majority districts of West Bengal, Assam, Tripura and the Rohingya Hills of Myanmar (Nandy, 2005: 173174). In- and out-migration, plus socio-cultural, behavioral and demographic shifts can highly impact on exploitation modes of ecosystem, division of labour and therefore biodiversityhumanity relations pertaining to supernatural beliefs. Immigration from Bangladesh to India were not only due to political causes, but also due to scarcity of cropland, flood and other natural calamities, socio-cultural inequalities, economic crises, population growth and high population density.
Political Reasons behind Migrations to and from India in post-independent periods: India with Third World (1950s and 60s); India with Second World (1960s, 70s and 80s) and India with First World (1990s to present)
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These post-independence incidents have also influenced in and out migrations, immigrations and emigrations positively or negatively.
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Conclusion
The stepwise migrations in urban, suburban and even rural areas of West Bengal from other states including neighbouring Bihar involve Hindu, Muslim, Christians, neoBuddhists (mostly the Harijans), out-castes, lower and upper castes, indigenous folks, peasants, artisans, middle class, poor, labour category, businessmen, shop-owners, employee and other job-seekers. Government services and railways have been facilitating this migration. The previous state government of West Bengal (1977-2011 AD) was a Left Front government that has been both criticized and praised: the left parties in Tripura, Kerala and West Bengal generally favoured micro-economies and negotiated with Third Front or United Front at national level. Those parties had support from several Muslims and Yadava groups in North India. Might be that a combination of Indo-Greeks and TurkAfghan earlier settlements! That we could probably compare to Lucknow Shahi. Third Front used to get the support from Mysore or Bangalore. In these areas, Janata Dal fragments were so strong. In post-Cold War phase, Third Front has gradually disintegrated into neutral, pro-Rajput and pro-Mughal sentiments. In Deccan, there are other types of political upraise. West Bengal in is highly influenced by both Deccan and Lucknow Shahi sentiments with pockets with Gorkha and Dinajpur. Overall, Mughal and Rajput elements dominating the national politics also point out to Bengal. Ultra left, separatist, separatist, religious extremist, criminal, mafia and private armed groups (incipient and countered by the secular state machinery) as well as civil society, business houses, police, administration, law, health and education sectors leading to bureaucracy retain besides the self-sufficient rural social structures of West Bengal. It consists of both the migrated and autochthones highly mixed up and forming a melting pot. However, many have successfully maintained their ethnicity, culture, social system and cognition. Multiculturalism is always there in West Bengal. Unity in Diversity is the central dogma of Indian Civilization.
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Ray, Mohit Presented at National Seminar on Migration and Its Impact on Ind ian State and Democracy 13 March 2009, Dept of Politics & Public Administration University of Pune Illegal Migration and Undeclared Refugees Idea of West Bengal at Stake Mohit Ray 1 Illegal Migration and Undeclared Refugees Idea of West Bengal at Stake Rawlinson, H.G. 1952. India- A Short Cultural History. London: The Cresset Press Risley, H. H. 1891. The tribes and castes of Bengal (Vol-1). (Reprint 1998), Calcutta: Firma KLM Pvt. Ltd. Risley, H. H. 1915. The People of India. Delhi: Orient Book Reprint Corporation (reprinted 1969) Roy, Tathagato 2001. My People Uprooted: 227, Calcutta: Ratna Prakashan. Roychoudhuri, A.K. 1984. Genetic relationship between Indian tribes and Australian Aboriginals, Human Heredity (International Journal of Human and Medical Genetics), 34(5): 314-320 Sankalia, H.D. 1962. Indian Archaeology Today. Bombay: Asia Publishing House Sankalia, H.D. 1974. Prehistory and Protohistory of India and Pakistan. Poona: Deccan College Sarkar, S.S. 1954. The Aboriginal Races of India. Calcutta (Kolkata): Bookland Limited. Sastri, K.A.N. and G. Srinivasachari 1966. India- A Historical Survey. India: Allied Publishers Sen D. and N.K. Bose 1948. Excavations in Mayurbhanj. Kolkata, India: University of Calcutta Senart, E. 1930. Caste in India: The facts and the system. New Delhi: Ess Ess Publications Sewell, R.B.S. and B.S. Guha 1929. Reports on the bones excavated at Nal, Museum of Archaeological Survey of India, 35: 56-86 Shah Suja. Benglapedia free encyclopedia of Bangladesh, retrieved on 28 December, 2013 Sharma, K. L. 1994. Social Stratification and Mobility. India: Rawat Publishers Simmons, R.T. 1976. The biological origin of Australian Aboriginals: An examination of blood group gene frequencies for possible evidence in populations from Australia to Eurasia, pp. 307-328, in R.L. Krik and A.G. Thorne (Eds.) Human Biology Series No. 6. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies. New Jersey: Canberra Humanities Press Srinivas, M.N. 1962. Caste in Modern India and Other Essays. Bombay (Mumbai), India: Asia Publishing House Stein, Burton 1984. Politics, Peasants and deconstruction of feudalism in medieval India, The Journal of Peasant Studies, 12 (2 and 3): 54-86 Thapar, R. 1974. Social mobility in ancient India with special reference to elite groups, in R.S. Sharma and V. Jha (Eds.), Indian Society: Historical Probing (in memory of D.D. Kosambi), New Delhi: Peoples Publishing House Thapar, R. and M.H. Siddiqui 1991. Tribals in History: The case of Chhotonagpur, in D. Gupta (Ed.), Social Stratification. New Delhi: Oxford University Press Thurston, E. 1909. Castes and Tribes of Southern India. Volume I- A & B, Madras: Government Press, cited in M.K. Bhasin and H. Walter 2001. Genetics of Tribes and Castes of India (Peoples of Indian Region). New Delhi: Kamla-Raj Publications
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Why to Know about Gandhi in Response to (Tribal) Movements in South Asia
Introduction There was a Crusade* between western European and Arabs, but the Turks spread over throughout Eurasia during fifteenth century AD Turk-Afghans and Turk-Mongols (Mughals) ruled over a huge part of South Asia. Mughals or Moguls spread throughout mainland India and other regional pockets like Bengal. Mughal Prince appointed in Bengal and His Iranian associates were brutally killed by Mogh Arakanese in mid seventeenth century AD; that incident at coastal Burma in South Asian history to many was only comparable to 9/11 attack in USA. Iran followed the Shahansahi and various parts of India different Shahis like Kushan, Deccan, Rajput, Gurkha, Turk-Afghan, Mughal, Lucknow and Dinajpur-Rajshahi: assassination of Mughal Prince in Burmese coast was a brutal blow up to the Shahi tradition against the nexus of Magical-Buddhist-Arab (traditional), but who were they in Arakan to destroy such an overwhelming legacy? That was believed that elites of Arakan might belong to pre-Vedic Aryans spreading throughout Alps-Carpathian of Central Europe to Caucasus Mountain, Pamir, Himalayas, Tibeto-Burmese belt, Arakan range, South East Asia and South China. So, a European descent was imagined about the ontology and epistemology of those elites at Arakan mixed up however with different racial groups and cultures. France being the stronghold of Holy Roman Empire during the Crusade and core of the Bourbon Dynasty took interest over the matter, whereas the British East India Company of Great Britain out of continental Europe had maintained good relationship with Mughal Padshahi centered around Agra-Delhi region since English diplomat Sir Thomas Roe and Thirty Years War [1] in the first half of seventeenth century AD
Tribes and Peasants in South Asia in pre-Gandhian phase Iranians in 1739 AD attacked India under Nadir Shah, War of Jenkins Ear between Great Britain and Spanish Empire went on from 1739 to 1748 AD and that was also the beginning of War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748 AD) where both England and Francs were effectively got involved. That war had impact on Indian peninsula and America. First Carnatic war in India was ended up with the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748 AD). That was followed by the Second Carnatic war (1748-1754 AD), attack of Bengal Nabob on British City of Calcutta in 1756, battle of Plassey in 1757 AD, third Carnatic war (17571763 AD) and attack of Abdalis troops at Panipat 1761 AD (Indo-Afghan war). During 1764-1775 AD, America was at the age of revolution and at that time the puppet government established by the British East India Company in Bengal revolted against it
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during 1764-65 AD. British own against the combined force of Bengal Nabob and other rulers of North India. That was also the initiating period of sub-Himalayan regions of Bengal Presidency guided by Hindu monks and Muslim Fakirs. Their core was North Bengal covering both north western Bangladesh and northern parts of West Bengal state of India. Marginal pockets of that particular upland area (better to say as borderlands of Dinajpur-Rajshahi) were mostly fallen into ancient hidden trade routes from Tibeto-Himalayan range. Revolutions were also there in plateaus of Bihar (now Chhotonagpur plateau of Jharkhand) and coastal Bengal-Odisha regions. Those places were without exception tribal pockets ruled by some old dynasties and indigenous troops. While most of the South Asian geography falling under the Shahis and the rest portions like Andhra coast, Bengal and Tamil regions like Arkot belonged to British hegemony; Arab elements in ancient kingdom of Mysore under Hider Ali in Indian Peninsula and His alleged contacts with France in Indian Ocean was the only alternative. First Anglo-Mysore war was organized during 1767-1769 AD. British had to spend more than a penny that they had spent against the Bengal Nabob. There was a great famine in 1770 AD in Bengal; by virtue of the British East India Company Act (1772), British Government started direct interference in Companys rule in India from 1773 onwards and after all those measures, the local guerillas in Bengal were nearly totally tamed down along with other semi-independent elements in Gangetic North India and Afghan colonies of Rohilkhand within 1775 AD. Sikhs became independent in Punjab in 1767 AD. Between Mysore and Chhotonagpur tribal belt, there was a Maratha Empire rued by the local Hindus and occupying various tribal belts. Marathas of Deccan followed the Hindu Pad Padshahi under the Mughal Padshahi. Their image was not so strong, especially after their defeat in Panipat 1761 AD. Most of the Maratha Sardars or Barons were loyal to the Maratha Peshwa system and regulated their guerilla forces like the seminomadic Pindaris prevailed throughout the ancient trade routes towards Gujarat and Konkan coast. They also ruled over Nagpur that was a path towards Bay of Bengal, entire eastern coast of Indian Peninsula, Bengal Presidency and tribal pockets of Central India. Maratha Baron at Baroda in Gujarat was the Gaikwad or Gaekwad Dynasty was however was very friendly with the British who started interference in Maratha internal politics leading to the first Anglo-Maratha war (1775-1782 AD). That was remembered as the British diplomatic approach from Surat to Salbai. That was immediately followed by the second Anglo-Mysore war (1782-1784 AD) where the Arabs there were not successful in managing ties with Nizam of Hyderabad Deccan and the Marathas. Rapid changes were there in France in 1780s; at that time British East India Company Act (1784) was passed and Cornwallis was appointed to the British Raj in 1786 AD. July Revolution was a success in France (14th July, 1789 AD). Jacobin and anti-Jacobin dominated the 1790s French politics and France was in the decade of Reign of Terror. Anglo-Mysore wars of 1790-92 AD and 1798-99 AD led to the complete abolition of Arab hegemony in Mysore politics. In that decade, Nepal in the Himalayas tried to expand throughout the entire Himalayas and Tibet but failed and by that way, British and Nepal came in contact to each other. During 1780s and 1790s, tribals again and again revolted against the British; incidents happened in sub Himalayan Bengal, Tripura-Noakhali nearer to Arakan, marshlands in Bengal delta and tribal pockets adjacent to Jharkhand-Odisha belt. Most of those revolts were well-managed by British. They established Permanent
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Settlement System in Bengal Presidency so as to control the peasant agitations. Several princely states were made subsidiary alliances and Marathas lost their maximum power to the British within 1802-03AD. 1799-1815 AD was the era of Napoleon in European History and Prussia, Italy, Corsica, Hapsburg, German confederacy, Netherlands, Scandinavia and Russia could not resist France. However, Spain and Britain were not prepared for Napoleon and French troops were defeated in Egypt. In order to secure the North Western and Northern borders, British signed pacts with the Sikhs at Amritsar (1809 AD) just two years later the treaty of Tilsit (1807 AD). Agitations at tribal belts were there during these periods. Nepal became a permanent friend of the British Raj within 1816 AD and the Marathas were completely fell down after 1818 AD. Some Pindaris continued guerilla warfare for some days, but those could not exist longer. British East India Act of 1813 opened the door to the Christian Missionaries into the British India that brought in various changes in the tribal belts and also influenced the ancient elites. In 1820s, Spanish America or the Latin America received its independence under the personalities like Simon Bolivar. That was the time when the Arab elements in South Asia tried to reassemble them. The Wahabis accumulated in Pakhtunistan just next to the Afghanistan and revolted against the Sikh hegemony there. They also had influence throughout the India and were later protested against British occupancy in Pakhtunistan and Afghanistan. They did not follow the Shahis and Shiites (Shiyas) rather the Sunni way of living according to their Holey Book. They had also impact in Bengal, Bihar and coastal India. Faraji movement occurred in Bengal who believed that they should revolt against the British and their subordinates and only after the success could lead a true Islamic life. Tribal elements in Garo hills also revolted in that time. Brahmaputra valley and the entire North East India were then in the hands of Royal Dynasty of Bruma keeping relations with Tibet, China and French Indo-China. So, Anglo-Burmese war occurred at 1826 AD and British secured North East India and coastal belts and delta regions of Burma. In that way, British established complete control in Bay of Bengal where Andaman and Nikobar islands are situated with some indigenous populations now treated as Primitive Tribal Group. North East India contained both aborigines as well as Aryan descents. Caste system and quasi-egalitarianism were distinct features of that pocket. Portuguese descent Derozio was the mentor of Young Bengal Movement. That was the 1820s when elites, middle class and absentee landlords realized the necessity of social reforms, ethics of Christianity, modernity, modification in education, westernization and newspapers. From 1815 to 1848 AD, continental Europe followed the Metternich system and Russia invaded into Central Asia. In that time, British Government within 1833 AD took over the control of British India and gradually proceeded towards the Indus valley segregated within Sind, Punjab and Kashmir. They further negotiated with Iran and Afghanistan. 1840s was that decade when Russia tried to increase influence in China and thereby British faced anti-opium revolt. There was February revolution in 1848 AD in France with widespread impact throughout the Europe. 1850s and 1860s should be remembered as the decades of Christian Missionary activities and anti-Slavery movement in USA respectively. In South Asia, tribals again revolted and there were widespread protests against the estate system established by the Indigo Planters. Second Anglo-Burma war was occurred during 1856 AD, princely states were one by one lasped by British authority in India, telegraph and railways were established for the first time in India and there was Sepoy Mutiny in 1857
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AD and finally India went completely under the British Thorn within 1858 AD with the abolition of Mughal Padshahi. British approached towards Bhutan with great success in 1860s. The decade of 1870s was important for Prussia-France war, Anglo-Afghan warfare, Wahabi movement in Afghan borderlands, establishment of Anglo-Muslim school, growing impact of French Indo-China in Burma, peasant movements in Assam and North Bengal (Pabna), further strengthening of British Thorn, initiation of political movement at national level (such as formation of National Council) and state control upon New papers and Print Media. The next decade of 1880s would be remembered for formation of Indian National Congress as the Safety Valve, gradual incorporation of all the elites and social reformers into the INC and the last Anglo-Burmese war at 1886 AD. Dynasty of Nepal also attended the INC. 1890s was again marked for severe tribal movements, last phase of Wahabi movement, industrial reforms and negotiation with Tibet that went on till 1907 AD. 1911 and 1948 AD were the important years for independence of China. There was always a threat of impact of China, Japan and continental Europe in South Asia, especially in Bengal and Punjab. Two World Wars and a great economic depression prevailed throughout the first half of 20th Century AD. Tribal pockets were well managed by the British Raj at that time, whereas India gradually approached towards administrative reforms, representative democracy, reservation, Dominion Status and complete independence on Two Nation Theory. Communist Movement, agrarian movements and religious riots were observed. So, tribal groups with their ontology and epistemology are crucial for realizing the entity of present-day South Asia.
Gandhi among Tribes and Peasants Indians before World War I was basically in favour of Shahi and also thought the British Government in India (that is the British Raj ) as the protector of South Asian interest. There were some distinct Shahis spread throughout India- Kushan Shahi, Deccan Shahi, Dinajpur Rajshahi, Rajput Shahi, Gurkha Shahi, Turk-Afghan Shahi, Mughal-Rajput Shahi and Lucknow Shahi. Tribes and many from the peasant section were agitating against that system and they were rather concerned in some pockets about Aryanism, aboriginality and ethnic identity. Shahi under Mughal-Rajput was severely hampered in mid 17th Century AD by Arakanese of Bengal-Burma region. They being non-Shahis protested against transformation into subShahis and were assisted by Magical, Buddhist and Arab lobbies. Mughals and Turk-Afghans were Muslims and their defeat might encourage the European traders from those countries who had actively participated in Crusade and still retained good terms and conditions with the Austro-Hungarian Empire as the center for the remnants of Holey Roman Empire. So, Portuguese and French were akin to non-Shahis, Elites among them, Aryan lines with Royal descent, the Pure, the early Aryans, Buddhists, Arabs, aborigines of the magical people and indulged in converting them into Christianity. British and Dutch were not so hardliners and they were more trusted by the Mughal Padshahi. There were debates on Orientalism versus Westernization. Independence of USA, French Revolutions again and again, approaches taken by Russia towards South Asia and China, French colonies in Indo-China and its influence over the Burmese dynasty, independence
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of Latin America, Civil war in USA on the matter of slavery, synchronization of Austria, unification of Italy, unification of Germany, France-Germany border dispute, Industrial Revolution in UK and Communist Manifesto, partition of Poland, Ottoman-Russia series of wars were various facts. In the meantime, several reformative steps were taken; sense of nationalism was on high tide; there was a need to counter the Pure sentiment and revival of Shahi. The British understood that the sense of Nationalism could not be countered back and so decided to form a safety valve in the fashion of Indian National Congress (INC). There were Moderates, active protesters and the demand of Home Rule. The China factor: In the decade of 1900, that was quite clear that China at center of the Buddhist world was going to get independence and had good ties with the USA. British negotiated with the Tibet and also partitioned Bengal Presidency on Ethnic line, shifted capital from Calcutta to New Delhi, condemned the terrorists and extremists, planned for voting with reservation on religious basis, backed the formation of Indian Muslim League (IML) in Dhaka and by doing all these, checked the influx of Orientalism in Bengal. INC strongly protested against any religious cleavage and was in favour of Hindu-Muslim fraternity in Bengal under the Shahi structure and British assistance. USA was influential to China as well as some Indian pockets by virtue of Theosophical Society. That even extended its influence over the INC during the Home Rule Movement. Vivekananda and His Ramkrishna Mission were successful to counter Theosophical Society. Jyotiba Phule was out of Poonas Prarthana Samaj and started guiding the Dalits. Vivekananda was also in favour of Dalit upliftment who were so far neglected and oppressed by mainstream Hindus and Muslims. Dalits on later date were much influenced by Gandhi and Ambedkar. Many of the Dalits consider themselves out of the Hindu society, took Christianity and established the philosophy of neo-Buddhism. Gadar party and Extremism: Continental Europe in 1770-1870 AD was again and again experienced the French Revolutions contemporary to the time of tribal movements in South Asia. INC in its pre-Gandhian phase (1880s to 1914) was not free from the extremist groups. Bengal, Bombay and Punjab were their strongholds. Lala-Bal-Pal combination in INC was representing the extremist movement. Sri Aurobindo Ghosh took shelter in French colonies in India. Like Theosophical Society and Ramkrishna Mission, he also planned to build up religious institution. Like British and USA, the French Government was also proactive in the matter of China. Some extremists also committed some terrorist acts. Some were active in Bengal and they were rather orientalists. Again, Punjab was geographically very nearer to Afghanistan, Central Asia, Iran and Continental Europe. Serbia-Austria conflict was the saturation point for the initiation of World War I and many of the extremists opined not to cooperate the British rather went in favour of Austria and its allies in the continental Europe. However, many South Asians fully cooperated with the British despite of the fact that Ottoman Turks were joined the Austrian lobby. IML and INC made a pact in Lucknow and collectively decided to support the British Government. Extremists were nearly abolished from the subcontinent. Supporters of Gadar Party planned to teach a lesson to the British in the same way the Serbian Youth had done to the Austrian Prince and Princess. After the War, Punjab in 1919 AD faced off the massacre at Jallianwala Bagh. Eventually, Akalis there got emerged. Lahore and Peshawar were at the gun point of the extremists.
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The Ottoman Turk Factor and M.K. Gandhi: Ottomans Empire established by the Turks of Turkey in Medieval period. Though the Ottomans joined the Austrian lobby during World War I; INC and IML who collectively decided to stand by the British Government had an expectation that considering the sentiments of the pro-Shahi peoples in South Asia towards the Turkey and its Ottoman Empire, no damage would be done to the same. But after the war, Ottoman Empire was sliced into pieces and that was not acceptable for the Shahis in India where the Turks contributed a lot. Muslims announced Khilafat Movement. INC under Gandhi** also initiated non-cooperation movement. M.K. Gandhi in INC was speaking for non-violence which is an eternal value that India possesses. He also supported the traditional Indian way of living and grabbed all attentions of the aborigines, indigenous communities and other pure forms previously distracted by the happenings in Continental India. In 20th Century AD, Nelson Mandela, Martin Luther King and He were against racial discriminations or we can say, involved in anti-apartheid revolutionary. Such Purest of the Pure cognate was a counter to the hegemony of Pure, Aryan and Aborigine. He was a supporter of indigenousness, traditional agriculture and agro-based cottage industries, small scale industries and traditional semifeudal Indian rural agrarian structures with a concept of village republics and also Indian Trade Houses. So, Gandhism was very crucial to tackle the approaches taken by Austrians who believed in Aryanism, Pure forms and Aboriginality. Gandhi was not against Christianity, but in favour of the Shahi heritage maintained for so long in India. But Turkey took the path of reformation under Mustafa Kemal Pasha Ataturk and therefore many who joined into Khilafat and non-cooperation movements lost their enthusiasm. The non-violence act of Gandhian movement was derailed and he had to call an end to the movement, however personally he was still in favour of non-cooperation. Many others however opined to take advantage from Government of India Act 1919. Some fractions were there out of INC. The Russian (and Slav) factor: To many, Russian Revolution and formation of Soviet Union (USSR) were capable of compensating the situation raised after the fall of Ottoman Turks and therefore Socialist values rapidly spread into INC parallel to Gandhi, landlords, royal members, merchants and pro-capitalists/colonialists. All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was established in 1920. Socialists in INC demanded Dominion Status against Simon Commission of 1927 and then full independence and went against the Law. Nehrus were at the tip of Socialist section in INC. Other socialist leaders tried to find their own ways. Muslim dominated Bengal and Punjab; they were in favour of regional politics other than INC and IML. Communists and other related organizations were also active. They were with closer contact with USSR that took different policies for mainland India and Bengal. India still maintained the One India policy once taken up by the Mughal Rajput Shahi and linked up this with Iran as the origin of all the Shahis. Again, the Uzbeks had pushed back the Turk-Mongols or Seljuk Turks from Central Asia (also known as Turan or Maverannahar) into India (or Hindustan). In that way, the Mughal Padshahi was developed in South Asia and thereafter, severely damaged by the Arakanese of Bengal-Burma borderland.
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USSR controlled Uzbekistan at that time and several terror creating extremist activities were noticed in Chittagong-Noakhali belt by the freedom fighters Hindu by religion. That region was under the Arakan transnational trade zone and populated by tribal people, Pre Vedic Aryans, Hindu caste groups and local Muslims as the majority. Muslims there were against those Pre Vedic Aryans who had been responsible for image damaging of Mughal Padshahi. These Muslims favoured a local peasant party besides the existence of IML, INC and other Pro-Russian approaches. By that way, they in a general way opposed deeds of the Pre-Vedic Aryans. Gandhism and Islamic sacred text were two options to counter back that Pre Vedic Aryan hegemony and other aboriginal movements. Communists in Bengal maintained both Western and Oriental views. Some of them were keen to the happenings in Japan, China and South East Asia and what decisions the British Government in India took in consideration of the Orient. In mainland India, pro-Russians were also pro-active but with some different format. Some terror creating activities were also arranged in mainland India especially at Meerut. That place was the birth place of Mangal Pandey who was responsible for Sepoy Mutiny against the British East India Company in the 1850s the decade of Third and Final French Revolution. That mutiny had been effective to reestablish the Mughal Padshahi. However, that had brought to an end of both Mughal Padshahi and the Companys rule. India went into the hands of British Thorn in 1858 AD. So, Meerut bomb case in the 1930s was itself a curtail feature in Indian politics, especially after the end of the Ottomans in post-World War I situation. Tree Round Table meetings were held in and INC, IML, Akalis, Dalits, Elites and Hindu organizations took part there. Gandhi then decided to conduct an inclusive approach to incorporate the suppressed or Dalits. World in 1930s went into recession and Burma was set apart from India which was the first process towards partition of Bay of Bengal region (a distinct Geo-political region). Gandhi was probably the most attractive personalities among the tribal groups and old elites there. In North Western Province of todays Pakistan which was the womb of the Wahabi ideology of the Muslims, Gandhism was proved to be much effective. Islamic sacred text and the pre-Vedic Aryans in the tribal regions were considered as the pure form that we could be comparable with Aryans and Aborigines. INC started addressing the peasant movements in various parts of India as well. The Austrian and German Factors: Austria as the last political center for Holey Roman Empire and the founder of Hapsburg Empire was related to Thirty Years battle in Germany in first half of Seventeenth Century and thereafter the two World Wars of Twentieth Century. Many believed that Aryanism or aboriginality or the pure cognate was superior to Russian revolution and Shahi tradition of India much contributed by the Turks. After the Government of India Act 1935, general election was held in 1937 and INC got the majority. At that time, special importance was given to Bose who was also from the Socialist section of INC. He had to fight against the capitalist lobbies within the party. He was a pro-Aryan talking about pure and aboriginals and therefore, clashed with Gandhi who believed in Aryan of the Aryans, Aborigine of the Aborigines and Purest of the Pure. Bose left INC and formed Forward Block. On the eve of World War II, he quitted India and joined to Hitler who was also an Austrian and Catholic by birth. Hitler and his allies tried to conquer over Mediterranean, Afro-Asian region, the Pan-Pacific, Bay
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of Bengal, Western Europe and their colonies and also the Slav Nations including the Russians. Chandra Bose went to Japan that was an ally of Hitler in Orient. Japan was in conflict with USA for control over the entire Pan-Pacific. Japanese Imperial Army conquered Korean Peninsula, China, South East Asia and reached into Singapore. With the help of NIA already arranged by Captain Mohan Singh, Bose decided to conquer Bay of Bengal and march to Delhi. However, he announced Gandhi as Father of the Nation (22nd February, 1944). At the same time, INC initiated Quit India movement and parallel to that IML demanded Pakistan and asked the British to divide and quit. INA surrendered against the British troops as soon as Japan and Hitler were defeated by USA and USSR respectively. USA was successful to continue its presence in the Pan Pacific and Latin America. Many in INA were previously native soldiers of British Army. So, during their judgment in Delhi, Indian Forces stood by their side. Indian navy, air force and labour unions in communication services were very much pro-active. Entire Bengal and Peninsular India suffered from severe drought and food shortage. British Army and the Commonwealth depended much on Burmese rice and Burma was in the hands of Bose. The year of 1943 was remembered for Bengal Famine that could only be compared to massive deaths during Thirty Years battle in Germany [1] and 1770 Bengal Famine [2]. South Asia got independence from British Government in 1947. Pakistan was formed on majority of Dinajpur Rajshahi, Turk-Afghan Kushan Shahi and Wahabi areas. India got most the Mughal-Rajput areas followed by Deccan, Gurkha pockets and Lucknow Shahi associated with tribal areas. India admires Gandhism, whereas Pakistan puts its highest priority to Islam. India and Pakistan sliced Bengal and Punjab that suffered from riot, partition and even famine. These two areas were core of impulse from continental Europe and Far East. Immediately, after Indias independence, Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated, but his philosophy or Gandhism remains relevant for ever. The princely states joined in India and Pakistan. India got political independence in 1950. For the years 1948 and 49, it remained a dominion under British Commonwealth. Within these two years, India postulated her constitution and emerged as a sovereign, independent, secular, socialist, federal republic. In these two years, China was under the communist party and most of the princely states were assimilated into India. Kashmir was also a princely state led by Dogra Rajput Dynasty of Hari Singh. Kashmir, Junagarh of Saurashtra and Hyderabad Nizam were incorporated in India. Pakistan acquired the tribal dominated portions of Jammu and Kashmir State including Baltistan. That was later known as Pakistan occupied Kashmir (PoK). Kashmir in the Himalayas was an important location for the Pre Vedic Aryans. Earlier forms of Vedic Brahmanism were also emerged in the pockets like Kashmir valley. Besides these Kashmiri Pandits, most of the Kashmiris were Muslims. From the beginning, there was a party like National Conference that survived even after the fall of local parties in other Muslim dominated provinces like Bengal and Punjab. National Conference said about Kashmiri nationalism or Kashmiriyat that was apart from Wahabi activities strongly believing in Quran, Akalis believing in Sikhism and even Gandhism. The party was not in favour of any kind of oppression of Kashmiri Pandits in the valley. Nepal under the Royal Dynasty remained a Hindu Nation in Central Himalayas. India was reconstructed as the states were rearranged on language basis. Portuguese and French colonies were later incorporated
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into India. Sikkim, Bhutan and Tibet were close to India and further closer to Nehru of INC. Pandit Nehru was also a Kashmiri by origin and the first Prime Minister of Indian Government led by INC. There were other socialists and leftist parties; some of them do not even believe in the Parliamentary system. Peasant agitation was there exclusively in Indian part of Bengal (West Bengal state) and in the First Planning Commission for the first Five-Year Planning acts for abolition of landlordism and land-reformation were evident. Nehru had maintained some socialist point of view; however Indian Planning Commission supported Mixed Economy appropriate for agrarian sector, heavy industry, energy sector and employment generation. Many people from Pakistan rushed into India as refugees. Most of them were Hindus and Sikhs. Similarly, many Muslims went willingly or unwillingly to Pakistan and East Bengal fallen inside the Pakistans share. Many of those refugees were Akalis, socialists, orientalists and believers in Aryanism. On later days, dalits also rushed into India. In East Bengal that later turned into East Pakistan and independent country of Bangladesh, still holds in Ramkrishna Mission and Gandhi Ashrama. Many of the refugees supposed Gandhism. Even from Pakistan, Muslim supporters of Gandhism came into India and stayed here forever. Many capitalists were there in his ministry along with those few who believed in Hindutva and Islamic Brotherhood. The last Viceroy or Governor General was C Rajagopalachari and first President (from Bihar) was Rajendra Prasad. Both of them along with Sardar Patel as the Home Minister were supporters of capitalism. Nehru was in favour of good terms with China, Egypt, Indonesia and Serbia (Yugoslavia) further taking positive decisions in favour of non-alliance, formation of Third World, revival of Silk Routes and Spice Routes, association among Afro-Asian and Pan-Pacific post-colonial countries. But somehow, he could not overcome the supremacy of Aborigine of the Aborigines, Aryan of the Aryans and Purest of the Pure thoughts. That was in other words, the basic values of Gandhism. Neither Bose nor Nehru could go beyond Gandhism. Tribal warlords and peasants also feel sympathy about what happened to Gandhi and support Gandhism till date. From that we could conclude that Gandhism superior to Aryanism of Austria, Socialism of USSR and Shahi heavily contributed by the Turks. In Bengal, Tagore was an eminent personality who by his literature and philosophy also supported the theory of Purest of the Pure form against the Pure. He was the first native Indian who received the Noble Prize in 1913. He was against partition of Bengal. Various Swedish missions were also acted in Indias tribal belts. Gandhism is as sacred and as supreme as Islam in Pakistan. Still now I have hard tribals and peasants speaking about famous slogans said by or about Mahatma Gandhi: Ekla Chalo Re (go alone), Karenge ya Marenge (do or die), Ahimsa (non-violence and peace), Dhire Chalo (go in a steady moderate pace), etc.
*Crusades, military expeditions, beginning in the late 11th century, that were organized by Western
Christians in response to centuries of Muslim wars of expansion. Their objectives were to check the spread of Islam, to retake control of the Holy Land, to conquer pagan areas and to recapture formerly Christian territories; they were seen by many of their participants as a means of redemption and expiation for sins. Between 1095, when the First Crusade was launched and 1291, when the Latin Christians were finally expelled from their kingdom in Syria, there were numerous expeditions to the Holy Land, to Spain and even to the Baltic; the Crusades continued for several centuries after 1291, usually as military campaigns intended International Science Congress Association
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International E Publication www.isca.me , www.isca.co.in to halt or slow the advance of Muslim power or to conquer pagan areas. Crusading declined rapidly during the 16th century with the advent of the Protestant Reformation and the decline of papal authority (Encyclopdia Britannica). ** Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, byname Mahatma (Great-Souled) Gandhi (born October 2, 1869, Porbandar, Indiadied January 30, 1948, Delhi), leader of the Indian nationalist movement against British rule, considered to be the father of his country. He is internationally esteemed for his doctrine of nonviolent protest to achieve political and social progress (Encyclopdia Britannica). Sir Thomas Roe, (born c. 1581, near Wanstead, Essex, Eng. died November 1644, Bath, Somerset), diplomat and author who advanced Englands mercantile interest in Asia and was prominent in negotiations during the Thirty Years War. He was knighted in 1604. Roe began his diplomatic career in India as ambassador to the court of the Mogul emperor Jhngr. In his four years of duty (161418) there he furthered the fortunes of the English East India Company (Encyclopdia Britannica). [1] Thirty Years' War The Thirty Years' War (16181648) was a series of wars principally fought in Central Europe, involving most of the countries of Europe. It was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history and one of the longest continuous wars in modern history. This has the following periodsThe Bohemian Period; The Palatinate Period; The Danish Period; The Swedish Period and The FrancoSwedish Period (Thirty Years War: Introduction | Infoplease.com http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/history/thirty-years-war.html#ixzz2p7ruq8X8 ) Thirty Years War, (161848), in European history, a series of wars fought by various nations for various reasons, including religious, dynastic, territorial and commercial rivalries. Its destructive campaigns and battles occurred over most of Europe and, when it ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the map of Europe had been irrevocably changed (Encyclopdia Britannica). [2] 1770 Bengal famine was contemporary to Americans had been fighting for their independence. At that time, from Bengal to a larger part of India tribals, indigenous groups, pre-Vedic Aryans, pure forms and Arab elements specifically in the peninsular region were opposing the British. That agitation in countryside Bengal was guided by Hindu monks and Fakirs. It was prevailed throughout 1760s, 70s, 80s and 90s when France was approaching towards its first Revolution and after strong efforts the Arabs of Mysore in Indian Peninsula could only be defeated. Mysore was a very ancient kingdom in Indian peninsula and it always received the status of an autonomy under various great powers; nobody tried to abolish the state. Old landlords in Bengal were probably backing the agitators and they in the meantime were gradually replaced by the British collaborators. During the regime of Napoleon in continental Europe up to 1815, peasant and tribal agitations were there agitating in various parts along with a small mutiny within the natives in British Army. Most of the native Indian states accepted the British proposal of subsidiary alliance and even the Sikhs signed a pact with the British in 1809 against Tilsit treaty between Russia and Napoleon (1707). After the fall of Napoleon, Marathas in Deccan and Gurkhas in Nepal accepted British supremacy in South Asian polity. British East India Company always acted in favour of Mughal Padshahi and whenever they were in trouble, British Parliament and Royal Dynasty more and more entered into Indian polity. In, post-Napoleon period, Austria again became the key decision maker in the continental Europe (1815-1848). However, within that time, some political alterations occurred in France and it gradually approached towards another Revolution. That was the time, when the British eventually started progressing towards Burma sharing borders with French colonies in Indo-China. Latin American colonies also got independence and that was contemporary to social reforms among the Hindus, religious movements among the Muslims and another phase of tribal movement. Christian missionaries became active in tribal India. Russia reached into Central Asia and tried to influence Irano-Afghanistan and Sino-Tibetan regions. After the French revolution of 1848, there were agitations in China and India against the British. Peoples in China, tribals in Chotonagpur region of India, fractions in Bengal-Burma borderland, the Bengal Regiment, Muslim Wahabis, old landlords, peasants, elements of Deccan, Princely States suffering from the Doctrine of Laps and natives in British Army were among those agitators.
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Factors and Trends of Social Change of a Migrated Tribal Community in North Bengal
North Bengal and Ethnic Composition The procedure of social change/transformation of a migrated community may be linked up with socio-economic characters of the new place. That is generally related with ecosystem/landscape of the region. Such migrations may lead up to religious conversion, significant change in settlement pattern/ social structure/ language spoken/ nature of education and politico-economic organization. Question of change in cultural identity may arise. Here, in this article, a micro level study is going to be illustrated on a twice migrated Oraon tribe in a rurarban area of North Bengal, India. However, the study also needs a well clarified justification about the geography of North Bengal. The term North Bengal, at the present moment has become a Geo-political reference. The six northern districts of the state West Bengal are collectively spoken off as North Bengal which can be viewed from different angles, viz., geographical diversity that is very much associated with ecosystems and each respective biodiversity. The region contains mountainous slopes, foothills, river valleys and highlands, older and newer plains. North Bengal is the northern political geography and administrative zone of West Bengal state of India. Out of total 19 districts of the state, the region contains only six and these six districts are all lying northern to the river Ganges (Jalpaiguri, Cooch Behar, Darjeeling, North Dinajpur, South Dinajpur and Malda). North Bengal could be divided into several zones: Darjeeling-Kurseong hills, Kalimpong hills, Siliguri Terai (Darjeeling district); Bengal Duars (along Bengal Frontier-Bhutan international boundary of Jalpaiguri district); western part of Tista-Brahmaputra valley (Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar districts); Upper plain of Mahananda valley (North Dinajpur); Lower Plain of Mahananda valley (South Dinajpur and Malda) and Varindland or Borendrobhum uplands/ Highland / catchment area (parts of Jalpaiguri-CoochBehar as well as that of North and South Dinajpur districts). Hills and Terai of Darjeeling District: Darjeeling hills constitute the southern parts of Sikkim Himalayas. This Sikkim/Darjeeling hill area and Terai foothill are the eastern continuation of Nepal/Central Himalayas and Nepal Foothills respectively. Darjeeling hill area is cut up with Kalimpong hill area through north-south flowing River Tista from Sikkim. Kalimpong has a lower altitude in comparison to Darjeeling and this is the beginning of Eastern Himalayas that gradually proceed further eastwards in the form of Bhutan Himalayas and Himalayas of Arunachal Pradesh. There are various mountainous passes in this Eastern Himalayas connecting Tibet Plateau and Tista-Brahmaputra valley. One such major mountainous pass is Jelep-La that connects Chumbi Valley of Tibet Plateau with Kalimpong Hills. Bengal Duars: The foothill region of Kalimpong-Bhutan Himalayas, now under Indian
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Territory since the colonial rule and covered with dense humid mixed forest, is named as Duars/ Doors. Many such mountainous passes like Jelep-La are there but maximum in case of Bhutan Himalayas. And innumerable river valleys and streams from Bhutan act as doors to the Brahmaputra valley constituting the heart of todays North East India. Imp ortant to note here is that Duars is both shared up by the political geography of both North Bengal and Assam. Western part of Duars within Jalpaiguri district of North Bengal is called as Bengal Duars and this is continuous eastwards with Assam Duars entirely along the international Indo-Bhutan boundary. River Tista (Teesta) and River Mahananda: Baikunthopur Forest: River Tista separates Kalimpong and Darjeeling Hills and also Duars from Terai. But that does not mean that this is the boundary of Jalpaiguri District and Siliguri Sub-Division of Darjeeling District. Mahananda River initiates from Darjeeling Hills and then comes down in Darjeeling Terai (Siliguri Sub-Division). This river roughly constitutes the political boundary between Siliguri Sub-Division and Jalpaiguri district. There is forest upland between Mahananda and Tista and this upland is entirely included within Jalpaiguri district. This is the Rajgunj block under Jalpaiguri Sub-Division of Jalpaiguri district. This is actually the Boikunthopur forest sector but most of this forest land is now replaced by village settlements by the sides of Tista-Mahananda Canal and various Tea Estates. In this way, Darjeeling district is formed by union of Darjeeling Hills, Kalimpong Hills and Darjeeling Terai (Siliguri SubDivision). Foothill of Darjeeling Hills lies in the district but not the Kalimpong and Bhutan foothills (Bengal Duars). Bengal Duars along with Boikunthopur Forest are situated within the territory of Jalpaiguri. Mechi-Mahananda Basin: River Mechi is the natural demarcation of Nepal Terai and Terai of Darjeeling district. It originates from the Singalila range that interestingly lays in northsouth direction and separates Darjeeling Hills from the Nepal/Central Himalayas. So, Singalila range and Mechi River are the natural demarcations of entire Darjeeling district and Nepal country. They actually constitutes western boundary of Darjeeling district of North Bengal and this western boundary happens to be also the international Indo-Nepal boundary. Mechi has eastern part of Nepal Terai/Morang to its west and Siliguri Terai of Darjeeling to its east. River Mahananda first flows through this SiliguriTerai and the Chopra highland and then enters into Purnea territory of neighbouring Indian state of Bihar where it meets Mechi River. So, a little fertile land has been constituted there between Mechi and Mahananda, while Mechi still being the international Indo-Nepal boundary. This fertile area was mostly encroached by an extension from the Purnea district, Bihar. However, it is also a fact that in pre-colonial time Purnea and Morang were extended throughout the Siliguri Terai and the entire Darjeeling Hills were included in Sikkim. River Mahananda also serves as the natural boundary of Siliguri Terai with Rajgunj block of Jalpaiguri district and Tentulia portion of Bangladesh country (roughly) before entering into Chopra block of Islampur Sub-Division, North Dinajpur district. Siliguri Municipality is there and this is the largest municipal corporation of entire North Bengal; it is located around the Mahananda River in Darjeeling Terai. This is the settlement that holds connection among Nepal Terai, Darjeeling Hills, Sikkim, Purnea, Dinajpur (IndoBangladesh) and mainland India on one hand and the cluster of Duars-Bhutan-KalimpongChumbi valley, Jalpaiguri-Cooch Behar plains and entire Brahmaputra valley along with
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other pockets of North East India. Tista-Brahmaputra Valley: Plains of Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar: Way to Bangladesh and Bay of Bengal: Brahmaputra valley has a triangular shape; the three sides of this triangle are 1) northern margin by Eastern Himalayas; 2) eastern margin by Naga Hills and 3) westto-south margin by Borendrobhum highlands associated with Garo and Khasi hills of Meghalaya plateau plus hilly terrains of Karbi Anglong. So, rivers from all directions come down into the Brahmaputra Valley and ultimately fall into the main river channel, i.e. River Brahmaputra. The westernmost part of Brahmaputra Valley triangle constitutes plains of Jalpaiguri district and Cooch Behar district Geo-politically within North Bengal. Here, the prime river channel is River Tista. Almost all the rivers from Bhutan Himalayas and Bengal Duars are fallen in Brahmaputra like Tista, Torsa-Jaldhaka, Torsa-Kaljani-Raidak and Sankosh. Tista and these rivers then flow southwards into Rangpur. Rangpur as a Division is now part of independent country of Bangladesh. This is followed by Rajshahi Division that includes Bogra district, marshland and Dinajpur proper. Rivers from this Indo-Bangladesh territory meet into either of Brahmaputra mouth and Gangetic Delta (both being Indo-Bangladesh territories). Brahmaputra from its triangle moves into Bangladesh by breaking the west-to-south barrier made up of Meghalaya plateau (North East India) and Borendrobhum highlands (North Bengal-North West Bangladesh continuity). Through this gap, water ways of Tista-to-Brahmaputra enter into Bangladesh. This constitutes actually Tista-Brahmaputra valley. In Bangladesh, Brahmaputra divides into two tributaries: Jamuna and Brahmaputra. Former meets with the prime tributary of Ganges (Padma) southwards, whereas latter further flows into south-east direction and there merges with Barak-Surma-Meghna river system from hills of Manipur, Mizoram and Manipur states of India that again form a complex river network and meet into Padma. Therefore, Jamuna-Brahmaputra, Ganges-Padma and Brahmaputra-Meghna develop a water transport network throughout the plains of Bangladesh, the Indo-Bangladesh Delta, the mangroves of Sundarban and ultimately release into Bay of Bengal. This river web serves as a transnational route from TibetoBurmese Plateau to Bay of Bengal via Sikkim, Nepal, Purnea, Varindland, Dinajpur, Rajshahi, Bhutan, Duars, Jalpaiguri-CoochBehar, North East India and Bangladesh. Dinajpur Highland (Borendrobhum): Chopra: Balurghat and Raigunj Sub-Divisions along with Islampur Sub-Division constitute the Indian Dinajpur, formerly known as West Dinajpur district of North Bengal. This West Dinajpur district has now been cut into two districts, North Dinajpur consisting of Islampur and Raigunj and secondly, South Dinajpur encompassing the Balurghat highland and plain. So, Indian part of Dinajpur is represented by North Dinajpur and South Dinajpur districts of North Bengal. The Borendrobhum highlands of undivided Dinajpur mostly fall in todays Bangladesh (Dinajpur district, Bangladesh). Of these marginal pockets on Indian side, the important one lies in the Chopra block of Islampur Sub-Division, North Dinajpur district. Borendrabhum also pertains throughout Rajgunj block of Jalpaiguri Sub-Division of Jalpaiguri district and Haldibari block of Mekhliganj Sub-Division of Cooch Behar district. Kumargram block of Balurghat Sub-Division/ South Dinajpur district itself has the southern tracks of Borendrobhum highlands.
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Dinajpur Lowland: Raigunj and Balurghat are two important lowland Sub-Divisions of Indian Dinajpur. They constitute older plains nourished by various rain-fed rivers that come down from Borendrobhum highlands in Bangladesh Dinajpur. This older plain area contains various ancient urban settlements and is continuous with Rajshahi Division of Bangladesh and Malda district of India. Nagar-Mahananda basin from Islampur SubDivision and other tributaries of Mahananda from Bengal-Bihar also enter finally into Malda. Mahananda herself meets into Gangetic delta in Rajshahi Division of Bangladesh. Older Mahananda Valley: Islampur Sub-Division: Islampur Sub-Division is more continuous with Purnia-Katihar plains of neighboring Indian state of Bihar westwards. Actually River Mahananda that demarcates the boundary of Phansidewa block of Siliguri Sub-Division and Chopra block of Islampur Sub-Division and then enters into Purnia district of Bihar where it meets with Mechi River (previously stated) and flows in a southwards direction. From Borendrobhum Highlands of Chopra block, another river Nagar initiates that also flows southwards and it demarcates the international boundary between Dinajpur district of Bangladesh and Islampur Sub-Division of North Dinajpur district, India. Actually, Mahananda and Nagar are two parallel southwards flowing rivers and the fertile land between these two is an older plain. This north-south extended tiny basin is again halved into eastern and western parts. The former is Islampur Sub-Division of North Bengal and the western part constitutes Kishangunj area within Purnia, Bihar. This Kishangunj-Islampur extension in colonial time was totally the part of Purnia district and connected to Siliguri Terai and Chopra highland. Raigunj and Balurghat: Mahananda and Nagar meet together where this IslampurKishangunj extension ends and Raigunj Sub-Division begins. Mahananda is here the natural boundary of Raigunj Sub-Division that separates it from Purnia-Katihar plains of Bihar westwards. Raigunj Sub-Division of North Dinajpur is situated east to River Mahananda and traversed by many rain-fed rivers from Borendrobhum highland of Bangladesh Dinajpur; nearly all these rivers fall into Mahananda either in Raigunj or Malda. Though Balurghat Sub-Division does not relay south of the Raigunj Sub-Division but east of it, however, this has the name South Dinajpur. Rivers here do not generally meet into Mahananda but turn towards Rajshahi district, Bangladesh along with Karatoa-PurnabhavaAtrai river system with definite Indo-Bangladesh nature. This system originates from Borendrabhum-Dinajpur and not of the Himalayas. It meets into both Gangetic delta and Brahmaputra mouth. It creates the famous marshland of Rajshahi there (Chhalan Beel). Lowline Malda is said to be also a part of this marshland (Tal and Diara) Newer Mahananda Valley: Ganges-Mahananda Inland: Gour Bengal: Malda is the southernmost end of North Bengal that is separated from Murshidabad district of South Bengal by River Ganges. In Murshidabad, Ganges divides into its two prime tributaries: Bhagirathi flowing southwards into South Bengal (India) and Padma flowing into southeast direction (Bangladesh). These two form the Gangetic delta which has an IndoBangladesh feature.
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This has been previously stated that how tributaries of Brahmaputra, such as BrahmaputraJamuna and Brahmaputra-Meghna open into this Padma in Bangladesh. Pabna is a very fertile land where the Jamuna and Padma meet along with certain other rain-fed rivers from Borendrobhum (Karatoa-Purnabhava-Atrai just mentioned earlier). Malda, Raigunj and Balurghat together constitute the triangular fertile territory of ancient Gour/Gour Banga. It is mostly populated by lowland agriculturists. Malda in specific can be categorized into two fertile zones: very fertile inland between River Ganges and River Mahananda and secondly, relatively older plain area on River Mahananda. The other side of Malda (Old Maldah) along with Borendrobhum lowlands of RaigunjBalurghat is know as the Gour Bengal or Gour Vanga. This is the part of ancient territory of Paundrabardhana that might have certain historical significance. Paundrabardhana has been mentioned in many ancient texts of India as well as it is associated with even folklore. This prevails over Indo-Bangladesh territories of Dinajpur-Rajshahi. On the other side, Ganges-Mahananda inland is continues with Katihar region to its west in Bihar and also linked up with Murshidabad, Bangladesh, Mid Bengal, South Bengal proper, Indo-Bangladesh Delta, South Bihar and Chhotonagpur plateau.
Earlier People of North Bengal: Paundra, Bratya-Kshatriya, Kashyapa, Rajbanshi, Koch-Rajbanshi, Koch, Kirata The population composition of North Bengal can be broadly categorized into ten groups: Paundra Kshatriya to Bratya Kshatriya: Paundrabardhana, the ancient territory of North Bengal was ruled by the Hindu warrior-cum-ruling category. Such categories are known as Kshatriyas and they in Paundrabardhana were better addressed as Paundra Kshatriyas. Hypothetically and ideally, Hindus are believed to be in a hierarchical social structure. Besides various types of social stratifications like slavery, race, estate, ethnicity, habitation, nationality, religion, class, gender and power; the exclusive social structure in Indian SubContinent works as the caste system. The latter is more related to agrarian social structure rather than the Hindu people there in India. We could see other non-Hindu people there in countryside practice caste-like system. But, the caste/caste-like system could not always maintain its close-ended feature, mainly because of complex agrarian social structure and trade-agriculture nexus. Agrarian economy is predominant in India and henceforth, near about 70% of its population is roughly associated to agriculture or other agricultural related activities staying mostly in the villages. These peasants in their each folk life and with every traditional mindset hold certain values and mores combined with customs and norms. Those form their culture like a book where every page is full of information on way of living with the nature in a particular ecosystem. The non-material culture is very hard to alter as that becomes integral part of folk life, matter of cultural lag and often an issue of cultural identity. This could be only felt by decoding the symbolic facts, analyzing the cultural performances and through prolonged observation. Knowledge covers a large part of that culture that has often been remained disclosed and hence subject to decode the culture so as to work out the knowledge traits and functioning of the knowledge systems. Caste to me is one type of social institution based on ascribed type of division of labour and therefore highly economic.
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Migration of People in North Bengal: Possibilities for Social Change There were several migrations in the region of North Bengal. Migrations may be of tow types: in-migration and out-migration. Immigration is another type of migration where it involves two different countries and the people from one country move permanently to another and settle there. Emigration is also transnational and one type of out-migration where people permanently leave a country. Migration may be temporary as well as permanent. Migrants can form a Ddiaspora and even they may loose contact with the place of their origin. Migration may be legal or illegal. One may be sent to political exile or exile of other kind. People may migrate individually or in group or on community basis. There are nomads as well as semi-nomads. Cause of migration may be economic, political, ecological, resource searching, due to a search for a better life, social (marriage etc.), war, natural and/or man-made disasters and even seasonal. It may cause Founders Effect and Genetic Shift in the Population. It will compel the migrant to adapt in the new environment/climate/ecosystem and therefore invent new ideas/knowledge/technologies intentionally or unintentionally and if they are the folk people, then preserve these functional inventions inside their non-functional value system expressed through their customs, performances and norms of their folk life. They make these innovations integral part of their lives and often institutionalized them within their less-adaptive politicoeconomic organizations and mind set up. The latter is the place where their surrounding nature reflects and makes them to think and generate their culture and identity on both material and non-material grounds. Further achievements and technological revolutions can only provide them the opportunity to expand their periphery beyond the traditional. People in that wider perspective become much more rationalized and scientific in modern-global sense and aided with advanced technologies with the notion of something big or mega and thus transforming their folk life and traditional non-adaptive institutions to a well-equipped life plus ever-adaptive expanding organization. This kind of development shapes into Civilization that owes its presence in state formation, pure economy on trade and industry and legal-constitutional system and therefore Civilization should have an aspect of migration within it. There is always a debate that whether there should be a compromise between Civilization and culture, modernity and tradition, science and ethno-science, nature and super-nature as well as unidirectional development and bothway/multidirectional/absolute/sustainable developmentbecause this is all about human survival in a more harmless condition definitely with some feed-back in a planet with limited resource, definite bio-diversity and opportunities where life can thrive. The migration and culture contact between the migrants and the earlier inhabitants/aboriginals become therefore obvious. Such culture contacts can therefore facilitate diffusion of culture traits from a culture area to another with or without specific periphery. Diffusion may be there between two or among many communities in a single way or through a multidirectional approach. This arise the question of acculturation and necessity of crosscultural study in both synchronic and diachronic ways. Finding out the trend of culture change on functional/non-functional grounds and/or the degree of social transformation for a given Ddiaspora of any migrated population from the mother population are prime objectives of such studies. The effects of earlier inhabitants over the migrants and vice
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versa are crucial in this context. Social change may occur in various conditions; it could be broadly categorized and thereof discussed into cultural, social, structural & ideational levels. This may cause status mobility, functional mobility, transitions and transformations allied to politico-economic power structure. Concept of Multiculturalism with contrasting features like dominant and minority, secularism and communalism, integration versus assimilation, plurality against ethnicity, regionalism opposite to nationalism and nexus between globalization and localization would often seem quite relevant at both macro and micro levels. Multiculturalism is also a political terminology and often looks politicized. In North Bengal, several migrations have taken place from time to time. The following inmigrations have no contributed a lot behind formation of the Multicultural situation of North Bengal. Migration of Indo-Aryan and Turk-Afghan Tribes from the North Western Parts of Indian Subcontinent: Aryan tribes had probably entered there from Steppe of Kirghiz/Central Asia/Eurasia or from the Grazing lands of Slav Nations, Danube Valley, Alps, Baltic Nations and even Scandinavia in Europe; these people have their establishments in Afghanistan, North Western Frontier Province of Pakistan, Kashmir Valley, Western and Central Himalayas and even in Mithila. The latter one is very adjacent to Borendrobhum Highlands of undivided Dinajpur. This is situated in and around Koshi valley of North Bihar. This is a unique place along both sides of Indo-Nepal international border in northern Bihar. These people have admixed here but still hold their separate identity. The Maithili Brahmins often regard themselves Vedic and not typical Brahminical profound in Gangetic Bihar lowland. Maithili local dialect is different from Bhojpuri dialect prevalently used in western Bihar and even from the Magadhi speech of Gangetic Bihar plains. On the other hand it has certain similarities with several Bengali and Nepali dialects. In ancient time, this place was governed by chiefdoms of each Aryan Tribe and therefore Mithila looked like a Social Republic. Buddhism occurred in Nepal Terai of Mithila. People might migrate from Mithila into the Borendrobhum highlands where still now remnants of Buddhist Monasteries and Education Centers could be found. Buddhism lasted long within several pockets of eastern part of Indian Subcontinent even in 8th and 9th Century AD when this religious belief was gradually displacing from mainland India by revival of Vedic Hinduism and enrichment of Brahminical elements along with both major and minor preAryan local deities. Such Buddhist pockets included Gaya in South Bihar and Borendrobhum in undivided Dinajpur. These were remote and covered with forests. The former was the entrance into the tribal settlements of Choto Nagpur Plateau, Central India and Deccan populated by Proto-Australoid (Mundari/Kolarian) and Dravidian stalks up to the coastal states and dumping grounds of Indian Peninsula along the shore of Bay of Bengal in the east and Arabian Sea to the west. On the other hand, Borendrabhum was the easy entrance towards the Mongoloid tribal communities residing into todays North East India, Eastern Himalayan Buffer States and Tibeto-Burmese Plateau integral to then Buddhist World of the Far East and South East Asia. So, both these pockets in eastern part of Indian Subcontinent should be two prime trade centers and peoples from all-around the Old World would visit these places. Lepchas of Sikkim were probably migrated from hills of North East. Limbus (Subbas) of Sikkim and Darjeeling Hills are now treated integral part of Nepali society in India and Nepalese hilly communities in Nepal; but actually their dialect is said to be quite similar with Mon-Khmer speech of South East Asia, Khasi Hills
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of Meghalaya and Mundari of Choto Nagpur. Another and probably the easternmost Aryan settlement was established in the Brahmaputra triangle that thought to rule the land for thousands of years adapting with politico-economic situations from time to time. That was the Bhagadatta regime thriving on all other tribal and non-tribal ruling authorities at local level. Myths said that there were Demons and Gold Hunters parallel with the pastoralsboth regulating trade and economy. Purnia is the place between Mithila and Borendrobhum and people there speak in peculiar dialect that owes its origin from both Maithili and local dialects used by common Paundra-Kshatriyas and Rajbanshis. Dwarbhanga (Darbhanga)Muzaffarpur is the heartland of Mithila through the place has no separate political identity today in Bihar. Dwarbhanga seems to be Dwar-Vanga for many meaning Door to Bengal. Great Maithili poet Vidyapati was pioneer of literature on Vaishnavism. He had influenced both the quasi-egalitarian heritage of Vaishnavism of Bengal and at the same time the Bengali language through his literature. This has been previously mentioned that how the agriculturist people of North Bengal lowlands were highly influenced by Vaishnavism. In various time periods similar migration took place. Kushanas from their Turk-Shahi in IranCentral Asia as well as Hindu-Shahi in western and north-central India might have reached to the place of Borendrabhum and its surrounding river channels. Rajshahi is an important district near this highland (now in Bangladesh). Kambojas, Kashmiris, Turko-Afghans, Turko-Mongols from North West; Chutias and Ahoms from Thai territories in South East Asia and Arabs and Moghs from Arakan/Chittagong coasts frequently entered into Borendrobhum and its surrounding areas including North Bengal. During Muslim rule in Bengal, the highest concentration of people were there in Chittagong and Bagura (Bogra)no doubt the latter near the Bangladesh Dinajpur was important politic-economic zone and a place with Buddhist and then Islamic heritage. Migration of Santals: Agrarian Santal Tribe from Rajmahal plains near Murshidabad district and other subordinates from Rajmahal hills entered in North Bengal and various parts of Bengal and Bihar due to the British-led strong actions taken in order to perish Santal insurrection against private banking and taxation system in terms of cash (despite crop share) during 1850s; Migration of Adivasis: Adivasis or the aboriginals of Central India/Deccan/ChotoNagpur constituted multiethnic demography there and the deprived and poor people among were migrated into the tea gardens that the British set up in Terai and Doors in the nineteenth century in order to challenge the Chinese Tea Economy; Migration of Nepalis: Hill people from Nepal were also migrated into tea gardens of Terai and Duars along with the Darjeeling Hills by virtue of British Tea Estates in North Bengal and Assam. They were primarily some caste-like ethnic groups of unclean Matwali category. Most of these were actually excluded from Royal Territory of Nepal under the Gorkha House. These people might not manage themselves with the strict implementation of Gorkha life style (Hindu concept of purity and pollution). Poverty might not be the only reason for their migration. Again, the Gorkha House had taken a policy to unify all the ethnic elements of the Himalayas under one Umbrella. They might face some difficulties during implementation of their policies in the buffer states of Eastern Himalayas based on transnational trade with Tibet. So, they may take the policy of any how infiltrating their
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people in these territories. British Government in India always maintained good terms with the Gorkha House of Nepal and passively facilitated this migration. They might have decided to reduce the Tibeto-Bhutanese/Buddhist and Chinese influence up on Sikkim and hamper or acquire the transnational trade there. Tea Gardens were economic reason and demographic shift in hills and foothills were strategic reasons. Later, British decided to deploy these Nepalis in British Army and they developed Gorkha Regiment. With the growing importance of Darjeeling town in Darjeeling Hills other high status people also started coming from Nepal. So, the Matwalis were eventually associated with this latecomer minority group of clean Tagadharis. All the people from any Nepali ethnic group, whether being Hindu or Buddhist and of any status quo here in Darjeeling started preferring themselves by the common identity of Gorkha. A new category of Thimaha has been developed that includes the value-degraded status losers among the Tagadharis. Gorkha of Darjeeling were often considered as excluded, impure and a toilet class. These people often raised their voice in favour of their special protection, such as, inclusion within scheduled social categories and/or notification of their land as a notified/excluded/scheduled territory which in independent India took the shape of separate statehood movement on Gorkhahood. People have become clustered in the name of Plantocracy: this is one kind of shift from simple labour class movement against hierarchical/ascribed class system in tea gardens to an ethnocentric movement encompassing all the Nepali people in Darjeeling Hills and beyond. The aim of such movement oriented around the question of cultural identity from a political platform besides other issues like self-control and autonomy. Integration of Buddhist elements such as Tamang and Sherpa with other Nepali Scheduled Tribe category (Limbu) plus marginalized folk peoples like Bhutia/Dukpa/Denzongpa/Monpa, Tibetan Buddhists and Lepchas has further proceeded to incorporate Nepali Scheduled Castes (Sarki, Kami, Dami), various ethnic groups (Rai, Bhujel, Mangar, Newar, Sunwar, Kagatia, Gurung, Thimaha) and the clean caste categories (Thakuri, Brahmin, Chhetri, Sharma, etc.). Sudden change through tribalization or retribalization is a very sensitive issue in respect to this Gorkha fellow feeling. Besides these, with ongoing developmental process; people from all sectors of the Indian society such as Bengalis, people from North East, Bihar, Jharkhand, Central India, Utter Pradesh, South India and Western India are coming in this place.
Oraons in Choto Nagpur An important large scale in-migration from the plateau of Choto Nagpur to North Bengal was of the Adivasis during the British rule in India. That in-migration to the tea gardens was initiated from second and third decade of nineteenth century onwards. Adivasis, claimed to be the aboriginals of Central Indian jungle areas, are composed of many small and large groups of tribal communities- overlapped or isolated, differentiated on the basis of their ascribed community status and bearing Proto-Australoid/ Dravidian racial features. Oraons belong to this multilingual, multiethnic and multicultural composition. Many of the Oraons from Choto Nagpur (now, Jharkhand state) once
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migrated into the Tea Estates of Terai and Duars along with other tribes and there they developed a major part of the labour class. This class system happened to be ascribed and people there stayed inside the barracks for the tea garden labours. Oraons expressed their high status among the tribal communities of Choto Nagpur and showed their relatedness with the aboriginal Mundas. Mundas are Proto-Australoids whereas Oraons are Dravidian; they have spoken differently though they tribal communities of Jharkhand have developed a common language Sadri. Linguists often try to prove where this Sadri is closer to Bengali or Hindi! Majority of tribal languages of these tribals in Jharkhand-Odissa sector showed some overlapping and in a broader sense mentioned as Kolarian/ Mundari. Oraons are not actually the forest dwellers or any other craftsmen community based on forest resources but permanent agriculturists like the Mundas and Santals. Another important agriculturist community consists of Mahatos that have now been provided with Scheduled Tribe facility. The Hindu agriculturist community and big landholders of South Bihar and Jharkhand are the Bhumihars. Adjacent areas of Jharkhand in South Bengal experience the presence of Bhuin community that is also closely associated with permanent agriculture. There might be some types of Tribe Caste Continuum in various pockets where such agriculturists tribes due to long and close coexistence with the caste people primarily form caste like ascribed systems on the basis of community status and then they might be convert into a caste, generally with lower ranking. It is possible that such lower castes with time may come into power and socially they increase their status/ caste status with various types of status mobilization process with the help of a reference group. Sociologically saying, this might be Sanskritization, Kshatriyaization and so forth. This type of social process is often assisted by cultural change: Universalization of certain local folk traits and on the other hand, penetration of certain Great Tradition from the World People. Probably this is the best example that how sustainability could be achieved through negotiation process of various value systems of different communities/societies. Until and unless negotiation is there at ideational level through vigorous and random process of acceptance and rejection; there would exist conflicts between Traditional and Modern, Local and Global and even Science and Ethno-Science. There might be structural change in tribal societies when they completely convert into a dominant structure on caste or community basis, for example, formation of Dominant Caste/ Dominant Community. There might be Social Transformation through complete conversion from one religious institution to totally different another. This might assist them to change their social values as well as occupational and political perspectives. And at the same time, the tribal community may not move on any of these lines. They many develop according to their own perception and even develop Tribal State without accepting the caste-based Indian system and may not behave like the Caste. Oraons have never compromised with this caste system but maintain their tribal dignity and status with respect to other neighboring tribal communities inside their agrarian social system in Jharkhand. Oraons are Dravidian in nature and they use the terminology Ayo to address the nomenclature of Mother that is Aye for the Maratha caste groups. So, Oraons might have certain links with Deccan. Oraons were thought to be inhabitants of the plain areas of Rohtas district of Bihar. They were pushed to the jungles of Ranchi Palamu region of Jharkhand during Muslim innovation in Bihar during 12th 14th AD Rhotas was very close to Gaya mentioned earlier. These tribal Hindus should have experienced that how the last traces of Buddhism that had still survived in Nalanda-Gaya region of Bihar despite of all
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types of Hindu upheavals were abolished by Islam. Despite of various differences; Islam had a basic similarity with Buddhism as they both tended towards alternative economy of industry and trade. This alternative economic system aided by either of Buddhism or Islam (Sufism) had not to bother much about caste institutions and the notion of the particular division of labour in it for an agrarian system. Therefore, Oraons had no other option to move inside less productive land of Jharkhand but to save their traditional agrarian socioeconomic system. Oraons had taken the technique of irrigation in Malamu-Ranchi region for the first time and gradually they replaced other less-technologically assisted agricultural tribal communities such as the Munda community into far more dense forest region. These two communities with different racial, linguistic and cultural features then overlapped to some extent and created a larger social fold. That was the Kolarian language group sheltering many small tribal sub-groups like Lohar, Kharia, Ghasi, Baraik and others. In the ecology of Palamu-Ranchi forest belt; Oraons certainly acquired some new knowledge traits (with certain functioning systems) through different social/ cultural contacts. The Oraons could not stay there forever and were replaced to the tea gardens of North Bengal and Assam- these tea gardens were set up by the British companies and a few native elite personalities from 1830s onwards. The primordial cause was basically massive poverty due to intrusion of monetary transaction system that directly struck on their traditional exchange system. They now have to pay their rent for their land and other taxes in cash instead of share of crop and therefore to collect the ransom from the money-lenders by selling the crop even at a low price, indebted and alienated from their land, ultimately serving as bonded labour and highly impoverished. The capital, instead of rotating within a fixed area, flow outside by the hands of businessmen and the absentee landlords. The administrative machinery often committed various kinds of harassments over these peoples and also hampered their indigenous rights including their traditional rights over forest, considered as the integral part of their life. Various insurrections by these peoples were brutally condemned by armed forces. The attack was also over the ethnic identity of these tribal peoples and their indigenous pattern of life, culture, technological and other kinds of knowledge systems and indigenous rights that created serious crisis to the survival of their traditional culture. This has caused successive large scale migration to the tea gardens of Terai and Doors of North Bengal for over a hundred year until the independence from the British rule in 1947.This long separation from the mainland has brought several changes within the Oraon community in their new cultural ecology. And after independence, implementation of various labour laws in favour of the workers deployed on permanent basis caused huge cut off in their number by the management to ensure the standard level of profit. This new bulk of temporary labour force has no other option than to accept agriculture in the areas adjacent to the tea gardens. The village panchayet system (village local government), trade unions, alteration in the master-servant system into the employer-employee relationship, better and wider access to the outer world have again caused certain changes in these villages as compared to the tea-garden labour barrack. And when the modern development in some patches on the margin of urban or semi-urban areas extends their effects upon these tea garden adjacent villages, certain changes should happen there. Various related questions then come to the observers mind: whether the Christian and the non-Christian sects of a tribal community are similarly capable to access the same facilities provided to them from different sources and if not, what differences could we find between them that
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might be lacking in a tea-garden; about the tribal-tribal, tribal-non tribal patterns of interaction as well as economic transformations in the peasantry and ultimately, effect of migration up on social and cultural changes taken place successively from the jungle, peasantry, tea garden, tea garden adjacent villages and semi-urban sectors now emerged out in several village pachayets near to the big urban areas of North Bengal. So, Oraons can be defined as a Dravidian Kurkhu speaking agriculturist tribal community of southern Bihar-Jharkhand that has certain affinities with Deccan, South India and at the same time is belonging to Kolarian language group, associated with classificatory kinship, joint family system, subsistent agrarian economy, own political system-village administrative body-youth dormitory, lots of seasonal ceremonies-onseasonal agricultural cycle, information regarding controlled exploitation of forest resources and a high position in the tribal social stratification. How could we forget the existence of Coorg Princely State near Mysore in Indian Peninsula on the way to Kerala coast!
Oraon Migration to the Tea Estates of North Bengal The Oraons from Jharkhand were replaced to the tea gardens of North Bengal and Assam- these tea gardens were set up by the British companies and a few native elite personalities during 1830s onwards. The primordial cause for this emigration was basically massive poverty due to intrusion of monetary transaction system that directly hit their traditional barter system. They had to pay the tax for their land and other purposes in cash instead of share of crop. In order to collect the ransom from the money-lenders/private bankers, they had to sell their crops even at a very low price. They became indebted and alienated from their land. Ultimately they had to serve as bonded labour and faced high impoverishment. The capital on the other hand, instead of rotating within a fixed area, flew outside through the hands of private bankers and the absentee landlords. The administrative machinery was accused of taking soft actions against these exploiting agencies. Money system of the British Raj /Company Raj resulted into extreme harassments over these native tribals and also hampered their traditional rights over forest resources that they had managed in their own way. Various insurrections by these peoples were brutally condemned by armed forces. The risk was also there over the ethnic identity of these tribal peoples with a bid on their folk life. This has caused successive large scale migration of Oraons and other Adivasis from Choto Nagpur to the tea gardens of Terai and Doors of North Bengal. That type of migration happened for over a hundred year until Indias independence from the British rule, 1947. People arrived in North Bengal could never return back to their motherland and served as the workers the lowest rank in ascribed type of class system in those tea gardens. Long separation from motherland and settlement in a new eco-geographic region brought several changes within the Oraon community. And after independence; implementation of various labour laws in favour of the permanent tea workers caused huge cut off in their number by the management and a huge bulk of the working class has become temporary. This has done in order to ensure the margin of profit level; labour laws are not for these temporary staffs but for the permanent ones. Permanent workers have the rite to join trade Union and demand for an employer-employee relationship rather than
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master-servant relation of the colonial period. They have the right to demand for better livelihood and minimum facilities/accommodations (food, water, home, health, wage and so far). This new bulk of temporary labour force has no other option rather than to accept agriculture in adjacent areas. They have stated interacting with the people outside the tea gardens. They might be Adivasis and may be not. These people happen to be believers in agrarian economy and not any estate. Like the Adivasis, Nepali workforce present in the Doors and Terai region also accepted that alternative way. So, Oraons along with other Adivasis and Nepali ethnic groups started interaction with the local agrarian communities like the Rajbanshis/Vaishnavas/PaundraKshatriya. They have to face off local Muslim peasants and artisans as well as immigrants and refugee from East Pakistan/Bangladesh and other states of India (especially north eastern states) plus various parts of Bengal. The latter might not always be Bengali speaking people but various local tribal elements (viz. Garo). Besides Rajbanshi people; Doors and Terai contain various other groups in little numberthese may be Mech, Rabha, Toto, Dhimal, Boro and so forth. In Koch Bihar, spores of Garo and Khen are exclusive. The Rajbanshis of Paundrabardhana are spoken off as Dhokra and use Sarkar as their surname. They also use surnames like Roy, Singha, Barman, Sharma, Das, Choudhury or Chaudhari and even exceptionally Deb and Ghosh. They are often accompanied by Oraon, Munda, Santal, Malpahari and Mahato on one hand and simultaneously Nath/Jugi, Goswami, Borendri Brahmin, Barmana, Pahari, Chandal, Hari, Dom, Kishan, Nashya Sheik, Bengali speaking Muslim (nor the Ahirs in particular as found in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh sub-Himalayas), Sheshabadia, Bratya Kshatriya, Vaishnava, Ghosh, Saha, Pal, Pulia, Pani Koch, Namasudra, Biswas, Mondal and various Bengali Hindu caste groups along with the people from neighboring state of Bihar, Jharkhand and South Bengal. However, Oraons are common to both Gour Vanga/ Paundrabardhana and tea gardens and agrarian village/village hamlet/village settlement in Terai/Duars/frontier pockets of North Bengal. I prefer to say the Oraons as twice migrated community: they first inmigrated from Jharkhand and then out-migrated from tea garden to a completely new economic situation. The same may have happened with other Adivasi tribes and Nepali ethnic communities; but here Oraons have taken as the reference group so as to investigate about the scope of social transformation and cultural changes of a twice migrated community into different economic systems.
Oraons of Bidhanpally Village Bidhanpally is the understudied village that has a mixed population of Rajbanshi, Nepali, Bengali and Adivasis (Oraons). It is located in Atharkhai Village Panchayet, Matigara Block, Siliguri Sub-Division, Darjeeling District, North Bengal administrative region, West Bengal state, India. Categorically it is situated in Darjeeling Terai (Siliguri). Bidhanpally is located in a highland enclave of two tiny water streams, namely Magurmari and Lachka. These streams meet together and then the Lachka falls into River Balason. Latter is the prime river in Matigara block and it unites with the River Mahananda. It is the most important river within the inland formed by Mahananda and Mechi that enclave the
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Darjeeling Terai. Actually, Bidhanpally is not a village but a hamlet within the Atharkhai Village Panchayet. The highland where this hamlet is situated has developed into a semiurban/rurarban landscape. This contains a Law College, campus of North Bengal University, Army and para-military establishments, Gas Turbine and a proposed Industrial Zone. Indeed, Magurmari stream is initiated from this highland. On the other side of Magurmari, the land is little bit sloppy and there is the Shibmandir local market area on which the bulk of local people depend so much. This small highland has been traversed by railway track and National Highway 34. Railways connect Bagdogra Airport and New Jalpaiguri Station (NJP); the latter serves like a knot that connects mainland India with the North East and Darjeeling. Road connection adds Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Bihar, Sikkim, North East, Duars, Terai, Dinajpur and the entire West Bengal state and mainland India with Siliguri Municipal Corporation and NJP. This NH 34 connects the two extreme points of West Bengal state and highway also trespasses Siliguri, Bidhanpally and Bagdogra. Bidhanpally has a 7 Km. distance from Siliguri and 3 Km. from Bagdogra. Various other highlands surround the Atharkhai highland containing Bidhanpally hamlet. Most of these highlands are traversed by small rivers/streams/jhoras like Magurmari and Lachka. These highlands encompass Matigara, Naxalbari, Buraganj, Ghoshpukur or Phansidewa of Siliguri Sub-Division. They mostly consist of tea gardens and remaining forests. In these tea gardens live Adivasis and Nepalis in labour barracks. In the tiny river basins; Rajbanshi and other agriculturists practice crop cultivation. Most of these water channels later merge into Mahananda, Balason and Mechi. All these major water flows and rivers then unite to form the fertile Mahananda-Mechi inland. The latter comprises of Kharibari, Chathat and Bidhannagar of Siliguri Sub-division and Thakurgunj area of neighboring Purnia region, Bihar. This fertile inland separates the Terai uplands from Borendrobhum highlands of Rajgunj block and Chopra block of Jalpaiguri and Dinajpur respectively. So, the location of Bidhanpally from socio-economic perspective is remarkable. It is neither at a great distance from any of the tea gardens of Darjeeling Terai nor far from the adjoining Gosainpur-Rangapani agrarian landscape on Lachka-Magurmari basin which has continuity with the Mahananda-Mechi fertile inland on the other hand. Therefore the Adivasi settlement at Bidhanpally has the scope for agriculture in lowland river basins and inlands as well as working in tea gardens on temporary basis.
METHODOLOGY In Bidhanpally, the Oraons are segregated into two religious halves, the Samsara (pure animists/Tribal Hindu?) and the Christians. Oraon is a tribal community and falls under the Scheduled Tribe category. The Samsars are more traditional and folk-based, but the Christians are somewhat different and vary much attached to modern way of life. Except the old generations, these people have nearly completely forgotten their mother tongue (Kurkhu) and preferably use Sadri (the common language for the Adivasis); Hindi (National language and useful to interact with non-Adivasis) and local languages like Bengali and Nepali as well as their dialects/variations. They have no direct physicality with the Jharkhand movement of 1980s and they in majority do not support the separatist
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movement by the Nepalis on the basis of Plantocracy and Gorkhaland. But these people were heavily influenced by the Naxalite Movement that occurred in tea gardens of North Bengal which then gradually spread into a wider part of India, especially their motherland of Jharkhand/ChotoNagpur and other parts of Central Indian and Deccan. Unlike the community centric movement in Darjeeling hills by the Nepali people; the Adivasis and even the Nepali workforce in Terai and Duars have been heavily influenced by the long run tea trade union activities in democratic way. The temporary staffs and agriculturists on the other hand were seen in the peasant movements occurred in other parts of North Bengal, West Bengal for land rights. Influence was also there from the religious institution of Church on the Christianized sect. So, there is a definite scope of finding out the social transformation among these Oraons of Bidhanpally on religious line (if any, at microlevel). Here the sample size is of 75 households. This is not a very large size and therefore each and every person of the Oraon community here has been taken under consideration without any sampling process. Survey has been done on both qualitative and quantitative ways.
DISCUSSION
Change in the Family Structure Out of 75 total families, 40 families practice animism, whereas the rest 35 families belong to the Christian fold. Of these total 75 families, the nuclear families are 31 (77.5%) and 32 (91.42%) in number for Samsars and Christians respectively. The Samsars have a total population of 160 with 9:7 sex ratio; whereas the 133 Christians having sex ratio of 1015 females per 1000 males. Though there is no clear evidence of massive discrimination to the girl child among the Samsars, but still it is clear that gender equality is more profound within the Christians. Both the sects prefer to live in nuclear families where husband, wife and children living together. After getting married, sons and daughters prefer to stay separately forming their own nuclear families. At that case, the old parents have to maintain their livelihood on their own. Widow or widower basically lived with his or her sons or daughters family and one type of broken joint family thus develops. Some extended families are also found where the unmarried/ separated sister or brother stay with. A nephew or a nice could also live with uncles family. It is none-the-less a notion of social security/ job opportunity playing role behind formation of extended/ matrilocal family. Matrilocal family/ Gharjamai system is practiced in tea garden barracks so to get the quarter and job-opportunity (with small scale salary per capita on wage basis; through the female line within ascribed class system). [SEE: TABLE 1: Changes in Family Types: Changes in Occupation and Mode of Production: Class Difference]. In an interesting case, the members of a family consists of a widow, her son-in-law and his second wife and their child with whom the widow has no blood relation, but still full of love and affection- her original daughter lift the mother, the husband and the home to stay with another individual whom she married later. It is not just for security of the widow to
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allow this type of arrangement, but actually due to her thinking pattern where she can accept that child as her grandson even without any blood relation. Neighbors neither criticize this family system nor imply any punishment. In one hand, they criticize this a little (may be due to biasness during researcher-informant interaction). On the other hand they accept this. That might be the remnant of the older family system among the Oraons when they maintained huge joint-extended families each containing hundred(s) of members with and without any blood or marital relationships but for the purpose of meeting the energy requirement of a less-equipped agrarian community. Number of families with 4 members is the highest for either case; 32.5% in case of Samsars and 54.28% for the Christians. These families with 4 members chiefly possess generally the parents and two children. Families with three members cover 22.5% and 31.42% of the Samsars and the Christians. So, collectively families with 3 and 4 members number a total of 51 out of 75 families that cover 67.99% of the Oraon settlement at Bidhanpally [SEE: TABLE 2: Factors
behind Change in Family Structure].
Clan exogamy and totemism are strictly practiced. Marriage with other communities like Nepali, Bihari castes, Rajbanshis or other tribal communities like Santal, Lohar or Munda is scarce. Clan endogamy has no bar among the Christians. The Oraons now do not use their clan names in their surnames but the common term Oraon. The clan name Lakra (Lion) is synonymous with the Singh title of agrarian Rajbanshi caste. There the researcher met a case where a Lakra family was found addressing their surname Singh. That was because of the fact that that particular Lakra family preferred to become assimilated into Rajbanshi agrarian fold.
Change through Religious Organization: Impact on Marriage and Culture Oraons are here clearly bifurcated into two sects, the animistic Samsars and the Christian (Catholic/: Rumanian). Christians are associated with the festivals of X-Mass, New Year and Good Friday, whereas the typical agrarian Samsars pray to Mahadeo, Dharmesh, Kali and Laxmi. The malevolent deity/ bad spirit to them are Nad. Sarhul is their chief festival. They still worship some plants as the researcher has found a prickly cactus on the worship ground. Samsars have their priestly category. The traditional song, dance, food practices, house and dress pattern remain confined only to the older generations and some cultural groups during their traditional cultural performances. Peoples have a sense of modernity and secularism; they participate in public festivals and are highly attracted by the modern amenities like TV, electric equipments, automobiles, cellular phones that actually drag them out from local to broader global perspective. They have lost many of there seasonal festivals that symbolically restore functional traditional knowledge systems. They have traveled a long path from their actual folk life in irrigated cultivation ground of Ranchi- Palamu forest area, Choto Nagpur. Now they do not have enough trees or forest resources so to collect fuel wood, ethno-medicine. They started believing in modern health practices rather traditional witch hunting and excess alcoholism. These things will make a barrier before their regular interaction with other communities in their neighborhood. Christians express gratitude to Church organization and the Missionaries. It provides them education and a guideline to improve the socio-economic condition. They say that
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they are more capable of being benefited from Scheduled Tribe facilities and acquire good education and job opportunities. They have been quite successful in becoming a white collar middle class. Many of these Christians have acquired plentiful agricultural land and behaved like absentee landowners deploying poor Samsars as wage labourers there on contractual/temporary basis. On the other hand, Samsars are practicing animism; they oppose the Church and this gives them one kind of integrity. This is more a clash in value systems rather than socio-economic. Samsars consider themselves Hindu and participate in Hindu festivals of their own as well as the other at neighboring. Even these people Seldom Samsars tie up with Nepali, Rajbanshi or Bihari caste people through marriage and create a new sub-structure; but in Bidhanpally the researcher has not met with a single instance of marriage between a Samsar and a Christian. There is not a single instance in Bidhanpally where some family where some members have been converted into Christianity and the rest practicing nature worship. Here, Christians prefer marriage inside the community and even can practice clan endogamy. They are well aware of their difference with the others in respect to the socio-economic condition rather religious identity. Marriage between these two religious sects can be found in tea garden areas if the economic condition is more similar within common labour class system. Community exogamy seems to be nearly impossible in the traditional social systems, but here economic opportunities in a rurarban area have made it least successful mostly among the Samsars. Both the Samsar and the Christian sects of the Bidhanpally have shown a greater tendency towards performing arranged marriage. They are basically against the marriage before puberty. Youth dormitory no more exists in either of tea gardens and present rurarban situation. There is a remarkable change in marriage system according to their view; they have experienced situational alteration with decreasing number in pre marital or extra marital relationship and/or marriage by capture or love marriages. These things are now least happened or they are not ready to reveal such issues in front of outsiders in a rurarban area like Bidhanpally. Rather Samsars have a common habit to accuse Christians for being soften on pre-marital relationship. Widow re-marriage, divorce and separation are still common in both the sects. Polygamy has now been prohibited. But remarriage has some value differences on moral ground between Samsars and Christians. The second marriage of a widow or a widower in Samsars is considered as Sagai which is considered lower and impure category of marriage. Migration to a rurarban area facilitates changes in cultural values and social norms and makes economic disparity too much relevance. Migration followed by modernity along with interference of Church brings religious cleavage more distinct and even at a level of transformation. Samsars opine Chrisians more Catholic rather than Oraon. Value difference is going to be exemplified below: Alcoholism is part of religious institution for both, but there also they exert difference. Oraons prepare the hard drink Haria prepared from fermented rice cakes and a few ethnomedicines; they consume this as medicine, consider part of every festival in their life (seasonal/agricultural/rite-de-passage) and practice alcoholism with concentrated Haria/ Chullu- strong liquor. Christians deny taking Haria and prefer wine in festive occasions. This difference on religious ground extends up to food habit. Snail is a favourite food consumed by the Samsars. Nearly all the Samsar families (93.93%) have no obligation from snail eating. They say that the meal is good for eyes. Many non tribal people also take this, but they actually cook the flesh. But Samsars do not remove the shell and put the
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snails into boiling water/pulses and eat this like a bowl of soup. Only 6.06% of Christians have ever tested snail flesh and generally they avoid this menu. They do not bother about the hygiene/ food values of snail curry and consider it as an unclean food-way. Opposite scenario is there in case of beef consumption where only 5.4% of Samsars have ever taken this against 94.59% of the Christians. This is actually an evidence for the Samsars keeping with Hindu traditional value system of mainland agrarian India. During Laxmi festival, they worship cow (concept of property and wealth). Both of sects show similarity at one basic point and that is 100% pork intake by the total 75 families.
Impact of Change in a Wider Perspective Samsars generally send their children to the Bengali medium schools. The primary school in Bidhanpally runs with mid-day-meal program. Lack of proper guideline causes frequent drop out at the primary stage. On the other hand, Christians prefer the Missionary English Medium Schools. Their education rate is higher and they generally prefer to enter into the job sector after completing the 10+2+3 standard (college). For PG education/University Education, they often move to Ranchi, Jharkhand. Many of them prefer Missionary Colleges mostly at Darjeeling Hills and/or in Kolkata. Their English Medium Schools are generally located in and around Tea Garden areas situated in highlands of Terai and Duars. There they interact with other non-Tribal pupils coming from higher or higher-middle class that do business in Siliguri or other small townships in the Tea Garden areas. But Samsars are with different story; they with a very low percentage in higher education think better to go at the nearby colleges in Bagdogra and Siliguri where they meet with other non-tribal students who mostly belong to the locally inhabited lowland agriculturist communities. There they learn to speak more in Bengali and region dialects rather than English, Hindi or Nepali parallel with Bengali that are the mode of communication in the English Medium Schools. But, in real life like other localities; these Samsars are gradually adapted in speaking Bengali, Hindi, Nepali and regional dialects besides their own Sadri. All these people have completely lost their traditional education system of Youth Dormitory that they once practiced in Ranchi-Palamu region of Choto Nagpur. This alteration in educational sector has developed the platform of politico-economic transformation. Their traditional village head like Manjhi, Mahat, Mahato, Pradhan, Mondal and the role of old religious priest categories/Shamans have become nearly completely lost. People started giving priority to Medical College Hospital/Government Hospital/Block Hospitals/Health Centers/Private Dispensaries/Missionary Hospital/Health Camps/family planning/vaccination/ethno-medicinal practices/food habit/self healing. These people have crossed a long journey from Youth Dormitory, traditional ruling system, labour class movements, Naxalite movement, Trade Union movement, Leftist movement for land distribution in agrarian sectors, three-tire Panchayeti Raj in West Bengal and also experienced various Separatist Movements in the name of Gorkhaland, Kamtapur or Jharkhand. In this era of Globalization and global economic crises; extremist/ communal and caste-based or rural politics/ separatist/ terrorist/ regional/ agrarian and land related politics are so common. These people are well aware of their democratic rite/right and have sincerity regarding legal/constitutional/police and administrative system of the country.
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Many of them are willing to join Indian Army, other armed forces, police and Navy. They often support the demand of announcing Terai and Duars a Tribal Land under the Sixth Schedule of Indian Constitution but within the jurisdiction of West Bengal state. Oraons in Bidhanpally highly oppose calling them criminal tribe, insurgents, forest people or antistate elements. They condemn any clash between the highlanders and the lowlanders on the basis of economy and culture that are directly related to ecology and religion. However, there is a class difference among the Oraons of Bidhanpally between small-scale agriculturists/ landless labours/ temporary tea garden workers/ other labour categories on one hand and big-scale or medium scale absentee landholders associated with White Collar Jobs. The latter is mostly filled up with the Christians and a few Samsars; whereas the former incorporating the mass of lower income Samsars more attached with other nontribal peasant categories. Pitch Road, proper drainage, culverts, tube-wells, road electrification, rural electrification, sanitation, kitchen garden, home-stage poultry/piggery/domestication of goat are other signs of development in this hamlet. BPL card and Job card for the poor, activity of a co-operative agency, affection to alternative jobs like driving car and increasing number of break houses clearly show the impact of rurarban context on the community. 100% of the Samsar families are related to agriculture or related occupation and only 31.5% have associated with job sector as primary occupation. In case of Christians, only 22.8% of families are related with agriculture and the rest 77.2% depend on job sector through active participation of male members. 51.43% of the Christian families are as such were female members are also doing white collar jobs.
CONCLUSION Oraons at Bidhanpally constitute a small sample and are inadequate for demographic study. The study is here qualitative. The sample is twice migrated: firstly, from Choto Nagpur to North Bengal and then, from Tea Garden to Rurarban Settlement. Oraons are mainly confined to highlands of Terai (and also Duars). Reason behind migration was economic. Family Structure changed stepwise according to the trends of migration and vice versa. Change in this structural unit of Oraon community further reveals alteration in social organization. Factor of social change is here migration and the trend is here struggle to access prosperity, an improved life and a better job opportunity. This has a trend into formation of class difference very much overlapping with the religious line. Cleavage between Christian and Samsar sects of Oraon gradually increases on social and cultural grounds with further expos to modernity. Settlement in a rurarban area serves further opportunity in comparison to tea gardens and jungle. Samsars are collaborating much with the lowland agriculturist commoners. Such collabouration is not so open for the Christians who believe in further expansion and never deny from special assistance by the institution of Church in order to manage the government facilities for education, economy and even polity. So, Christians are more criticized for neglecting core values of typical Oraon society. Bibliography
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Bhowmik, S.K.1981. Class Formation in a Plantation System. P.P. Limited: New Delhi. Das Gupta, A. 2006. Ontology and Epistemology of Tribal Groups in North Bengal. Paper presented in 38th Annual Conference of Indian Anthropological Society, 9-11 December, 2006. University of North Bengal. -------2010. The Relevance of Indigenous Peoples: A Case Study of the Rajbanshi Community of North Bengal. In: A. Mukherjee, P.K. Pal and R.K. Sen, Environment and Sustainable Development in India. Deep and Deep Pub. Pvt. Ltd: New Delhi. Jetley, S. 1991. Modernizing Indian Peasants. New Delhi: Asian Education Service. Mallick, Md. A. 2004. Development Programs and Tribal Scenario. Firma KLM Pvt. Ltd: Kolkata. Roy, S.C. 1915. The Oraons of Choto-Nagpur. Asiatic Society: Kolkata. Richard M. E. 1993. The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 12041760. University of California Press: London Sanyal, C.C. 1965. Rajbanshsi of North Bengal. Kolkata: Asiatic Society. Sarkar, A.1994. Dhodia: Industrialization and Change in a Primitive Community. Gyan Publishing House: Delhi. Sharma, K. 1995. The Himalayan Tea Plantation Workers. Dibrugarh: N.L. Publishers. Sharma, K.L. 1994. Social Stratification and Mobility. Rawat Publications: Jaipur and New Delhi. Toobi, J. and L. Cosmides 1992. The Psycological Foundation of Culture, in J. Barcaw with L. Cosmides and J. Toobi (Eds.), The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture. Oxford University Press: NY. Xaxa, V. Evolution of Agrarian Relations in Jalpaiguri. Sociological Bulletin, 1980.
MAP.1: LOCATION OF NORTH BENGAL (not to scale)
MAP.2: DIEERENT REGIONS OF NORTH BENGAL (not to scale) International Science Congress Association
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MAP.3: DARJEELING DISTRICT WITH ITS VARIOUS GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS AND LOCATION OF FIELD STUDY AREA
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Torsa River and Ontology of Toto Primitive Tribal Group: Line of Optimism
Introduction
Here a study has been conducted on one of the several Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) in India and selected population is of the Toto community residing in and only in Totopara village in Duars region of West Bengal state along the Indo-Bhutan international border. Various empirical studies have been so far conducted on the Totos. But here certain qualitative studies are to be conducted with etic-emic overlap, diachronic and in-depth phenomenology. The approach would be different as it is focusing on Torsa River, ancient trade routes and ontology of Toto. If such issues are relevant and if it is worked out in a proper way, we may learn a lot from such a small community and again might do something in community development for the Totos. Toto is a primitive tribal group residing only in a small enclave Totopara in Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal, India. Totopara is located at the foot of Bhutan Himalayas along the borderline of Bhutan and West Bengal. It is an establishment on the western bank of Torsa River. Geographically the location is 89 20'E 26 50'N. Totos were nearly becoming extinct in the 1901, but protective measures from the Constitution of India have helped preserving their heritage and assure a steady population growth. The total population of Totos according to 1951 census was 321 living in 69 different houses at Totopara. In 1991 census, the Toto population had increased to 926 who lived in 180 different houses. In the 2001 census, their number had increased to 1184 - all living in Totopara. The area of entire Toto country called Totopara is 1,996.96 acres (8.0814 km). Totos live near the northern edges of Jaldapara National Park. The village are sub-divided into six segments Panchayat Gaon, Mandal Gaon, Subba Gaon, Mitrang Gaon, Puja Gaon and Dumchi Gaon. Totopara also has a settlement of Nepalispeaking people and fractions other minors. Government of India has identified 75 Primitive tribal groups (P.T.G) located in 14 states and Union territories including Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Totos are one of such three PTGs in West Bengal: Lodha, Birhor and Toto. Toto ontology can help in sorting out of many grey areas. Modernity can do a lot for them and in turn can learn many from the same. Totos were very little in numerical strength; at a time they are
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without any sort of educational, political and economic opportunity. They are now gradually developing. Totos are however like other PTGs: in Andhra Pradesh, there are 12 PTGs; in Bihar-Jharkhand region, there are 9 PTGs; in Odisha 14; in Karnataka 2; in Gujarat 5; in Kerala 5; in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh7; in Maharashtra 3; in Manipur 1; in Rajasthan 1; in Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand 2; in Tamil Nadu 6; in Tripura 1 and in Andaman & Nikobar again 5 (Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Annual Report 2004-05). So, here we can clearly realize that maximum PTGs are situated in Bay of Bengal region and mostly concentrated in Odisha-Andhra region. From there such PTG are scattered in Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh plus Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand plus Bihar and Andaman Nikobar. Along with the Adivasis, some PTGs have also reached into the tea garden belt of North Bengal-Assam Duars. In West Bengal, there are actually 3 permanent PTG staying from time immemorial and Toto is one of them. Riang of Tripura-Mizoram and Maram Naga of Manipur-Nagaland region are also exclusive. Some are there in Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat on another trade route from Himalayas to Arabian Sea. In Keralas Malabar Coast and in the states along with Arabian Sea; there are a few PTGs. How could we forget about Maysore-Nilgiri, Raichur basin and the mangrove deltas in coastal area, if we are actually talking about the peoples of Indian peninsula and their historicity! These were all trade routes where tribes, pre-Buddhists, Buddhists, post-Buddhists, pre-Aryans, Aryans, post-Aryans, local warlords and native kingdoms, Vaishnavism and Islam, Christianity and modernity, Shahis and colonialists left their impressions. And more marginalization of PTGs has occurred throughout the time span. Toto as a PTG on ancient trade route might not be developed of a single origin, but they are the result of admixing. But now they maintain group endogamy, but clan and lineage exogamy. They still succeed not to be abolished, transformed, absorbed or integrated and remain quite isolated and only negotiating with outer world in a controlled way. But the most crucial part of their indigenous knowledge system, their tradition and their culture is their ontology. Toto origin may itself a hypothesis that should be worked out. Toto was never a criminal or denotified tribe. They always collaboratewith government and administrative machinery. Main research gap is itself their ontology. They often ask themselves, to their subconscious mind as well as peoples with written scripts and documents: What is the origin? Unlike other PTGs, their main problem is a bit different. Statement of the problem is their origin and location of the problem also lies in the river ways. Researcher here has to be a bit extra scientific, humanitarian, naturalist and nostalgic. The Totos are considered as Mongoloid people. They are usually very much peace loving. They are involved in agriculture, labourious works, thatching, animal raising and additional works. Though they make their main food from marua (millet), the staple food of the Totos now includes rice, malt, corn, vegetables and milk. They also eat meat, generally of goat, pork, poultry and dried fish. Women and widow can eat the same food as men. Their orange orchard has been shifted by areca nut.
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Totos also smoke tobacco, chew catechu and areca, drink fermented liquor called eu which was produced from fermented marua, rice powder and malt, served warm in Poipa (wooden glasses). It is different from Chhang liquor taken by high altitude Bhutanese people. Totos live in elevated bamboo huts on wooden logs and macha (raised platform) with straw thatches. They have the concept of separate kitchen, cattle-and-poultry house, wood and fuel stalk and attached block for additional purpose. Totos were nearly becoming extinct in the 1950s, but recent measures to safeguard their areas from being swamped with outsiders have helped preserve their unique heritage and also helped the population grow. The total population of Totos according to 1951 census was 321 living in 69 different houses at Totopara. In 1991 census, the Toto population had increased to 926 who lived in 180 different houses. In the 2001 census, their number had increased to 1184 - all living in Totopara. A majority of the children born out of the prevailing wedlock among the Totos are prone to genetic disease of Thalassemia, in which blood is not manufactured by the bonemarrow, forcing the affected persons to undergo periodical transfusions every fortnight for the rest of their lives so as to survive. There average life span is also to be traced out. However, their number is growing steadily. Actually, overall population of the Totos has been reduced here in Totopara, otherwise marriage outside the lineage-and-clan is well maintained. When they had a greater population and wider spread with prosperous life in a different biodiversity set up thriving on transnational trade routes; they had not faced such a problem of Thalassemia. Change in the situation overall, immigrations and out break of diseases have made them marginalized and decreased their total population size.
Transnationality and River System
Out of 29 states and 6 Union Territories of India, West Bengal contains 13 southern districts and 6 northern ones, known as North Bengal. Latter is a transnational region and continuous with a set of 16 districts of Rajshahi Division of north western Bangladesh. These 6 districts are namely Jalpaiguri, Cooch Behar, Darjeeling, Uttar Dinajpur (North Dinajpur), Dakshin Dinajpur (South Dinajpur) and Malda. This Indo-Bangladesh continuity of North Bengal contains two major river systems: Mahananda and Teesta-Torsa towards Ganges and Brahmaputra respectively that are gain separated by Barindland-Dinajpur Highland. Of Barindland, pockets in North Bengal are there in Boikunthopur-RajganjChopra, Bhanukumari-Haldibari, Jalpesh-Mekhliganj, Mainaguri-Jalpesh-Changrabandha
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and Sitalkuchi-Sitai. These areas are mostly confined within Jalpaiguri-Cooch Behar part of North Bengal. These places along with Panchagarh-Thakurganja area of North West Bangladesh give rise to so many rain-fed rivers including Karatoya. East to this upland, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar of North Bengal as well as Lalmonirhat, Kurigram and Rangpur of Bangladesh confine the Teesta-Torsa river system. Other parts of Rajshahi Division of North West Bangladesh and rest of North Bengal are mostly made up of Dinajpur highland with pockets in North Dinajpur, South Dinajpur, Malda, Thakurgaon, Joypur, Gaibandha, Nilfamari and Rangpur of IndoBangladesh. Barindland-Dinajpur is associated with various basins on Mahananda, Mahananda-Ganges floodland, Chhalan Bil or the marshland, Karatoya river, KarotoyaAtrai river system, Atria-Purnabhaba and Jamuneshwari, which represent the lost flow of Karatoya-Teesta as well as meeting point of Gangetic Delta and Jamuna-Brahmaputra mouth in Pabna. Pundranagara ruins in Bogra region of Bangladesh was a politicoeconomic center for long in vicinity of Jamuneshwari (Karatoya). Entire Teesta-Torsa water system is initiated from Sikkim-Bhutan Himalayas and Chumbi valley of Tibet Plateau. Duars or Bhutan foothill was considered as buffer between local rulers in Indian side and Royal Kingdom of Bhutan and hence this portion during British India was included in Assam and Jalpaiguri of North East India and North Bengal respectively. Jalpaiguri Duars or Western Duars or the Alipurduar subdivision is treated as Bengal Duars ranging from Baikunthopur forest to Sankosh River in west-east direction. Another included region during colonial period was Darjeeling district which contains Nepal-Darjeeling Himalayas and its foothill Siliguri Terai that gives birth to Mahananda flowing along North Bengal-Bihar and Malda-Bangladesh. Darjeeling district also includes part of Teesta-Rangit valley from Sikkim Himalayas to BaikunthopurBengal Duars. It also includes a Kalimpong that connects it with Bhutan, Sikkim and finally Jelep-la mountain pass to Chumbi valley of Tibet.
Transnational Route
In Jalpaiguri Duars, Torsa is a very important river which is again transnational. It initiates from Chumbi valley of Tibet Autonomous Territory of China and then flows into Bhutan Himalayas by the name of Amo or Amu River (Amo Chu: Chu meaning River). It then becomes Torsa in Jalpaiguri-Cooch Behar and divides into two distributaries. The older on in Cooch Behar is associated with Singimari-Jaldhaka and various tributaries
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like Jarda, Dudua and Mujnai. This union produces River Dudua in Cooch BehrBangladesh region. Ancient power house Gosanimari is located in this enclave of TorsaSingimari in Dihata of Cooch Behar district. Another branch of Torsa flows by the district town Cooch Behar and in Tufanganj region of the district unites with KaljaniRaidak water system. Both Jaldhaka and Kaljani-Raidak are initiated from Bhutan Himalayas and they are on right and left sides of Torsa River respectively. Amongst these Mujnai and Kaljani are so closer to Torsa confining the gateway of Bhutan. Lankapara-Birpara, TotoparaMadarihat, Joygaon-Hasimara-Kalchini-Hamiltonganj, Bhutanghat-Jayanti-Bauxa DuarRajabhatkhawa-Alipurduar are amongst various gates. There were actually 18 major gates once in Duars of which 8 were fallen in Jalpaiguri. However, Joygaon-Hasimara is the key route. This is on the left bank of Torsha, whereas Totopara-Madarihat of the right side. Madarihat moves towards Jaldapara forest and Falakata where it meets with Lankapata-Birpara route. From Falakata, ways move upto Mathabhanga where Jarda meets Jaldhaka. From Mathabhanga, way goes to Sitalkuchi-Sitai and then Gosanimari-Dinhata where Jaldhaka-Singimari meets with old channel of Torsa. So, this is a lost route in comparison to Jaigaon-Hasimara-Chilapata forest-Cooch Behar town in association with Kalchini, Hamiltonganj, Rajabhatkhawa, Alipurduar and Tufanganj-Bakshir hat. Alipurduar and Tufanganj are the actual ways to Assam both by road and railways.
Totos in Totopara
We can have a small village Totopara on the lost route. It is now under the Ballalguri village governing unit under Madarihat administrative block and Alipurduar subdivision of district Jalpaiguri. The village was once populated by a small community Toto; however there are now so many non-Toto communities. The village Totopara is divided into six sectors, namely Panchayat Gaon, Mondol Gaon, Subba Gaon, Mitran Gaon, Puja Gaon and Dhumchi Gaon. Totos are basically animists, homogeneous tribal community with specific territory-culture-language and a group associated simple economy and polity. They have strong association with Tibeto-Bhutanese linguistic groups, developed political system on Gapu-Kaiji system of their own and step-cultivators. They used to be associated with orange orchard, forest-dwelling, hunting-and-gathering, slash-and-burn cultivation, domestication of hybrid cattle and manual transportation of goods from Bhutan into the Jalpaiguri-Cooch Behar plains. They were once very conservative; but these people now do not much hesitate for external communication.
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Totopara-Madarihat was known as Lucky Duar, in addition to Chamurchi Duar of Jaldhaka and Jom Duar of Mainaguri. These routes pass to ruins of Gosanimari of Cooch Behar (Dinhata). They also go parallel to Teesta and move into Rangpur of Rajshahi Division Bangladesh. Bauxa Duar, Kumargram Duar and Alipurduar on the other side of Torsa move towards Cooch Behar (Koch Bihar). Ancient trade routes and trade relations still exist within the culture and cognition of the Totos. Among the Totos, marriage is generally performed during October-February. During early days when they raised orange orchards, winter and autumn seasons were so exclusive to them. They then allowed outsiders in Totopara, sold orange fruits and with the cash or kind they got, they perform marriage ceremonies. Totos still prefer to marry in winter-autumn. Their lowland associates (Mech) perform festivals like Bagrumba and Boishagugelenai in autumn and at beginning of summer with song and dance. During winter, Bhutanese Sharchop tribes came down to Duars due to heavy snowfall in high altitude Bhutan Himalayas. They brought with them orange, wool, yak skin, yak milk product Chhurpi, fermented alcohol Chham and Tibetan horses and dogs. Still these pre-Summer occasions are so exclusive to the people of Totopara-Madarihat region on Laxmi Duar (Lucky Duar). In mainland Indian and among Hindu caste society, Laxmi is the Goddess of Gold; many tribal communities also pray to her. Though it is a jungle area and we have to cross Se-Ti and Hauri streams twice to enter into Totopara; but a jungle route near the bank of Torsa still exists. This is a part of Jaldapara forest and called as Titi reserve forest. The forest contains python, snakes, leopard, elephant, boar, bear, deer, tiger are so forth. Totos are aware of modern life, economy and polity. They however negotiate with outer world. Ethno-tourism and various organizations provide them the opportunity to further interact. They are interested in electronic gadgets, mobile phones and dish televisions. They are equally interested in knowing what is going outside their own community. They are good in linguistic communication, but they are still very much conservative in case of exchange of women. It the cultural lag for what they are still highly associated with traditional values and norms. The community here in Totopara still keeps their distinctiveness and does not move towards any greater identity. That may be due to their lost heritage and therefore keeping their identity instinct while forgetting everything about their ontology.
Ontology of Totos
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According to history, this region was under the control of the Bhutanese and ultimately the then British government ceded it to India, after Bhutan war in 1865. Bhutan Duars Act in 1868 to assume full control of the area. D. Sunder, Settlement Officer of Jalpaiguri was deputed to survey the western Duars in 1889-94 and he published some notes about the Totos and their land status etc. Afterwards, small notes of this village and people may be noted from reports of J.Milligan (1919), Sir George A. Gearson (1909), A. Mitra, ICS, (1952), Articles were also published in Ananda bazaar Patrica and Amrita Bazar Patrika during 1947. The first comprehensive report on the Totos was published by Charu Chandra Sanyal in the Journal of Asiatic Society during 1955 (Science vol. XXI, No.2), wherein he described various aspects of Toto life and culture. Afterwards, B.K. Roy Burman conducted a detailed ethnographic study among the Totos but instead publishing any monograph, he published a few articles in different social science journals. In the year 1969, A.K. Das published a book on Totos from the Cultural research Institute, where he described systematic profile of the Toto society. Amitava Sarkar also conducted a study on the Toto life and culture and published a book in monographic form. In 1987, a Bengali publication about the Totos was published on the study undertook by D.N. Dhali of the Cultural Research Institute. In the year 2000-2001, a study was also conducted by Cultural research Institute to prepare a plan document for their development in totality..there still exists some places in Duars as for example Tot Gaon in Falakata, Totopara in Dhupguri, Totopara in Alipurduar and in Falakata, which suggests the one time habitation sites of the Totos (Chowdhuri, 2005). Majumdar (2002) mentioned that the Sub-Himalayan Mongoloid groups are not so much homogeneous as they seem to be, rather they are highly admixed. Sanyal (1973) stated that probably the Totos prevailed throughout entire Western Duars or Bengal Duars or Jalpaiguri Duars prevailing from Teesta to Sankosh-Gadadhar; due to several causes the community gradually abolished outside Totopara; those reasons might be malaria, black fever and other epidemics, demographic shift, change in naturehuman interactions, alleged oppression of Bhutanese superordinates and external influences. Rest of them either assimilated by Mech (Bodo) or moved back into Bhutan Himalayas and Sikkim as well as in Nepal. There they intermingled with localities. That was just like Doya, Lepcha, Garo, Dhimal and Tharu. That was probably the remoteness of Totopara for what the Totos could maintain their identity. Probably, that was the prime reason they strictly prohibited marrying outside the community.
Totos on ancient Trade Route: How Justifiable?
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Totos are contemporarily supposed to be very peace loving people. But their origin is a mystery as they have no script. Totos do not know from where they have come to this place, but aware about their entity as well. They have forgotten about Angdahaoa which was transactions of goods through ancient trade routes. Those probable trade routes throughout Jalpaiguri Duars extended upto parts of Cooch Behar. The main center was obviously Totopara. There are many places on those routes with names initiated with Tot, Tat, etc. These places are often accompanied by places whose names include the term Bhot or Bhat as well as Bauxa, Baxi or Bakshi. These additional places indicate to peoples of Bhutan as well as Bauxa Duar. That might be just a guess, as no such distinct evidence we can present. During Bhutans hegemony, they were subordinates of Zinkarfs of Drukpa society who ruled over the Bhutan Himalayas and trade routes from Tibet and Chumbi valley. Bhutan was a Buddhist Nation and Drukpas dominated on various small communities in and around Bhutan; they were bound to pay services at free of coast. Such bonded labour was known as Huiwa and Totos were not above that. That practice of bonded labour was also there within the Toto society. Common Totos had also to deliver Huiwa to their Gapu and Kaizi. Drukpa people have their branches in Sikkim in the name of Denzongpa, in Nepal as Sherpa and also in Eastern Himalayas as Monpa. There are various titles among different religious groups, ethnic communities and castes in South Asia that show similarity with the group name Bhote. They can be found in Himalayan and Sub Himalayan regions. Bhutan might be only a pocket. A huge portion of Bangladesh plains now fallen into Bangladesh is known as Bhati and people their have a folk song known as Bhatiali sung by boatmen controlling the river routers. Bengali business groups include various castes and a few of them have been included under Teli community. Personally, I know many Teli people good with their educational and professional life and they are very good in communicating with these tribal communities situated on ancient trade routes. Teli basically refers to traditional oil extractors. Tili is again another business oriented community among the Bengalis. Ancient Kingdom of Kamtapur from Gosanimari at the juncture of old Torsa and Jaldhaka-Singimari at Dinhata-Sitalkuchi region of Cooch Bihar district was set up during Sultanate rule in Delhi, Islamic innovation in Rajshahi Division and upheaval of pre-Ahom Chetia people in Brahmaputra valley of North East India. Kamtapur was run by Khen people who were also oil extractors according to some sources. Khens were often treated locally as Teli. Khens were probably of Bhutanese origin. Kamtapur was followed by Koch Bihar. Capital of Koch-Rajbanshi kingdom Koch Bihar was present day Cooch Behar town (Koch Bihar was emerged out during Mughal Padshahi, Bengal Nabob and Ahoms); that as a Princely State along with its Jalpaiguri estate existed throughout the entire British rule in South Asia and still Cooch
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Behar and Jalpaiguri are the district towns of Cooch Behar and Jalpaiguri districts. Jalpaiguri town is situated at the right side of Teesta towards Baikunthopur-Rajganj heights of Barindland. Cooch Behar town is situated on present flow of Torsha River. From the reference of Bhutan-Koch Bihar wars on the buffer Duars, it is assumed that the name Toto was developed from the term Tota. This means the bullet used in a gun during big games or warfare. Totos again use a term Toto in their mother tongue that means thatched objects basically made up of bamboo flakes and plantain leaves from jungle. These thatches are used in basketry that these people use to carry goods. Goods from Bhutan were basically orange and spices. Till date orange, spice and potato as well as wooly clothes of Bhutan have their market in Indo-Bangladesh markets. In reality, Totos were primarily transporters can carry goods from Bhutan to plains and vice versa. That was actually their prime economy. So, thatching is the core of their livelihood. This can be an assumption of Toto name formation. In traditional society, transportation from hills to plain was governed by Toto religious priest Kaiji and the reverse route by political head or chiefdom Gapu. Latter could only guide the community ceremonies like Amchu and Moyu that are basically related to annual river trade route worships. But Kaiji and Gapu were assisted by other important experienced elderly personalities called Yangpui. Totos prefer to stay in India unlike their cohort group Doya who have shifted completely into hilly terrains of southern Bhutan. Totos still go to Bhutan by climbing on hillocks. They begin their journey in early morning and return back before evening. Toto women show their stamina of doing this and they enjoy relatively a status symbol. Even Totos have accepted modern political structure of India, but post of Gapu we can still see. Sugrib Toto is now in the post; he is working in the Totopara branch of rural banking sector (Uttar Banga Kshetriya Gramin Bank). His daughter Rita Toto has completed her graduation from P.D. Womens College of Jalpaiguri Town set up long ago by Jalpaiguri Branch of Koch Bihar Dynasty. Now, she is an employee at Tata Consultancy in Kolkata (formerly Calcutta). Kolkata is the capital city of West Bengal, a mega city of India and during British India remained a major power center for the entire South Asia. Still now in Toto society which is basically patriarchal in nature, women play a crucial role of pathfinder when the community is in crisis or their surroundings are in a transitional phase. Totos are willing to go to the defense sector and Indian army and join Gorkha regiment of the Nepalis. Many of them go to Bhutan for job. Totos also want to go to other parts of India for jobs. They are highly attracted by Maharashtra in Deccan and have listened about Indias business capital Mumbai. Few of them have visited Kolkata (Calcutta) and Siliguri- the main two urban centers of west Bengal state.
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Myth of Nal Dynasty
Locals believe that King Nala of the Epic lived here and ruins of His fort, namely Nala Rajar Garh or castle of King Nala still exists in dense jungle. This Bania ruins by the side of a big lake actually speak of the existence of an ancient settlement and culture. In mainland India, Bania means the businessman. In Bengali, there is a term Banik. Besides, local excursions may be arranged to visit tea gardens to see the manufacturing of tea in the nearby tea gardens by prior arrangement with the authority. Actually, different people can explain the situation of Lucky Duar according to them. King Nala is famous elsewhere in jungle kingdoms of Indian subcontinent. Nala is treated as an ancient community. In South India or Indian Peninsula, we have the place called Naldrug meaning fort of the Nal people. So, Nala or Nal may be a symbol. In Bengali, a pant species in marshland area is reluctantly grown called Nal or Nalkhagra. So, is the concept Nal is attached with catchment-marshland topography existing in Highland areas? In the bank of Torsa, there develops huge grassland covered by Thadda and wild varieties of cane. Rhinos are fond of this. Chopsi and Mailsa also grow up there that attract elephants of Jaldapara forest range. Interestingly, wild beasts do not usually attack Totopara. There is no news that that elephant attacked Totopara for rice or alcoholic beverage. People outside Totopara reply that Toto though has shed off hunting for now, is actually good hunter. Rabha people, especially the forest Rabha are fearless in entering jungles and there re cases of forest guard and Rabha ambush; Rabhas were blamed as poachers and for illegal logging also. Many Rabhas have totally converted into agriculturalists. Many of them residing in jungles help forest guards, build up forest parties and work as labourers. Totos have no such record. Coins have been found in vicinity of Jaldapara National Park when Rajbanshi caste group perform agricultural activities. Coins of ancient times on Falakata-Madarihat and Lucky Duar are both historical and archaeological interest. Localities say that the entire region was covered by wild cane verities and there was no such agricultural biodiversity. It was obviously a trade route and there existed Nal Dynasty ruling over the entire jungle area. Rabhas and Mech (Bodo) people from this jungle spread into entire Duars foothills and till now their major concentrations could be found in neighbouring Assam. Thereafter cane bushes were totally replaced from Torsa biosphere by agricultural landscapes and areca nut plants. Agriculture and areca garden have extended upto Totopara replacing their traditional orange orchards.
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From Monoethnic to Polyethnic
During the British period when Jalpaiguri Duars was included in India permanently, gradually the status of Gapu turned over that of Kaiji who had maintained good terms with the Buddhist religious organization of Bhutan. Gapu could collect tax rather than only resolving disputes, reciprocal exchange of labour in production system and protection of community property. Gapu did not confine Toto society in traditional economy like hunting and gathering, fishing and domestication, orange orchard agro-forestry and transportation; but allowed Nepali people who set up their colonies in remote pockets of Indo-Bhutan international boundary inaccessible for Adivasis, Rajbanshis, Bengalis and other people. Nepalis gradually exceeded over Toto population in Totopara. Besides Totos, 25 other communities and caste groups reside presently in Totopara: Nepali speaking Limbu or Subba, Tamang, Manger, Kami, Damai, Sarki, Ghate, Gurung, Newar, Chhetri, Rai and Baun; Hindi speaking Sunri, Sunwar, Chamar, Muslim and Marwari; Bengali speaking Goala; a Rajbanshi and five other tribal communities like Garo, Mech (Bodo), Sherpa, Lepcha and Oraon. In this way, Totopara started becoming a multi-ethnic village and from the Nepalis, various local groups learnt about permanent cultivation. Not only Toto, but Rabha and Mech (Bodo) groups started permanent cultivation of crop. Forest department was set up and besides a few minor forest produces, Totos are not further allowed to enter into deep jungles, core forest areas, for illegal logging and hunting big games. They were encouraged to grow up cow, hybrid cattle Mithun and hen as well as to practice step cultivation (bench terrace in foothills, different from contoured trenches of steep hill slopes). Decrease in forest amount and shift of land to the non-Totos (exclusively, the Nepalis) with different land-use patterns, change the conventional nature-human interactions. Weather change could be noticed and ecology was not in favour of agroforestry. Disease and change in rainfall destroy orange orchard of Totopara. However, orange plants we can see still hear and there in Totopara. Totos can indicate arrival of monsoon by watching germination of orange seedlings. Totos moved towards areca nut propagation. This is highly practiced by Rajbanshis throughout North Bengal plains and also by common peoples in valleys of North East India and pockets in Bangladesh.
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From Amo Chu to Barindland
Torsa River is spoken as Amo Chu that is worshipped by the Totos. There is Amu Darya River to Aral Sea in Central Asia. Central Asia is west to Tibet. We can imagine Tibet being the link between Amo Chu of Chumbi and Amu Darya of Central Asia. Central Asia or Turan has been influenced by Irano-Afghanistan, Alexander, Arabs, Russians and Chinese; the place was occupied by Mongols, Turks, Tajiks and various Aryan tribes. Definitely, the Indo-Aryans entered along ago in this subcontinent after crossing Hindukush range and Indus valley. But it is also true, various Gypsys and Aryan tribe fractions moved into Tibet, Kashmir, Himalayas and Sub-Himalayas. From there, we may further conceptualize the entrance of Mongoloid and Aryan admixtures into Sikkim-Bhutan, Duars, Teesta-Torsa and Barindland Highland also highly populated by pre-Buddhists, Buddhists, Vaishnava Hindus and Turk-Afghan elements. Indeed, the Borendri Brahmins we can refer in this case who are situated in Barindland and neighbouring water systems. Borendri Brahmins are caste Hindus and again exhibit some community tendencies. They can be named parallel to the Maithili Brahmins of Indo-Nepal border in north Bihar and the Kamrupi Brahmins of Eastern Himalaya-Brahmaputra borderline in Assam. Various Aryan settlements were evidenced in North East India. Pragyotishpur was Brahmaputra valley was the most important of them among the early settlers. These Aryan tribes also maintain the Varna system and follow caste hierarchy; but they can not exceed over community sentiments. Many of them have accepted Kashyapa clan, commented on Kamboja, Kapisha and Kashmir. Legendary Parasurama is also known to them who decided to establish Brahminical hegemony over Kshatriya warlords. Due to their Tibetan links, these Aryan stalks were treated differently and famous for their magico-religious performances. They have often been described as treasure hunters, especially Gold. Indeed, Barindland-Dinajpur was also renowned for Tangan horse breeds.
From Myth to Reality: Toto Clans
Various pre-Aryan and Aryan concepts are there in North Bengal like Deva, Daitya, Manava, Danava, Nag, Garuda, Raksha and Yaksha. Probably, Totos are not beyond that. They have several clans each with common clan property within Totopara village area. During marriage, they strictly practice clan and lineage exogamy. Snake or Nag and fowl or Garuda which are so important for Buddhists and Hindus are parts of
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Toto regions life. Out of those clans, Linkajibei, Dankobei, Dantrobei, Nubebei, Machingbei, Mantrobei, Mankobei, Bongobei, Budubei, Budhbei and Piso-changobei, Nurun-changobei, Dhiren- changobei, may refer to Toto link ups with concepts like lanka or spice route, Danava or Demon, Mantra or sacred chanting by Deva or God, Manava or Man, Bonga, pro-Buddhist groups and magico-religious practices (both white and black), some individuals, etc. They have actually 13 clans (sarkhae) and of them, a few has sub-clans. The earliest people of Tibet were Yakshahs thriving on Gold. Trade routes from Tibet to Sri Lanka were once existed carrying silk and spice: the most important spice was chilli or pepper locally known as lanka and maricha. Nearby Totopara, there is Lankapara settlement. To many, Lanka is not just a spice, but symbol of prosperity through trade. Monkey God is very important for the Hindus. This is not just warship of human ancestors, but actually praising the ancient rock climbers who used to know water-fire-earth-air pending. The concept of Vanara or Monkey God is symbolic for mountainous trade routes. Monkey is commonly known as Banar and Madari. And how surprising, Banarhat and Madarihat are the two places situated in vicinity of Totopara. I am not saying anything on racism or sub-humanism; if you think that I am saying this, then you may consider me as the same.
Subba
Subba is the surname of Limbu community among the Nepalis. They are mostly concentrated in eastern Nepal adjacent to Sikkim-Darjeeling. So, Subba Gaon in Totopara is so exclusive. This is the symbol of Gorkhahood amongst the residents in the Totopara with steep Nepali dominance. Subba Gaon is situated at the highest peak from where entire Totopara can be seen prominently and also it is very crucial settlement for links with Bhutan. Actually, Totopara is a cluster of six villages or a village with six distinct hamlets. Only the market area and Panchayet Gaon could not represent the whole Totopara. In Toto society, Gapu and Kaiji are also regarded as Mondal and Subba. Besides them, Totos have developed posts like Yangpui, Pau, Yongtong, Amepha (panchayet or traditional rural governing body), Karbari (messenger) and Chowkidar (village guard).
Toto Language and Dhimal-Rajbanshi Affiliations

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Toto dialect or language is closer to that of Indo-Nepal Terai (foothill) community Dhimal who now exist in Mechi-Mahananda basin on the west side of Barindland. Dhimal or Dhemale stay in Naxalbari block of Siliguri subdivision of Darjeeling districts Terai as well as Jhapa and Moran districts of eastern Nepal Terai (Morang at about 26 latitude and 87-88 longitude east). Hodgson (1849) figured out Dhimal 15,000 as compared to below one thousand in 21st Century AD. Hodgson (1849) actually represented the population of Dhimal in between river Konki and the Dhorla or Torsa. That may include other tribes or sub-tribes or absorbed communities. That might include the fraction of Totos. Dhimals might have their existence throughout Teesta-Torsa and Mahananda-Mechi-Konki river system on both sides of Baikunthopur Barindland. Moitra (2004) calculated the separation of Toto from Dhimal, by grutochronological analysis, as 800-1200 AD. That was contemporary to Pala Regime in Bengal-Bihar region when Kambojas entered in North Bengal and Kaivartha agitation occurred in Mechi-Mahananda basin and Barindland. Grierson (1926) classified Dhimal language as Eastern Pronominalized group of Pronominalized Himalayan Group under Tibeto Himalaya Branch of Tibeto-Burman subfamily which may be categorized under Tibeto-Chinese group. He also stated, In the Pronominalized group the influence of the ancient Munda language is far more apparent. Royburman (1959) highlighted the same: there is one variant of Toto myth of origin which refers to the Dhimals as the mother group. Dalton (1872) identified Dhimals as tribe of Assam valley, clubbed with the Kacharis or Bodo and Mech. Actually, Mech is fallen under Bodo group likewise the Rabha and Koch. Indeed, here in Bengal Duars, Bodo and Mech mean the same. Bandyopadhyay (1895) stated that cultural aspects and even folklores of Meches and Dhimals are so common. Indeed, Das (1978) cited Endle (1911) who placed Dhimals under northern groups of Kachari or Bodo family along with Kachari, Rabha, Mech, Koch and others. So, as a close relative of the Dhimal communities, Toto people can neither deny from their link with Tibet and Himalayas nor linkage with Bodo, Kachari, Rabha, Mech, Koch and others in Brahmaputra of North East India and pockets of Sub-Himalayan North Bengal. OMalley (1907) classified Dhimals as non-Hinduized Koch or Rajbansi and identified their (Dhimal) habitat as marshy tract, formerly covered by dense malarious jungle, in which aboriginal tribes of Meches, Dhimals and Koches burnt clearings and raised their scanty crops of rice and cotton on a system, if system it can be called, of nomadic husbandry. The Dhimal-Toto or Dhimalish subgroup under Tibeto-Burmese language Family shows apparent similarities to both the Bodic group and to groups spoken in north-eastern India. On one side is Tibeto Bhutanese and on the other side affiliation with Burma. Now, both Totos and Dhimals are now vanishing, though they are showing their gradual increase in numerical strength. But the status they once enjoyed in pre-British times when there was only jungle and trade routes and no tea gardens, railways, bridges, roadways, demographic transitions, areca gardens or settled agricultural land.
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The two groups that the Dhimal have been most in contact with historically have been the Tharu (Thru) and the Rajbongsi (Rjva of royal descent), through whom various Indo-Aryan loans and Hindu culturo-religious memes have come. While the Rajbangsi are widely believed to have spoken a Tibeto-Burman language, viz. Koch, the original language of the Tharu is unknown. It may have been Tibeto-Burman (possibly Western Tibeto-Burman) or it may have represented another outpost of the far-flung Austroasiatic languages, either Munda or Mon-Khmer. On the other side, Totos take school education in Bengali. They are now publishing articles in their language but in Bengali script. They are good in speaking out in Bengali, Hindi, Nepali, other tribal and Rajbanshi dialects and languages and they can also understand English a bit. Sannial (1880) found Dhimals headed by a headman called Mondal and magicoreligious practitioners Dhami, Deushi and Ojha. They hunted and reared cattle. The same were done by the Totos. Toto heads are known as Gapu or Mondal. They call in their priest as Kaiji or Subba. Totos worship Demsha. Totos have concept of Ojha or Kabiraj. Again, Dami, Karki and Kami are different Nepali castes. Dhimals consider Limbus of Nepal-Sikkim Himalayas as their elder brother who has the surname Subba common for Toto community priest. Dhimals also say that they are Hindus and have visited Hindu religious place like Varanasi. Rajbanshi philosopher Thakur Panchanan Barma of Rajbanshi social fold also did the same so as to regain their status back. Totos are apart of any such type of status mobility or caste affiliations; though their names are so common to the Rajbanshis. Dhimal, Dhemal, Maulik, a non-Aryan tribe of the Darjeeling and Nepal Terai belonged to Koch and rapidly lost their tribal identity by absorption into the large heterogeneous Rajbansi caste (Risley, 1891). Rajbansi or Rajbanshi or Rajbongshi are the agrarian caste people of North Bengal looking like a huge social fold that interacted with Kirata people as well as Mech, Rabha, Dhimal, Bodo, Koch, Khen and various other caste groups; some of them even converted into Christianity and Islam: they exhibit both highland and lowland appearance and presence in foothills and plains of Nepal, Bihar, North Bengal, pockets of North West Bangladesh and western part of Assam. Rajbanshis are mostly Hindus believing in semi-egalitarian Vaishnavism and local deities worshipped by both Hindus and Buddhists by various names as well as a bit animism like worshiping river, tree and snake. Rajbanshis have so many sub branches as Koch-Rajbanshi, Pundra-Rajbanshi, Khen group, Pulia-Rajbanshi and the Deshis or the aboriginal affiliations. Rajbanshis are associated with statehoods of Pundrabardhana, Kamtapur and Koch Bihar. Rajbanshis staying near the jungle areas are very good carpenters. These carpenter Rajbanshis might have more affiliations with forest dwellers. Carpenter Rajbanshis produced good quality wooden plough and agrarian Rajbanshis cultivated the land with plough and bullock. But we must say that Totos, unlike the Dhimal community did not accept the Rajbanshi identity. That might be due to their remoteness, other affiliations or their community decision.
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Dhimalish has ties in so many directions; although it is vocalically similar to Old Bodish, unclassified Bodic languages; with vowels corresponding to Classical Tibetan and strong lexical bondage with Kuki-Chin (Robert Shafer, 1966). Thus, Dhimalish is more Bodic and Tibetic than Abor-Miri-Dafla or Tani or Proto-Tani or Burmese or Austroasiatic or Mundari or Mon-Khmer. Dhimalish is also grouped in wider with BodoKoch, Konyak-Nocte and Jinghpaw-Sak languages, the Brahmaputran.
Demsha: Key to Toto Ontology?
There is a temple of Demsha with an old and a new room. Demsha means the House of Deva or God. An outsider like me can imagine that Dem has a dual meaning of Deva and Dom as well as Sha indicating the homestead. Dom is a common Indian group that is good with funeral of the corps, making drums and tanning skins. However, Totos are not currently involved in such practices. Demsha seems to be a drum house where there is no idols or magico-religious symbol, bur a pair of Bakung or Drum. Totos also pray to clan deity Choisung and soul of the departed ancestors Chimadora. Totos have belief in Mana. They do not travel at night to Ishpa black hills where according to them stay two malevolent male spirits (Bindikepa and Yasudang-choishu) and one female (Choira) in the deep greenery. They have faith on benevolent spirit Bansakpa the female deity of jungle. In Demsha, Totos pray to Goddess Ishpa that they say Goram ceremony. Ishpa is the highest symbol of animism among the Totos. Additionally, Totos perform worship of deities like Chungsa(forest), Yogoi (hill), Tading(hill), SeTi (river), Barsang, Kacheme, Pyachu, Mutti, Kumbi, Phuduwa, Choisung, Singwabe, Bitti etc. Totos have Hindu names with surname Toto. Their good names are so common for the Indians. Many are given after Hindu Gods and Goddesses. Totos prepare natural dye from Khayar or catechu tree bark and use it during festivals; they also take the bark boiled with salt. Is Demsha a symbol of union of Tibeto-Mongoloid tribe situated lower to Lhasa, Himalayan nomad Gypsys of Aryan forms and Austro-Mundaric or Proto-Australoid or Veddoid communities? Was the Toto a nomad throughout the Duars and latest situated in Totopara? Surely, Totos became porter tribe under Drukpas (enslaving?) and carried goods in the Toto- the baskets they had made. Were they acting as a link between TibetoBhutan and various castes and communities of North Bengal of various origins like Bodo, Mon, Khmer, Kamboja, Bhote, Rajbanshi and Borendri Aryan lines? Why they say again and again about Tading hills in Bhutan Himalayas? Why did not they traditionally accept food outside Drukpa, Lepcha and Toto communities? Why they remained isolated from settlement of Tea Gardens, increase in agricultural activities and sudden entry of so many
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Indian peoples in Duars as well as formation of small urban settlements, roads, bridges and railways by the British? Indo-Bhutan pact, epidemics and gradual transformation: they never denied. They did not leave the place like Dhimal, Tharu, Lepcha, Garo, Khen, Pani-Koch or be intermingled with Rabha, Bodo, Mech, Koch, Deshi, Pulia, Rajbanshi, Adivasi, Bengali and Nepali.
Dom Factor
Traditionally, Doms used to be associated with tannery and probably hunting in jungle life. Before going to hunting, they danced with drums as a magico-religious performance and prey for good result. In caste society of Bengal, they are identified as Chamar or Muchi. Chamar is a Bengali slang and used to refer very lower rank in caste stratification; however, in Hindu Texts they are described as mixture of priestly Brahmans, producer Vaishya and labourer Surda in respect to 4-fold Varna system. This has happened as community exceeded over caste and trade over agriculture. Caste and other advanced communities probably tried their best to demoralize the Chamars. Many of these people are influenced by Buddhism, Nathism, Ravidas and even Vaishnavism. They speak about excluded Hindu ruling Kshatriya category, legendary Parasurama, Epic of Ramayana, Kashyapa clan, Kashmir, magico-religious performances, Gold, rivers and fishermen community, warship of Dhamma and Shiva as well as female cults like Chandi or Kondi and Kali, demons, ghosts and spirit possession and so forth. Doms are also treated as Hari which is a Scheduled Tribe. Doms in Bengal and entire Eastern India are very good with use of bamboo, cane, tree branches and shrubs to make basketry. With assistance of thread producing Primitive Tribal Group Birhor from jungle creeper, Mahali tribe in Chotonagpur makes baskets. Totos are different from Dom, Muchi, Chamar Hari and Mahali. But how we could deny that they are so expert in making thatched basketry (Toto) as well as hinges of bullock-plough system (Tong)? Doms are also good with these two performances. In Bengal, Muchi or Chamar community prepare the leather hinge for plough. Rajbanshis and Dhimals of North Bengal used the teak and Shorea trunks (Sal) from the jungles to prepare good quality of plough and sold them throughout North Bengal. Dhami and Deushi of Dhimal society and Damai caste among the Nepalis are also to be mentioned.
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Chowdhuri (2005) has indicated to occupational classification of Toto: 22.10% in cultivation, 41.22% as agricultural labourers plus 5.80% as day labourers and 20.69% in household work and basket making, besides the rest in service, petty business and again 4.55% in animal husbandry. They still collect wild varieties of spices from jungles and know about silk cotton. They are putting pressure on Ethno-Tourism and Bakul Toto is the first hotel owner in Totopara. The ancient trade routes have been totally destroyed and people have found out the alternatives. But still Totos make baskets that were once used for carriage of goods in steep mountain passes. Their thatched mats and baskets are termed as Toto. And again, in agricultural life, the leather (or wooden) hinge between bullock pair and plough they make is the Tong. Totos have crosses a long way from Toto to Tong; but how?
From Swedish Cultivation of Settled Cultivation
Previously, Totos practised slash-and-burn cultivation or Swedish cultivation where they first selected a part of the jungle in winter full of dry leaf piles; in mixed deciduous foothill forest associated with Savannah grasslands as well as ferns typical to a rain forest, they set fire; with mild raining and bright sunshine throughout autumn, they let the ash providing nutrients to the soil; in pre-monsoon, they using their digging sticks with stone rings sowed seeds and seedlings. Juang, the Primitive Tribe of Odisha, practices slash-and-burn cultivation which often turns into cause for natural degradation. But rains bring ash piles to the lowland agrarian plains and therefore settled agriculturists of plains do not protest this natural destruction in hills. Slash-and-burn cultivation is often said as Swedish cultivation. In post-colonial India, people were so influenced by the M factor: Missions, Muslims, Mon and Medical system. At that time, there was a Swedish Mission working in Totopara to educate their children. 1. 2. Totos have strong belief in both traditional and modern medical systems. Tibetans say all the people south to Lhasa are Mon; however Mon, Manwe and Mandalay are provinces in South East Asian country Myanmar. To many, Mon is huge social fold of numerous heterogeneous people spread worldwide. Totos were so much mournful when they hard about partition of Bengal and abolition of ancient trade routes due to that partition of Bengal vis--vis India into India and Pakistan. They shed off eating beef for several months. Eastern Bengal with majority of Muslim population had gone into the hands of Pakistan, which later got independence as
3.
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the country of Bangladesh. In Bangladesh independence movement in 1970s, Indian Army has actively participated and Gorkha regiment fought the battle of Bogra in Rajshahi Division with bravery. Totos require high protein for their tough livelihood. They used to eat both pork and beef. For that they say that they are not the Hindus. However, in front of outsiders, they do not eat beef and pork. But in Behao or marriage ceremonies, eu (alcohol produced from rice and millet) is essential besides with beef and pork. Now-a-days, due to invitees from outside communities, they serve tea, juice, chicken and red meat (goat). 4. Swedish Mission from Scandinavia however opened new opportunities in front of the Totos in independent India. They smoke. They chew tobacco as well as betel leaf- areca nut. They consume green tea as well as butter tea with salt very much fond of by Tibetans and Bhutanese. They produce alcohol beverage from rice and millet. These know very well how to activate the subconscious mind. But, this brain counselling has become old fashioned in order to invent new ideas. They are very much aware of modernity and education- andcommunication. They have no concept of youth dormitory. For that they show difference with various Indian tribal community where youth dormitories are part of socialization. However, there is an Ashrama or Rural Hostel for the pupils. During independence movement, they exerted strong faith on Swadeshi activity by Mahatma Gandhi. They always keep good terms with the government and administration. They have no such criminal record. Gradually, Totos become expert with tillage, levelling the soil, use of manure, pest control, weed control, nursery, sowing and transplantation, terrace and step cultivation, testing the grain, harvesting, thrashing, stock raising and seed preservation. But they have learnt all these from the Nepali agriculturists. Most of the Totos are agricultural landless and work as day labourers. Totos in agrarian life have accepted bullock-plough type of cultivation. The hinge between bullock pair and plough is called as Tong. Actually, most of the agricultural lands have been handed over to the Nepalis who are now in majority in Totopara. But we cannot deny role of the Nepali people for introducing settled agriculture in Totopara. Hen, duck, goat, pig and cow are domestic creatures of this village. What Nepalis cultivate are paddy, maize, millet (marua), kaon, potato, sweet potato, knolkhol, radish, turpin, arum, cane, bamboo, areca nut, nuts, mustard and other rapeseeds, vegetables, orange, tomato, cabbage, cauliflower, yam, rhizomes, chilly, peppercorn, clove, cardamom, cassia, ginger, turmeric, winter paddy, wheat and so forth. Totos with agricultural land generally cultivate millet, areca, malt and corn associated with a few vegetables. Totos often do not use bullock and plough, but simple agricultural tools like dibble, axe, big knife, spade and sickle. They imitate the Nepalis
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holding big knife or Khukuri. They still go inside jungle to collect dry woods for fuel, Li, rhizomes and mushroom. They also go to river Torsa and its tributaries fallen in the ways of Totopara for varieties of local fishes. They still use hand-rotating grinding machine made up of stone for grinding the cereals. Totos also rear Mithun hybrid variety of cattle, pig and hen. They also know about orange soft drinks and beer produced in Bhutan.
Yongtong and Sangai-Lam-Pami
Tong is an important word for the Totos. Totos also exhibit their gratitude to priestly categories like Pau and Yong-tong. They are other than Kaiji, Gapu and Yangpui; they are living in every village hamlets. They are associates of Gapu and Kaiji. They all are integral parts of Toto religious institution. Besides religious, social and rites-depassage ceremonies; they are involved in Sangailaomi or Sangai-Lam-Pami which is a ceremony of confession before the entire clan. Toto males sometimes go outside the village in search of alternative jobs. Many of them prefer to go to Bhutan and work there is stone and dolomite mines. Bhutan produces cement from dolomite and use sand and stone chips in construction industry. This is related to Real Estate business which is non-the-less profitable than Gold. People believe that once there were Gold sands in various rivers from Tibeto-Himalayan regions as well as Barindland. So, going outside the village might be common for the Totos; but they cannot marry outside their village and community. Marriages with outside communities or sexual intercourse like with Bihari, Nepali and Mech (Bodo) took place in past and they are treated as punishable offence. Even easting with outsider other than Lepchas and Bhutias were also considered offence. Toto family is patrilocal in nature and mostly of nuclear type. However, joint family is not rare. Monogamy is common form of marriage but polygamy is not prohibited. If a man's wife dies, he may marry the deceased wife's younger sister, but a woman cannot marry her deceased husband's brother. There are various ways of acquiring mates viz., (1) marriage by negotiation (Thulbehoea), (2) marriage by escape (Chor-behoea), (3) marriage by capture (Sambehoea) and (4) love marriage (Lamalami). Marriage is sometimes performed after live-together. Child is however not expected before marriage. They strictly maintain clan exogamy and ideally avoid marital ties between two very close relatives or friends. Separation (paiesua) and adoption (puiya aiyama) are practiced among the Totos. On the death of a spouse, the husband or wife has to remain single for twelve
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months before he or she is free to remarry. They burry their dead near the house, carry the dead body in a thatched parcel (Toto) on the shoulder of two to the graveyard, maintain a taboo where the widow has to sleep with a stick for several nights and in few cases, allow widow remarriage. Yongtong is basically from elderly persons of the lineages or clans. They primarily take care of normatic behaviour regarding rites-de-passage.
Challenges in front of Totopara
Totopara still highly depends on pipeline water supply from Bhutan. They have got electricity from Indo-Bhutan hydro-power plants. A few of them have developed water tanks to store water where they perform artificial fishing also. Currently, they set a pump of 500 feet depth. To them, it is a great achievement. They are highly influenced by electronic gadgets, dish televisions and mobile phones. A market place is there at the heart of Totopara. There are two primary schools, one ITDP, one high school, village library, a rural commercial bank, agricultural cooperative, a primary health center with 6 bed facility, one veterinary center, six adult education centers under Toto Kalyan Samiti, a post-office, a tribal welfare center, a residential hostel, a clubhouse (poikimsha), a video hall, few shops and eating places in the market, place for weekly market and one SelfHelp Group. They understand globalization very well and asked ethno-tourism. They want to project their community at global dimension. Therefore, they are very eager to find out their ontology. They are repeatedly asking for good roads and bridges that would connect Totopara and Madarihat very well. There are government intensives to brick houses, but many of them prefer to stay in traditional houses. Rather they claim for more political reservations and opportunities, global expose, proper utilization of government facilities to their education and job according to the constitution, anti-corruption campaign, protest against population boom worldwide, necessity for nature-human balance, population control (an indigenous concept of family planning), control over modes of production and reproduction, growing awareness on natural degradation and a park that would promote eco-tourism to Totopara. In earlier, the land of this village was recorded 1996.76 acres under the name of Toto heads, but now they are the owner of only 343 acres of land; most of the lands have been handed over to the non-Totos. In earlier, they could depend on their own resources for maintaining their daily livelihood primarily, but now-a-days it is very difficult for them. In order to maintain their livelihood, many were forced to take loans from moneylenders. Their earning and purchasing powers are not so good, but still thrive in and expect a good life. This is because of their unity, solidarity and homogeneity.
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In earlier, Totos could depend on their own resources for maintaining their daily livelihood primarily, but now-a-days it is very difficult for them. It is know that around 57% of the Toto families have to depend on Bhutan for earning their common minimum livelihood. In spite of their hard struggle and tough work, 86% Toto families could earn not more than Rs 2,000 (NRI) per month. However, to maintain their livelihood, many were forced to take loans from money-lenders (Biswas and Bhattacharjee, 2011). Even in modern politics, their representation is very low.
Dedication of the Totos to Indian Nation
Totos are no doubt very much Indian and proudly speak out in favour of who from their community go to Police, Army, Para-Military as well as they also mention names who are good in playing football, teaching, government jobs in bank, library and post-office. They have a mother-and-child care unit in the village. Politically, they are in favour of indigenous status quo along with Rabha and Mech (Bodo) and yet they support Gorkhahood of the Nepalis who parallel to Adivasi people in Duars create human shield in Indo-Bhutan border essential for Indias national interest. They say that they are very much in opposition of terrorist activities in this transnational region or any such terrorbased economy. They can do all for showing their Indianness. They provide land to paramilitary forces from their community land for peace in the region as well as for their security.
Conclusion
Toto, a PTG, is unique in it. It has a multilevel complex origin which is so very vague. They have succeeded to preserve their identity. They have strong resilience and self-control. They communicate with outside and are very much optimistic. They know about their problems and again how to solve these problems. But they do not want to anything that would lead to be a part of a greater-and-wider social fold. They ancient routes have been lost, but they are still alive in their culture and cognition. Their folk life is like an unwritten open book telling so many things. That can be read out both from etic and emic perceptions. We can know many things that we may never know. And again, we can assure development on behalf of the state machinery to this highly pro-state
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people. They provide women higher than average status in their patriarchal family. Women like unknown goods carrier to Rita Toto are pioneer of the community that has moved a low way from traditional to global phase.
Acknowledgement
T. Subhramanyam Naidu (Professor in Anthropology, Pondicherry University, School of Social sciences and International Studies, Pondicherry Central University, Puducherry) who conducted a National Research Project on Ethnographic Documentation of Primitive Tribes of India and provided me the opportunity to visit Totopara under this program. Surya Toto and Rita Toto of Totopara village as well as Dr. Samar Kumar Biswas, Assistant Professor, Department of Anthropology, University of North Bengalto them I must express the greatest gratitude.
Reference
Bandyopadhyay, S. (2004). Dhimal. Kolkata: Centre for Folklore and Tribal Culture, Govt. of West Bengal. Bhattacharya, M. (1998). Toto at cross roads, Calcutta: Aparna Book Distributor. Chakrabarti, C.S. with R. Lalthantluanga, P. Majumder, M. Roy and N.K. Sengupta 2002. "Genetic relationships among some tribal groups inhabiting the north-eastern, eastern and sub-Himalayan regions of India", Annals of Human Genetics, Vol.66 issue 56. Retrieved on 13 December, 2002.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S000348000200132X. Chowdhuri M. K. 2005. "The Totos in primitive tribes", in Sarit Kr.Chaudhuri and Sucheta Sen Chaudhuri (Eds.), Contemporary India. New Delhi: Mittal Publications. Dalton, E.T. 1872. "Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal". Calcutta: Government Printing. Reprint (1973), Tribal History of Eastern India. Delhi: Cosmo Publications.
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Endle. 1911. "The Kacharis", cited in S. T. Das 1978. The People of the Eastern Himalaya. New Delhi: Sagar Publication. Grierson, G. A. 1926. Linguistic survey of India, Vol-III: Tibeto-Burman family, PartI. Calcutta: Govt. of India, Central Publication Branch. Hodgson, B.H. 1849. "On the origin, location, numbers, creed, customs, characters and condition of the Kocch, Bodo and Dhimal people with a general description of the climate they dwelling", Journal of the Asiatic Society, 18: 702-747. Majumder, B. 1991. An sociological study of Toto folk tales. Calcutta, India: The Asiatic Society. Majumdar, B. 1998. The Totos: Cultural and economic transformation of a small tribe in the sub-Himalayan Bengal. Kolkata: Academic Enterprise Moitra, M. 2001. "Uttarbanger biluptoprai janojati: Dhimal", in R. Biswas (Ed.), Uttarbanger Jati-O-Upojati. Calcutta: Punascho. OMalley, L.S.S. 1907. Bengal district gazetteers: Darjeeling. Reprint 1999. New Delhi: Logos Press. Primitive Tribal Group. Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Annual Report 2004-05 Risley, H. H. 1891. The tribes and castes of Bengal (Vol-1). (Reprint 1998), Calcutta: Firma KLM Pvt. Ltd. Royburman, B. K. 1959 Dynamics of persistence and change of a small community: The Totos. Ph. D. Thesis (Unpublished), Calcutta: University of Calcutta. Sannial, H.M. 1880. "History of Darjeeling", in K. Choudhuri (Ed.), (2005), Darjeeliner Itihas. Kolkata: Deys Publishing. Sanyal, C.C. 1973. The Meches and the Totos: Two Sub-Himalayan tribes of North Bengal. North Bengal University Sarkar, A. 1991. Toto: Society and change: A sub-Himalayan tribe of West Bengal, Calcutta, India: Firma Kim Private Limited. Shafer, Robert. Harrassowitz. 1966. Introduction to Sino-Tibetan: Part I. Wiesbaden: Otto
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Geo-political Importance of North Bengal with special references to Bidhannagar pocket of Siliguri Sub-division and Mekhliganj borderland of Cooch Behar: Impact of Globalization
North Bengal as a Geo-political Region West Bengal is a state out of total 29 and additional 6 Union Territories. This state consists of 19 districts and of these; the northern six constitute an administrative area known to be North Bengal. Actually, West Bengal has its own historicity and preferably known as the western part of ancient Bengal territory whose eastern part is now the independent country of Bangladesh. This Bengal region is situated over the Bay of Bengal and roughly consists of the Gangetic delta from North India, BrahmaputraJamuna river mouth from Brahmaputra valley of North East India, Barak-Surma-Meghna wetland from Arakan hills and the Meghalaya plateau pockets of the same North East India. These waterways are followed by tributaries from Eastern Himalayas-Tibet region from north and also from Chhotonagpur plateau from its west. Varind highland and Meghalaya plateau are natural Highland s that respectively separate Gangetic plain from Brahmaputra valley and again the latter from Barak-Surma region. These two regions have somewhat common geology in respect to Chhotonagpur plateau that is again the eastern extension of Central Indian plateau or Deccan plateau upto southern portion of West Bengal. Delta, mouth and wetland mentioned above along with portion of Garo hills of Meghalaya plateau, prime region of Varindland (in the form of Dinajpur catchment area and Rajshahi swamp) and most of the Sundarban the worlds largest mangrove forestry have fallen into the independent country of Bangladesh (formerly known as the East Bengal region) and around this Hartland, the peripheral segments have been fallen in India as West Bengal state as well as a few portion in North East India also. We can imagine West Bengal state as a combination of (1) western tiny portion of delta plus mangrove, (2) tributaries from Chhotonagpur plateau (shared with Jharkhand state), (3) eastern coast of India (shared with Odisha state and Indian peninsula, (4) Gangetic plain (shared with Bihar state), (5) Mahananda tributary of Ganges (shared with Central Himalayan country of Nepal, formerly southern portion of Himalayan state Sikkim, North Bengal-Bihar-North Western Bangladesh continuity), (6) Varindland Highland (shared with North Western Bangladesh) and finally (7) Teesta-Torsa basin (shared with Tibet plateau, Eastern Himalayas of Sikkim-Bhutan and North BengalAssam state-North Western Bangladesh continuity in order to meet into BrahmaputraJamuna mouth). The last four (4 to 7) regions are geographical distributions of North Bengal which is therefore clearly a transnational borderland. As a formerly part of Rajshahi, North Bengal has got the Malda (also Maldah) district, of Dinajpur got North Dinajpur (also Uttar Dinajpur) and South Dinajpur (also Dakshin Dinajpur) districts, from formerly greater Purnea region of eastern portion of Bihar state got Islampur subdivision of North Dinajpur district, from Nepal-Sikkim-Purnea distribution got Darjeeling district (containing both lower Himalayan hill and Terai foothill of MechiInternational Science Congress Association
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Mahananda basin),and finally on upper plains of Teesta-Torsa valley just beneath TibetSikkim-Bhutan region demonstrates Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar districts. Also from formerly Varindland region, North Bengal got pockets in all the districts of North Bengal along Indo-Bangladesh international border (exclusively the Baikunthapur forest and Rajganj block of Jalpaiguri district). Lower plains of Teesta-Torsa valley is the Rangpur region of North Western Bangladesh. Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar districts are just west to Assam state of North East India. On Cooch Behar and Jalpaiguri districts of today during Mughal period and British South Asia, a princely state of Koch Bihar was developed further extending into Rangpur and parts of Assam. Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar districts are now the only way to get into North East India from the mainland, as all other alternative ways have been fallen into Bangladesh. Siliguri Municipal Corporation (SMC) at Siliguri subdivision (Terai foothills) of Darjeeling district is considered as the gateway to these two districts, towards three hilly subdivisions of Darjeeling district and Sikkim state in the Himalayas along with Royal Kingdom of Bhutan and finally, of entire North East India. Actually, major or entire portion of Darjeeling district has been included from southern portion of Sikkim Himalayan state (once a royal kingdom and dependent on India). The Duars foothills (also spelt as Doors) along the Indo-Bhutan international border has been separated into western and eastern portions to Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal and Bodoland autonomous Territory of Assam. Entire Duars region has also been added from Bhutan foothills. These two inclusions occurred during British rule in South Asia and took a prolonged time period of late 18th century AD and major part of 19thcentury AD as a continuous process. The six districts of North Bengal continuous with 16 zilas of North Western Bangladesh form an important Geo-political region. This has shown a further continuity with entire North East India and Chittagong Division of Bangladesh. This entire set-up is sandwiched between Bihar, West Bengal proper (southern part of West Bengal consisting of 13 districts- commonly treated as South Bengal), Jharkhand-Odisha region, mainland Bangladesh as one slice as well as SinoTibetan plus Indo-Malayan Burmese belts along with eastern Himalayas and Arakanese hill pockets as the other slice.
North Bengals integrity to Indian mainland Historically, this North Bengal region was so important for Indias safety and security. Koch Bihar state always maintained good relation within the mainland and on behalf of the mainland dealt formally and informally with states and statelets and pre-state communities of North East India as well as Bhutan, being well-aware of Sikkim and Nepal situated nearby. Dinajpur-Rajshahi from time to time remained the power house of Bengal: Debkot-Gangarampur, Ramavati-Lakshmanavati and Gour-Pandua on Indian side as well as Dinajpur-Rajshahi and Pundranagara-Bogra on Bangladesh. These have prevailed throughout Buddhist, Hindu and Islamic time span in Indian polity. Chumbi valley located in-between Tibet, Sikkim and Bhutan was a major dumping ground on ancient Silk Routes whose alternative tracks used the river networks of North Bengal that brought in wealth and establishment to Sikkim, Bhutan, Koch Bihar and its predecessors and Mid-Bengal (probably Gour Bengal and Pundrabardhana-Bogra). Till now, Siliguri
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is well known place to many Indians and South Asians and this transnational territory. People from its widespread hinterland are coming to this urban center adding bulk of population to sub-urbs and rururban countryside (peri-urban areas). This has developed the Siliguri Jalpaiguri Development Authority (SJDA) encompassing SMC and Jalpaiguri district town. SMC and Jalpaiguri town are situated on Mahananda water-flow and Teesta River system and again separated from each other by Varindland Highland (here, Baikunthapur-Rajganj territory). Teesta canal however has now connected Gajaldoba barrage on Teesta and Mahananda barrage at Phulbari by traversing this Varindland. A portion of rururban countryside has been fallen in Jalpaiguri district. This region adjacent to Siliguri urban area is commonly treated as New Jalpaiguri (NJP) and its some portion has been included as the added area of SMC. However, Siliguri proper and this added portion of NJP have been fallen under different Legislative Assembly areas (Siliguri and Dabgram-Phulbari respectively) and also belong to different police stations (namely, Siliguri and Bhaktinagar PS). For administrative purposes, inhabitants of NJP have to depend upon Rajganj block and Jalpaiguri town far flung from Siliguri-NJP. However, Jalpaiguri district town is the headquarter of North Bengal administrative authority. Siliguri suburbs in Siliguri subdivision of Darjeeling districts consists of Matigara PS, Nakshalbari PS, Phansidewa PS and Kharibari PS. Two census towns (namely, Bairatishal in Matigara PS and Uttar Bagdokra in Nakshalbari PS) are most important here. All the village areas here has more or less affected by presence of Siliguri urban area. Similar thing has happened to the towns and small townships of hilly subdivisions of Darjeeling district as well as the entire Duars expanded throughout Jalpaiguri-Assam. Here, in Matigara under Matigara-Nakshalbari legislative assembly area, a proposed mini-legislative house has been planned by Government of West Bengal. Siliguri is actually the second largest urban area in the state after Kolkata mega city (Calcutta metropolis). Besides this greater Siliguri and town plus township areas within the included hill and foothill regions from Sikkim-Nepal and Bhutan; there are other district towns, forgotten historical sites and older settlements. Many of these places were previously and even in few cases still remain forestland. In pre-colonial period, major portion of North Bengal was covered by forestland that was again traversed by rivers and streams serving as hidden tread routes. There were probable settlements in remote areas by indigenous communities like Toto and Dhimal nearer to local waterbodies and riversides. Pre-state organizations and primitive statelets might also be there; forts like Lohagarh in Darjeeling district and Bauxa and Nal Fort in Jalpaiguri Duars are telling something of their own. Agriculture and agrarian caste groups including the Rajbanshi people have also been there in both riverside and uplands by the jungle-side leading to settlement of so many permanent village areas. People from present-day Bangladesh, mainland West Bengal, Assam and other North East Indian parts, Nepal and eastern Himalayas, Bihar as well as Jharkhand also into this place for new opportunities, mainly with the beginning of colonial rule in South Asia when the British authority established the Forest Department and so many Tea Estates as an alternative politico-economic policy matter. With time, tourism has also grown up as another alternative with hotels and transportation. British also enhanced settled cultivators to these places and these peoples tried their best to bring in the pre-agrarian forest dwelling pastorals and shifting cultivators into the mainstream
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(also serving as local transporters of transnational goods). Nepali people from Nepal Himalayas, Maithilis from Nepal-Bihar borderland, Biharis from Bihar-Jharkhand, Adivasis from Jharkhand-Odisha plus Central Indian plateau (also Deccan plateau) and Rajbanshis from core area of Jalpaiguri-CoochBehar agrarian belt reached to the remotest areas of those included areas. In the hilly tracks of Darjeeling district and Indo-Bhutan borderline pockets, Nepalis are however showing their numerical domination with continuity and again in a discontinuous manner respectively. Nepal happens to be a friendly country to India and hilly Nepalese ethnic groups there believing in wider and common Gorkha identity have been being recruited in the Gorkha regiment of Indian Army. Adivasis are known as the aborigines of South Asia and are hence very much India. However, Nepali and Adivasi as well as Rajbanshi and pro-Rajbanshi groups have developed themselves several human shields but with an essence of multiculturalism. Indian defense system is also pro-active in this region. Mainland Indian treading groups have also established their Diasporas in these included territories. Estates, small townships and forestry alongside pasture land and small scale farming units are the characteristic features of modes of production to this region.
North Bengal since Independence Indo-Nepal strategic partnership and partition of Bengal from the status of a Nation State to a state in Indian Federal Structure during independence of South Asia from the British rule in 1947 AD and its aftermath have caused into large immigration and emigration from Bangladesh as well as immigration from North East India in successive amount. Beside local and state-level political organizations; mainland political parties, religious institutions (like Ashrama, Church, Mosque, Buddhist monasteries, Sikh temples, etc.) and apolitical organizations (including NGOs) are highly active in this place. Demands of separate state and autonomy also persist in this region. In post-colonial period, this place has experienced India with a non-alliance policy, Third World, Sino-Indian war of 1962 AD, Second World, Cold war, independence war of Bangladesh in 1971 AD, inclusion of Sikkim within Indian federal structure, separatist movement in pockets of North Bengal and North East India post-Soviet Union situation, globalization, further political turmoil and people moving into the peri-urban areas leaving the countryside. Both positive and negative impacts of global market economy have been evidenced here. Demands of sustainability in development programs, identity movements, political clashes, privatization, mining and construction business, inflation, price rise, economic disparity, political clashes and culture of peace have generated some kinds of subaltern attitude bringing in oppressed and minority segments in the society much closer under various umbrellas. In post-USSR globalized world experiencing simultaneous both boom and recession), these are some common features and local people here in these included pockets (strategic points) are not beyond these.
ON-GOING CHANGES IN THE AGRICULTURE DOMAIN

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The categories like indigenous community or ethnic minority or tribal group or underprivileged sect or even a countryside dweller fallen under indigenous peoples are nothing but receivers of some provisions supplied to them by the state to come out from the stage of backwardness. However, these provisions could not always be fully utilized by all the peoples of a deprived community, especially those who actually required these. This happened due to dominance of the privileged class within their own community, insufficiency of proper awareness, absence of communication and lack of a suitable guideline by the State Machinery. Some other intermediates and bureaucrats could take the opportunity of their positions and corruption and mismanagement on the other severely damage the Public Sector. Again, fall of the Private sector opens the path of the smooth journey for privatization, marketizationand capitalist economy. Along with this would eventually come the concepts like ultimate profit, spreading the market to the access of all globally, increase number of the consumers as much as possible, provide the consumers certain efficiency to purchase things, allow them to have the taste of a good livelihood and increase consumerism, produce numerous quantity of products to constantly supply the bulk their new and advanced mode of requirements, well as anyhow lowering the price level of the product so as to sell it among purchasers as many as possible. To do this, the producer would try to create a market worldwide, form a homogeneous culture in favour of His thinking, establish His monopoly over that market, invent new type of effective technologies that would reduce the production cost, violation of labour laws or changing the same in His favour, appointments-on-temporary basis and on job security, low-cost labour, replacement of labour by machines and unemployment, illegal trade, bio-piracy and illegal technology transfer, lowering the price level to bring the highest portion of the market within access as well as collecting the good quality raw materials in relatively low from a place with immense scarcity. The suppliers of raw materials thus get assured for a fixed market and permanent source of income. It would be actually looking exploitative while being viewed from the side between the disparity between the profit levels of the raw material suppliers and the capitalist producer. But at the same time, the income level and status of living in the paradox of pure economy are developing for the peasants as well as the workers and officials in the factory. At the same time, one kind of environment for investment by medium and big scale factories is growing there creating new jobs and income sources for many in permanency or temporary basis. The Democratic State could not go totally against the working category or complete favour of the capitalist private investor and a way of negotiation it takes for its own favour (such as taxation, human resource development, improvement in the standard of living, poverty eradication and solve of the unemployment problem at least in a private sector and its subsidiaries). The factory owners, businessmen, investors and companies are also aware of the fact that the workers working in the factories may also be consumer of their products. They have to maintain the power of purchase things within the common peoples; compromise with the state and public to maintain a harmonious situation good for trade and economy as well as maintain good terms with the raw material suppliers (intimately involved in global public service). The factory could provide some facilities or techniques or information to the indigenous community; but the latter with the help of its rich knowledge traits about the locality, ecology and bio-diversity could contribute to nature and the private companies or the public or the State Machinery in such a manner that on other could do the same.
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So, establishment of a negotiable line, understanding of each other, proper communication and mutual understanding between global and local, private and public, traditional and modern, State and Multi National Companies have been required by allfrom the Policy Makers to the Economists, Politicians to businessmen and suppliers, producers, distributors, retailers and consumers. Unless privatization, industrialization, investments and marketizationdo not cause for massive scale land alienation against certain will-force of the commoners, damage their cultural identities and non-reflective domains, remove them from their share of profit, proceed against State interest and do not disturb the welfare steps taken by the government (in favour of workers, cottage and small scale industries, self-help groups, co-operatives, protection of the village systems and local merchants); in a country like India where the economy is still capitalistic, villages are mostly caste oriented and semi-feudalistic, democracy exists within the diversified ethnic peoples and doors are open to the globalization since more than a decade, the Global and Private sectors could sustain, collaboratewith the State and the Peoples and even utilize the good side of the IKS with the helps of indigenous communities. So, a global concern for the indigenous communities in the name of Indigenous Peoples and protection of the indigenous rights are here needed not for the betterment of those communities only, but also to check their complete transformation. Therefore, Indigenous Peoples could be used in generating ethnic violence on one hand on the issues for violation of indigenous rights; on the other hand, same could be applied so as to protect their rights, bring development in the way they want and the kind of share of profit they demand to them, incorporate them in the developmental process in an integrative way, draw to outline of sustainable way and appease them not to go into any ethnic disruption or get involved in any provocation. Only then their cultural identity, folk life and non-reflective domains remain unchanged. Ultimately the situation for suitable application of IKS in Global Service would arise.
Some related discussions are going to be held below (referring the Rajbanshi community of Bidhan Nagar, Siliguri sub-division, Darjeeling district, West Bengal state of India)Application of new verities and genetically modified items could often exert a negative impact upon protection of the old verities useful in sustenance of a biodiversity, an ecosystem, human life and the culture. And again, safe, good quality, local, hygienic, resistant, disease free and easily acclimatizing variety may also grab attention of many especially when as a domesticated crop it has been growing naturally, in a complete organic manner and applying no toxic or non bio-degradable substance in the form of manure or pesticide; therefore often involving the IKS of the local indigenous community. This type of process has found inBidhan Nagar region of Siliguri Subdivision, Darjeeling District of North Bengal (northern West Bengal); where the multinational food processing companyCalypso India Private Limited provides a permanent market for the pine apple and other vegetables to the local peasants- these producers have now a permanent market where they could sell their products at a fixed price, obviously higher than before. But here the level of profit made by this multinational company remains concealed. The factory provides the cultivators organic manure produced from the waste rubbish of pineapple and vegetables. Many peoples get
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jobs in the factory at various positions and more other in transportation system. No doubt the standard of life has been increased in Bidhan Nagar region, application of harmful chemicals has been reduced in the filed, not even any genetically modified variety has been introduced nor the cost of irrigation and electricity needed in the cultivation of dry season paddy have come to be seen there. But replacement of food crops by pine apple and pine apple economy must cause some sort of socio-cultural changes among the Bidhan Nagar peasants most of which are Rajbanshis followed by Bengali castes and caste like Muslims speaking mixture of localRajbanshi, Maithili and Bengali dialects. Here, the concept of Indigenous Peoples is necessary for the safeguard of the IKS as well as the overall protection of the Indigenous Community that cultivates the pine apples in their land. In this same Bidhan Nagar region, establishment of small tea gardens growing parallel with the Tea Estates at the end of 1990s was highly opposed by the local peasants. They were afraid of land alienation. That ultimately led to the initiation of ethnic movement in the name of indigenous statehood Kamtapur and Kamtapuri language. Eventually, a new branch of separatist movements for the very formation of a new state was emerged out. That even got a passive support from the other frustrated peasants of Bidhan Nagar (falling under the Phansidewa Legislative Area). The region is mostly populated by Bengali speaking people, Scheduled Caste Categories including the Namasudra and Rajbanshi along with some religious minorities, tea garden Adivasi labourers and other Scheduled Tribe categories and fractions of Nepali and Hindi speaking North Indians (chiefly from Bihar). Here, concept of the Indigenous Peoples is needed for protection of the land rights exclusive provisioned for an indigenous tribal community having long time attachment to the land or the region. Here Indigenous Peoples would be applied to overcome the fear of loss of cultural identity, ethnicity, income source, Folk Life and traditional knowledge-belief-faith of livelihood; in order to check any kind of disharmony; establish proper communication with an effective mode of awareness; understand the Folk Mind and make a bridge between contrasting endowments like traditional and modern as well as local and global. As that were successful; many of the Rajbanshis on their own responsibility have initiated tea-plantation on their soil. However, people there have now been habituated with small scale tea gardens. They supply their products (raw tea leaves) to the local tea factories. Tea is an easy way of income. However, many of these peasants primarily were not in a condition to set up tea gardens. That was an adverse situation because of two basic reasons- knowing nothing about tea cultivation and secondly, lack of funding. Rural bank is there in the block, but many have already taken up small loans and therefore they have to go to local money lenders. Some on contract basis lease their small scale farming lands to the outsiders for five to ten years for tea plantations and thereafter they get back their piece of land with a well established tea plantation. The local peasants now do not sell their lands to any outsider that they did before for an assurance of getting a job in that tea garden. Rather they are more intended to establish tea plantation of their own. Unlike the tea plantation process, in pine-apple cultivation, the risk of land alienation is absent and therefore its impact remains more or less positive among the folk peoples in Bidhan Nagar area. Rajbanshis of Bidhan Nagar have now become quite detached from their traditional life pattern and IKS.
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Rajbanshis are now more focusing on vegetable cultivation, mushroom production, floriculture, fruits and areca nut, alternative crops and poultry rather than their traditional jute and paddy oriented conventional production system and animal husbandry. Even the local farmers are now doing mixed and complex type of vegetable cropping. Many of them prefer to use vermicompost and organic manure. Rajbanshi indigenous knowledge on biodiversity would help them to set up such intensive vegetable cropping. Rajbanshis are even using fallow lands and doing alley cropping. They are now demanding for clod storage. Vegetables, leafy vegetables and arcea nut propagation as well as fishing in local water bodies are common here in Bidhan Nagar area. Many of the local people are now attached with alternative jobs in town, suburb and their own ruruban pockets. Small scale irrigation projects and TeestaMahananda canal are really helpful in vegetable propagation in uplands that were once cover up with bamboo bushes and sandy lowlands full of grasses, marshes of cane and arum and moist slopes with arum. Pulses in winter are more profitable than wheat and maize. Experimentally, the area can be selected for brinjal, betel leaf, lemon grass, shorea, teak,catechu,silk cotton and even orange. Bidhan Nagar is a sub-Himalayan Terai belt in Mechi-Mahananda basin. The cold wind coming down from hills is good for cultivation of exclusive garbera flower. Many peasants are also earning money by production of vegetables in off-season. Potato in winter and autumn is being produced reluctantly. Many leafy herbs also grow up in the same potato field and assure extra income. Pointed gourd or potol is also grown up in huge quantities on lattice- this vegetable is planted twice a year and yield is available throughout the year. Radish and potato of so many kinds are available. Many peasants are now yielding jute seeds. Winter and monsoon vegetables are produced in huge quantities and these have good demands in local market. Vegetable production has altered the socio-economic situation of the countryside. For disease control however, they are using pesticides and herbicides. So, the IKS of the Rajbanshi Social Fold (progressing on the track of modernity) is very essential to work out and in this process the non-functional domains could play an important role and ultimately the basic pattern of the folk life would therefore reveal out in front of us. And the most important thing is that only after getting this IKS, we could properly apply the modern knowledge upon the folk life and the nature in which it resides. From proper adjustment between traditional and modern technologies as well as between IKS and advanced knowledge system we could achieve actual way of conserving the bio-diversity, because from this biodiversity the indigenous community maintains its folk life and therefore protects it in its own indigenous feed back management system. To do it appropriately, the community needs a banner like Indigenous Peoples and aid from indigenous rights. Correct adjustment among folk life, proper management programs and indigenous rights could postulate a sustainable development. And this adjustment could only be achieved when there is a definite balance between traditional and modern knowledge systems. Impetus is also needed from the domain of intellectual property rights and patent laws especially to check bio-piracy and illegal technology and knowledge capital transfer. Case Study from Mekhliganj block, Mekhliganj Sub-Division, Cooch Behar District, West Bengal state of IndiaInternational Science Congress Association
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Mekhliganj subdivision of Cooch Behar district contains of two community development blocks, namely Mekhligank and Haldibari and the former again consists of eight village governing bodies (panchayet[1]) that are Bhotbari, Nijtaraf, BagdokraFulkadabri, Kuchlibari, Changrabandha, Uchalpukuri, ranirhat and Jamaldaha. Nijtaraf and Bhotbari situated side by side have shown 98 percent of the population being associated still with agricultural activities and other agro-based economy. Bhotbari has a Bengali speaking Muslim majority; whereas Hindu caste Rajbanshi ethnic group is more concentrated at Nijtaraf. These peoples are basically peasants and the most of them possess small-scale landholdings with a few even falling within landless labour category. There are only 4 families and altogether less than one percent of entire Bhotbari-Nijtaraf region possessing cultivable land of more than 15 Bigha[2]. That small or medium scale land-holding pattern is because of land reformation program[3] taken by the government ofWest Bengal during 1970s onwards. This land reformation might be illustrated as a parallel approach along with Green Revolution[4]. Population increase has reasoned into further slicing off of the reformed patches of land into even smaller pieces. It creates immense pressure on land and in this era of globalization, many people would have to choose alternative ways of income. Many of them have shifted to the urban areas in search of job. Nijtaraf-Bhotbari is not an exception. The situation is as such that the peasants there have 3 to 8 Bighas of landholdings in average. And for the Rajbanshis, the matter is far more critical as they have been further marginalized with average landholding of just 1 to 3 Bigha per family. Many have even become landless. Cooch Behar district is rather conventionally known for paddy in monsoon and winterautumn in addition to jute in summer, potato of various types in winter, winter and monsoon vegetables, off-season vegetables, date and betel and tobacco in some pockets, areca and other fruit plants in the homestead, bushes of bamboo and cane, fish ponds, poultry and animal husbandry, cottage industries like jute cloth and bamboo-canewooden handicrafts, bidi making (local cigar), compost manure production, jute seed production, production of pulses and wheat and maize to so amount, production of cattle feed, silkworm and their carrying plants as well as floriculture. But in Mekhliganj there we could see the eastern extension of Barind highland (Varindland ridge) which was traditionally good for vegetable cultivation and bamboo propagation. It is not suitable for jute rather than paddy in upland. Neighbouring Haldibari is rather a vegetable hub. Areas of Mekhliganj next to Haldibari also produces vegetables to a higher quantity, but the location of Bhotbari-Nijtaraf and other far flung pockets have developed an alternative agrarian system. Ponds are lacking needed for post-harvest processing of jute fibers. Local streams are used to collect local fish varieties. Summer paddy no longer exists in this pocket of Cooch Behar district that was known to be Aush. Winter paddy Boro and monsoon paddy Amon are still grown up there. High yielding Sona is usually cultivated, rather than the local varities like Dudhkamal, Muta and Maharaj growing faster than Aguripak and Dhepi taking longer time span. Kalonunia variety is still cultivated in pockets and noted as richmans paddy (boroloker dhan). It is known for its taste and fragrance. Paddy seed coat is black in colour. Muslims call it as pulao and use it in making delicious food items during festivals. Similarly, Hindus (Rajbanshis and non-Rajbanshis) treat it as the Bhogdhan and offer it to their Gods and Goddesses. Tobacco cultivation is also absent in Mekhliganj.
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Production of pulses, potol (Trichosanthes dioica) and other vegetables, bamboo and cane are decreasing day by day at rapid pace. Maize and wheat are not encouraged as the alternative crop so far. Besides paddy, people are more indulged in potato and tea yield. The soil type is also good for oilseeds including sunflower and soybean and nuts; but these items are generally propagated in neighbouring landscapes in Bangladesh (notably, Mekhliganj is an Indo-Bangladesh borderland). Mekhliganj is a far flung area from Cooch Behar district town and connected through Mathabhanga town. It is again close to Mainaguri settlement in Jalpaiguri district at the juncture of three important municipalities like Jalpaiguri town towards Siliguri-NJP, Dhupguri town towards Falakata-Alipurduar and Malbazar towards Doors and Kalimpong hill subdivision ofDarjeeling district. Kalimpong was a juncture of Chumbi valley, Sikkim and Bhutan. So, no dounbt the area of Bhotbari-Nijtaraf at IndoBangladesh borderline was on a transnational trade route, probably Silk Route. This block contains Bangladeshi pockets. Such pockets exist in both sides of Indo-Bangladesh borderline. This type of situation has emerged due to the historical fact that some villages or hamlets and even households of formerly Koch Bihar princely state have been fallen into Lalmonirhat and Kurigram districts of greater Rangpur area of Bangladesh and vice versa. These disputed pockets or enclaves are locally known as the Chitmahal or Chhit Mahal. The Tinbigha corridor is also located in Mekhliganj block. It is given to Bangladesh government in lease on September 2011 so that the latter could access to DahagramAngarpota enclaves again falling within Mekhliganj block. Mekhliganj town is located at Bagdokra-Fulkadabri panchayet region that is directly connected to Bhotbari and Nijtaraf. But, the problem arises when we talk about Kuchlibari that has been cut off from the direct road connectivity due to this corridor. It is the furthest village panchayet of the block and Adivasi community is a characteristic feature over there. Actually, Oraon and Santhal (also spelt off as Kurkhu/Kurux and Santal) originally from Central Indian plateau and Chhotonagpur-Rajmahal areas of Jharkhand spread over different parts of Bengal and North East India, including Barindland ridge and included areas of Terai and Duars. Interestingly, they have still some Ddiaspora in Bangladeshi part of the ridge including Panchagarh, Thakurgaon, Nilphamari and Dinajpur zilas (districts). Kuchlibari pocket of Mekhliganj (including its Dhapra settlement) is not an exception to this in Indo-Bangladesh border area. This has been already stated that Bhotbari-Nijtaraf region is situated on a traditional trade route that is again attached to the Bangladeshi enclave of DahagramAngarpota. However, this transnational business is still going on but through the Changarabandha region of Mekhliganj. On the other side, Dahagram-Angarpota is now directly connected to Lalmonirhat district of Bangladesh by Tinbigha corridor. Changrabandha has a rail station also, but it is basically used for trade purpose and people of Mekhliganj have to depend on Haldibari of the same district and Mainaguri of Jalpaiguri district for rail service. Haldibari is a regular supplier of vegetables to Siliguri, but for this trade access Mekhliganj crop producers have to cross the Teesta River that flows in-between Haldibari and Mekhliganj blocks of Cooch Behar district and forms river bed in some portions of Kuchlibari and Nijtaraf. This Teesta river bed is commonly known as Teesta Nadir Payasthi. There the Rajbanshi cultivators however yield lowland paddy, jute and other vegetables and watermelon. But they have no easy access of their production to outside market as the Haldibari peasants do have. Actually, Haldibari is the only block in
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CoochBehar district that is situated on the western side of Teesta River. Indian enclaves towards Haldibari are situated in Nilphamari and Panchagarh districts of Bangladesh, whereas other such Indian Chhit Mahal areas have been fallen inside Lalmonirhat and Kurigram districts. There is also a demand of adding this Haldibari subsivision into Jalpaiguri district. In colonial period, Nilphamari, Panchagarh and Thakurgaon were dependent on Jalpaiguri district and used as direct connectivity between Jalpaiguri and greater Dinajpur. Whereas, rest part of CoochBehar district including Mekhliganj block were much familiar to todays Lalmonirhat and Kurigram districts. These five districts on Bangladeshi side however now belong to the Rangpur Division there. Mekhliganj name has been derived from the term Mekhla that means traditional clothing prepared from jute fiber through handlooms. This cottage industry still persists in some pockets of Mekhliganj. If the see the Bhotbari, Nijtaraf, Bagdokra-Phulkadabri and the most remote Kuchlibari of this block along with the Bangladeshi enclave and Mekhliganj town, then we would find that places like Changrabandha, Ranirhat, Uchalpukuri and Jamaldaha have better connectivity with both Jalpaiguri and CoochBehar districts. Bhotbari is a common name to the place as we could find Bhotbari proper, Bhotbari east and Bhotbari south within Bagdokra-Phulkadabri; Bhotbari little andaran Bhotbari, Bhotbari central and Bhotbari west within Nijtaraf and only theNorth Bhotbari within Bhotbari GP. Again, Nijtaraf proper, Nijtaraf south, Nijtaraf small, Nijtaraf big, Nijtaraf central and Nijtaraf east are situated within Nijtaraf GP; whereas Nijtaraf west, Nijtaraf north andaran Nijtaraf and Chhit Nijtaraf (Nijtaraf enclave) within Bhotbari. There are many locations by the name of Fulkadabri within Bagdokra-Phulkadabri as well as the most remote Kuchlibari. Again Kuchlibari is composed of so many enclaves by different names like Kuchlibari, Bajejama Kuchlibari, Jikabari andaran Kuchlibari, Upenchowki Kuchlibari and their east, west, south, north, central, big and small hamlets. Even, Kuchlibari contains pockets of Jamaldaha (e.g. Jamaldaha Balapukuri). So, this concept of Chhit Mahal or enclave hamlets were always there in that region and in post-colonial period, some of them have been fallen in other country (now, Bangladesh). Kharkharia is also a common name to many such places; however Kharkharia proper belongs to Kuchlibari. There are hamlets of Pukurdabri, Hemkumari and Panishala. Throughout CoochBehar, there are names with the prefix Brahmattar or Debottar, which remainds us the place was once under a Hindu Princely State and its relationship with priestly category (-ies). There are also places having names with terms like Bas and/or Bakshi (such as Daribas and Bakshiganj) indicating to the influence of pre-colonial Muslim rule in Bengal over there. Rajbanshis have developed agrarian division of labour like the caste system and Muslim peasants not fully out of this social institution. Muslims of Bhotbari-Nijtaraf mostly belong to the Other Backward Class (OBC) category as they are mostly fallen under the Nashya Saikh[5]. Some say that these people were working category and even servants of Bengal Nabob in pre-colonial period. And now almost all the Muslim there, especially youth, are trying to be notified themselves under this Nashya Seikh category. May the OBC certificate would help them to get nay job opportunity or government loan for education or small-scale business establishment. Poramanik and Lammojabi Hinifi are two important mosques for Bhotbari north (Uttar Bhotbari) and 117 Niztarof (Nitaraf proper); whereas Hindu Rajbanshis also pray to mother Goddess like Kaliand Manasha as well as go or Jalpesh Shiva temple nearby. Jalpesh-Bhotpatti is
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a settlement on the road in-between Mainaguri and Bangladesh mor at Changrabandha. Bangladesh mor or Bangladesh turn is a square of four lanes- one going towards Bhotbari-Mekhliganj-Tinbigha corridor, other towards Mathabhanga-CoochBehar proper, third one towards Changrabandha rail station and international check post and the fourth one to Mainaguri from where one could go to Jalpaiguri, NJP, Siliguri and mainland India; towards Malbazar and entire Duars and Bhutan and also towards DhupguriCoochBehar-Alipurduar and Assam at the center of North East India. Jalpesh[6] is a sacred place for the Rajbanshis and other Shavian. Many myths and stories related to the origin of Rajbanshi community are linked up to this Jalpesh temple. Even many coined out the term Bhot with Bhutan Himalayas and also the Jalpesh with proKushan[7] king Jalpa, Indo-Greek[8] symbol Jalpai (olive), Jelep-La[9] mountain-pass to Chumbi valley and origin of Jalpaiguri town and the district. Out of many Sarkar is a common surname for the Muslims, Rajbanshis and non-Rajbanshi Bengali Hindus in Mekhliganj. However, Roy and Barman are often used by Rajbanshis. The Bhotbari north market ground is the location where in every year Bhandani festival was organized by the Rajbanshis and peoples from all the sects and religious groups participate. This place has a small Bhandani temple also and this is actually a Hindu female cult probably meant for good agricultural crop production. It is surrounded by place held for weekly market, some permanent shops owned by men belonging to Muslim community, health sub center, primary school, the bus stop and Bhotbari panchayet office. A high school is also located nearby and at Mekhliganj town contains a college also. Madrasha[10] or Muslim education center is also there. But these countryside people have special interest in folk literature and those who are educated express their special interest in Bengali and English literature. Many of the college students are interested in honors degree in English. Illegal cross border cattle smuggling is a problem in this pocket and at the same time easy way of money making. Many use this Tin Bigha corridor as the Bangladeshi hamlet is attached to Teesta river bed sharing it with Nijtaraf and Kuchlibari. It is also close to Mekhliganj Township and different Bhotbari pockets. There is a proposal of building up of a flyover at Tin Bigha corridor to connect this Bangladeshi enclave with mainland Bangladesh for 24 hours. Many Indian political parties and social units are protesting against this. They rather accuse that such situation would create Teesta bed of Nijtaraf a center for illegal human trafficking. However, Border Security Force [11] (BSF) camps have been deployed in this border region as well. Despite of all these facts, local people prefer to maintain one to two cattle, gottery and small poultry as the sandy river bed and upland areas are not suitable for choosing agriculture as the only alternative. Agricultural cost and problems related to agriculture have compelled the local inhabitants to think more about small scale tea gardens as a better alternative along with some paddy, few bamboo bushes and vegetables like chilly, potato, brinjal, tomato, mustard, local spices (e.g.,radhuni), cauliflower, cabbage, carrot, radish, potol, gourds, beans and local leafy vegetables (e.g., dheki, dhebua,dhemsi, spinach/ palong, lafa and bathua). There are few more Bangladeshi enclaves within Kuchlibari and Bagdokra-Phulkadabri (also written as Bagdogra-Fulkadabri). There is camp of Bangladesh Rifles[12] (BDR) inside Dahagram-Angarpota that is connected with Patgram upazila of Lalmonirhat district through Tin Bigha corridor open for 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. and at the name time
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shares Teesta Riverbed of Nijtaraf (also written as Niztaraf or Niztarof) and Kuchlibari. Flag meeting is often held between BDR and BSF. At a time, people of this Chhitmahal came into Indian Territory and use weekly markets in Mekhliganj as other minor pockets still do. Burimari of Patgram is an important settlement near the Bhotbari GP. Many Indian pockets are also there in Patgram that have to depend and only depend on Bangladesh. Dahagram-Angrapota though connected to Bangladesh now is absolutely a backward region lacking both medical facilities and electric connection. After opening up of the corridor many mainland people from Bangladesh have entered into this pocket and eventually the older inhabitants have turned in minority. Hindus once living there have fled to India. Religious tension was an eminent feature in this Bangladeshi enclave comprising of a huge landscape of over 4,000 acre. There were attempts between India and the counterpart to resolve this enclave problem through mutual exchange with the exception of Angrapota-Dahagram (AGDH) and Berubari (falling under Jalpaiguri district of India on the Jalpaiguri-Haldibari road). It is alleged that Bangladeshi people could try this AGDH to trespass intoIndian Territory where there is an increasing demand of construction workers and other workforce in rapidly expanding urban sector. Also, it might be transformed into paradise for cattle smugglers. Even if an over bridge is built upon over there in Tin Bigha, the situation would become the worst. That might put a wrong impression among the borderside people and they might commit wrong doing as an easy source of income. Notably, Tin Bigha corridor has made Kuchlibari cut off from mainland India by direct road connectivity and made this land itself an enclave. Bangladesh government is too sensitive regarding AGDH and President Ershad in 1986 AD has first visited the place on behalf of Bangladesh government. Ershad was born at Dinhata of Cooch Behar district. There is a proposal that if both the government could lease the enclaves if not exchange at all in reality. In this context also, alternative economy of tea gardens followed by land lease might be a new approach. People in Mekhliganj block are living with religious harmony and they do not want any volatile situation there. People there want more security from the government. They do not want to be convicted by Indian law. They know about different acts like TADA[13], POTA[14], etc. People in Mekhliganj area have access to drinking water, electricity, center for mother and children, SSK, primary and upper primary schools, high schools, college, market, health sub-centers and centers and so forth. There are some self-help groups also. Community fishing may be an option, but not so much prevalent among the locals. However, there are big fishing ponds in Uchhalpukui and some pockets of Jamaldaha, Ranirhat, Phulkadabri and Kuchlibari.Fishing is also practiced in Bhotbari-Nijtaraf area. Daily in the afternoon, fishermen come in the market and sell the local varieties like punti, darika, kholisha, tangta, bacha, bata, pabda, rohu, catla, catfishes and many others. They do not depend on ponds, but also catch them from Teesta and small streams initiated in Nijtaraf and Bagdokra-Phulkadabri areas. Such a stream is Saniajan and it bears ample of small fishes known collectively as Nadiali. Crabs, shrimps and prawns are also consumed occasionally. BLOCK-WISE P.F.C.S. Ltd. in Cooch Behar district (upto January, 2012) Sl. Total Name of the Co-operative Society Block Reg. No. & Date no Members 42. Bhotbari F.C.S. Ltd. Mekhliganj 28, dt: 215
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43. Mekhliganj Anchalik M.S.S. Ltd. 44. Ranirhat Anchal M.S.S. Ltd.
Mekhliganj Mekhliganj
18/03/1958 15, dt: 04/05/1951 37, dt: 10/03/1977
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http://www.coochbehar.gov.in/Fishery/HTMfiles/Fishery2.html Changrabandha has so many pockets in the name of Panishala and river Jaldhaka or Dharala River (also termed as Dhorolaor Dholla) after crossing Bhutan and Duars and district of Jalpaiguri has entered into Patgram through this Changrabandha. Later, this river along with Singimari River enters again into CoochBehar and spread throughout Sitai-Sitalkuchi[15] and Mathabhanga to meet with old track of Torsa[16] River at Dinhata before reentering into Bangladeshi area at Kurigram. New flow of Torsa that holds the CoochBehar district town also flows into Bangladesh along with Kaljani and Raidak[17]water systems. All these rivers through CoochBehar are actually part of Teesta-Torsa basin that unites with Brahmaputra-Jamuna mouth in Bangladesh. Forest has been nearly abolished in Mekhliganj block despite a few pockets in Jamaldaha. In other parts, only one could find some patches of bamboo. Now, a new trend of tea plantation is an addition to this. Plan is also there to establish tea tourism (as a part of eco tourism) developed near Tin Bigha corridor on the bank of Saniajan. This is nothing new as in many parts of Jalpaiguri Barindland such small scale tea gardens and tea-tourism have become a new trend. And that has also spread into Mekhliganj. Museums, picnic spots, boating, gardens, deer parks, water bodies and marshlands are newest attractions of Duars, Jalpaiguri and CoochBehar. Irrigation is a direct scheme that is meant for common peasants. There are about nine small irrigation projects in Mekhliganj block area of which only four are now functioning. Irrigation department is accused of charging double tenancy from the irrigated cropland. So, there would be no such benefit from government irrigation project and hence local peasants prefer to use rental pumps. That they could use when irrigation is necessary. In rainy season, irrigation has no use than proper drainage. Present government of West Bengal has taken the policy of implementing 100 days guaranteed work scheme under the scheme of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act[18] (MGNREGA) in countryside and building up of local roads and water tanks helpful for untimely irrigation. This is called the Jal dharo, Jal bharo[19] mission of present West Bengal Government (since 2011). Now-a-days, the cost of agriculture has been increased considerably in the context of seed, fertilizer, pesticide, labour cost, carrying cost, cold storage and still there are risks like of natural calamities and fall in the market price or even unexpectedly higher yield. Irrigation is not required here throughout the year as this is not an arid or semi-arid drought prone zone. Irrigation may be required at the time of land preparation, growth of the saplings and two to three times during ripening of the crop. Lending tractors, power tillers and diesel pump-sets are good business for well-to-do families who might be a non-cultivating owner, doing any government job in panchayet or BDO office, local broker and moneylender. A rate of INR 130 has been charged per hour for borrowing the pump-set.
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Government assistance and fertilizers at subsidized price are often expected. But that is not possible as before. High yielding varieties have already replaced the traditional seeds. Bhotbari and Nijtaraf panchayets have one godown each and flood rescue centers altogether three in number. In 1998, a local seed farm was established in order to provide free seeds and fertilizers to marginal and small farmers. They rather have to depend on local seed and fertilizer shops privately owned by non-cultivating owners and brokers, as the seed farm has stopped functioning in 2002. This block seed farm was established on 75 acres. About 25 people were employed there as labourers on daily wage basis. Many of them have been promoted to the post of peon and with their retirement, these posts would be abolished. This is nothing but to many simply wastage of government money. There are some posts in panchayet office like village level worker (VLW), Job Assistant (JA) and Krishi Prajukti Sahayak (KPS). The latter is for helping the peasants by providing important information and other technical support. Examination of soil fertility and water quality are important among these. But for that the KPS has to go to Mathabhanga office. This type of work is not for a single day, but he has to up and down for whole week. In Bhotbari GP, these three posts still exist, but they have never been proved themselves helpful in real sense to the peasants rather than doing other official works and as a result of this official-peasant gap, these posts perhaps are going to be withdrawn permanently without any future appointment. Further, the peasants have to buy pesticides of so many companies and medicines for their livestock. New strains are emerging day by day and old pesticides could not be reused for the same infection of plant body part. They also indicate to a unfair understanding between agriculturist/animal doctor and medical representatives of multinational companies (MNC). They still remember the application of cow dung, organic manure, natural insecticides, net and light trap and neem oil. But it is not possible for them to turn around from hybrid seeds, chemical fertilizers and branded pesticides of so many types. Ration shop are also there in these two panchayets where essential food commodities are available on behalf of Government of India at subsidized rate. Black-marketing and extra price charging are two allegations in rationing system of India. Ration dealers however here say that they used to charge extra cost due to local transport. People are now much aware here. Government of West Bengal is categorically saying that 98 percent of its revenue is going into payment of interest and paying salaries of its employees. This is also a reason for inflation in local vegetable markets that the producers in countryside could not guess from before and hence middleman and stock raiser groups buy the crops at relatively cheaper price and buy them at higher price. Government has nothing to do but increase the tax rates. However, there are so many other reasons behind inflation and price rise. There is a long demand that if the local block officials and government agricultural office regularly provide them the weekly wholesale price list. Some newspapers and some television programs obviously do this, but that is not adequate information. They are not only demanding for price list in print media, but also description, usefulness, price and subsidy of fertilizers and pesticides. They could give it even in internet and the villagers have no objection to e-governance. People here are of opinion that government planning is no doubt good to their interest, but the problem is in implementation, red tape, administrative delay, lack of political will-force at the local level, other issues, rapidly changing economic situation in India, peoples shift to other sectors and lack of
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supervision. Often many projects are just inaugurated and even initial works begun, but no further improvement or very slow rate of work is coming to see in. That might be any financial crisis or lack of will-power or any misconception regarding the local people, any conspiracy or even corruption. Local people often do not know about the government schemes and they are not properly informed. Sanctioned money is often returned back. Sometimes, local government at village level has been accused of partiality and spending the money in other sector. There is a demand to defunct the local village level governance that the supporters of power decentralization strongly oppose. Direct sanction of project money from Central Government to the public through government officials is another instance; this they say as direct contact from PM to DM (Prime Minister to District Magistrate). Middleman system is also accused for these wrong doings. There are also layers of money lenders and brokers. However, the three tire panchayet system is still going on in West Bengal; many others see it as a role model of grass route development and power decentralization upto the village level. Though, they admit that this may not be the last option and free from drawbacks. Lack of peoples awareness is also responsible to such situations. The best example may be the sanitation. People still believe that sanitation in open air is better and hygienic rather than set up of a latrine within their homestead. People often misuse the money that they are getting from the government in alcoholism, gambling, domestic spending, social occasions like marriage and even disease treatment. Sometimes, this money has been wrong handled and the beneficiary could not get the actual amount. Often the people are misbehaved. Sometimes, people think off that old days were better and all the reformations are absurd and in vain. They also feel attracted to other alternatives. Bhitbari GP has one upper primary and a high school, whereas Nijtaraf has two upper primary schools and no high school. Rate of female literacy is higher here in Mekhliganj as the common people told me; but overall expectation from this formal education such as getting any job is not so high. People here go for self-employment and other outside works. Nijtaraf has 75 percent electricity availability, whereas Bhotbari has the lowest reach (around 40 percent). People there have the internet access and wide range use of mobile phones. They not only collects news though electronic media (such as radio and television) and print media, but also check internet sources and mobile phone connectivity. Illegal Bangladeshi SIM cards are also available there; however people there prefer Indian SIM cards. Bus service and man pulling van service are the major public transport. People also use bicycles and motorbikes for personal use. State Bank of India and Central Bank of India have their branches in Changrabandha and Uchhalpukuri, whereas Uttar Bangal Kshettriya Gramin Bank (UBKGB- facilitating rural banking) and Agricultural Co-operative Bank have their branches at Jamaldaha, Ranirhat and Kuchlibari, besides Changrabandha. Nijtaraf and Bhotbari have not a single bank of any type. Nijtaraf and Bhotbari have a total population of 12, 672 and 14,792 according to the 2011 Census of India. Both the places have on health centers unlike other village areas of this block and only two health sub centers (HSC) each. However, in these two areas, there are SSK, Mid-day meal program and Center for Mother and Children (Anganwari Kendra). For these reasons, people here have to depend on other village areas. Changrabandha contains most of the offices (BLLRO, BDO, JCI, etc). For Labour Commissioner, people have to go to Mathabhanga via Changrabandha.
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Marginal peasants are basically agricultural day labourers with a small patch of land. Small scale peasants possessing land amount of 1-3 Bighas and middle scale with 3-8 Bighas hardly get any surplus. Small scale peasants yield paddy for self consumption that goes maximum up to half a year. Middle scale owners could sell the surplus in local market. Cultivation of vegetable and potato is rather beneficial to them. But they could not make similar profit as the Haldibari peasants could do. Because of these reasons, peasants have to go to money lenders, mortgage their land, (or) lease their own land to big scale peasants who possess land upto 15 Bighas in post-land reform era. In this way, in season time their informally increase their land possession up to 30 to 40 Bighas. Big landholders and rich non-cultivator owners generally take these lands on lease in season time for agricultural purpose by their own or giving it in tenancy. Obviously, these transactions are all done on temporary and verbal basis. And the original land-holder work there as share cropper. These things depend on mutual trust. Often neighbours and relatives exchange their labour to one another. This shows involvement social strata on the basis of land holding, class, lineage and even caste or religious domination in pockets. This is the way of how leasing ones own land has been introduced in Makhliganj consisting of AGDH enclave of Bangladesh that could not be exchanged but only leased (if such situation arises). This culture of leasing land has been further established in this Indo-Bangladesh Barindland pocket with AGDH and many more exchangeable minor enclaves and further become cognate within the indigenous agricultural knowledge system of the local peasants of all categories; when they have been shifted over to smallscale tea plantation. Tea plantation is maximum profitable in this pocket and small peasants now feel no hesitation to lease their lands for tea plantation on temporary basis. Local people of Mekhliganj did not know how to cultivate tea, but they were eagerly searching for certain alternatives. Big tea company of Bajoria group set up tea garden there over 25 acres who also established the tea processing factory. Many sell their lands in the hope for permanent job in the tea garden. On ground reality, this is even INR 5565 per day. In big tea gardens of Duars and Terai, a permanent labourer get daily wage between INR 90-100. Many of them were even not made permanent. There is no such provision for Provident Fund (PF) or contributory PF or medical facilities or quarters. Some were even promised to provide permanent job in the factory that in many instances was actually a false assurance. So, local people are not interested in selling their land to the big Tea Companies any more, but give them their land in lease. These marginal and small scale peasants lease their land to this tea company. This lease stands for 5 to 7 years; after that they get back their land but with a well established tea plantation. In the meantime, they would work in that garden and learn how to cultivate tea in Barindland ridge. If a person has Bigha land in lease, then he will work as a temporary labourer and learn how to cultivate tea with INR 60-80 wage on daily basis. If the amount of land is approximately 6 Bigha, then he would be appointed supervisor of two labourers. The initial wage for a labourer was INR 28 per day that has now increased up to the range of INR 60-80. And at the same time he would get some capital in form of lease money. This is generally INR 20,000 for a 3-Bihga land at the initial stage. This training, some capital and a well-established tea plantation would be not bad for initiating a small-scale tea garden. In this manner, Bajoria group was successful to acquire many more land in temporary basis.
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Middle landholders and big-scale non-cultivating owners (however, not more than one percent) are therefore interested to set up tea plantation on their land following the policy of the Bajoria. All these land transactions and lease were done on verbal basis and mutual trust. There is no risk of mortgaging their own land and one could keep the mutation papers in safety. For instance, a middle scale landholder with about 8-10 Bigha cropland can use portion of the highland area in producing tea whereas a few in yielding vegetables, raise a small patch of bamboo bush and the low land portion for rice or paddy. A broker class is also developed in between the independent tea producers and the factory. They might from a non-cultivating owner family, wealthy family having enough capital to buy a tracker and capable of immediate payment and those who do not possess much land as they have already shifted to other occupation. Actually, if a producer directly sells his products to the factory, there might be delay in payments; whereas from broker he is getting immediate payment that might be few less than the actual price value. The reason is that most of the marginal and small-scale peasants are defaulters and could not access to the bank loans. On the other side, big scale peasants, non-cultivating owners, people in other profitable income and government job as well as wealthy families have good terms with BDO, panchyets and banks. They could get loan with special compound package and 50 percent subsidy. During the time of Indira Gandhi Government[20] in 1970s; when banks were become nationalized, then people got huge amount of loan but could not use in a proper way. A local proverb is there koto dine khaichhi doi, er kotha ayjo koi which means how could we forget those Golden moments?However, in V.P. Singh Government [21] many of these loans were reconsidered. But, there are still many loans without any proper paperwork. Further, the loans that were reconsidered were actually cattle loans and not the agricultural loans that the small scale and marginal peasants had taken for gottery, plough, fishery, or husking machine. So, these people have burdened by interest over interest. They perhaps be ever capable to get any loan facility from the bank. Whereas the big landholders and wealthy non-cultivator owner cum service person and businessmen could avail this facility from bank, establish tea garden on their own, lend money even at a higher interest upto 20 percent, or serve as a broker. Now, new schemes like minority loan, education loan for backward people and Farmers Credit Card (Kishan Credit Card[22]) are new policies launched so far and people are desperate to get these facilities. They are opposing any policy through which government so desperate for investment and industry can accrue land without any formal discussion with the peasants and local influential personalities. Peasants are generally in favour of sustainable development, development that does not cause much hamper to the nature and they are categorically against any political hidden agenda or anti-democratic policy. They are in favour of food-processing industry, wider food market, easy connectivity, cold storage, new policies and their implementation, alternative agriculture, advice from agronomists and direct investments like Bagoria in Mekhliganj or Calypso in Bidhannagar at Siliguri Terai Subdivision of Darjeeling district. In highland pockets within Mechi Mahanandabasin of Siliguri subdivision as well as Chopra block of Islampur subdivision of Uttar Dinajpur district, people agitated against rapid spread tea gardens in highland vegetable ground by the outsiders and encroachment of land. Local Adivasis and Rajbanshis agitated against that process and that issue was again politicized in so many ways. As a result to this, pineapple has been
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grown up as another alternative along with small scale tea gardens and diverse types of vegetables and floriculture. Calypso is an international brand and it generally deals into pineapple juice, fresh organic vegetables, pickles, biomass and organic compost. Returning back again to Mekhliganj, we could see that maximum small scale tea gardens there are owned by Muslim community, but few also be Rajbanshis like Bakul Roy Ishore. Jul Jalaj Sarkar is a Muslim youth who has established tea garden on seven Bigha; that was previously a jungle area; his father was in government service. Siraj Hossain Sarkar have tea garden of this type along with a cropland and he is also in a private service in Siliguri area and time to time comes to Dagapur Tea Estate area in the Siliguri suburb. These small tea growers of Mekhliganj have together established a welfare society (Mekhliganj Apanjan Tea Producer Welfare Society with registration number S/IL/90520 of year 2012). However, this is also a fact that Rajbanshis are more marginalized and even many of them are day labourers. They are still attached with traditional agriculture. They say that about 80-90 mound [23]of rice they can produce from one Bigha. They also cultivate potato and vegetables. The main problem with potato cultivation is the storage facility. There is a cold storage at Rajarhat turn where they have to pay INR 170 per quintal besides packaging and bearing charges separately. Still they gave to depend on nearby weekly markets like Bairagi Haat at Mathabhanga or Jalpesh. They are not so much blessed as Haldibari or Dhupguri peasants. They nearly totally shed off tobacco cultivation due to the rust disease and anti-tobacco campaign. However, they expect from the government for supplying of good tobacco varieties, scientific analysis of localMotihari tobacco variety, aid in this labour intensive production, alternative use of tobacco in medicine or food oil and even intensive for alternative crops like maize or wheat. Various social schemes for aged, widow, education loan and short term loan are of common interest of the local people. But many of them could not access to this for being defaulter. This opportunity is taken by several NGOs that are involved in money lending business and associated with insurance agencies and real estate business groups like Bandhan Financial Services and Clench microfinance foundation [24]. These are also of great concern here as different people maintain different opinion to these organizations.
Conclusion No doubt this North Bengal region which is also known as the chicken neck of India connecting mainland Indian body and North East India cut off by the independent country of Bangladesh and surrounded by Sino-Tibetan, eastern Himalayas and BurmeseArakan belt is obviously an important Geo-political region. It is also falling on IndoBangladesh territory and this Bangladesh is an independent country with Muslim majority. It has freedom to negotiate with any country of the globe whether with friendly ties with India or not. Mekhliganj is an important pocket of it. The problems which this area usually face should have some sorts of solution deeply rooted within political, economic, social and religious issues in the context of globalization[25] that provides us easy communication, faster mobility and wider expos to new opportunities on behalf of Global Market Economy with both positive and negative features.
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[1] The panchayat raj is a South Asian political system mainly in India, Pakistan and Nepal. It is the oldest
system of local government in the Indian subcontinent. The word "panchayat" literally means "assembly" (ayat) of five (panch) wise and respected elders chosen and accepted by the local community. However, there are different forms of assemblies. Traditionally, these assemblies settled disputes between individuals and villages. Modern Indian government has decentralized several administrative functions to the local level, empowering elected gram panchayats. Gram panchayats are not to be confused with the unelected khap panchayats (or caste panchayats) found in some parts of India. 3-tier Panchayati Raj system - Gram Panchayat at the village level, Panchayat Samiti at the block level and Zila Parishad at the district level was adopted by state governments during the 1950s and 60s, as laws were passed to establish panchayats in various states. It also found backing in the Indian Constitution, with the 73rd amendment in 1992 to accommodate the idea. The Amendment Act of 1992 contains provision for devolution of powers and responsibilities to the panchayats both for the implementation of economic development plans and social justice in relation to 29 subjects listed in the eleventh schedule of the constitution.The Union Cabinet of the Government of India, on 27 August 2009, approved 50% reservation for women in PRIs (Panchayati Raj Institutions). The Indian states which have already implemented 50% reservation for women in PRIs are Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. As of 25 November 2011, the states of Andhra Pradesh, Chhatisgarh, Jharkhand, Kerala, Maharastra, Orissa, Rajasthan and Tripura also reserve 50% of their posts for women. [2] The Bigha is a unit of measurement of area of a land, commonly used in Nepal, Bangladesh and in a few states of India including Uttaranchal, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Gujarat, Rajasthan, etc. The precise size of a Bigha appears to vary considerably. Sources have given measurements that range from 1,500 to 6,771 square meters, but in several smaller pockets, it is as high as 12,400 square meters. In West Bengal, the Bigha was standardized under British colonial rule at 1600 sq.yd (0.1338 hectare or 0.3306 acre); this is often interpreted as being 1/3 acre (it is precisely 40121 acre). In Metric units, a Bigha is hence 1333.33 m2. Again, in Bangladesh one Bigha is twenty times of one Katha (also spelled Cottah) that has widespead use in West Bengal and Bangladesh. One Katha means 720 ft2 or about 66.89 m2. In that case, one Bigha or 20 Katha means 1337.8 m2. And therefore three Bihga or teenbihga (alsotinbigha) mean one acre (4800 square yards). [3] Land reform or agrarian reform involves the changing of laws, regulations or customs regarding land ownership in order to transfer the same from the more powerful to the less powerful through a governmentinitiated or government-backed property redistribution. That might be with or without compensation considering token value or the full amount on the basis of market price or after proper evaluation. Generally, it takes place from a relatively small number of non-cultivating owners with extensive land holdings (e.g., estates, plantations, large ranches, or agribusiness plots with or without the provision of equity investment in their farm house) to individual ownership by those who work in that specific land. This leads to small-scale farming. This may happen due to immense pressure on land as a result of high concentration of population within a specific region. It might be as because of some sorts of revolt against colonial powers and other collaborators. Some agronomists believe that intensive cropping in small scale farms give a higher production than large scale farm and so a probable solution to food crises varying from place to place. However, this might be subjected to other social, economic, political and religious aspects besides mode of production, mode of exploitation of nature with or without feedback and energy-cumnutritional requirement of a given population size. Agrarian land reforms took place in Roman Republic and passed then by Roman Senate in 133 BCE, but resulted into civil war and end of that republic. Landholdings by Hindu temples, Buddhist monasteries, Roman Senators, European Catholic Church, Egyptian priestly categories, zamindars in colonial Bengal as a result of permanent settlement system and consumption immense wealth by those groups in different historical era were probable reason of socio-economic protests, religious transformation, foreign attacks, finding out of alternative economic options (such as trade) and change in political system. In the aftermath of colonialism and the Industrial Revolution, land reform has occurred around the world, from the Mexican Revolution (1917; the revolution International Science Congress Association
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International E Publication www.isca.me , www.isca.co.in began in 1910) to Communist China to Bolivia (1952, 2006) to Zimbabwe and Namibia. Land reformation process might be too strict or not. It may be used as a weapon against macro-economy and ultimately result into land scarcity with further increase in the population, increase in landless labour category, cooperatives, Self-Help Groups (SHGs), shift from rural to urban sectors and micro-financing. It is good to many, but not a permanent solution like a Self-Sufficient rural system or Welfare state. Therefore, it is not universal in every peasant society. In many cases, joint-extended family systems could maintain a huge amount of cultivable land. Lack of capital to perform agricultural activities and defend natural calamities often compelled the marginal farmers to depend on estate holders. They could sell their land or mortgage it or lease it to big farm houses and money lenders. Many landless labours have no option rather than work as temporary or permanent employers in big farm houses. Green revolution and Nationalized Banking System is also supporting big farmlands. Land reformation movement may be a part of class struggle or peasant agitation or movement against a big house or revolution against existing system and even an identity issue. It is related to African Socialism, Arab Nationalism, Cuban struggle in Latin America, events in Vietnam and Indonesia as well as some Indian states including West Bengal. Land reformation does not always oppose capitalism and globalization. It even ensures economic development in many developing countries since the post-World War II period, especially in case of the Japan, Taiwan, South Korea and Malaysia. However, economic reforms can cause rapid industrialization, urban expansion, emergence of big business houses, privatization, inflation, price rise, economic disparity, stagflation, movement in favour of pro-people policies, demand of sustainable development, political turmoil and options like neoliberal policy or public-private partnership or state control (directly or by means of nationalized institutions) or even a closed party structure often going against the democratic values. Whether the so called reformed land is privately owned or leased from the state is also crucial factor. If the land is just leased to the farmers and actual ownership is still in the hands of the state or landlords, then the situation of the agriculturalists would be not like a peasant, but tenant. And chances would be there to again bring them back to the condition of landless labour or bonded labour or serf or slave. They might protest against the state or landlord, if they are oppressed. They may demand for restoration of democracy, end of state atrocities, land reformation and land reformation along with actual ownership of the land (instead of lease system for a prolonged time period). Management of the reformed land is also an important issue that is often neglected. Crop rotation, mixed cropping, organic farming, utilization of effective indigenous knowledge (supported by indigenous knowledge system) and controlled application of scientific information are among these. [4] Green Revolution refers to a series of research, development and technology transfer initiatives promoting high-yielding varieties. But application of chemical compounds in the form of fertilizer, pesticide, etc. For a prolonged time and even in unscientific way in hope of excess yield can deteriorate the soil fertility after a few decades. So, this is not the final solution of the global food crises. It has developed during a time span of 1940s to late 1970s. It began in United States of America (USA) and followed in many parts of the globe. It is criticized for negligence to the local varieties, erosion in the gene pool, addition of pollutants and non-biodegradable compounds into the food chain, loss of bio-diversity, excess mechanization of the cropping system, seldom adverse effect on the food nutrition values, probable negative impact of genetically modified food generating the types of protein, natural and man-made disasters as well as devaluation of indigenous knowledge (and systems) of the folk agriculturists. They reside closer context to nature and develop nature-friendly farming units and sustained use of biodiversity with a notion of conservation. They still perform informal experimentation, store them within their culture, transfer them to other people formally and informally and finally, build up their entire social system on this. These people often favour traditional techniques like shifting cultivation, production in group and smallscale settled cultivation. These people rather accuse Green Revolution as a type of 'neo-colonial' system of agriculture wherein agriculture was viewed as a commercial sector than a subsistence one. The complex cropping systems based on the food web in the entire ecosystem may have been affected adversely. Some complex agrarian systems may be exampled in the forms of rice-cum-fish, rice-cum-fish and crab, duckcum-fish, jute-rice-vegetable-tobacco-vegetable even adding wheat/maize/winter rice/rapeseeds and potato, sacred grove-bamboo-vegetable, betel-areca-snail-lime integrated to pond and agriculture management, floriculture, fruits and food processing and further more. [5] The Nashya Shaikh or Nashya Sekh are a Muslim community found in the state of West Bengal in India. A small number are also found in the neighbouring state of Bihar, where they are known as the International Science Congress Association
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International E Publication www.isca.me , www.isca.co.in Bengali Shaikh. They are also known as Rajbonghsi Muslim or Uttar Bangis Muslim. The Nashya are considered to be an important indigenous group found in northern West Bengal. [6] The Jalpesh Temple is about three kilometres from Mainaguri 263132N 88521E, dedicated to Lord Jalpeswara (Siva). The temple was built in a style akin to Islamic architecture. Inside, there is a Shivling called Anadi. Shiva, (Sanskrit: Auspicious One) also spelled iwa or iva , one of the main deities of Hinduism, whom Shaivas worship as the supreme god. [7] The Kushan Empire was an empire in South Asia originally formed in the early 1st century AD. The Kushan dynasty had diplomatic contacts with the Roman Empire, Sassanid Persia and Han China. The Kushans were one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation, a possibly Tocharian belonging to Rong people from the northern and western borderlands of China and Indo-European nomadic people spread into Central Asia and Pak-Afghan region (centring on ancient Bactria). They entered into eastern Iran and Kashmir and a large part of South Asia; they worshipped mythical Goddess Nishi and various Indo-Greek deities and also Sun, Shiva and Buddha. They spread throughout Indo-Scythian and Indo-Greek regions in South Asia as well as sub-Himalayan region up to North Bengal. Tocharians have close contacts with Tibetans. They brought Buddhism to China. Buddhist texts were then translated into Sanskrit. [8] The Indo-Greek Kingdom or Graeco-Indian Kingdom was a Hellenistic kingdom covering various parts of the northwest regions of the Indian subcontinent during the last two centuries BC and was ruled by more than 30 kings, often in conflict with each other. Bactria and Parthia along with Sogdiana and Fergana valley on Amu Darya were the most crucial among these. Bactrian and Indo-Parthian Suren entered into India in post-Mauryan era in ancient Indian history. Many of them praised Vaishnavism and Buddhism alongside Christianity. They and Indo-Scythians were defeated by Kushan Dynasty who established a widespread Empire in India around 1st Century AD [9] Jelep La (also spelled Jelepla) (el. 4,267 m or 13,999 ft) is a high mountain pass between India and Tibet in East Sikkim District of Sikkim. The famous Menmecho Lake lies below the Jelep La Pass. Jelepla, a Tibetan name, means 'The lovely level pass, so called because it is the easiest and most level of all the passes between Tibet and Sikkim.' (from the Bengal District Gazetteers Darjeeling, 1907, by L.S.S.O'Malley, Indian Civil Service.) The pass is in Sikkim and the route connects Lhasa to India. The pass is 46 meters (151 ft) in length. On the Indian side there are two routes to Jelep La, one through Gangtok and the other through Kalimpong. The Kalimpong route is an ancient one which was responsible for the boost in the local economy due to the trading of wool and furs early last century. The pass was closed after the Sino-Indian War in 1962. The route is scenic with forests of rhododendrons blooming in spring. Numerous hamlets dot the bucolic surroundings which give a traveler a sybaritic experience. On the Tibetan side the pass leads to the Chumbi Valley of the Tibetan Plateau. [10] Madrasa is the Arabic word (of Semitic origin; viz Hebrew midrash) for any type of educational institution, whether secular or religious (of any religion). It is variously transliterated as madrasah, madarasaa, medresa, madrassa, madraza, madarsa, medrese etc. In English the word normally specifically means any type of religious school or college for the study of the Islamic religion, though this may not be the only subject studied. Today, 20,000 Madrassas educate over 1.5 million students per year. [11] The Border Security Force (BSF) is a border guarding force of the Government of India. Established on December 1, 1965, it is one of the Central Armed Police Forces. Its primary role is to guard India's international borders during peacetime and also prevent trans border crime. Like all paramilitary forces of India, the BSF is under the administrative control of the Ministry of Home Affairs. It is one of the many law enforcement agencies of India. [12] Border Guard Bangladesh (formerly known as Bangladesh Rifles or BDR) is the oldest uniformed force in Bangladesh. It is a paramilitary force under the Ministry of Home Affairs. [13] Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act, commonly known as TADA, was an Indian law active between 1985 and 1995 (modified in 1987) for the prevention of terrorist activities in Punjab. It International Science Congress Association
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International E Publication www.isca.me , www.isca.co.in came into effect on 23 May 1985. It was renewed in 1989, 1991 and 1993 before being allowed to lapse in 1995 due to increasing unpopularity due to widespread allegations of abuse. [14] The Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002 (POTA) was an anti-terrorism legislation enacted by the Parliament of India in 2002. The act replaced the Prevention of Terrorism Ordinance (POTO) of 2001 and the Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act (TADA) (1985 95) and was supported by the governing National Democratic Alliance. The act was repealed in 2004 by the United Progressive Alliance coalition. [15] Sitai (community development block) is an administrative division in Dinhata subdivision ofCooch Behar district in the Indian state of West Bengal. Gram panchayats of Sitai block/ panchayat samiti are: Adabari Ghat, Brahmattar Chhatra, Chamta, Sitai I and Sitai II. Sitalkuchi (community development block) is an administrative division in Mathabhanga subdivision of Cooch Behar district in the Indian state of West Bengal. Gram panchayats of Sitalkuchi block/ panchayat samiti are: Bara Koimari, Bhawerthana, Chhoto Salbabari, Golenaohati, Gosairhat, Khalisamari, Lalbazar and Sitalkuchi. [16] Torsa River (also spelt Torsha and also known as Machu and Amo Chhu) rises from the Chumbi Valley in Tibet, China, where it is known as Machu. It flows into Bhutan, where it is known as the Amo Chu. It has total length of 358 km, out of which 113 km in China and 145 km in Bhutan before flowing into the northern part of West Bengal in India. It flows past the important border towns of Phuntsholing (in Bhutan) and Jaigaon (on the Indian side of the border) and past the great tea estate of Dalsingpara and the Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary. The beautiful landscape here is ideal for family picnics and the wildlife sanctuary has tigers, rhinoceros and deer of many varieties. a tributary known as Buri Torsa meets Jaldhaka. Ghargharia river meets with Torsa in the Tufanganj subdivision, near Deocharai and Balarampur Torsa meets with Kaljani and it then flows into Bangladesh by the name of Kaljani and meets with Brahmaputra in Bangladesh. [17] The Raidak River (also called Wang Chhu or Wong Chhu in Bhutan) is a tributary of the Brahmaputra River and a trans-boundary river, flows through Bhutan, India and Bangladesh. [18] The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) is an Indian job guarantee scheme, enacted by legislation on August 25, 2005. The scheme provides a legal guarantee for one hundred days of employment in every financial year to adult members of any rural household willing to do public work-related unskilled manual work at the statutory minimum wage of INR 120 per day in 2009 prices. If they fail to do so the Govt. has to pay the salary at their homes. The Central government outlay for scheme is INR 40,000 crore (US$7.28 billion) in Financial Year 2010 11. [19] TheJal Dharo, Jal Bharo (Preserve Water, Reserve Water)initiative of Govt. of West Bengal tries to provide a replicable framework as a solution to this ecological inequality in the face of looming impacts of climate changes. [20] Indira Gandhi, in full Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi (born November 19, 1917, Allahabad, Indiadied October 31, 1984, New Delhi), politician who served as prime minister of India for three consecutive terms (196677) and a fourth term from 1980 until she was assassinated in 1984. [21] V.P. Singh, in full Vishwanath Pratap Singh (born June 25, 1931, Allahabad, India died Nov. 27, 2008, New Delhi), politician and government official who was prime minister of India in 1989 90. [22] The Kisan Credit Card is a credit card to provide affordable credit for farmers in India. It was started by the Government of India, Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and National Bank for Agricultural and Rural Development (NABARD) in 1998-99 to help farmers access timely and adequate credit. [23] The maund is the anglicized name for a traditional unit of mass used in British India and also in Afghanistan, Persia and Arabia: the same unit in the Mughal Empire was sometimes written as mun in English, while the equivalent unit in the Ottoman Empire and Central Asia was called the batman. At different times and in different South Asian localities, the mass of the maund has varied, from as low as 25 International Science Congress Association
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International E Publication www.isca.me , www.isca.co.in pounds (11 kg) to as high as 160 pounds (72 kg): even greater variation is seen in Persia and Arabia. In Bengal it is about 82 pounds that is approximately 37 Kg. In North Bengal, it stands or 40 Kg. [24] Bandhan Financial Services is a wide-spread NGO based on money lending business. It has a 3505 crore rupee business all over India. Clench microfinance foundation is also in real-estate and service sector; they have built up a eye hospital in Canning, Sundarbans; a hotel management college in Habra and a market complex in Sonamukhi, Bankura. Both of these groups have connections with real-estate companies like Rose Valley and Tower group of industries who have set up their offices in Mekhliganj and are busy in making profit out of the land transactions in the disputed Indo-Bangladesh border area. [25] Globalization is the process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas and other aspects of culture. It involves social, political, economic and religious issues as well. In 2000, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) identified four basic aspects of globalization: trade and transactions, capital and investment movements, migration and movement of people and the dissemination of knowledge. Further, environmental challenges such as climate change, cross-boundary water and air pollution and over-fishing of the ocean are linked with globalization.
Map-1: Political Map of India showing States & Union Territories
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Courtesy: India Map - Political Map showing States & Union Territories Map, prokerala http://www.prokerala.com/maps/india/india-map-political.html
Map-2: Mekhliganj Block in West Bengal state
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Map-3: Mekhliganj Block with Bangladeshi Enclave AGDH connected to mainland Bangladesh by Tin Bigha Corridor and on the other side touching River Teesta of Indian inland
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Further Reading
Abbas, H. 2005. Pakistan's Drift Into Extremism: Allah, The Army and America's War On Terror, M.E. Sharpe Adeney,K. and L. Saez, 2005, Coalition Politics and Hindu Nationalism, Routledge Agarwal, A. 1989. Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Ahmed, A. 2012. Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin, Routledge Alam, J. 2004, Government and Politics in Colonial Bihar, 1921-1937, Mittal Publications Adler, P.J. and R.L. Pouwels 2011. World Civilizations: To 1700, Cengage Learning Amini, I. (2000). Napoleon and Persia: Franco-Persian relations under the First Empire. Washington, D.C.: Taylor & Francis Anderson, J. 2000 (1890). English intercourse with Siam in the seventeenth century, Routledge Arpi, C. 2013. 1962 and the McMahon Line Saga, Lancer Publishers Bakshi, S.R. and R. Pathak (eds.) 2007. Studies in Contemporary Indian History Volume 3: Punjab through Ages, New Delhi: Sarup & Sons Bandyopdhyya, S. 2004. From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India, Orient Blackswan Banerjee, G. N. 1961. Hellenism in ancient India. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. BanglapediaNational Encyclopedia of Bangladesh. Shah Sujah, Internet source: http://www.banglapedia.org/HT/S_0251.HTM Retrieved 10th November 2012 Banglapedia- National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh. Shah Sultan Mahisawar, Internet source: http://www.banglapedia.org/HT/M_0069.HTM Retrieved 10th November 2012 Beckwith, Christopher I (1987). The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia. A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press Bennigsen A. A. and S. E. Wimbush1980.Muslim National Communism in the Soviet Union: A Revolutionary Strategy for the Colonial World, University of Chicago Press Bernard, P. 1994. The Greek Kingdoms of Central Asia. In: Jnos Harmatta (ed.) History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic Civilizations: 700 B.C. to AD 250, pp. 99129. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. Bhatia, V. 1987. Indira Gandhi and Indo-Soviet relations, Panchasheel Publishers Bhonsle, R.K., Ved Prakash (Col.) and K.R. Gupta 2007. Indo-U.S. Civil Nuclear Deal - Volume 1 and 2, Atlantic Publishers and Distributors Bhushan, K., K. Bhushan and G. Katyal, 2004, Manmohan Singh: visionary to certainty, APH Publishing Bingham, W., H. Conroy and F. W. Ikl, 1966, A History of Asia. Volume 1 Formation of Civilizations, from Antiquity to 1600. Allyn & Bacon, 1966, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Biswas, S.K. and A. Das Gupta, Migration: special reference to India (under press) Books, LLC 2010. 1857 in Asia: 1857 in China, 1857 in India, Second Opium War, Indian Rebellion of 1857, Siege of Cawnpore, Siege of Delhi, Siege of Lucknow, General Books LLC Boxer, C.R. 1969. The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415-1825, in J.H. Plumb (Ed.) The History of Human Society, Alfred A Knopf Boxer, C.R. and J.H. Plumb 1991.The Dutch Seaborne Empire: 1600-1800, Penguin Books Chakrabarty, B. 2004. The Partition of Bengal and Assam, 1932-1947: Contour of Freedom, Routledge Chand, M. 1992. Bahujan & their movement, Bahujan Publication Trust
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Chandler, D.P. and D. J. Steinberg 1987. In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History, University of Hawaii Press Chandra, K. 2007. Why Ethnic Parties Succeed: Patronage and Ethnic Head Counts in India, Cambridge University Press Chatterjee, P. 1995. Texts of Power: Emerging Disciplines in Colonial Bengal, CSSS, University of Minnesota Chari, P.R. 2012. Indo-US Nuclear Deal: A Case Study in Indo-US Relations, Routledge Chesneaux,J., F. Le Barbier and M. Bergre 1977. China from the 1911 revolution to liberation, Pantheon Books Chopra, P.N. T.K.Ravindran and N. Subrahmanian 2003. History of South India (Ancient, Medieval and Modern) Part 1. New Delhi: Chand Publications. Christensen, A. (1971 reprint edition (January 2, 1939)). Sassanid Persia, in S.A. Cook (Ed), The Cambridge Ancient History, XII: The Imperial Crisis and Recovery (AD 193 324), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Cole, J. R. I. 1989, Roots of North Indian Shi'ism in Iran and Iraq: Religion and State in Awadh, 1722-1859, Berkeley, LA, USA: University of California Press Cross, J. & Buddhiman Gurung. (2002). Gurkhas at War. Greenhill Books Cummings, S.N. 2013. Understanding Central Asia: Politics and Contested Transformations, Routledge Cuttaree, V. and X Cledan Mandri-Perrott 2011. Public-Private Partnerships in Europe and Central Asia: Designing Crisis-Resilient Strategies and Bankable Projects, World Bank Publications Das, S. 2005. Jayaprakash Narayan: A Centenary Volume, Mittal Publications Das Gupta, Ashok 2010, Conceptualizing Identity Movements in India, W119, EuropeanAssociation of Social Anthropologists (EASA), 2010: Crisis and Imagination. Maynooth, Ireland: EASA 2010 Das Gupta, A. 2010. The relevance of indigenous peoples: a case study of the Rajbansi Community of North Bengal, in Raj Kumar Sen, Amit Mukherjee and Pran Krishna Pal (Eds.) Environment and Sustainable Development in India, Deep and Deep Publications Das Gupta, A. 2011. Does Indigenous Knowledge Have Anything to Deal with Sustainable Development?, in Marco Menicocci and Moreno Tiziani (Eds.), Antrocom: Journal of Anthropology (Volume 7). Piscataway, NJ, USA: Gorgias Press Das Gupta, A. 2012. Is Caste System a Kind of Indigenous Knowledge System? Antrocom Online Journal of Anthropology, vol. 8. n. 1: 63-71 Das Gupta, A. 2013. Social Exclusion of Population with indigenous Knowledge, in Kartick Das and Gopal Sharma (Eds.), Financial Inclusion, Self-help Groups (SHGs) and Women Empowerment, 1st ed. New Delhi: New Century Publications. Deb, A. Cooch Behar and Bhutan in the Context of the Tibetan Trade, Siliguri, Kailash. Internet source: http://www.dspace.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/1810/227246/2/kailash_01_01_07.pdf Retrieved 10th November 2012 Dershowitz, A.M. 2003, America declares independence, John Wiley and Sons Devare, S.T. 2008. A New Energy Frontier: The Bay of Bengal Region, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies Dhawan, S.K. 1993.Day by Day Account of Rajiv Gandhi (1944-1991): In Honour of NehruGandhi Family, Wave Publications Dhawan, S.K. 1986.Discovery of Indira Gandhi: a select chronology, Wave Publications Dhawan, S.K. 2007. President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam: 2004-2006, Abhi Books & Distributors Dodge, Theodore A. 1890. Alexander: A History of the Origin and Growth of the Art of War from the Earliest Times to the Battle of Ipsus, B.C. 301, with a Detailed Account of the Campaigns of the Great Macedonian, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
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Duiker,W.J. and J.J. Spielvogel 2006, The Essential World History, Cengage learning Dutta Mishra, A. 2012. Reading Gandhi. Pearson Education Dutta Mishra, A. 1999. Gandhism After Gandhi, Mittal Publications Eaton, R.M. 1996.Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760, London: University of California Press Encyclopdia Britannica. Anglo-Burmese Wars, Internet Source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/24993/Anglo-Burmese-Wars Retrieved 10th November 2012 Encyclopdia Britannica. Treaties of Tilsit, Internet Source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/595909/Treaties-of-Tilsit Retrieved 10th November 2012 Encyclopdia Britannica. Treaty of Amritsar, Internet Source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/21856/Treaty-of-Amritsar Retrieved 10th November 2012 Encyclopdia Iranica. ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENT OF 1873: an attempt by the Foreign Offices of London and St. Petersburg to define the northern boundary of Afghanistan, Internet Source: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/anglo-russian-agreement-of-1873 Retrieved 10th November 2012 Encyclopdia Iranica. ANGLO-AFGHAN TREATY OF 1905: an agreement pertaining to British control of Afghan foreign policy and related matters, Internet Source: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/anglo-afghan-treaty-of-1905-an-agreementpertaining-to-british-control-of-afghan-foreign-policy-and-related-matters Retrieved 10th November 2012 Encyclopdia Iranica. Anglo-Afghan Wars: First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-42), Second AngloAfghan War (1878-80), Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919), Internet Source: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/anglo-afghan-wars Retrieved 10th November 2012 Encyclopaedia Iranica, GONDOPHARES- Indo-Parthian king (20-46 C.E.) in Drangiana, Arachosia and especially in the Punjab, Internet Source: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gondophares Retrieved 10th November 2012 Foltz, R. 2010. Religions of the Silk Road: premodern patterns of globalization. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Fortescue, W. 2012. Third Republic in France 1870-1940: Conflicts and Continuities, Routledge Fraser, B. 2008. Bengal Partition Stories: An Unclosed Chapter, Anthem Press Fry, J. 2011. ASEAN: Regional Trends in Economic Integration, Export Competitiveness and Inbound Investment for Selected Industries, DIANE Publishing Garthwaite, G. R. 2005. The Persians, Oxford & Carlton: Blackwell Publishing Ltd Gates, C. 2003. Ancient cities: the archaeology of urban life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome. Routledge. Garver, J.W. 2006. China and Iran: Ancient Partners in a Post-Imperial World, University of Washington Press Gordon, S. 1993. The Marathas 1600-1818, University of Michigan, The New Cambridge History of India Haig, Lt. Colonel Sir Wolseley, THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF INDIA - III - Turks and Afghans, Chapter I-XX, Internet source: http://www.cristoraul.com/ENGLISH/readinghall/UniversalHistory/INDIA/Cambridge/II I/Cambridge_India-Door_III.html Retrieved 10th November 2012 Hall, H.D. 1971. Commonwealth: a history of the British Commonwealth of Nations, Van Nostrand Reinhold Hao, Y. and B.K.P. Chou 2010. China's Policies on Its Borderlands and the International Implications, World Scientific
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Hasday, J.L. 2009. Aung San Suu Kyi: Activist for Democracy in Myanma, Infobase Publishing Heredia, R.2004. The Amul India Story: Rural Renaissance through Milk Coops, Tata McGrawHill Education Pvt. Ltd. Hill, John E. 2009. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, First to Second Centuries CE. Booksurge Llc. Jasny, N. 1949. The socialized agriculture of the USSR, Stanford University Press Jones, S. 2012. BRICS and Beyond: Lessons on Emerging Markets, John Wiley & Sons Kamath, P.M. 2005. India-Pakistan Relations: Courting Peace from the Corridors of War, Bibliophile South Asia Keer, D. 1990. Dr. Ambedkar: Life and Mission, Popular Prakashan Kurbanov, A. 2010. The Hephthalites: Archaeological and Historical Analysis, PhD thesis submitted to the Department of History and Cultural Studies of the Free University, Berlin. http://www.diss.fuberlin.de/diss/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/FUDISS_derivate_000000007165/01_Text.pdf Retri eved 10th November 2012 Kuruppu, M.H. 2004. Non-Alignment And Peace Versus Military Alignment And War, Academic Foundation Lamb, A. 2002. Incomplete partition: the genesis of the Kashmir dispute, 1947-1948, Oxford University Press Laiou, Angeliki E. and Roy Parviz Mottahedeh, eds.2001, The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World, Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection Laiou, Angeliki E., ed. 2002, The Economic History of Byzantium from the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century, Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection Liu, Xinru. 2001. Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies. Journal of World History, Volume 12, No. 2, Fall 2001. University of Hawaii Press, pp. 261292. Liu, X. 2010. The Silk Road in World History, Oxford University Press Lockard, C.A. 2010. Societies, Networks and Transitions: A Global History: To 600, Cengage Learning Marshall, Sir J. H. 2000. The Buddhist art of Gandhara: the story of the early school, its birth, growth and decline. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. Majumdar, R. C. (ed.) 1954. The History and Culture of the Indian People: The classical age, Bhratya Itihsa Samiti Majumdar, R. C. (ed.) 1960. The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Delhi Sultanate, Volume VI, Bombay Majumdar, R.C. 1963, Hindu Colonies in the Far East, Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay Majumdar, R. C. (ed.) 1973. The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Mughal Empire, Volume VII, Bombay Majumdar, R. C. 1955. The Age of imperial Kanauj, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan Martin, C. and G. Parker 1999. The Spanish Armada: Revised Edition, Manchester University Press McCabe, I.B. 2008. Orientalism in Early Modern France: Eurasian Trade, Exoticism and the Ancien Regime, Berg McLynn, F. 2005, 1759: The Year Britain Became Master of the World. Pimlico. Metcalf, T. R. 1991. The Aftermath of Revolt: India, 18571870, Riverdale Co. Pub Michael C. Van Walt Van Praag, 1987. The Status of Tibet: History, Rights and Prospects in International Law, London: Wisdom Publications Mishra, R.K. 2012. Babri Mosque: A Clash of Civilizations, Dorrance Publishing
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Future Task
Migration of any type still persists and with time the trend towards changing a place or better opportunities is increasing. There are however so many obstacles in front of migration especially in cases of immigration and illegal cross border movements, bio-piracy, smuggling and trafficking. But things are indeed beyond geopolitics and national security. This is actually associated to the existing value system. This is all about acceptability to the common people of a country on moral ground. We can see it from the notion food habit, sexuality and health related matters. Or simply saying, this is an agenda of virtual acceptance and rejection by virtue of purity and pollution. To know the people, we can study on the aborigines and at the same time how the society becomes more complicated with time on the ground on division of labour, social system, its various institutions, religious organizations and cultural values. Information could be collected through field works on aborigines/ indigenous people way towards folk people or common people and their thought process regarding cultural values. Culture is the unwritten book of moral code and conduct regarding human survival. In a particular ecosystem, particular culture or multicultural scenario with internal modifications and valid/viable culture train diffusions could be noticed. A model is going to be given below on which further research works are needed. Brain-Nature-Microbes All living beings survive on their genes and changes in their genetic material could cause their extinction, positive natural selection, adaptation to the environment and evolution. Change in the chemical composition of genes could be facilitated by bio-technology (lab based), microbiology (natural way) and mutation (depending much on the self). In Epics and Myths, we have ethno-scientific hints towards genetics however on hypothetical and unscientific ways. We can see these as the earliest instances of science fiction or ethno-science or simply imagination. People pray to the Sun and so many incidents like solar eclipse and express their keen interest on astrology. No doubt, sun rays and cosmic rays could influence in genetic mutation. People show their addiction to fermentation food, meat and beverages and in that way allow microbes in their body. We could cite so many examples of symbiosis between microbes and flora (or fauna including humans). Indeed, mitochondrion in human cell is like a intracellular microbe with a circular DNA helping in respiration process and generate energy within the cell. Virus can attack human cell and their genetic material can form a combination with human genetic material (viral genome + human gene) for temporary basis. By doing so, virus could leave a portion of its genetic material in human gene and hence human genetic composition could change thereby. That gene could be transferred to the next generation by gamete and sperms and therefore be permanent. Such changes could be
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positively or negatively selected by the nature. Was this the reason for what people eat or drink fermented foods and even offer such things to their deity(-ies), practice blood sacrifice and do informal experiments on human flesh. Was this any ethno-science or informal experimentation on self by virtue of trial and error in the name of magicoreligious practices? Is it possible that genetic materials from other flora and fauna constituting important part of the biome within an ecosystem could serve in such genetic changes? We see how people protest against genetically modified food and again eat such food. Would that cause any allergy, any infection or any positive or negative genetic change? Local people always try to preserve their biodiversity in their own way which regulates their modes of production to a great extent. Not only they protect natures genetic diversity, do ethno-biology, develop folk-taxonomy, but provide feedbacks during mode of exploit of bioresources. Further, they could provide cost-free or low cost public services with less harm to the same nature. That has the impact on ether entire folk life and culture. People worship nature, natural objects, flora, fauna, holey cow and construct the concept of totem. The folk people often worship megaliths and comets in sense of fertility cults. Some think that these comets bring in viruses with newer genetic combinations from the outerspace to gene pool of earths biosphere. Here, also we could see the roles of religion and traces of ancient Civilizations. In order to secure these genetic changes, people develop the concepts of racism, close mating, deaths due to lethal gene expression, clan, selective mating, revolutions, interbreeding, social change and transformation, anti-racism activities, values and norms, purity and pollution, cleanliness, mode of reproduction, folkways and sanctions, certain ways of living, Great Traditions and write sacred texts. And these things have become cognitive aspects of human. In that way, brain-nature-microbes play an important part of human existence in this planet. And this article is going to focus on this issue with some examples from folk livelihood. We can collect data from both time and space scales.
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About the Author
Ashok Das Gupta is currently a Research Scholar in the Department of Anthropology, University of North Bengal, India and doing his research as a University Grants Commission Fellow. He is working on Indigenous Knowledge and Indigenous Knowledge System (IK/IKS) related to agriculture. He has special interest on Sustainable Development, Cultural Symbols, Theories and Methods for studying IK/IKS, Communication in such studies, Caste System, Self-Help Groups and Involvement of Gender, Ethics in Social-Cultural Anthropology, Political Historicity and Current Age in respect to Human Shield formation, Exclusion and Inclusion of Indigenous Communities, impact of Urbanization over Indigenous Peoples, Natural Disasters, Intimate Understanding of Nature by Folk People, Folk Way of Living, Christianity and Social Transformation, Ethnography, Qualitative Studies, Modes of Production, Ethno-Science and Biodiversity and finally, Identity Movement. He has published several articles in international journals and conference proceedings including ANTROCOM. He has been members of European Association of Social Anthropologists (EASA) for the year of 2010 and also of International Union of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences (IUAES) for the year of 2013.
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Migration: An Anthropological Perspective with Special References to North Bengal, India

ASHOK DAS GUPTA

Migration: An Anthropological Perspective with Special References to North Bengal, India

ASHOK DAS GUPTA

2013 International E - Publication

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Post-agricultural scenario, Industrial revolution, further ramification in the cognate of Gold

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Christianity with widespread impact

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Ashok Das Gupta

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157 164 166

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Migration in South Asia with Special Reference to North Bengal, India

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0.27 0.25 0.25 0.23 0.23 0.21

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Chili paper (Andes); squash and gourd (Meso America)

Llama and alpaca (Andes); corn (Mexico)

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Gorgebut with larger percussion grip (Sankalia, 1962, p: 278).

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Flourished in Gujarat and throughout a larger part of India locally;

Massive entry of agriculture (such as of rice, millet and lentils);

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bringing in horses 1961, p. 349); and especially iron;

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and even Bengal;

North India --------------------------------------

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Harappa (4.3-3.8 kybp)

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Iron reached Indus valley (3.1 kybp)

Megalithic South India (3.0-2.5 kybp)

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