(Vnmath - Com) LV Dongdu Masuasai

S ha bi Trung tm Hc liu i hc Thi Nguyn http://www.Lrc-tnu.edu.
vn
I HC THI NGUYN
TRNG I HC KHOA HC

NGUYN TRNG NAM

L THUYT NG D
V NG DNG TRONG M SA SAI

LUN VN THC S TON HC

THI NGUYN - 2009
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S ha bi Trung tm Hc liu i hc Thi Nguyn http://www.Lrc-tnu.edu.vn
I HC THI NGUYN
TRNG I HC KHOA HC

NGUYN TRNG NAM

L THUYT NG D
V NG DNG TRONG M SA SAI

Chuyn ngnh: TON S CP
M s: 60.46.40

LUN VN THC S TON HC

Ngi hng dn khoa hc: PGS.TS T DUY PHNG

THI NGUYN - 2009
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MC LC
LI NI U .............................................................................................. 1
Chng 1: L THUYT NG D .......................................................... 3
1. Quan h ng d ................................................................................... 3
1.1. nh ngha ng d ................................................................................. 3
1.2. Cc tnh cht ca quan h ng d .......................................................... 4
2. Thng d ................................................................................................ 7
2.1. Tp cc lp thng d ............................................................................... 7
2.2. Cc tnh cht ca lp thng d................................................................. 7
2.3. Tp cc lp thng d nguyn t vi mun ............................................. 9
2.4. Vnh cc lp thng d ............................................................................. 9
3. H thng d y - H thng d thu gn........................................ 11
3.1. H thng d y ................................................................................ 11
3.2. H thng d thu gn .............................................................................. 13
3.3. Cc nh l quan trng ........................................................................... 16
4. Phng trnh ng d ......................................................................... 17
4.1. Cc khi nim chung ............................................................................. 17
4.2. Phng trnh v h phng trnh ng d bc nht mt n .................... 23
4.2.1. Phng trnh ng d bc nht mt n ............................................... 23
4.2.2. H phng trnh ng d bc nht mt n .......................................... 26
4.3. Phng trnh ng d bc cao theo mun nguyn t .......................... 31
4.3.1. Nhn xt ............................................................................................. 31
4.3.2. Phng trnh bc cao theo mun nguyn t ...................................... 32
Chng 2: NG DNG CA L THUYT NG D TRONG
M SA SAI ...................................................................................... 36
1. Khi nim m ....................................................................................... 36
2. Nhng v d v m ............................................................................... 39
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2.1. M lp ................................................................................................... 39
2.2. M chn l ............................................................................................. 41
2.3. M vch ................................................................................................ 44
3. Khong cch Hamming ...................................................................... 48
4. M tuyn tnh ....................................................................................... 53
4.1. M nh phn tuyn tnh .......................................................................... 53
4.2. Biu din ma trn ca cc m nh phn .................................................. 55
4.3. Thut ton hi chng gii m cho cc m nh phn ............................... 65
4.4. M nh phn Hamming .......................................................................... 67
4.5. Cc tnh cht ca m nh phn Hamming [n,k] ...................................... 70
4.6. Cc p-m Hamming ............................................................................... 71
4.7. Cc tnh cht ca p-m Hamming [n,k] ................................................. 74
5. M thp phn ...................................................................................... 77
5.1. M s sch tiu chun quc t (ISBN) ................................................... 77
5.2. M sa li n ....................................................................................... 82
5.3. M sa li kp ....................................................................................... 84
KT LUN ................................................................................................. 88
TI LIU THAM KHO .......................................................................... 89
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1
LI NI U
C th ni, s hc, l thuyt s l mt trong nhng kin thc ton hc
lu i nht. T trc ti nay, ngi ta thng coi l thuyt s nh mt lnh
vc p, nhng thun ty l thuyt, ca ton hc. Vi s pht trin ca khoa
hc my tnh v cng ngh thng tin, l thuyt s ng gp nhng ng
dng thc t bt ng v quan trng, c bit trong lnh vc m ha thng tin.
Nhiu kha cnh khc nhau ca m ha thng tin c cc nh ton hc
v tin hc quan tm. Thng thng thng tin c m ha qua dy cc ch
s trong h m c s 2, c s 10, hoc c s p no . Trong qu trnh
truyn tin hoc nhn tin, v nhiu l do, thng tin c th b sai lch. Th d,
mt tin nhn c m ha trong c s 2 khi truyn i b sai mt li (li n)
th iu ny c ngha l ch s 1 ti v tr no b i thnh ch s 0 hoc
ngc li. Mt trong nhng vn cn gii quyt l pht hin ra cc li sai v
sa chng.
V yu cu thc tin , l thuyt m sa sai ra i, pht trin v c
nhng ng dng thc tin quan trng. xy dng l thuyt m sa sai, cc
nh ton hc v khoa hc my tnh s dng nhiu thnh tu ca ton hc
hin i (s hc, ton ri rc, i s tuyn tnh,...,) c bit l s hc trn tp
s nguyn, trong c l thuyt ng d.
Lun vn ny c mc ch tm hiu v trnh by nhng kin thc c
bn nht ca l thuyt m sa sai trn c s l thuyt ng d v l thuyt
trng hu hn.
Lun vn gm hai chng.
Chng 1 trnh by cc kin thc c bn nht ca l thuyt ng d
v l thuyt trng hu hn, ch yu da theo ti liu [2], c tham kho thm
cc ti liu [4] v [6].
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2
Chng 2 trnh by mt s vn c bn ca m sa sai: khong cch
Hamming; pht hin v sa li; cc thut ton gii m; m hon ho; m
tuyn tnh v ma trn kim tra, xy dng m tuyn tnh,...
Ni dung ca Chng 2 trnh by ch yu da theo ti liu [6], c tham
kho thm cc ti liu [1] v [7]. Ngoi ra, chng ti cng quan tm n kha
cnh thc t ca vn : m vch, m hng ha, m sch tiu chun quc
t,.... Chng ti cng c gng tm hiu, tuy cha c y , cc m hng
ha, m vn ha phm ca Vit Nam v kim nghim cc tiu chun gii m
cho cc v d c th ca cc m ny.
Lun vn c hon thnh di s hng dn khoa hc ca PGS TS T
Duy Phng. Xin c t lng cm n chn thnh nht ti Thy.
Tc gi xin cm n chn thnh ti Trng i hc Khoa hc Thi
Nguyn, ni tc gi nhn c mt hc vn sau i hc cn bn.
V cui cng, xin cm n gia nh, bn b, ng nghip cm thng,
ng h v gip trong sut thi gian tc gi hc Cao hc v vit lun vn.
H Ni, ngy 19 thng 9 nm 2009
Tc gi

Nguyn Trng Nam
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3
Chng 1
L THUYT NG D
1. Quan h ng d
1.1. nh ngha ng d
K hiu l tp hp cc s nguyn.
nh ngha
Cho m l mt s nguyn dng, a v b l hai s nguyn. Ta ni a v b
ng d vi nhau theo mun m nu trong php chia a v b cho m ta c
cng mt s d, ngha l c cc s nguyn
1
q ,
2
q , r vi 0 r m s < sao cho
1
a mq r = + v
2
b mq r = + .
Khi a v b ng d vi nhau theo mun m, ta vit a b
( ) mod m .
Nu a khng ng d vi b theo mun m th ta vit a
/
b
( ) mod m .
nh l
Cc mnh sau l tng ng.
i. a v b ng d vi nhau theo mun m;
ii. a b chia ht cho m (k hiu l
( )
m a b );
iii. Tn ti s nguyn t sao cho a = b+mt.
Chng minh
i ii. Ta c a b
( ) mod m
1
a mq r = + ,
2
b mq r = + vi
1 2
, , q q r e , 0 r m s < . Suy ra
( )
1 2
a b m q q = . Do
1 2
q q e nn
( ) m a b .
ii iii. Gi s ( ) m a b . Khi y tn ti s te sao cho a b mt = ,
tc l a = b + mt.
iii i. Gi s c s t e sao cho a = b + mt. Gi r l s d trong php
chia a cho m, ngha l a = m
1
q + r vi
1
q , r e , 0 s < r m. Khi y:
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4
1
b mt a mq r + = = + hay
( )
1
b m q t r = + , trong
1
q t e , 0 r m s < .
Chng t s d trong php chia b cho m cng l r, tc l
( ) mod a b m .
1.2. Cc tnh cht ca quan h ng d
a. Quan h ng d l mt quan h tng ng trn tp :
i. Vi mi ae : a a
( ) mod m ;
ii. Vi mi , a be : a b
( ) mod m khi v ch khi b a
( ) mod m ;
iii. Vi mi , , a b ce :
( ) mod a b m ,
( ) mod b c m suy ra
( ) mod a c m .
Chng minh
i. V a a chia ht cho m nn
( ) mod a a m .
ii. T
( ) mod a b m ta c
( ) m a b . Do
( ) m b a b
a
( ) mod m .
iii. Ta c a b
( ) mod m v b c
( ) mod m nn
( ) m a b v
( ) m b c .
Khi ( ) ( ) ( )
+ m a b b c hay
( ) m a c . Vy a c
( ) mod m .
b. Ta c th cng hoc tr tng v ca nhiu ng d thc theo cng
mt mun. C th l, nu
( )
1 1
mod a b m v
( )
2 2
mod a b m th ta c:
( )
1 2 1 2
mod a a b b m .
Chng minh
T
( )
1 1
mod a b m ,
( )
2 2
mod a b m suy ra tn ti
1 2
, t t e sao cho
1 1 1
= + a b mt ,
2 2 2
= + a b mt . Do
( )
1 2 1 2 1 2
+ a a b b m t t vi
1 2
t t e .
Vy ( )
1 2 1 2
mod a a b b m .
c. Ta c th nhn tng v ca nhiu ng d thc theo cng mt mun.
C th l, nu
( )
1 1
mod a b m ,
( )
2 2
mod a b m th
( )
1 2 1 2
mod a a bb m .
Chng minh
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5
T
( )
1 1
mod a b m ,
( )
2 2
mod a b m suy ra tn ti
1 2
, t t e sao cho
1 1 1
= + a b mt ,
2 2 2
= + a b mt .
Do
( )
1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2
a a bb m b t bt mt t = + + + ,
2 1 1 2 1 2
+ + b t bt mt t e .
Vy
1 2 1 2
a a bb chia ht cho m hay
( )
1 2 1 2
mod a a bb m .
d. H qu
1. a b
( ) mod m khi v ch khi a c b c
( ) mod m .
Tht vy, ta c a b
( ) mod m v cc
( ) mod m .
Vy a c b c
( ) mod m .
2. a + c b
( ) mod m khi v ch khi
( )( ) mod a b c m .
Tht vy, ta c a b
( ) mod m , c c
( ) mod m . Vy
( )( ) mod a b c m .
3.
( ) mod a b m khi v ch khi a km b
( ) mod m vi mi k e .
Tht vy, a b
( ) mod m , km 0
( ) mod m . Vy a km b
( ) mod m .
4.
( ) mod a b m khi v ch khi ac bc
( ) mod m .
Ta c
( ) mod a b m ,
( ) mod c c m . Vy
( ) mod ac bc m .
5.
( ) mod a b m
n n
a b
( ) mod m n e , n > 0.
Ta c
( )
mod a b m ;
( )
mod a b m ; ...;
( )
mod a b m
Suy ra
n n
a b
( )
mod m .
6. Gi s f(x) l mt a thc vi h s nguyn v
( )
mod m o | . Khi y
f() f()
( )
mod m
c bit, nu f() 0
( )
mod m th f( + km) 0
( )
mod m vi mi k e .
Chng minh
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6
Tht vy, gi s f(x) =
0 1
... + + +
n n
a a x a x . T gi thit
( )
mod m
suy ra
i i
i i
a a o |
( )
mod m , i = 1, 2,...., n. Do
+ ... + + ... +
( )
mod m ,
ngha l f() f()
( )
mod m .
c bit, v
( )( )
mod km m o o + k e nn f() f( + km)
( )
mod m .
Nhng f() 0
( )
modm nn ta c f( + km) 0
( )
mod m vi mi k e .
e. Ta c th chia hai v ca mt ng d thc cho mt c chung ca
chng nguyn t vi mun m:
ac bc
( )
mod m v ( ) , 1 UCLN c m = a b
( )
mod m .
Chng minh
Ta c ac bc
( )
mod m m (ac - bc) hay m|c(a - b). Nhng ( ) , 1 m c =
nn ta c
( ) m a b a b
( )
mod m .
f. C th chia hai v v mun ca mt ng d thc cho mt c
chung dng ca chng:
( )
mod a b m , 0 o < e , ( ) , , UCLN a b m o mod
a b m
o o o
| |
|
\ .
.
Chng minh
T gi thit |(a, b, m), ta t a =
1
a , b =
1
b , m =
1
m vi
1
a ,
1
b ,
1
m e ,
1
0 m > . Mt khc, a b
( )
mod m a = b + mt, te . Ta c:
1 1 1
= + a b m o o o
1 1 1
= + a b mt ( )
1 1 1
mod a b m hay mod
a b m
o o o
| |
|
\ .
.
g. Nu hai s ng d vi nhau theo mt mun th chng cng ng
d theo mun l c ca mun y:
a b
( )
mod m , |m, > 0 a b
( )
mod m .
Chng minh
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7
T a b
( )
mod m m|(a - b), m |m |(a - b) a b(mod ).
h. Nu hai s ng d vi nhau theo nhiu mun th chng ng d
vi nhau theo mun l bi chung nh nht ca cc mun y:
a b(mod
i
m ), i =1,..., k a b
( )
mod m vi m=BCNN(
1
m ,
2
m ,,
k
m ).
i. Nu hai s ng d vi nhau theo mt mun th chng c cng
UCLN vi mun y:
a b
( )
mod m th UCLN(a, m) = UCLN(b, m).
2. Thng d
2.1. Tp cc lp thng d
Cho m l s nguyn dng. Theo tnh cht ca ng d thc, quan h
ng d l quan h tng ng trong tp trong tp s nguyn . Ta ni, cc
s nguyn av b cng thuc lp tng ng A nu chng ng d vi
nhau. Nh vy, c th c phn thnh cc lp theo quan h tng ng.
Ni cch khc, tn ti tp thng trn quan h tng ng. Ta c
nh ngha
Tp thng ca tp hp s nguyn trn quan h ng d theo mun
m c gi l tp hp cc lp thng d mun m, k hiu l
m
.
Mi phn t A ca
m
c gi l mt lp thng d mun m.
T nh ngha, hai lp thng d mun m hoc bng nhau hoc khng
giao nhau v
m
l hp ca tt c cc lp thng d mun m ri nhau.
Gi s
m
Ae v a A e , Khi y ( ) { }
: mod A x x a m = e .
Phn t a c gi l i din ca lp thng d A v cng c gi l
mt thng d mun m.
Nhiu khi ta cng vit ( ) { }
: mod A a x x a m = = e th hin a l
i din cho lp thng d A a = .
2.2. Cc tnh cht ca lp thng d
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8
Tnh cht 1
Tp
m
c m phn t.
Chng minh
Xt cc lp thng d mun m: 0, 1, ..., 1 m . Ta s chng minh
chng gm: m lp phn bit ca
m
v mi lp x

ca
m
phi trng vi mt
trong m lp nu, do
m
=
{ }
0, 1, ..., 1 m .
Tht vy, vi i j =
( )
0 , 1 i j m s s th 0 1 i j m < s nn i j 0 ,
ngha l
( ) mod i j m
/
hay
( ) mod i j m
/
. Nh vy 0, 1, ..., 1 m l m lp
thng d phn bit, chng to nn mt tp con X gm m phn t ca
m
.
Gi s
m
x e v x mq i = + , , i qe , 0 1 i m s s th
( )
mod x i m
nn x i =
{ }
0, 1, ..., 1 m X = . Vy
m
= X =
{ }
0, 1, ..., 1 m c m phn t.
Tnh cht 2
Mi lp phn t ca
m
l tp hp ca k phn t phn bit ca
km
,
k > 1.
Chng minh
Gi s
m
A a = e . Ta s chng minh A l hp ca k phn t (k > 1)
i mt khng giao nhau ca
km
xc nh nh sau:
( )
0
mod A a km ,
1
A = + a m
( )
mod km , ...,
1 k
A

=
( ) ( )
1 mod a k m km + .
Trc ht, vi i j, (0 i, j k-1) ta c 0 < ( ) ( ) + < a im a jm km
nn a + im
/
a + jm
( )
mod km . Suy ra
i j
A A = . Do
i j
A A = .
Ta c A =
1
0
=
k
i
i
A .
Tht vy, gi s ( )
mod x A a m e = . Ta c
( )
mod x a m nn x a mt = + , t e .
Chia t cho k, gi s t = kq + i (q,i Z e ,0 1 i k s s ). Ta c:
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9
( )( )
mod x a mi mqk a mi km = + + + nn
1
0
k
i i
i
x a im A A
=
e + = e .
Ngc li, gi s
1
0
=
e
k
i
i
x A . Khi y tn ti s nguyn i (0 i k - 1) sao
cho e
i
x A , tc l
( )
mod x a mi km + nn x (a + mi)
( )
modm . Do
x a
( )
modm , tc l x eA. Vy
1
0
k
i
i
A A
=
= v ta c iu phi chng minh.
2.3. Tp cc lp thng d nguyn t vi mun
Nhn xt
Tt c cc thng d ca cng mt lp thng d c cng c chung ln
nht vi mun.
Tht vy, gi s
m
Ae v a, beA. Khi y a b
( )
modm nn theo tnh
cht i. ca ng d thc ta c UCLN(a, m) = UCLN (b, m). T y ta c
nh ngha
c chung ln nht ca mt lp vi mun m l c chung ln nht
ca mt thng d ty ca lp vi mun m.
Vi A = a ( )
modm , ta t UCLN (A, m) = d nu UCLN (a, m) = d.
Khi d =1 ta ni lp thng d A l lp nguyn t vi mun m.
Tp hp cc lp
m
nguyn t vi mun c k hiu bi
*
m
. Ta c:

*
m
= ( ) }
{
, 1
m
A UCLN A m e = = ( ) }
{
, 1,
m
A UCLN a m a A e = e .
S cc phn t ca tp
*
m
c k hiu l ( ) m .
V
m
=
{ }
0, 1, ..., 1 m nn
*
m
= ( ) }
{
0 1, , 1
m
a a m UCLN a m e s s = .
Vy ( ) m chnh l s cc s t nhin khng vt qu 1 m v nguyn
t cng nhau vi m.
2.4. Vnh cc lp thng d
Php ton trong
m

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10
Trong
m
, ta nh ngha php cng v php nhn nh sau:
Gi s , a b e
m
, ta t a b a b + = + v . = a b ab.
D kim tra c cc php ton trn l hon ton xc nh.
nh l
Tp hp
m
cc lp thng d mun m cng vi php cng v php
nhn xc nh theo qui tc trn l mt vnh giao hon.
Phn t kh nghch
Lp thng d A mun m l phn t kh nghch ca vnh
m
khi v ch
khi A l lp nguyn t vi mun m.
Chng minh
Gi s A a = l kh nghch, khi y tn ti Be
m
sao cho
( ) . 1 mod AB E m = = , tc l a.b1
( )
modm . Nu A l lp khng nguyn t
vi mun m, tc l
( )
, 1 a m = th tn ti cc s 1 q = ,
1 1
, a m nguyn sao cho
1
a qa = v
1
m qm = . Khi y
1
ab qa b = v
( )
, 1 ab m q = = . V l. Vy (A, m) =
(a, m) = 1.
Ngc li, gi s (A, m) = 1 v A = a , tc l (a, m) = 1.
Khng gim tng qut, c th coi 0 1 a m < < .
Tp ( ) { }
0, , 2 ,..., 1 a a m a cha phn t ab sao cho ab 1
( )
modm .
Tht vy, nu vi mi 0 b m s < ta c
( )
1 mod ab m
/
th theo nguyn
l Dirichlet phi c hai phn t
1
ab v
2
ab (
1 2
0 b b m s = < ) cng c s d khi
chia cho m, ngha l
( )
1 2 1 2
ab ab a b b km = = . Nhng
1 2
0 b b m < < nn
( )
, 1 a m = , v l. Ngha l tn ti 0 b m < < sao cho ab 1
( )
modm .
t B = b, ta c . 1 = = ab a b hay AB = E, ngha l A kh nghch.
Tnh cht ca phn t kh nghch
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11
Gi s A, B l nhng lp thng d ca vnh
m
v A kh nghch. Khi
X chy qua tt c cc lp thng d ca vnh
m
th AX B + cng chy qua tt
c cc phn t ca
m
v AX cng chy qua tt c cc phn t kh nghch ca
m
, tc l:
m
=
{ }
m
AX B X + e v
{ }
* *
m m
AX X = e .
K hiu ( ) m l s cc phn t kh nghch ca vnh
m
cc lp thng
d mun m, hay ( ) m = card(
*
m
).
Ta bit rng
m
=
{ }
0, 1, 2, ..., 1 m , t ta c

*
m
=
{ }
0 1, ( , ) 1
m
n n m n m e s s = .
Nh vy ta c
*
0 1
( , ) 1
( ) card( ) 1
m
n m
n m
m
s s
=
= =

, ngha l ( ) m l hm s
biu th cc s t nhin khng ln hn 1 m v nguyn t cng nhau vi m.
Ta cng c th vit
m
=
{ }
1, 2,..., m , khi y

*
m
=
{ }
1 , ( , ) 1
m
n n m n m e s s = .
Nh vy ta c
*
1
( , ) 1
( ) card( ) 1
m
n m
n m
m Z
s s
=
= =

, ngha l ( ) m l hm s
biu th cc s t nhin khc khng, khng ln hn m v nguyn t vi m.
H qu
(1) 1 = v nu p l s nguyn t th ta c th ta c ( ) 1 = m p .
3. H thng d y - H thng d thu gn
3.1. H thng d y
Cho m l mt s nguyn dng. Tp H gm nhng s nguyn ly ra
mi lp thng d ca
m
mt v ch mt s c gi l mt h thng d y
mun m.
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12
Nh vy: Tp hp H gm nhng s nguyn l mt h thng d y
mun m khi v ch khi:
- Cc phn t ca H i mt khng ng d vi nhau theo mun m.
- Mi s nguyn u ng d theo mun m vi mt s no thuc H.
Mi mt s nguyn ca H c gi l mt thng d.
V d vi m = 8 ta c:
{ }
8
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Z = l mt h thng d y
mun 8, n c gi l h thng d y khng m nh nht. Cn h
{ }
3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3 l mt h thng d mun 8, h ny c gi l h
thng d y gi tr tuyt i nh nht.
Tng qut
+) H ={0, 1, ....., m - 1} l mt h thng d y mun m v n l h
thng d y khng m nh nht.
+) Vi m l mt s l, ta c
H=
1 1 1
; 1; ...;
2 2 2
m m m

+
`
)

l mt h thng d y mun m c gi l h thng d y gi tr
tuyt i nh nht.
+) Vi m l mt s chn, ta c
H = ; 1; ...;
2 2 2
m m m

+
`
)
hay H = 1; 2; ...;
2 2 2
m m m

+ +
`
)

l h thng d y gi tr tuyt i nh nht.
Tnh cht 1
Mi h thng d y mum m u gm m phn t.
Chng minh
Hin nhin v tp
m
c m phn t.
Tnh cht 2
Mi h gm m s nguyn i mt khng ng d vi nhau theo mun
m u l mt h thng d y mun m.
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13
Chng minh
Gi s
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
n
H a a a = l mt h gm m s nguyn i mt khng
ng d vi nhau theo mun m. Khi y tp cc lp thng d theo mun m
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
m
a a a gm m phn t i mt phn bit v l tp con ca
m
. Nhng
v
m
c m phn t v tp con
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
n
a a a cng c m phn t i mt phn
bit nn ta c
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
n
a a a
m
= .
T
m
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
n
a a a = ta c
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
n
H a a a = l mt h thng d y
mun m.
Tnh cht 3
Gi s a l mt s nguyn t vi m v b l mt s nguyn ty . Khi
y xt x chy qua mt h thng d y mun m th ax b cng chy qua
mt h thng d y mun m.
Chng minh
Gi s x chy qua mt h thng d mun m l
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
m
x x x . Ta chng
minh
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
m
ax b ax b ax b + + + cng l mt h thng d y mun m.
Theo Tnh cht 2 trn ta ch cn chng minh rng vi 1 i j m s = s
th
i
ax b +
/ ( )( ) mod
j
ax b m + . Tht vy, nu
i j
ax b ax b + +
( )
modm th
( ) mod
i j
ax ax m . V a nguyn t vi m nn
i j
x x
( )
modm . V l v
i
x v
j
x l 2 thng d khc nhau ca mt h thng d y mun m.
Vy { }
1 2
, ,...,
m
ax b ax b ax b + + + cng l mt h thng d y
mun m.
3.2. H thng d thu gn
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14
Cho m l mt s nguyn dng. Tp hp K gm nhng s nguyn c
ly ra mi lp nguyn t vi mun m mt v ch mt s c gi l mt h
thng d thu gn mun m.
Vy mt tp hp K gm nhng s nguyn c gi l mt h thng d
thu gn mun m nu v ch nu:
- Cc phn t thuc K i mt khng ng d vi nhau theo mun m.
- Cc phn t thuc K nguyn t vi mun m.
- Mi s nguyn ty nguyn t vi mun m u ng d vi mt s
no thuc K.
Nhn xt
Mi h thng d y u cha duy nht mt h thng d thu gn.
H thng d thu gn khng m nh nht
( )
{ }
1 2
, , ...,
m
r r r
l h thng d
thu gn gm cc phn t
( ) 0 , 1, 2,...,
i
r m i m < < = nguyn t cng nhau vi m.
Ta c khi nim h thng d thu gn mun m c tr tuyt i nh nht.
V d
Khi m = 8 ta c
{ }
1, 3, 5,7 l mt h thng d thu gn khng m nh nht.
H
{ }
3, , 1, 0, 1, 3 l mt h thng d thu gn gi tr tuyt i nh nht.
Nu m p = l mt s nguyn t th
{ }
1, 2, ..., 1 p l h thng d thu
gn khng m nh nht v nu 2 p > th
1 1
, ..., 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, ...,
2 2
p p

`
)

l h thng d thu gn gi tr tuyt i nh nht.
Tnh cht ca h thng d thu gn
Tnh cht 1
Mi h thng d thu gn mun m gm (m) phn t.
Chng minh
Hin nhin v tp hp
*
m
c (m) phn t.
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15
Tnh cht 2
Mi h gm
( )
m s nguyn t vi m v i mt khng ng d vi
nhau theo mun m u lp nn mt h thng d thu gn mun m.
Chng minh
Gi s
( )
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
m
K a a a
= l mt h gm
( )
m s nguyn nguyn t
vi m v i mt khng ng d vi nhau theo mun m.
V
( ) 1 2
, ,...,
m
a a a
nguyn t vi m nn ta c tp hp
( )
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
m
a a a
cc
lp theo mun m

l mt tp con ca
*
m
gm
( )
m phn t, ngha l c s
phn t bng s phn t ca
*
m
, do ta c
( )
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
m
a a a
=
*
m
Z .
T
*
m
=
( )
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
m
a a a
ta c
( )
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
m
K a a a
= l mt h thng
d thu gn mum m.
Tnh cht 3
Gi s a l mt s nguyn t vi m. Khi y nu x chy qua mt h
thng d thu gn mun m th ax cng chy qua mt h thng d thu gn
mun m.
Chng minh
Gi s x chy qua h thng d thu gn
( )
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
m
x x x
mun m. Khi
y
( )
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
m
ax ax ax
cng l mt h thng d thu gn mun m.

Tht vy,
( )
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
m
ax ax ax
l mt h gm (m) s nguyn nguyn t

vi m v UCLN(a, m) = 1 v UCLN( ) ,
i
x m = 1, (i = 1, 2, ..., (m)). Theo tnh
cht 2 trn, ta ch cn chng minh rng vi
( )
, 1 , i j i j m = s s th
/
i j
ax ax (mod m). Gi s ngc li,
i j
ax ax (mod m). Do UCLN
( )
, 1 a m = ta
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16
c
i j
x x (mod m),
( )
1 , i j m s s . iu ny mu thun vi gi thit vi ,
i j
x x
l hai thng d khc nhau ca mt h thng d thu gn.
Vy
( )
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
m
ax ax ax
cng l mt h thng d thu gn mun m.

3.3. Cc nh l quan trng
nh l Euler
Gi s m l mt s t nhin ln hn 1 v a l mt s nguyn t cng
nhau vi m. Khi y ta c
( )
( ) 1 mod
m
a m
.
Chng minh
Ta cho x chy qua h thng d thu gn mun m khng m nh nht
( )
{ }
1 2
, , ...,
m
r r r
. Khi y theo tnh cht 3, tp hp

( )
{ }
1 2
, , ...,
m
ar ar ar
cng l
mt h thng d thu gn mun m.
Gi s
( ) 1 2
, , ...,
m
s s s
l cc thng d khng m nh nht tng ng

cng lp vi
( ) 1 2
, , ...,
m
ar ar ar
, tc l
( ) 0 , 1
i
s m i m < < s s v
1 1
ar s (mod m);
2 2
ar s (mod m); ;
( ) ( )
( )
mod
m m
ar s m

. (3.1)
Khi y
( )
{ }
1 2
, , ...,
m
s s s
cng l h thng d thu gn mun m khng m

nh nht.
V
( )
{ }
1 2
, , ...,
m
r r r
v
( )
{ }
1 2
, , ...,
m
s s s
cng l h thng d thu gn

mun m khng m nh nht nn ta c
( ) ( ) 1 2 1 2
... ...
m m
rr r s s s

= .
Nhn v vi v
( )
m ng d thc (3.1) ta c

( )
( ) ( )
( )
1 2 1 2
... ... mod
m
m m
a rr r s s s m

.
V ( ) , 1 =
i
r m , (i = 1, 2, ..., (m)), nn
( )
( ) 1 mod
m
a m
.
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17
nh l Euler c chng minh.
nh l Fermat
Cho p l mt s nguyn t v a l mt s nguyn khng chia ht cho p.
Khi y ta c:
( )
1
1 mod
p
a p .
Chng minh
Theo gi thit ta c (p) = 1 p v (a, p) = 1.
Theo nh l Euler ta c:
( )
1
1 mod
p
a p .
nh l (Dng khc ca nh l Fermat)
Cho p l mt s nguyn t v a l mt s ty . Khi y ta c

( ) mod
p
a a p .
Chng minh
Nu a l mt s nguyn chia ht cho p th hin nhin
( ) mod
p
a a p .
Nu a khng chia ht cho p th
( )
1
1 mod
p
a p . Do
( ) mod a a p nn nhn
hai ng d thc ta c
( ) mod
p
a a p . nh l c chng minh.
4. Phng trnh ng d
4.1. Cc khi nim chung
K hiu
| |
x l tp cc a thc mt bin vi cc h s nguyn.
Gi s
( )
g x v h(x) l nhng a thc mt bin x vi cc h s nguyn
v m l mt s t nhin ln hn 1.
Cc phng trnh cha bin (n) x dng

( ) ( )(mod ) g x h x m
hay
f(x) ( ) ( ) ( )
(mod ) g x h x m (4.1)
c gi l phng trnh ng d mt n.
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18
Nhn xt rng, y, phng trnh (4.1) ch l mt trng hp ring
ca phng trnh ng d nhiu n
1 2
( , ,..., )
n
f x x x vi
1 2
( , ,..., )
n
f x x x l mt
a thc nhiu bin vi h s nguyn.
Sau y ta s nghin cu phng trnh ng d mt n.
Phng trnh ng d tng ng
Cho f(x)
| |
x e . Nu vi
0
x x = e ta c f(
0
x ) 0(mod ) m th ta ni
0
x
nghim ng phng trnh f(x) 0(mod ) m .
Gii mt phng trnh ng d l tm tp hp cc gi tr nghim ng
phng trnh ng d .
Gi s g(x), f(x)
| |
x e . Hai phng trnh ng d
g(x) 0(mod
1
m )
f(x) 0(mod
2
m )
tng ng vi nhau nu nh tp hp cc gi tr nghim ng phng trnh
ny bng tp hp cc gi tr nghim ng phng trnh kia.
Khi y ta vit: g(x) 0(mod
1
m ) f(x) 0(mod
2
m ).
nh ngha
Php bin i mt phng trnh ng d thnh mt phng trnh ng
d khc tng ng vi n c gi l php bin i tng ng.
Hin nhin hai phng trnh ng d cng tng ng vi phng
trnh ng d th ba th tng ng vi nhau.
Cc php bin i tng ng thng gp
a) Cng hay tr hai v ca mt phng trnh ng d cng vi mt a
thc c h s l nhng s nguyn th c mt phng trnh mi tng ng.
b) Nu ta thm hay bt mt v ca mt phng trnh ng d theo
mun m mt bi ca mun m th ta c mt phng trnh mi tng ng
c) Xt phng trnh ng d
( ) 0(mod ) f x m
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19
vi
1
0 1
( ) ...
= + + +
n n
n
f x a x a x a ,
i
a e , i = 0, 1, , n.
Nu ta nhn cc h s ca f(x) vi mt s nguyn, nguyn t vi mun
m th ta c mt phng trnh mi tng ng.
Nu ta chia cc h s ca f(x) cho cng mt c chung nguyn t vi
mun m th ta c mt phng trnh mi tng ng.
Nu ta nhn cc h s ca f(x) v mun m vi cng mt s nguyn
dng th ta c mt phng trnh mi tng ng.
Chia cc h s ca f(x) v mun m vi cng mt c chung dng ca
chng th c mt phng trnh mi tng ng vi phng trnh cho.
Bc ca phng trnh ng d
Xt phng trnh ng d
f(x) 0(mod ) m (4.2)
vi
1
0 1
( ) ...
= + + +
n n
n
f x a x a x a ,
i
a e , i = 0, 1, , n.
Nu
0
0(mod ) a m
/
th ta ni n l bc ca phng trnh ng d (4.2).
V d
Cho phng trnh:
6 4 2
15 8 6 8 0(mod 3) x x x x + + +
Ta thy
( ) 15 0 mod 3 nn bc ca phng trnh khng phi l bc 6.
Phng trnh trn tng ng vi phng trnh
4 2
8 2 0(mod 3) x x + + .
V
( ) 8 0 mod 3
/
nn bc ca phng trnh l 4 n = .
Ch
- Trong phng trnh (4.2) ta c th gi thit
0
a khng chia ht cho m.
Tht vy, nu
0
0(mod ) a m th ta c th b s hng
0
n
a x phng
trnh (4.2), ta vn c mt phng trnh tng ng vi phng trnh (4.2).
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20
- Trong phng trnh (4.2) ta c th a cc h s
0 1
, ,...,
n
a a a v cc s
nguyn khng m nh thua m.
Tht vy, vi
0
a chng hn, ta chia
0
a cho m ta c:
0 0
a mq a' = + ,
0
, q a' e ,
0
0 a m ' s s . Khi y, phng trnh (4.2) tng ng vi phng
trnh
1
0 1
... 0(mod )
n n
n
a x a x a m
' + + + ,
0
0 a m ' s s .
Nghim ca phng trnh ng d
Tp cc gi tr nghim ng ca phng trnh f(x) 0(mod ) m thng
c phn chia thnh nhng lp theo mun m v c gi l nhng nghim
ca phng trnh .
nh l
Nu x o = l nghim ng phng trnh (4.2) th mi s nguyn thuc
lp thng d o (mod ) m u nghim ng phng trnh (4.2).
Chng minh
Tht vy, theo gi thit ta c f(o ) 0(mod ) m . Gi s | o e (mod ) m ,
ngha l (mod ) m | o . Theo tnh cht ca ng d thc ta c
( ) f | ( ) f o (mod ) m . Suy ra | cng l nghim ca phng trnh (4.2).
nh ngha
Khi s nguyn o nghim ng phng trnh (4.2) th ta gi lp thng
d o (mod ) m l mt nghim ca phng trnh (4.2).
Khi o (mod ) m l mt nghim ca phng trnh (4.2) th ta cng vit
x o (mod ) m v gi x l mt nghim ca phng trnh (4.2).
H qu
S nghim ca mt phng trnh ng d theo mun m khng vt
qu m. Do gii phng trnh ng d ta ln lt cho x ly cc gi tr
trong mt h thng d y v tm cc gi tr nghim ng phng trnh .
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21
V d
Gii phng trnh
3
2 4 0(mod 5) x + .
Cho x nhn ln lt cc gi tr h thng d y
{ }
5
0,1, 2,3, 4 = , ta thy:
2 x =
3
2 4(mod 5) x .
Vy 2 x = l nghim duy nht ca phng trnh cho.
H phng trnh ng d
Cho h phng trnh
1 1
2 2
( ) 0(mod )
( ) 0(mod )
....
( ) 0(mod )

r r
f x m
f x m
f x m
(4.3)
Nu vi s nguyn
0
x x = ta c r ng d thc ( ) 0(mod )
i i
f x m ng
vi mi i = 1, 2, , r th ta ni
0
x nghim ng h phng trnh (4.3).
Gii mt h phng trnh ng d l tm tp hp cc gi tr nghim
ng h phng trnh ng d .
H phng trnh tng ng
Hai h phng trnh ng d
( ) 0(mod )
i i
f x m , i = 1, 2, , r;
( ) 0(mod )
i i
g x n , j = 1, 2, , s
c gi l tng ng nu tp hp cc gi tr nghim ng h phng
trnh ny trng vi tp hp cc gi tr nghim ng h phng trnh kia.
Do vy, nu trong mt h ta thay th mt s phng trnh no bng
nhng phng trnh tng ng th ta s c mt h mi tng ng vi
h cho. Do , vic bin i tng ng cc h phng trnh thng a
v vic bin i tng ng tng phng trnh.
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22
nh l
Cho m l mt s t nhin c dng phn tch tiu chun
1 2
1 2
...
k
k
m p p p
o o o
=
v f(x) l mt a thc vi h s nguyn. Khi y ta c phng trnh ng d
f(x) 0(mod m) (4.4)
tng ng vi h
1
( ) 0(mod )
2
i
i
f x p
o
, i = 1, 2, , k. (4.5)
Chng minh
Tht vy, gi s
0
x nghim ng phng trnh (4.4), ngha l

0
( ) 0(mod ) f x m .
Khi v i = 1, 2, , k c
i
i
p
o
l c ca m nn ta c
0
( ) 0(mod )
i
i
f x p
o
, ni khc i
0
x nghim ng h (4.5).
Ngc li, gi s
1
x nghim ng h phng trnh (4.5), ngha l ta c
ng d thc
1
( ) 0(mod )
i
i
f x p
o
, i =1, 2, , k.
Do
1 2
1 2
...
k
k
m p p p
o o o
= nn ta cng c ng d thc
1
( ) 0(mod )
i
i
f x p
o
,
tc
1
x cng nghim ng phng trnh (4.4).
Nghim ca h phng trnh ng d
Cho h phng trnh

1 1
2 2
( ) 0(mod )
( ) 0(mod )
....
( ) 0(mod )
r r
f x m
f x m
f x m
(4.6)
vi m l bi chung nh nht ca
1 2
, ,...,
r
m m m .
nh l
Nu x o = nghim ng h phng trnh (4.6) th mi s nguyn thuc
lp o (mod ) m u nghim ng h phng trnh .
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23
Chng minh
Theo gi thit ta c r ng d thc
( ) 0(mod )
i i
f x m , i = 1, 2, , r. (4.7)
Gi s | o e (mod ) m ngha l (mod ) m | o , v vy do
i
m l c ca
m, i = 1, 2, , r nn ta c (mod )
i
m | o .
Theo tnh cht ca ng d thc ta c r ng d thc
( ) ( )(mod )
i i i
f f m | o , i = 1, 2, , r . (4.8)
T ng d thc (4.7) v (4.8) ta c ( ) 0(mod )
i i
f m | , i = 1, 2, , r,
ngha l | nghim ng h phng trnh (4.6).
nh ngha
Khi s nguyn o nghim ng h phng trnh (4.6) th ta gi lp
thng d (mod ) m o l nghim ca h phng trnh (4.6).
4.2. Phng trnh v h phng trnh ng d bc nht mt n
4.2.1. Phng trnh ng d bc nht mt n
(mod ) ax b c m + , 0 a = (4.8)
Trng hp 1: 1 a =
Khi 1 a = phng trnh (4.8) tr thnh
(mod ) x b c m + (mod ) x c m b
( )(mod ) x c b m
x c b mt = + vi t l mt s nguyn bt k.
Trng hp 2: 0 b =
Khi 0 b = phng trnh (4.8) tr thnh
(mod ) ax c m . (4.9)
nh l
Phng trnh (4.9) c nghim khi v ch khi c chung ln nht d ca a
v m l c ca c. Khi (4.9) c nghim th n c d nghim.
Chng minh
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24
Gi s phng trnh (4.9) c nghim, ngha l c
0
x e sao cho
0
(mod ) ax c m . V d = (a, m) nn d a v d m. Suy ra
0
d ax v d m.
Theo tnh cht ca ng d thc, d phi l mt c s ca
( ) ( )
0
UCLN , UCLN , ax m c m = hay d l c ca c .
Ngc li, gi s (a,m)=d l c ca c .
t a =
1
a a d = ,
1
, c c d =
1
= m md . Phng trnh (4.9) tng ng vi
1 1 1
(mod ) a x c m , (4.10)
trong
( )
1
, 1 a m = . Do
( )
1
, 1 a m = nn khi cho x chy qua mt h thng d y
mun
1
m th
1
a x cng chy qua mt h thng d y mun
1
m .
Do tm c duy nht mt gi tr
0
x sao cho
1
a
0
x cng lp vi
1
c ,
ngha l
1 0 1 1
(mod ) a x c m .
Vy phng trnh (4.10) c nghim duy nht l lp
0
x (mod
1
m ). V
phng trnh (4.10) tng ng vi phng trnh (4.9) cho nn lp
0
x (mod
1
m ) cng l tp hp cc gi tr nghim ng phng trnh (4.9). Theo
tnh cht 2 2 ca ng d thc, lp
0
x l hp ca d lp thng d mun m,
chnh l d nghim ca phng trnh (4.9):
0
(mod ), x m
0 1
(mod ) x m m + ,,
0 1
( 1) x d m + (mod m) .
Cc phng php tm nghim ca (mod ) ax c m
Theo nh l trn, ta ch cn tm nghim ca phng trnh (4.9) vi
iu kin (a, m) = 1 v 1 < a < m.
Phng php 1: Xc nh nghim bng cch chia c hai v cho a
- Nu a l mt c ca c th nghim ca phng trnh l: (mod )
c
x m
a
.
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25
- Nu a khng phi l mt c s ca c th do (a, m) = 1 nn tn ti s
nguyn k (1 1 s s k a ) c + km chia ht cho a. Tht vy, gi s vi mi k
(1 1 s s k a ), c+km chia ht cho a. Khi y theo nguyn l Dirichlet phi tn
ti hai s
1 2
0 1 k k a s = s sao cho
1
c k m + v
2
c k m + chia cho a c cng s
d, tc l
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
k k m c k m c k m = + + chia ht cho a. Nhng (a, m) = 1
nn
( )
1 2
k k chia ht cho a. V l v
1 2
0 k k a < < .
Nh vy, phi tn ti s nguyn k (1 1 s s k a ) c+km chia ht cho
a. Khi y phng trnh (4.9) tng ng vi phng trnh axc+km(modm)
nn n c nghim l (mod )
c km
x m
a
+
.
V d
Gii phng trnh 5x 2(mod 7)
V UCLN(5,2) 1 = nn tn ti s 4 k = sao cho 2 .7 k + chia ht cho 5.
Khi y 5x 2 + 4.7(mod 7) ta c nghim l
30
6
5
x (mod 7) hay
6 7 x k = + .
Ch
Cch xc nh nghim ny l n gin nhng ch dng c trong
trng hp a l mt s nh hoc trng hp d thy ngay s k.
Phng php 2: Xc nh nghim bng cch vn dng nh l Euler
V (a, m) 1 = cho nn theo nh l Euler ta c
( )
1(mod )
m
a m
.
T y suy ra
( )
(mod )
m
a b b m
hay
( ) 1
(mod )
m
a ba b m

(

.
Do (a, m) 1 = nn
( ) 1
(mod )
m
x ba m

l nghim ca phng trnh.
Trng hp 3 0 b =
Khi 0 b = th phng trnh (4.8) tr thnh
(4.8) (mod ) ax c m b
( )(mod ) ax c b m .
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26
Tr v phng trnh dng (4.9) xt trong Trng hp 2.
Quan h gia phng trnh ng d bc nht v phng trnh
Diophantus bc nht hai n ax +by =c
Coi b > 0. Nu phng trnh Diophantus ax + by = c c mt nghim
nguyn
( )
0 0
, x y , ngha l ta c ng thc a
0
x +b
0
y = c th suy ra:
a
0
x c(mod b) v
0
0
c ax
y
b
= .
o li, nu c s nguyn
0
x sao cho c ng d thc a
0
x c (mod b)
th
0
c ax 0(mod b), ngha l c s nguyn
0
y
0 0
c ax by = . T suy ra
a
0
x + b
0
y = c, tc phng trnh cho c nghim
( )
0 0
, x y .
Vy iu kin phng trnh Diophantus ax + by c = c nghim nguyn
tng ng vi iu kin phng trnh ng d a x c(mod b) c nghim,
tc l c chung ln nht ca a v b l mt c ca c. Gii phng trnh
Diophantus ax+by=c c a v gii phng trnh ng d a x c(mod b).
V d
Tm nghim nguyn ca phng trnh 1998 2003 1945 x y + = .
Ta xt phng trnh ng d
( ) 1998 1945 mod2003 x
( ) 5 1945 mod2003 x ( ) 5 11960 mod2003 x
Do (5, 2003) = 1 nn
( ) 389 mod2003 x = 389 2003 , x t t = + e .
Khi y ta c:
( ) 1945 1998 389 2003 1945 1998
389 1998
2003 2003
t x
y t
+
= = = .
Vy nghim tng qut ca phng trnh l
389 2003
389 1998
x t
y t
= +
, (t = 0, 1,)
4.2.2. H phng trnh ng d bc nht mt n
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27
Xt h phng trnh ng d bc nht mt n c dng
1 1
2 2
(mod )
(mod )
....
(mod )
k k
x b m
x b m
x b m
(4.11)
vi
1 2
, , ...,
k
m m m l nhng s nguyn ln hn 1 v
1 2
, , ...,
k
b b b l nhng s
nguyn ty .
nh l
Nu h phng trnh (4.11) c nghim th n c nghim duy nht.
Chng minh
Gi s v o | nghim ng h phng trnh (4.11), ta c:
(mod ) (mod )
i i i i
b m v b m o | vi mi i = 1, 2, , k.
Suy ra (mod )
i
m o | vi mi i = 1, 2, , k.
Do (mod ) m o | , trong m = BCNN(
1 2
, ,...,
k
m m m ), tc l cc
nghim (mod ) x m o v (mod ) x m | ca h phng trnh (4.11) l trng nhau.
nh l Trung Hoa v thng d
Nu cc
1 2
, , ...,
k
m m m i mt nguyn t cng nhau th h phng
trnh (4.11) c nghim.
Chng minh
Theo gi thit
1 2
, , ...,
k
m m m i mt nguyn t cng nhau nn bi
chung nh nht ca chng l
1 2
...
k
m mm m = . t =
i i
m mM vi i =1,2,,k.
Khi ta c ( ) , 1
i i
m M = v 0(mod )
i j
M m nu = i j .
V c chung nh nht
( )
, 1 =
i i
m M nn tn ti s nguyn
i
M' sao cho
1(mod )
i i i
M M m ' , i = 1, 2, , k.
t
0 1 1 1 2 2 2
...
k k k
x M M b M M b M M b ' ' ' = + + + .
V 0(mod )
j i
M m v 1(mod )
i i i
M M m ' vi mi = i j nn
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28
( )
0
mod
i i
x b m , i = 1, 2, , k.
Vy
0
x tha mn h (4.11), hay (4.11) c nghim l
( )
0
mod x x m .
Ch
*) Trong trng hp tng qut, chng ta c th chng minh c rng:
iu kin cn v h phng trnh (4.11) c nghim l c chung ln
nht
( )
,
i j
m m chia ht
i j
b b vi = i j
( ) 1 , s s i j k .
*) Gi s
1 2
1 2
... =
k
k
m p p p
o o o
l phn tch tiu chun ca m. Khi y phng
trnh ng d ( ) 0(mod ) f x m tng ng vi h phng trnh ng d
( ) 0 f x (mod )
i
i
p
o
, i = 1, 2, , k.
T suy ra rng nu
( )
1
mod
i
i
x b p
o
l mt nghim ca phng trnh
( ) 0(mod )
i
i
f x p
o
, i = 1, 2, , k. th nghim ca h phng trnh ng d
( )
1
2
1 1
2 2
mod
(mod )
....
(mod )
k
k k
x b p
x b p
x b p
o
o
o

cho ta nghim ca phng trnh ( ) 0(mod ) f x m .
Vy trong trng hp tng qut gii mt phng trnh ng d dn n
gii h (4.11). Vi cc mun
1 2
, , ...,
k
m m m i mt nguyn t cng nhau.
Thc hnh gii h phng trnh
Trng hp h hai phng trnh

( )
( )
1 1
2 2
mod
mod
x b m
x b m

Vi gi thit d = ( )
1 2
, m m chia ht cho
1 2
b b . Trc tin ta nhn xt
rng, mi s
1 1
= + x b mt , t e l nghim ca phng trnh th nht. Sau
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29
ta tm cch xc nh t sao cho x nghim ng phng trnh th hai, ngha l
h hai phng trnh trn tng ng vi h phng trnh

( )
1 1
1 1 2 2
mod
x b mt
b mt b m
= +

V gi thit
( )
1 2
, d m m = l c
1 2
b b nn phng trnh
1 1
+ b mt ( )
2 2
mod b m
tng ng vi phng trnh:
1 2 1 2
mod
m b b m
t
d d d
| |
|
\ .
.
Nhng
1 2
, 1
m m
d d
| |
=
|
\ .
nn phng trnh ng d ny cho ta nghim
2
0
mod
m
t t
d
| |
|
\ .
, l tp hp tt c cc s nguyn
2
0
= +
m
t t u
d
, ue .
Thay biu thc ca t vo biu thc tnh x ta c tp hp cc gi tr ca
x nghim ng c hai phng trnh ng d ang xt l:

2 1 2
1 1 0 1 1 0
| |
= + + = + +
|
\ .
m mm
x b m t u b mt u
d d
,
hay
0
x x = + mu vi
0 1 1 0
= + x b mt , m = BCNN(
1 2
, m m ).
Vy
0
(mod ) x x m l nghim ca h hai phng trnh ng d
ang xt.
b. Trng hp h gm n phng trnh
u tin gii h hai phng trnh no ca h cho, ri thay trong
h hai phng trnh gii bng nghim tm thy, ta s c mt h gm n
1 phng trnh tng ng vi vi h cho. Tip tc nh vy sau n 1
bc ta s c nghim cn tm.
V d
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30
Gii h phng trnh
( )
( )
( )
( )
26 mod 36
62 mod 60
92 mod 150
11 mod 231
x
x
x
x

H hai phng trnh

( )
( )
26 mod 36
62 mod 60
x
x

( )
26 36
26 36 62 mod 60
x t
t
= +
, t e .
Phng trnh:
( ) 26 36 62 mod 60 t + 36 36(mod 60) t 1(mod 5) t .
Vy nghim ca h l 26 36.1(mod 180) x + hay 62(mod 180) x .
Do h phng trnh cho tng ng vi h
( )
( )
( )
62 mod 180
92 mod 150
11 mod 231
x
x
x

Ta tip tc gii h phng trnh

( )
( )
62 mod 180
92 mod 150
x
x

( )
62 180
62 180 92 mod 150
x t
t
= +
, t e .
Ta c:
( ) 62 180 92 mod150 t + ( ) 180 30 mod150 t .
( ) 6 1 mod 5 t ( ) 1 mod 5 t .
Vy nghim ca h l:
( ) 62 180. 1 (mod 900) x + + 242(mod 900) x .
H cho tng ng vi
( )
242(mod 900)
11 mod 231
x
x

H ny c nghim 242(mod 69300) x , v y cng l nghim ca h
cho cn tm.
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31
V d
Tm cc s nguyn chia ht cho 5 v khi ln lt chia cho 2; 3; 4 u c
s d l 1.
Gii
Gi x l s cn tm. Theo gi thit ta c h phng trnh:

0(mod 5)
1(mod 2)
1(mod 3)
1(mod 4)
x
x
x
x
0(mod 5)
1(mod 12)
x
x

Suy ra: 1 + 12t 0(mod 5) 2t - 1 4(mod 5) t 2(mod5).
Vy t = 2 + 5k, k Z e v do :
( )
1 12 1 2 5 25 60 x t k k = + = + + = + .
4.3. Phng trnh ng d bc cao theo mun nguyn t
4.3.1. Nhn xt
a) Gi s
1
0 1
( ) ...
= + + +
n n
n
f x a x a x a l mt a thc vi h s nguyn
v m l s t nhin c dng
1 2
1 2
... =
k
k
m p p p
o o o
. Khi phng trnh ng d
( ) 0(mod ) f x m tng ng vi h ( ) 0(mod )
i
i
f x p
o
, i = 1, 2, , k. V
vy gii phng trnh ( ) 0(mod ) f x m c a v gii phng trnh dng
( ) 0(mod ) f x p
o
, vi p l s nguyn t, v o l s t nhin khc khng.
Nu mt trong cc phng trnh ca h ( ) 0(mod )
i
i
f x p
o
, i = 1, 2, ,
k khng c nghim th phng trnh ( ) 0(mod ) f x m cng khng c nghim.
Cn nu phng trnh ( ) 0(mod ) f x p
o
c
i
s nghim (i = 1, 2, , k) th
h: ( ) 0(mod )
i
i
f x p
o
, i =1, 2,, v do c phng trnh ( ) 0(mod ) f x m c
1 2
... =
k
s s s s nghim.
b) Nu s nguyn
0
x nghim ng phng trnh ( ) 0(mod ) f x p
o
, a
>1 (1) th
0
x cng l nghim ng ca phng trnh ( ) 0(mod ) f x p
|
,
1, 2,..., 1 | o = .
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32
T suy ra rng khi gii phng trnh (1) ta ch cn tm cc nghim
ca n trong cc lp l nghim ca phng trnh
1
( ) 0(mod ) f x p
o
.
i vi phng trnh mi ny ta li p dng kt qu a v
phng trnh vi mun
2
p
o
v c th tip tc ln i vi phng trnh
( ) 0(mod ) f x p .
c) Gi s x =
0
x (mod p) l mt nghim ca phng trnh
( ) 0(mod ) f x p v o hm
0
( ) f x ' khng chia ht cho p khi y trong lp
0
x (mod p) gm
1
p
o
lp theo mun p
o
c ng mt lp l nghim ca
phng trnh ( ) 0(mod ) f x p
o
.
Qua nhng nhn xt trn, ta thy rng vn c bn trong vic gii
phng trnh ng d cn li l gii phng trnh ng d theo mun
nguyn t p:
1
0 1
( ) ...
= + + +
n n
n
f x a x a x a 0(mod ) p vi a
/
0(mod p).
4.3.2. Phng trnh bc cao theo mun nguyn t
nh l
Phng trnh ng d theo mun nguyn t
1
0 1
( ) ...
= + + +
n n
n
f x a x a x a 0(mod ) p (4.13)
vi 1 n > ,
0
0(mod ) a p
/
, hoc nghim ng vi mi s nguyn hoc tng
ng vi mt phng trnh c bc nh hn p.
Chng minh
Thc hin php chia f(x) cho
p
x x ta c f(x) = (
p
x x)g(x)+ r(x),
trong g(x), r(x) l nhng a thc vi h s nguyn, r(x) hoc bng khng
hoc c bc nh hn p. Phng trnh (4.13) tr thnh
(
p
x x)g(x) + r(x) 0(mod ) p .
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33
Vi mi xe ta u c
p
x x 0(mod ) p nn phng trnh (4.13)
tng ng vi phng trnh r(x) 0(mod ) p , hoc r(x) =0 hoc c bc
nh hn p. l iu cn chng minh.
Ch
Theo nh l trn, trong phng trnh (4.13) ta c th gi thit n p < .
Hn na ta cn c th gi thit
0
1 = a . Tht vy, v UCLN(
0
a , p)=1 nn tn
ti s nguyn a sao cho
0
a a 1(mod ) p v UCLN(a, p) = 1. Do khi nhn
hai v ca phng trnh (4.13) vi a ta c mt phng trnh tng ng
vi phng trnh (4.13) m h s
n
x bng 1.
nh l
Phng trnh ng d theo mun nguyn t
1
0 1
( ) ...
= + + +
n n
n
f x a x a x a 0(mod ) p (4.14)
vi n >1,
0
0(mod ) a p
/
, c khng qu n nghim.
Chng minh
Gi s ngc li rng phng trnh (4.14) c t nht n+1 nghim khc
nhau l x
0 1
, ,..., (mod )
n
x x x p .
Chia a thc f(x) cho a thc
1
x x c f(x)=(
1
x x )
1 1
( ) + f x r , trong
l a thc bc n1 vi h s nguyn, vi h s ca
1 n
x l
0
a v
( ) ( )
1 1
0 mod r f x p = . Do phng trnh (4.14) tng ng vi
(
1
x x )
( )
1
( ) 0 mod f x p . (4.15)
T gi thit
2
x l nghim ng phng trnh (4.14) ta c ng d thc
( ) ( ) ( )
2 1 1 2
0 mod x x f x p .
Nhng ( )
2 1
0 mod x x p
/
v p l s nguyn t nn t ng d thc
trn ta suy ra ( ) ( )
1 2
0 mod f x p . Chia a thc
1
( ) f x cho a thc
2
x x , gi
s ta c
1
f (x) = (x -
2
x )
2 2
( ) + f x r , trong
2
( ) f x l a thc bc n 2 vi
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34
h s nguyn, vi h s ca
2 n
x l
0
a v
( ) ( )
2 1 2
0 mod r f x p = . T y v
( )
2
0 mod r p phng trnh (4.14) v do c phng trnh (4.13) cng
tng ng vi phng trnh:
(x -
1
x )( x -
2
x )
( )
2
( ) 0 mod f x p .
C tip tc qu trnh trn nh vy sau n bc ta c phng trnh
(x -
1
x )( x -
2
x )(x -
n
x )
( ) ( ) 0 mod
n
f x p
tng ng vi phng trnh (4.14). Nhng ( )
n
f x l a thc bc khng m
h s ca s hng bc cao nht l
0
a nn ( )
n
f x =
0
a v v vy phng trnh
(4.14) tng ng vi phng trnh
0
a (x -
1
x )( x -
2
x )(x -
n
x )
( ) 0 mod p . (4.16)
Theo gi thit x
( )
0
mod x p l nghim ca phng trnh nn n cng
l nghim ca phng trnh (4.16), ngha l ta c ng d thc:

0
a (x -
1
x )( x -
2
x )(x -
n
x )
( ) 0 mod p .
T ng d thc ny vi
0
0(mod ),
i
x x p i =
/
1, 2, , n v p l s
nguyn t suy ra
( )
0
0 mod a p , iu ny mu thun vi gi thit.
H qu
Nu phng trnh

1
0 1
( ) ...
= + + +
n n
n
f x a x a x a 0(mod ) p (4.17)
vi n < p v p l mt s nguyn t c qu n nghim th cc h s ca n u
l bi ca p.
Chng minh
Tht vy, t gi thit lp li cch chng minh nh l trn ta c
( )
0
0 mod a p nn phng trnh tng ng vi

1 1
1 1
...

+ + +
n n
n
a x a x a 0(mod ) p .
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35
Phng trnh ny c nhiu hn n 1 nghim, li bng cch lp lun
tng t nh trn ta s c
( )
1
0 mod a p .
C tip tc nh vy, cui cng ta c tt c cc h s
0 1
, ,...,
n
a a a u
l bi ca p.
nh l Wilson
Vi s nguyn t p, ta c
( ) ( ) 1 ! 1 0 mod p p + .
Chng minh
nh l hin nhin ng vi p = 2, v vy chng minh ta gi thit
p > 2.
Xt phng trnh ng d

( )( ) ( ) ( )
1
1 2 ... 1 ( 1) 0 mod
p
x x x p x p
+ .
Phng trnh c khng t hn p 1 nghim i mt phn bit v v tri
ca n l mt a thc bc nh hn p 1 v vy theo h qu trn th tt c cc
h s ca a thc u l bi ca p v ring h s t do cng l bi ca p. H
s t do l: ( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 2 ... 1 1 1 ! 1 + = + p p .
V vy ta c
( ) ( ) 1 ! 1 0 mod p p + .
Ch
nh l Wilson cho ta iu kin cn mt s t nhin p > 1 l mt s
nguyn t, song iu kin cng l iu kin .
Tht vy, nu
1
p p q = , 1 < q < p th ( ) ( ) 1 ! 0 mod p q bi vy
( ) 1 ! p
( ) 1 0 modq +
/
nhng v p 0(mod ) q nn t
( ) 1 ! p ( ) 1 0 mod q +
/

cng c ( ) ( ) 1 ! 1 0 mod p p +
/
.
Hay nu ( ) 1 ! p + 1 0
/ ( ) mod p th s t nhin p > 1 l mt s
nguyn t.
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36
Chng 2
NG DNG CA L THUYT NG D
TRONG M SA SAI
1. Khi nim m
Phn ln cc sn phm m ta mua trong siu th u c m vch
(barcode), ging nh Hnh 1.1 di y. Cc vch ny c c ti cc bn
thu ngn bi h thng qut laze chuyn i nhng vch mu en v trng
vi dy m khc nhau thnh nhng con s c in bn di. Mi sn
phm khi y c xc nh bi mt chui nhng con s, c gi l t m
(codeword).

Hnh 1.1. M vch Hnh 1.2. I SBN
ba sau hu ht cc quyn sch ta cng tm thy cc m vch khc
nhau, th d nh trong Hnh 1.2. Con s pha trn c gi l s sch tiu
chun quc t (International Standard Book Number, vit tt l ISBN), v mi
nh xut bn sch u c th c ng nht vi mt m s theo cch ny.
Khi x l hoc truyn thng tin di dng t m, cc li c th xy ra
do s c in, s can thip t bn ngoi nh st, bc x, li do con ngi
hoc nhng li k thut khc. V cc nguyn nhn , mt s ch s trong t
m c th b thay i, do cn phi tm cch chnh xc ha li hoc t nht l
pht hin ra li. Cn mt s ch s kim tra (check digits), th d, ch s 8
v ch s 3 ngoi cng bn phi tng ng trong Hnh 1.1 v Hnh 1.2
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37
nhn vo chng ta c th bit chc chn sn phm ta cn mua hoc ca
hng gi n ng quyn sch ta t. Cc ch s ny c chn bng cch
tn dng mt s tnh cht c bn ca cc s trong dy s.
Chng ta quen thuc vi ngn ng ni hoc ngn ng vit, trong
cha rt nhiu cu trc cu gip chng ta on c chnh xc ngha ca
cu ni (cu vit), mc d cu vn cha li chnh t hoc nhng li khc. Th
d, nu ta nhn c tin nhn: Meat me at fore p.n. tomorrow, ta vn c th
hiu c ng ngha ca tin nhn ny. Vic pht hin v sa li trong truyn
tin cng tng t nh vy.
Th d m n gin
minh ha c th s dng cc con s to ra mt cu trc cht ch
nh vn c trong ngn ng, ta xem xt v d sau. Gi s ta v mt ngi bn
trc khi gi i tin nhn tha thun gn nhn cho chn tin nhn khc nhau
nh: meet me at four p.m. tomorrow (bn sa li ng ca tin nhn trn),
hoc See you at dinner tonight bi cc s 1, 2, , 9 tng ng. Tic l ta
khng th gi i mt trong nhng s nguyn bi v nhng vn k thut
gy ra ti 2 li trong lc truyn tin. Do , v d, nu ta nhn c s 3 th
ta khng th bit ngi bn gi tin nhn no. C kh nng l 1 (vi li l
2) v 4 (vi li l 1). Tuy nhin, ta c th bt cht ny ra tng: nhn s
ca tin nhn vi 5 v gi i kt qu. V d: Nu tin nhn ta mun gi cho mt
ngi bn c nhn l 4 th ta gi 4x5 = 20. Nu li truyn i ln nht vn l
2 , th tin nhn lun c th c hiu ng hoc c gii m (decode) nh
sau. Gi s ngi bn nhn c s 22 th anh ta suy lun ng rng ta gi
20 vi tin nhn truyn i sai l + 2. V vy tin nhn ch c th l 20:5 = 4.
Tng t, nu s nhn c l 38 th ta khng nh rng ngi bn ch c th
gi 40 vi li l 2. V th 40:5=8 l nhn ca tin nhn. Ta c th nhn
thy rng mi tin nhn l duy nht (mi tin nhn c gii m thnh mt s
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38
tng ng vi n) v c gii m (sa li) theo quy tc: lm trn ln (38
thnh 40) hoc lm trn xung (22 thnh 20) s nhn c c s gn
nht l bi ca 5, sau chia s lm trn cho 5 c nhn ca tin nhn.
S dng m truyn v s l thng tin mt cch chnh xc ti a l
mt phn thit yu ca cuc sng hin i. Chng hn, ngoi m vch trn cc
sn phm, m PINs (Personal Identification numbers) c s dng trn cc
th lnh tin t ng (cashcard); cc h chiu trong khi EU mang cc s
nhn dng chng gi mo; cc m sa sai (error-correcting codes) c s
dng trong truyn d liu t cc mng ton cu nhm b li nhng khong
cch ln hoc kh nng gii hn ca cc my truyn tin. Cui cng nhng
khng km quan trng, mi a compact (CD) mang dng ch DIGITAL
AUDIO (m thanh s). CD c a vo s dng nm 1982 v c s
dng ti to m thanh v lu tr thng tin di dng s. Nhng m thanh
ny u tin c phn tch thnh nhiu thnh phn rt mnh v c chuyn
thnh cc s nh phn. nghe uc bn nhc, cc bit c c trn a CD
bi tia laze, v mi giy c 1.460.000 bit ca thng tin m thanh c x l.
di ca mi on ghi cha khong 20 t bit v thm ch vi phng php
sn xut cn thn nht, nhng sai st vn c trn cc a CD. L do ti sao
nhng sai st ny khng nh hng n nhc, m nhng m thanh ny cn rt
chnh xc v khng c ting click , hiss v nhng ting n khng mong
mun khc, l do khong 2/3 thng tin cha trn a CD l khng dnh
cho thng tin m thanh. Nhng thng tin thm ny c s dng x l m
nhc trc khi n truyn ti tai ngi nghe nhm t c nhng m thanh
cui cng thc s hon ho. Trong thc t nhm d liu bao gm 588 bit
c s dng, trong 192 bit l cha thng tin m thanh v khng nh hn
64 bit l nhng bit kin tra v sa li.
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39
Trong chng ny chng ti trnh by mt s ni dung c bn ca m
sa sai theo ti liu [6], c tham kho thm cc ti liu [1] v [7], da trn
tng s dng s hc ng d v cc trng hu hn c trnh by trong
chng I.
2. Nhng v d v m
2.1. M lp
V d 2.1 (Bn lnh)
Gi s ta mun dng mt iu khin t xa gi 4 lnh khc nhau cho
my video (video cassette recoder, VCR). Nhng lnh ny c th c biu
th bi cc t m nh phn (binary codewords) nh sau:
Lnh
Dng
Stop
Chi
play
Tua i
Fast forward (FF)
Tua li
Rewind (REW)
T m 00 01 10 11
Tuy nhin, thm ch mt li n gin xy ra trong truyn tin (th d 0 b
thay bi 1 hoc 1 b thay bi 0), th lnh sai s c thc hin bi v VCR
khng c cch nhn bit li xy ra. V d nu ta gi 10 nhng b truyn
sai thnh 00 th VCR dng li thay v tua i.
Trong ngn ng hng ngy nu ta khng hiu ai ni, ta thng
ngh h nhc li. Bi vy mt cch t nhin sa cc li l nhc li mi t
c truyn i, v th bn m ha tr thnh:
Lnh Stop Play FF REW
T m 0000 0101 1010 1111
By gi nu ta truyn 1010 v mt li n gin xy ra trong bit u tin
th VCR nhn c 0010. y khng phi l t m m c gi n gin l
t (word). V hai ch s u tin l 00 khc vi cp th hai l 10, VCR pht
hin mt li xy ra trong qu trnh truyn tin. Tuy nhin VCR khng th
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40
sa li ny v khng c cch no bit 0010 l 1010 (li trong bit u tin)
hoc l 0000 (li trong bit th 3). Mc du vy, c mt s ci tin v VCR
khng thc hin c lnh nhng xc nh c thng tin sai.
Ta cng c th thy mt dng m lp trong cng vic ca ngi thu
ngn trong siu th. Nu v mt vi l do no my qut c sai m vch,
mt thng tin li s c hin th trn my kim tra v ngi thu ngn s
thc hin li thao tc nhp m, thng thng bng cch dng tay.
Nu nhc li hai ln th cc t m s l:
T m 000000 010101 101010 111111
By gi nu ta mun truyn 101010 v li mt li n xy ra, th d
trong bit th hai l 1 v thng tin nhn c l 111010. Ta khng ch pht
hin ra li nh trc y m cn c th sa li. iu ny c lm bi cch
cch m vt (majority count), u tin cho mi cp bit, nh sau:
Bit ny phi l 0
1 1 1 0 1 0
Nhng bit ny l 1
Bit th hai phi l 0 bi v s 0 xut hin 2 trong 3 ln.
Vy t nhn c s c gii m l 101010.
Qu trnh nhn c t m (codeword) theo t (word) c chuyn
i c gi l gii m (decoding).
Trong v d trn VCR c th quyt nh ngay rng lnh l 10 v l tua i.
M lp sa nhng li truyn n gin ging nh trong v d trn. Tuy
nhin n cng cho nhng kh khn ring l thng tin gc c truyn i ba
ln. iu ny khng nhng t m cn c th kh thc hin v, chng hn
dung lng thng tin thng b gii hn bi ng truyn.
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41
Ta cng thy rng, nhng thng tin b xung (thng tin lp) bn thn
n cng c th b li, do vic gii m c th khng c m bo. V d
tin nhn nhn c trn 111010 c th l 111111 vi 2 li bit th t v
th su.
Trong sut chng ny ta gi thit rng, nh s tin cy ca thit b in
t, xc sut xy ra mt li n l rt nh, n mc xc sut xy ra mt li n
cng chng khc hai hoc nhiu hn cc li nh vy. Mc tiu ca ta l lm
tng xc sut tin nhn nhn c ng cng cao cng tt.
tng ny m rng thnh khi nim gii m ln cn gn nht
(nearest-neighbour decoding). Ngi nhn c c mt danh sch y cc
t m. Nu t nhn c khng phi l t m th mt hoc nhiu cc li c
pht hin ngay. hiu chnh li, ta chn t m ging nht vi t c
truyn i bng cch so snh nhng t nhn c vi danh sch c v la
chn t m m sai khc vi t nhn c vi s li nh nht. V d, vi
m lp 6 bit trn nu nhn c 101111 th so snh vi 4 m t cho ta:
M t 000000 010101 101010 111111
Li 101111 101111 101111 101111
S li 5 4 2 1
Tin nhn v vy c gii m l 1111111, v l ln cn gn nht vi
t nhn c, ch sai khc 1 bit.
2.2. M chn l
V d 2.2 (M c s 2-m nh phn)
Mt m n gin nhng hu ch cho vic sa sai l m nhn bi cch
ni thm 1 bit n b xung vo mi tin nhn cha nhng thng tin c
truyn i. Bit ny c la chn sao cho t m kt qu cha s chn ch s 1.
iu ny dn n m chn l (even parity code). Tng t, nu bit b xung,
c gi l bit kim tra chn l (parity-check bit), hoc n gin l bit kim
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42
tra (check bit), c la chn t m kt qu cha s l ch s 1 th m kt
qu c gi l m l (odd parity code).
Chng hn, xt m u tin trong v d 2.1 v t hoc s 0 hoc s 1
vo cui mi t m mi t m mi l mt s chn.
T m 000 011 101 111
Nu, th d, 101 c gi i v mt li n xy ra th t nhn c s l
mt trong cc s 001, 111, 100. Mi t ny cha s l ch s 1, v th li
c pht hin. Tuy nhin n khng th xc nh c bit no cn c sa.
Trong trng hp tng qut, gi s tin nhn gc gm n 1 bit
1 2 1
, , ...,
n
x x x c gi l cc bit thng tin (information bits). Mt bit b xung
n
x , c gi l bit kim tra, c la chn t m l chn. Nh vy, cc t
m cha mt s chn cc ch s 1. V th
( )
1 2
... 0 mod 2
n
x x x + + + . (2.1)
Cc t m c truyn i l
1 2
, , ...,
n
x x x , trong
i
x l 0 hoc 1, v
di (length) ca cc t m, hoc ca bn thn m, c nh ngha l n. Gi
s mt li n xy ra trong qu trnh truyn tin bit th i. iu ny ngha l
nu 0
i
x = th bit th i ca t nhn c l
i
y =1 v tng t
i
y =0 nu
i
x =1.
iu ny c th biu din nh sau:
( )( ) 1 mod 2
i i
y x + (2.2)
v t nhn c l
1 2 1 1
... ...
+
=
i i i n
r x x x y x x . Tnh chn l ca r nhn c bng
cch cng cc ch s ca n theo ng d 2, c cho bi
1 2 1 1
... ...
+
+ + + + + + +
i i i n
x x x y x x
1 2 1 1
... ( 1) ... (mod 2)
+
+ + + + + + + +
i i i n
x x x x x x
( ) 1 mod 2 .
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43
iu ny ch ra rng r c tnh l. Ta c th d dng thy rng trong
trng hp tng qut, nu mt s l ca li truyn tin xy ra th tnh chn l
ca 1 r = . Ni cch khc, nu t nhn c c tnh l th xy ra mt s l
li. Tng t, nu t nhn c c tnh chn th phi c mt s chn cc
li (hoc khng c li).
Gi s rng xc sut ca mt li n bt k l rt nh. Khi y nu t
nhn c c tnh l th hu nh ch c ng mt li xy ra; v nu t nhn
c c tnh chn th hu nh khng c li. Hn na, vi gi thit trn, m
kim tra tnh chn pht hin mi li n. Nhng n khng th sa cha li
n bi v khng c cch xc nh bit no trong t nhn c l sai.
Xt mt v d khc, gi s tnh chn ca m cn kim tra c di 5
c s dng v tin c gi i l 0111. tha mn (2.1), bit kim tra phi
l
5
x = 1, v th t m c truyn i l 01111 c tnh chn. Gi s ti thiu
c mt li trong qu trnh truyn tin, khi y nu nhn c 01111, th t ny
c th sa c bi v n c tnh chn. Sau khi b bit kim tra, gii m tin
nhn l 0111. Tuy nhin, nu t nhn c, th d, l 10101, th v n c tnh
l, nn mt li xy ra, nhng khng xc nh c bit no trong t nhn
c l sai. T nhn c c gii m bng cch thng bo li.
Mt v d khc. Xt m 7 bit ASCII. N thng c m rng cho m
8 bit bng cch ni thm 1 bit kim tra chn. T m 7 bit 1000001 cho ch A
ch thnh 1000010 v mt vi t m 8 bit c cho trong bng di y:
K t A B C a b c
T m 10000010 10000100 10000111 11000011 110000101 01100011
V d 2.3 (M c s 3-m tam phn)
Trong m tam phn cc t m l
1 2 1
...
n n
x x x x , trong
i
x l 0, 1 hoc 2.
S kim tra
n
x c chn sao cho:
( )
1 2
... 0 mod 3
n
x x x + + + (2.3)
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44
Li
i
e trong ch s
i
x bt k c th l 1 hoc 2. Ni ring, nu ch c
mt li n ch s th i, th t nhn c l
1 2 1 1
... ...
i i i n
z x x x y x x
+
= , trong
( )( ) mod 3
i i i
y x e + .
Trong trng hp ny, tng cc s ca z l
1 2 1 1
... ...
+
+ + + + + + +
i i i n
x x x y x x
1 2 1 1
... ( ) ... (mod 3)
i i i i n
x x x x e x x
+
+ + + + + + + + ( ) mod 3
i
e
V th, gi s c mt li n xy ra trong truyn tin th m pht hin
tt c cc li bi v tng cc ch s ca t nhn c khng chia ht cho 3.
Th d, xt thng tin gi i l 10210. Ch s kim tra
6
x c chn
sao cho (2.3) c tha mn, ngha l
6
1 0 2 1 0 x + + + + + ( ) 0 mod 3 . Suy
ra
6
x = 2. Do , t m c truyn i l 102102. Nu t nhn c l
112102 th tng cc s ca n l
( ) 1 1 2 1 0 2 1 mod 3 + + + + + , ch ra rng
mt li xy ra.
ng hn, t chn l (parity) ch p dng cho tnh chn (even-
ness), hoc tnh l (odd-ness). M chn l c m rng t nhin cho m
vi c s p bt k vi tng cc ch s ca mi t ng d vi 0 theo
mun p.
2.3. M vch
V d 2.4 (S hiu hng ha Chu u-European Article Number)
M vch trong Hnh 1.1 l v d ca m nhn dng hng ha c s
dng rng ri v c gi l EAN (European Article Number), c cng
nhn l chun vo nm 1976. N c pht trin t m sn phm chung
UPC (Universal Product Code) c s dng M t nm 1973.
Xt Hnh 1.1. Mi s bao gm 13 ch s thp phn. Hai hay ba s u
tin l phn vng quc gia, chng hn 30 l Php, 49 l Nht, 50 l Anh, 80 l
Italia, 888 l Singgapor, 885 l Thi Lan v 893 l Vit Nam. Bn hoc
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45
nm s tip theo l cc s ca nh sn xut, v ta c th thy trong Bng 2.1,
th d 4980 ng nht vi nh xut bn gio dc v 6009 l cng ty thuc l
Si Gn. Nm s k tip a ra con s duy nht xc nh cc sn phm, chng
hn 42679 v 05015 tng ng cho sch s hc v thuc l Vinataba. Ch s
cui cng l s kim tra m my tnh lu tr c th kim tra xem s trn sn
phm c ng nht vi s ca nh my khng.
Bng 2.1. Mt s EAN
Sn phm M hng
Sch S hc ca NXB GD 8934980426791
Vinataba ca CT thuc l SG 8936009050154
V ghi Hi Tin 8936014823033
Tesco plain flour 5000119101594
Abbot Ale 5010549000213
Maille Provencale mustard 3036817800295
Sacla pesto sauce 8001060375109
Book in figure 9780138340940
Ch rng, gi ca sn phm khng phi mt phn ca m vch.
Thng tin ny lu trong b nh my tnh ca ca hng v thng bo cho my
thu ngn in t gi ca mt hng m m vch ca n qut c.
M EAN cho vn ha phm (ISBN) c bt u vi ch s 978 hoc
979. Chn ch s tip theo l chn ch s u tin ca ISBN (Hnh 1.2).
Nu mt EAN c k hiu bi
1 2 11 12 13
... x x x x x , trong
i
x l cc ch s
thp phn, th ch s kim tra
13
x l c tnh sao cho tng kim tra:
( )
1 3 5 7 9 11 2 4 6 8 10 12 13
3 S x x x x x x x x x x x x x = + + + + + + + + + + + + (2.4)
l bi ca 10, ngha l S tha mn phng trnh kim tra:
( ) 0 mod10 S . (2.5)
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46
V d, thnh phn u trong Bng 2.1 khi thay th vo (2.4) cho ta:
S = 8+ 3 + 9 + 0 + 2 + 7 + 3(9 + 4 + 8 + 4 + 6 + 9) + 1 = 150
( ) 0 mod10 .
C th d dng kim tra cc dy khc trong Bng 2.1 lun tha mn
(2.5).
Nu mt li trong i lng e xy ra ti mt ch s
i
x no th S
trong (2.4) thay i thnh e hoc 3e ty theo ch s i l chn hay l. Trong
trng hp khc, v
( ) 0 9 s s e , s thay i trong S s khng cn ng d vi
0 theo mun 10, v th (2.5) s khng tha mn. Do m EAN pht hin
mi li n, tuy nhin khng sa c cc li n v khng bit ch s no
ca EAN l sai.
Mt loi li ph bin xy ra khi nhp cc ch s t bn phm, hoc khi
c chng, l hai ch s k nhau b v tnh i ch. Nu, chng hn, khi
trong ch s th nm
5
x v th su
6
x mt EAN c i ch, th trong
tng kim tra (2.4)
5
x c thay th bi
6
x v 3
6
x bi 3
5
x . S thay i trong
tng kim tra khi l
( )
5 6 6 5 5 6
3 3 2 + + = x x x x x x . Do nu
5 6
5 = x x th s thay i trong tng kim tra s l 10 , v th tng kim tra
s ng d vi 0 theo mun 10 v li s khng b pht hin. R rng iu
ny c th p dng tng t i vi s i ch ca hai ch s lin k bt k
sai khc bi 5 n v (khng nht thit phi l v tr
5
x v
6
x ). Tuy nhin, tt
c cc li ny khi i ch hai ch s lin k s c pht hin. Chng hn,
nu m cho sn phm thuc l Vinataba trong Bng 2.1 c khng chnh xc
l 8934980426791 (nhng ch s
10
7 x = v
11
6 x = c i ch) th tng
kim tra (2.4) tr thnh
S = 8+ 3 + 9 + 0 + 2 + 6 + 3(9 + 4 + 8 + 4 + 7 + 9) + 1 = 151
v v vy S
( ) 1 mod 10 , li xy ra. Tuy nhin nu, chng hn m cho
Vinataba ca cng ty thuc l Si Gn c khng ng l 8936009500154 th
tng kim tra (2.4) tr thnh:
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47
S = 8 + 3 + 0 + 9 + 0 + 1 + 3(9 + 6 + 0 + 5 + 0 + 5) + 4 = 100
( ) 0 mod10 .
V th s i ch ca ch s th th by v th tm (
7
0 x = ,
8
5 x = ,
6 7
5 x x = ) khng c pht hin.
Dng rt ngn 12 ch s v 8 ch s hnh thc ca EAN cng c
s dng, v mt s chui ca hng bn l cng c h thng m vch ring
cho mnh.
V d 2.5 (Th chuyn tin ca bu in M)
Th chuyn tin pht hnh bi h thng dch v bu in nc M
(USPS) ng nht vi s
1 2 10 11
... x x x x vi
i
x l cc ch s thp phn. S kim tra
11
x c nh ngha nh l phn d theo mun 9 ca s gm 10 ch s, l:
( )
1 2 9 10 11
... mod 9 x x x x x . (2.6)
Do
11
0 8 s s x . Chng hn, s 10 ch s 3844809642 chia cho 9, ta c:
3844809642 = 9 x 427201071 + 3.
V vy,
11
x = 3 v m t l 38448096423. Mt cch tnh ton n gin s kim
tra
11
x l thay (2.6) bi ng thc ng d tng ng:
( )
10
11
1
mod 9
=

i
i
x x . (2.7)
S dng (2.7) vi s c 10 ch s trn cho ta
3 + 8 + 4 + 4 + 8 + 0 + 9 + 6 + 4 + 2 = 48
( ) 3 mod 9 .
Chng t rng
11
x = 3, nh trn.
Nu mt li xy ra ti mt ch s no trong mi ch s u th d
dng thy rng phng trnh ng d (2.7) s khng cn ng, tr khi 0 c
thay th bi 9 v 9 bi 0. Vy, m pht hin tt c cc li n trong cc ch
s
1
x n
10
x , tr hai trng hp trn. Chng hn, nu
6
x = 0 trong s c 10
ch s v d trn b thay bi 9 th tng v tri trong (2.7) ca s mi ny
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48
s l 48 + 9 = 57
( ) 3 mod 9 . iu ny ch ra rng s kim tra khng thay
i, v th li trong ch s th su khng b pht hin.
Nu li ch xy ra ch s kim tra
11
x th n s b pht hin v (2.7) s
vi phm. Trn thc t khong 2% s cc li n s khng b pht hin.
Tuy nhin, kh nng ca m pht hin ra cc li trong vic i ch
gia hai ch s thp phn
i
x v
1 + i
x l rt km. Tht vy, nu 9 s i v hai ch
s lin k i ch th tng bn v tri trong (2.7) khng thay i v do ch
s kim tra khng thay i. Li khng b pht hin.
Kh nng cn li c th l khi
10
x v
11
x i ch. Trong trng hp ny
tng mi ca cc ch s trong v tri ca (2.7) l:
( )
1 2 9 11 1 2 9 10 11 10
... ... + + + + = + + + + + x x x x x x x x x x
( ) ( )( )
11 11 10
mod 9 mod 9 + x x x
( ) ( )( )
10 11 10
mod 9 2 2 mod 9 + x x x .
Biu thc cui cng ny khng th ng d vi
( )
10
mod 9 x tr khi
10 11
= x x , bi v
11
8 s x nn
( )
11 10
2 2 x x ( ) 0 mod 9
/
. iu ny ch ra rng t
1 2 10 11
... x x x x khng phi l mt t m, tr khi
10 11
= x x , trong trng hp s
i ch ca
10
x v
11
x l khng phn bit. V vy m ch pht hin cc li
truyn khi chng cha ch s kim tra.
3. Khong cch Hamming
Bn lnh trong v d 2.1 c biu din bi 00, 01, 10, 11. Nu c mt
li n trong truyn tin th lnh sai s c thc hin. l bi v bn lnh
00, 01, 10, 11 cha ton b cc kh nng c th ca t hp hai s 0 v 1, do
mt li trong mt bit ca mt t m s chuyn n thnh mt t m khc
cc t m qu gn nhau. tng ny c khi qut ha bi nh
ton hc v khoa hc my tnh ngi M R.W. Hamming nm 1950.
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49
K hiu
p
l tp hp cc s nguyn 0, 1, 2, , p 1 (i din ca cc
lp ng d mun p). Mt xu cc ch s
1 2 1
...

=
n n
x x x x x , trong mi
i
x
thuc
p
c gi l mt t c di n. V mi
i
x c th nhn p gi tr cho
nn tng cng c
n
p t. Mt p-m C chiu di n l mt tp hp cc t nh
vy, v nu x C e th x c gi l mt t m.
Trng hp ring, nu 2 p = th
i
x bng 0 hoc 1 v C l mt m nh
phn. Nu 3 p = , th
i
x bng 0, 1 hoc 2 v C l m tam phn.
Trong chng ny ta ch xt cc m m tt c cc t m c cng di.
Gi s x v y l hai t c di n. Khi y khong cch Hamming d(x, y)
gia chng l s cc v tr m x v y l khc nhau.
Th d, vi m tam phn c di 5 th d(01221, 10211) = 3 v hai t
ny khc nhau ti cc v tr th 1, 2 v 4.
C th thy d(x, y) chnh l s nh nht cc ch s ca x phi thay i
nhn c y.
Thut ng khong cch c s dng, bi v d(x, y) tha mn ba tin
ca khong cch. Hai tin u tin suy ra ngay t nh ngha:
(1) d(x, y) = 0 nu v ch nu x = y, ngha l =
i i
x y vi i = 1, 2, ., n.
Nu ngc li th d(x, y) > 0.
(2) d(x, y) = d(y, x).
(3) Tin bt ng thc tam gic:
Vi bt k t th ba no
1 2
... =
n
z z z z , ta c:
d(x, y) sd(x, z) + d(z, y). (3.1)
chng minh (3.1), gi s x thay i thnh y bng cch i qua z. S
ch s thay i t x n z l d(x, z) v t z n y l d(z, y), cho ta tng ch s
thay i: t = d(x, z) + d(z, y). Tuy nhin, d(x, y) l s nh nht c th cc ch
s cn thay i x tr thnh y, v v th khng th vt qu t, bt ng thc
(3.1) c tha mn.
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50
Khi nim gii m ln cn gn nht gii thiu v d 2.1 by gi c th
c gii thch li nh sau: coi t m truyn i l t m gn nht vi t
nhn c, theo ngha khong cch Hamming gia hai t l nh nht.
Mt tham s quan trng nh hng n vic pht hin li v tnh cht
sa sai ca mt m C l s gn gi ton b (overall closeness) ca cc t,
c o bng khong cch ti thiu
( ) C o . N c nh ngha nh l gi
tr nh nht ca cc d(x, y) vi mi x, y trong C vi x = y.
V d 3.1 (Khong cch b nht cho v d 2.1)
M u tin c s dng trong v d 2.1 l
{ }
1
00, 01,10,11 = C , v
khong cch gia tt c cc cp c th c ca t m l:
d(00, 01) = 1, d(00, 10) = 1, d(00, 11) = 2,
d(01, 10) = 2, d(01, 11) = 1, d(10, 11) = 1.
Do khong cch ti thiu l
1
( ) 1 C o = , v c th gii thch l do ti
sao m
1
C khng th pht hin nhng li n. Tht vy, i vi bt k m C
vi
( ) 1 C o = s c t nht hai t m a v b m d(a, b) = 1. Nu a c truyn
i vi mt li
i
a b thay i thnh
i
b , khi y ta nhn c t b. Nhng do
d(a,b)=1 nn b cng l t m, tin nhn c coi l ng, v vy khng c cch
pht hin li xy ra.
By gi xt m th hai trong v d 2.1, trong mi tin nhn c truyn
hai ln, to thnh
{ }
2
, , , = C a b c e vi a =0000, b =0101, c =1010, e =1111.
Khong cch Hamming gia cc m t by gi l d(a, b) = 2, d(a, c) =
2, d(a, e) = 4, d(b, c) = 4, d(b, e) =2, d(c, e) = 2. Do khong cch ti thiu
l
( )
2
C o = 2, v do m
2
C c th pht hin tt c cc li n.
M lp th ba trong v d 2.1 l { }
3 1 2 3 4
, , , = C a a a a vi
1
a =000000,
2
a =010101,
3
a =101010,
4
a =111111. Khong cch gia cc t m l
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51
d(
1
a ,
2
a )=3, d(
1
a ,
3
a )=3, d(
1
a ,
4
a )=6, d(
2
a ,
3
a )=6, d(
2
a ,
4
a )=3, d(
3
a ,
4
a )=3 v
khong cch ti thiu l
( )
3
C o = 3. Do m ny c th sa c tt c cc
li n.
V d ny minh ha kt qu quan trng di y, ch ra ti sao khong
cch ti thiu xc nh c li v cc tnh cht sa sai ca mt m.
nh l 3.1 (Pht hin v sa li)
Gi s C l mt m c khong cch ti thiu l o , v gi thit nhng t
nhn c c gii m bng nguyn l ln cn gn nht. Khi y:
(1) C s pht hin e li vi iu kin
1 > + e o . (3.2)
(2) C s sa cc li e vi iu kin
2 1 > + e o . (3.3)
Chng minh
(1) Theo nh ngha ca khong cch ti thiu, mi cp t m khc
nhau t nht o v tr. Theo (3.2), cc cp t m khc nhau t nht e + 1
v tr. Gi s mt m x c truyn i v nhiu nht e li xy ra trong
qu trnh truyn. Khi y, t nhn c s khc vi x trong nhiu nht l e
v tr, v v vy khng phi l mt t m. Do nhiu nht e li truyn
c pht hin.
(2) Gi s mt ln na rng mt t m x c truyn v nhiu nht e
li xy ra, do t nhn c z khc vi x ti thiu e v tr, ngha l,
( ) , s d x z e. (3.4)
Nu y l t m bt k, khc vi t m x, khi theo nh ngha ca
khong cch ti thiu:
( ) , > d x y o 2 1 > + e . (3.5)
Thay th (3.4) vo bt ng thc tam gic (3.1) cho ta:
( ) ( ) , , s + d x y e d z y .
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52
Kt hp iu ny vi (3.5) ta c

( ) ( ) , , > d z y d x y e 2 1 1 > + = + e e e .
iu ny cho thy khong cch gia t nhn c z v bt k t m y
( = x) ti thiu l e+1. Do theo (3.4), t m gn nht i vi z l x, v th
theo nguyn l ln cn gn nht, t nhn c c gii m l x, ti a e cc
li truyn i c sa.
Cc bt ng thc (3.2) v (3.3) c vit li l 1 s e o , v ( )
1
1
2
s e o .
nh l c th pht biu li nh sau:
Nu mt m C c khong cch ti thiu l o , th C c th c s dng
hoc l pht hin ti a o -1 li; hoc sa nhiu nht ( )
1
1
2
o li nu o
l l, hoc ( )
1
2
2
o nu o l chn.
Khi nhng li c pht hin, nhng khng th sa c th ngi
nhn yu cu gi li tin nhn.
V d 3.2 (Nhng ng dng ca nh l)
(a) p dng nh l vo ba m trong v d 3.1 cho ta bng di y
M o S li c pht hin S li c sa
1
C
1 0 0
2
C
2 1 0
3
C
3 2 1
Cc kt qu ny ph hp vi khng nh khi xt cc m lp li trong V
d 2.1. Ch rng by gi v b xung thm m
3
C (khi tin nhn c nhc li
hai ln) nn n c th sa mt li hoc pht hin hai li, bi v khong cch
gia cc t m t nht l 3.
(b) Xt mt m nh phn c di 5
{ } 11001, 01110, 10100, 00011 = C
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53
D dng thy rng khong cch ti thiu l o = 3. M hoc c th pht
hin ti a hai li, hoc sa c li n. minh ha hai trng hp ny,
trc ht gi s rng mt t r = 10010 l nhn c. Khong cch ca n vi
bn t m l d(r, 11001) = 3, d(r, 01110) = 3, d(r, 10010) = 2, d(r, 00011) =
2. V cc t m th ba v th t l bng nhau, theo nguyn l ln cn gn nht
th khng th xc nh c t m no c truyn i, c ngha l, nhng li
khng th c sa. Tuy nhin, hai li c pht hin, do chng hn r
c th l t 10100 vi nhng li trong cc bit th hai v th ba, hay t 00011
vi li trong bit u tin v cui cng.
Th d khc, gi s nhn c 11100. Nhng khong cch ti nhng t
m tng ng l 2, 2, 1, 5 ch ra rng t m th ba l gn nht ti t nhn
c. Theo nguyn l ln cn gn nht ta kt lun rng t m th ba 10100
c truyn i, qua sa cha li n (trong bit th hai).
4. M tuyn tnh
4.1. M nh phn tuyn tnh
nh ngha tng hai t m nh phn
1 2
... =
n
x x x x v
1 2
... =
n
y y y y l
z x y = + m
( ) mod 2 +
i i i
z x y , i = 1, 2, , n.
C ngha l, cc bit c cng theo quy tc cng mun 2:
0 + 0 = 0, 1 + 1 = 0, 1 + 0 = 1 = 0 + 1. (4.1)
T (4.1) ta c 0 =
i
z nu =
i i
x y , v 1 =
i
z nu =
i i
x y .
M nh phn tuyn tnh l mt m C c tnh cht tng ca hai t m
bt k cng l mt t m.
Ngha l, nu x v y thuc C th z x y = + cng thuc C. c bit, nu
x = y th bit th i ca x + x l 1 1 0, + = + =
i i
x x hoc 0 0 0
i i
x x + = + = .
iu ny ch ra rng mi m nh phn tuyn tnh bt k lun lun cha
t m 0 (c tt c cc bit u l ch s khng).
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54
V d 4.1 (M tuyn tnh v m phi tuyn)
(a) Xt m nh phn C =
{ } 000, 100, 101, 001 . Cc bit ca tng 100 +
101 l 1 + 1 = 0, 0 + 0 = 0, 0 +1 = 1, do , 100 + 101 = 001 cng thuc C.
Tng t, nhng tng khc ca nhng cp t m l:
000 + 100 = 100, 000 + 101 = 101, 000 + 001 = 001,
100 + 001 = 101, 101 + 001 = 100.
Tt c l t m, v vy C l m tuyn tnh.
(b) M nh phn chn l trong v d 2.2 l mt m tuyn tnh. Tht vy,
bt k hai t m x v y tha mn cc iu kin (2.1)
( ) 0, 0 mod 2

i i
x y . Do tng cc bit ca z x y = + l:
( ) ( ) 0 mod 2 = + = +

i i i i i
z x y x y .
iu ny cho thy rng z cng tha mn (2.1), v do cng l mt
t m.
(c) M C = (0000, 1010, 0111) l khng tuyn tnh, bi v:
1010+0111=1101 khng phi l mt t m.
Theo nh l 3.1, ta cn phi tnh khong cch ti thiu cho mt m
xc nh li v x l li . Mt l do m tuyn tnh quan trng bi v gi
tr ca c th tm thy d dng bng cch tnh khong cch gia tt c cc
cp c th ca cc t m.
Ta a vo nh ngha:
Trng s w(x) ca mt t m nh phn x l s cc s 1 trong x.
Xt tng z ca hai m t x v y. D thy rng
i
z = 1 khi =
i i
x y , do ,
s cc ch s 1 trong z bng vi s nhng v tr m x v y khc nhau.
Do t nh ngha ca d(x,y) suy ra w(z) = w(x + y) tha mn:
( ) ( ) w , + = x y d x y . (4.2)
t y = 0, (4.2) cho thy rng vi mi t m x, trng s ca n c
cho bi: ( ) ( ) w , 0 = x d x . (4.3)
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Nh vy mi quan h gia khong cch ti thiu v trng s c thitt
lp bi nh l di y.
nh l 4.1
Khong cch ti thiu o cho mt m nh phn tuyn tnh C bng trng
s khc khng nh nht ca cc t m, ngha l,
( )
0
min w
=
=
x
x o . (4.3)
Chng minh
K hiu w* l gi tr nh nht ca w(x) trong (4.3), v cho u l mt
t m m w(u) = w*. T (4.2) suy ra
( )
*
w ,0 = d u . Bi v c hai u v 0 l t
m nn t nh ngha khong cch ti thiu ta cng suy ra o d(u, 0). Kt
hp cc kt qu ny ta c o w*.
Mt khc, o w*. Vy o =
*
w , hay (4.3) c chng minh.
V d 4.2 (ng dng ca nh l)
(a) Trng s ca cc t m khc khng trong m 4.1a) l w(100)=1,
w(101)=2, w(001) = 1. Do theo (4.3) th khong cch ti thiu l o = 1.
(b) D dng kim tra rng m C = (000000, 010101, 101010,
111111) l tuyn tnh. Cc trng s l w(010101) = 3, w(101010) = 3,
w(111111) = 6, nh vy theo (4.3) m c khong cch ti thiu o = 3.
4.2. Biu din ma trn ca cc m nh phn
V d 4.3 (Phng trnh kim tra)
Xt mt m nh phn
1
C di 3 m cc t m
1 2 3
x x x tha mn iu
kin
1 2
0 + = x x . C tm t nh phn chiu di 3 l 000, 001, 010, 011, 100,
101, 110, 111. Chn t 8 t cc t tha mn iu kin trn th ta c
1
C =
{ } 000, 001, 110, 111 . V
( )
1
C o = 1 nn m thm ch khng pht hin
c nhng li n. Nu thm mt iu kin l
1
x +
3
x =0 th ch c t m u
tin v cui cng trong
1
C tha mn iu kin ny, v vy m tha mn c hai
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56
iu kin l
2
C ={000,111}. R rng
( )
2
C o =3, v vy m ny c th sa cha
mi li n.
Cc phng trnh trn c gi l phng trnh kim tra tnh chn l
(hay n gin l phng trnh kim tra).
V d ny minh ha mt tng tng qut trong vic xy dng m
tuyn tnh. Mc tiu l thm cc iu kin di dng ca nhng phng trnh
kim tra tuyn tnh nhm lm tng khong cch ti thiu gia cc t m, v
do c th ci thin kh nng x l li. Nhng iu ny s lm gim bt s
lng cc t m, v bi vy lm gim bt kh nng truyn thng tin ca m.
Chng hn,
1
C cha bn tin nhn nhng ch c hai tin nhn c th c gi
bng cch s dng
2
C (v d, c v khng).
Ni chung, nhng iu kin m cc bit ca t m phi tha mn c
dng phng trnh tuyn tnh, nn s dng ngn ng ca ma trn l tin li.
Ni mt cch cht ch, nhng phng trnh l nhng phng trnh biu
din ng d theo mun 2, nhng tin li ta biu din chng nh nhng
phng trnh thng thng.
Mt phng trnh kim tra
1 1 2 2
... 0 + + + =
n n
a x a x a x
c th c vit di dng thu gn ax = 0, vi
| |
1 2
, , ..., =
n
a a a a l vct
hng vi thnh phn l
1 2
, , ...,
n
a a a ; x l vct m
| |
1 2
, , ...,
T
n
x x x x = (4.4)
v
ax =
1 1 2 2
... + + +
n n
a x a x a x (4.5)
l tch v hng ca a v x, T l k hiu chuyn v ma trn.
Ch rng vct m (4.4) c vit nh mt ct vi nhng ch s ca
t m
1 2
...
n
x x x x = c t tri sang phi v c t t trn xung di.
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57
Nu c nhiu phng trnh kim tra, th chng c th c vit di dng:

1 2
1 2
... 0
... 0
... . . ... .
0 . . ... .
n
n
a a a
b b b
x
( (
( (
( (
=
( (
( (

hay 0 Hx = .
y H l ma trn kim tra, cc hng ca n l cc h s ca cc
phng trnh kim tra, v 0 l vect khng.
Ch rng vi cc m nh phn, tt c cc thnh phn trong H l 0
hoc 1, v H c gi l mt ma trn nh phn.
V d 4.4 (Ma trn kim tra)
S dng (4.5), hai phng trnh kim tra trong v d 4.3, c th l

1 2 3
1 1 0 0 + + = x x x ,
1 2 3
1 0 1 0 + + = x x x
c th c vit nh nhng tch v hng

| |
1 1 0 x = 0,
| |
1 0 1 x = 0, (4.6)
trong | |
1 2 3
T
x x x x = .
Kt hp hai biu thc trong (4.6) cho ta

1 1 0 0
0
1 0 1 0
( (
= =
( (

x . (4.7)
Biu thc (4.7) c th c vit gn nh sau
Hx 0 (mod 2) . (4.8)
Ma trn kim tra l ma trn nh phn
H =
1 1 0
1 0 1
(
(

. (4.9)
T m
1 2 3
x x x c xc nh nh l nghim ca cc phng trnh kim tra
(4.8), n c tm thy trong v d 4.3 l 000 v 111.
Gi s x v y l hai t m trong mt m C tha mn cng mt h
phng trnh kim tra di dng ma trn:
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58
Hx = 0, Hy = 0.
Nu z = x + y, th
Hz = H(x + y) = Hx + Hy = 0 + 0 = 0.
iu ny ch ra rng z cng tha mn h phng trnh kim tra, v do
cng thuc C. V vy, theo nh ngha, C l mt m tuyn tnh. Ni cch
khc, mt m nh phn tuyn tnh C l tp cc t m tha mn iu kin
Hx 0(mod 2), (4.10)
trong x l vct m.
Nu c m phng trnh kim tra th H trong (4.10) c m hng v n ct,
v c gi l c kch thc mn, hay l mt ma trn mn.
V d 4.5 (To mt m tuyn tnh)
Nhng v d 4.3 v 4.4, cc t m nhn c bng cch n gin l
tm trong tp tt c cc t c chiu di 3 cc t tha mn cc phng trnh
kim tra (4.8). Phng php ny s phc tp nu n qu ln. Di y m t
mt cch tm cc t m cho trng hp n bt k.
Gi s ma trn kim tra l
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1
(
=
(

H . (4.11)
Nhng phng trnh kim tra tng ng vi (4.11) nhn c bng
cch vit cc hng ca H nh nhng h s ca phng trnh. Chng hn, hng
u tin ca H cho
1 2 3 4
1 0 1 0 0, + + + = x x x x hoc

1 3
0 + = x x . (4.12)
Tng t dng th hai ca H cho

2 3 4
0 + + = x x x . (4.13)
Cc t m l cc nghim ca (4.12) v (4.13). Php cng nghch o
trong
2
l 0 = 0, -1 = 1, do trong
2
cng cho ta: =
i i
x x . Phng
trnh (4.12) c th c vit li nh sau:
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59

1 3 3
= = x x x (4.14)
v (4.13) c dng

2 3 4 3 4
= = + x x x x x . (4.15)
Cc bit
1
x v
2
x by gi c biu th di dng
3
x v
4
x c coi
l hai bit c lp, v chng nhn gi tr 0 hoc 1. Tt c c bn kh nng sau
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
i vi mi cp gi tr ca
3
x v
4
x , gi tr tng ng ca
1
x v
2
x
trong hai ct u tin c chn theo cng thc (4.14) v (4.15). V d
3
1 = x ,
4
0 = x th
1 3
1 = = x x ,
2 3 4
1 = + = x x x .
T bng ny c th thy rng c bn t m 0000, 0101, 1110, 1011. S
dng (4.3), khong cch ti thiu l o = min[w(0101), w(1110), w(1011)] = 2.
V
3
x v
4
x c th chn ty nn chng c gi l cc bit thng tin.
Hai bit
1
x v
2
x c gi l cc bit kim tra, v cc bit ny c xc nh
duy nht bi cc bit thng tin, nh c ch ra trong bng trn. Thng tin tin
nhn
3
x
4
x c gi l m ha (encoded) thnh t m
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x .
V d trn minh ha bi ton xy dng mt m tuyn tnh c thc
hin bng cch chn mt ma trn kim tra ph hp. Ch rng cc phng
trnh (4.12) v (4.13) d dng gii c v bit kim tra
1
x ch xut hin trong
phng trnh u tin v bit kim tra
2
x ch xut hin trong phng trnh th
hai. Tng t, ta xt m c ba bit kim tra cho mt m chiu di 5, vi cc
phng trnh kim tra dng:
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60
1 1 4 2 5
0 + + = x a x a x ;
2 1 4 2 5
0 + + = x b x b x ; (4.16)

3 1 4 2 5
0 + + = x c x c x ,
trong
4
x v
5
x l nhng bit thng tin. Nh v d 4.1, h c th c vit li
bng cch s dng mun 2 biu din cc m kim tra nh sau
1 1 4 2 5
2 1 4 2 5
3 1 4 2 5
= +

= +
`
= +
)
x a x a x
x b x b x
x c x c x
. (4.17)
Trong k hiu ma trn, (4.16) tr thnh Hx = 0, trong :
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
(
(
=
(
(

a a
H b b
c c
, | |
1 2 3 4 5
T
x x x x x x = . (4.18)
Ba ct u tin ca H trong (4.18) to thnh ma trn n v 33,
c k hiu l
3
I . Cc ct cn li ca (4.18) to thnh mt ma trn A s
chiu 3 2.
Tng t, ma trn kim tra (4.11) c th c vit l H =
| |
2
I A vi:

2
1 0
0 1
(
=
(

I ,
1 0
1 1
(
=
(

A .
Tng qut, xy dng mt m nh phn tuyn tnh chiu di n vi m
bit kim tra, ma trn kim tra l:
| |
m
H I A = , vi A l ma trn c s chiu
( )
m n m . Cc t m x =
1 2
...
n
x x x tha mn phng trnh kim tra Hx = 0.
Cc bit kim tra
1 2
...
n
x x x c tnh nh sau:
1 1
2 2
... ...
+
+
+
( (
( (
( (
=
( (
( (

m
m
n m n
x x
x x
A
x x
. (4.19)
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61
Chng hn, (4.17) c vit thnh:
1
4
2
5
3
(
(
(
=
(
(

(

x
x
x A
x
x
, trong
1 2
1 2
1 2
(
(
=
(
(

a a
A b b
c c
.
C tt c k = n - m bit thng tin
1,
...,
+ m n
x x . Bi v cc bit ny c th nhn gi
tr 0 hay 1 c lp, tng cng c tt c 2
k
t m. S k c gi l s chiu
ca m, cn m c gi l mt [n,k] m. m ha mt tin nhn cha
1,
...,
+ m n
x x , n gin ta thm vo u n nhng bit kim tra
1 2
...
m
x x x c tnh
bng cch s dng (4.19).
V d 4.6 (Xy dng mt m tuyn tnh)
xy dng m chiu di 7 vi ba bit kim tra, ta chn ma trn kim tra
| |
3
1 0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
H I A
(
(
= =
(
(

. (4.20)
Cc hng ca ma trn A trong (4.20) n gin l nhng h s ca
nhng phng trnh trong v phi ca (4.19). V m = 3, cc bit kim tra l
1 2 3
, , x x x , do , v d, dng u tin ca A trong (4.20) cho
1 4 5 6 7
1 1 0 1 = + + + x x x x x , c ngha l:
1 4 5 7
= + + x x x x .
Tng t, dng th hai v th ba ca A trong (4.20) cho

2 4 5 6
= + + x x x x ,
3 5 6 7
= + + x x x x .
Nh trong v d 4.5, la chn tt c cc gi tr c th c ca cc bit
thng tin
4 5 6 7
, , , x x x x cho tp tt c cc t m. V d, nu
4
x =1,
5
x =0,
6
x = 1,
7
x = 0 th:

1
x = 1 + 0 + 0 = 1,
2
x = 1 + 0 +1 = 0,
3
x = 0 + 1 + 0 = 1.
V vy, t m tng ng l 1011010.
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62
M chiu di 7 xy dng nh trn c kch thc l k =7 3 = 4, v
c tt c
4
2 = 16 t m. Bn t m khc vi 1011010 c lit k trong
bng sau.
Cc bit kim tra Cc bit thng tin
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5
x
6
x
7
x
1 1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0
Pht hin li n
i vi mt m nh phn, mt li n c ngha l mt bit 0 c nhn
l 1, hoc bit 1 c nhn l 0. Theo nh l 3.1, m pht hin tt c cc
li n khong cch ti thiu o t nht phi l 2. Tuy nhin theo nh l 4.1,
i vi mt m nh phn tuyn tnh, o bng s nh nht ca tt c cc trng
s ca t m khc khng. V vy trong trng hp ny i hi o 2, suy ra
rng khng c t m no c trng s 1. Nu e l t c trng s 1 th n c mi
bit bng 0 tr mt bit th i, tc l
| |
0...010...0
T
e = . T e nh vy khng l t
m th n phi tha mn He 0 = .Tuy nhin, vect tch He chnh l ct th i
ca H, v vy suy ra khng c ct no ca H c th bng khng. Ni cch
khc, ma trn kim tra H ca m tuyn tnh nh phn pht hin li n (single-
error-detecting) khng c ct no bng 0.
V d 4.7 (Hai ma trn kim tra)
(a) Ma trn kim tra H trong (4.11) khng c ct s no c tt c cc
phn t bng khng v do to ra mt m pht hin tt c cc li n. iu
ny c c do = 2 cho m ny.
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63
(b) Ma trn kim tra
1 0 0 1
0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0
(
(
=
(
(

H c ct th hai bng 0. Do
0100, vi ch bit th hai khc khng, l mt t m c trng s 1. Khong cch
ti thiu do l o =1, v m vi ma trn kim tra H khng nhn din c
nhng li n.
Sa cha li n
Trong 3 ta bit rng, sa c nhng li n th o 3, ngha l
khng c t m no c trng s 1 hoc 2. Nu e l mt t nh phn c trng s
2 th e ch c hai bit khc khng ti v tr i v j v khi y He 0. Tuy nhin,
iu ny dn n cc ct
i
h ,
j
h th i v th j ca H tha mn iu kin
i
h +
j
h 0 = (v
i
h +
j
h =He), tc l
i
h
j
h , bi v -
i
h =
j
h (mod 2). Ni cch
khc, H l ma trn kim tra ca m nh phn tuyn tnh sa c li n
(single-error-correcting linear binary code, vit tt: s.e.c) th khng c ct no
ca H l 0 v khng c hai ct ca H bng nhau.
V d 4.7 (M sa c li n)
(a) Ma trn kim tra H trong (4.11) c cc ct th hai v th t bng
nhau, v do khng phi l ma trn kim tra ca mt m s.e.c. iu ny
ph hp vi cc kt qu trc ch ra rng khong cch ti thiu cho m
ny l 2.
(b) Nu m ch c hai bit kim tra, th ma trn kim tra tha mn cc
iu kin sa li n ch c th l
1 0 1
0 1 1
(
=
(

H , bi v ba ct trn cho thy
ch c ct khc khng l nhng ct vi hai phn t. Nh nhn xt trn,
hon v cc ct ca H (v d, sinh ra ma trn H trong (4.9)) khng sinh mt
m khc.
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64
(c) Khi c ba bit kim tra, ch c duy nht mt la chn cc ct ca
ma trn A khc vi cc ct ca
3
I l ma trn c ch ra trong (4.20). Ma
trn H trong (4.20) khi y l ma trn kim tra cho mt m s.e.c. chiu di 7.
Tng t, chn bt k mt, hai hoc ba trong s cc ct ca A trong (4.20) v
ph thm chng vo cc ct ca
3
I , kt qu trong ma trn kim tra s.e.c. cho
m chiu di 4, 5 hoc 6 tng ng. Th d, mi ma trn
1
1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 1
(
(
=
(
(

H ,
2
1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1
(
(
=
(
(

H (4.21)
sinh ra mt m s.e.c. chiu di 5 vi ba bit kim tra v hai bit thng tin.
Ch rng trong mi trng hp ba ct u tin (c ngha l,
3
I ) c
gi li.
(d) Ma trn kim tra
1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 1 0
(
(
=
(
(

H c cc ct th hai v th
su bng nhau. V x =010001 vi ch s 1 trong cc v tr th hai v th su
tha mn 0 Hx = nn x l mt t m c trng s 2. Do m tng ng vi H
c khong cch ti thiu 2, v vy khng sa c li n. V H khng c ct
ch gm ton cc ch s 0 nn m khng pht hin c nhng li n.
Phn (c) ca v d 4.7 ch ra rng mt m s.e.c. vi ba bit kim tra
c chiu di ti a l 7. Ni chung, cho mt m chiu di n vi m bit kim tra,
ma trn kim tra s l
ct
( =

m
mc t n m
H I A m hng.
Bi v mi phn t trong m phn t ca mt ct ca A c th l 0 hoc
1, nn c nhiu nht l 2
m
ct khc nhau cho la chn A. Nhng m c
tnh cht s.e.c., ct 0 v m ct ca
m
I phi b loi ra t A. Do tng s cc
ct c th chn ch l 2
m
m - 1. Ngha l, i vi mt m nh phn s.e.c, s
(n - m) ct ca A phi tha mn n - m 2
m
m 1.
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65
Do chiu di ca cc m ny tha mn cc iu kin n 2
m
1. Khi
2 1
m
n = th m c gi l hon ho (perfect). V d, khi c bn bit kim
tra, m s.e.c hon ho c chiu di
4
2 -1 = 15, v s bit thng tin l 15-4=11.
Cc m s.e.c khng hon ho vi bn bit kim tra c t hn 11 bit thng tin.
4.3. Thut ton hi chng gii m cho cc m nh phn
T trc n nay ta gii m bng cch tm khong cch Hamming
gia mt t nhn c r v mi t m. Khi y nguyn tc ln cn gn nht
chn t m gn nht vi r gi nh l t m c truyn i. S gii
m ny khng thc t khi c mt s lng ln t m. Thay vo , cch tip
cn trc tip s dng ma trn kim tra H l thch hp hn. Tuy nhin, nguyn
l ln cn cc i (maximum likelihood) vn c hiu lc Nguyn tc ny
gi thit t nhn c khng c li l gn hn tt c cc t khc v t nhn
c vi mt li l gn hn t c hai li hoc hn, v.v,...
Nu r l mt t m, theo nh ngha n tha mn Hr = 0. Nu khi
truyn tin xy ra mt li n v tr th i th r c e = + , trong e l mt t c
1
i
e = , v 0
i
e = vi mi i khc. Trong trng hp ny mt ln na 0 Hc = ,
nhng do
i
He h = l ct th i ca H nn
Hr = H(c + e) = Hc + He = 0 +
i
h =
i
h .
iu ny ch ra rng nu mt li n xut hin trong truyn tin th Hr
bng mt ct ca H. V vai tr ca n trong vic xc nh t m c
truyn i, cc vc t ct Hr (nhn c bng cch nhn ma trn kim tra v
vct ct r to thnh t t nhn c r) c gi l hi chng (syndrome)
ca r. Tn gi ny xut pht t vic s dng thut ng y khoa vi ngha l
triu chng (symptom).
gii m mt t nh phn nhn c r, ta s dng thut ton sau y.
Thut ton hi chng gii m cho cc m nh phn
Bc 1: Tnh hi chng s = Hr (mod 2).
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66
Bc 2: Nu 0 s = th coi r l mt t m v li truyn khng xy ra.
Bc 3: Nu s = ct th i ca H, gi s mt li n xy ra trong
bit th i, v t m truyn i l r e + nhn c bng cch sa
i
r
thnh
i
r + 1.
Bc 4: Nu s 0, s khc ct th i ca H, th gi thit rng nhiu hn
mt li xy ra, v i hi truyn li tin nhn.
V d 4.8 (ng dng ca thut ton)
Xt m s.e.c. chiu di 5 vi ma trn kim tra l ma trn
1
H trong (4.21).
(a) Nu t nhn c l r = 11001 th hi chng
1
s H r = l

1
1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 0
1
(
(
(
(
(
( =
(
(
(

(
(

s =
1.1 0.1 0.1 1.0 1.1 0
0.1 1.1 0.0 1.0 1.1 0
0.1 0.1 1.0 0.0 1.1 1
+ + + +
( (
( (
+ + + + =
( (
( ( + + + +

.
So snh s vi
1
H trong (4.21) cho thy rng n bng vi ct th ba ca
1
H . Do theo bc 3, mt li truyn xy ra trong bit th ba, do e =
00100. Bit th ba ca r c sa thnh 0 + 1 = 1, do , cc t m truyn
l c =11101. V
1
0 Hc = nn c thc s l mt t m.
(b) Nu t nhn c l r = 10100 th hi chng l:

1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 1
0
s
(
(
( (
(
( (
( = =
( (
(
( (

(
(

.
R rng s khng phi l ct ca
1
H , do , theo bc 4, c nhiu hn
mt li xy ra. Ta c th kim tra trong trng hp ny cc t m c
truyn i c th l 00000 vi nhng li trong bit u tin v th ba; hoc
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67
11101 vi nhng li trong cc bit th hai v bit th nm; hoc 00111 vi cc
li trong bit th nht, th t v th nm. M khng th sa cc li bi ny.
Phn (b) ca v d 4.7 ch ra rng c th nhn c mt hi chng
khng phi l mt ct ca ma trn kim tra. iu ny c ngha rng khng c
t m no m khong cch Hamming n t nhn c l 1. Tuy nhin, nu
m l hon ho th iu ny khng th xy ra mt hi chng s bng mt ct
ca H. Ni cch khc, mi t nhn c c th c coi l nhn c t mt
t m duy nht vi nhiu nht l mt li. gii thch ti sao, ta nh rng
mt m hon ho vi m bit kim tra c di n = 2 1
m
n = , v cha 2
k
t
m, vi k n m = . C chnh xc n t m khong cch Hamming l 1 n t
m 000, l cc t m 10...0, 010...0, 0...010...0, 0...01 (sai khc vi t m
000 duy nht 1 bit). Tng t p dng cho mi t m khc. Nh vy tng
s ca cc t c chiu di n m khong cch bng 1 n mt t m l:
( )
2 . 2 2 1 2 2 = =
k k m n k
n .
Bi vy, 2 2 2 . = +
n k k
n, trong 2
n
l tng s nhng t c di n; 2
k

l s nhng t m; 2 .
k
n s nhng t c khong cch bng 1 n t m.
Vi mt m hon ho, mt t c chiu di n hoc chnh n cng l mt
t m, hoc c khong cch 1 n mt t m. Trong trng hp ny Bc 4
ca thut ton khng p dng c, iu ny gii thch ti sao cc m nh th
c gi l hon ho. Tt c iu ny gi nh rng ti a l mt li truyn
xy ra. V d, c th i vi mt t m c truyn i, v nhn c mt t
m khc bi mt s li xy ra. Thut ton hi chng gii m ch c th kt
lun "khng c li trong trng hp ny.
4.4. M nh phn Hamming
Mt bt li ca thut ton trong phn trc l mt hi chng phi c
so snh vi cc ct ca ma trn kim tra. Vo nm 1950, Hamming ngh ra
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68
mt lc , theo v tr ca cc li n c th nhn c trc tip t hi
chng. Nh li rng ma trn kim tra cho mt m nh phn s.e.c phi khng
cha mt ct gm ton ch s 0, hoc hai ct ging ht nhau. Hamming ch ra
rng, con ng t nhin p ng iu kin ny l chn biu din nh phn
ca cc s nguyn 1, 2, 3, 4,... nh l cc ct H.
V d 4.9 M Hamming chiu di 5
Biu din nh phn ca nhng s nguyn t n 5, s dng ba bit l:
S thp phn 1 2 3 4 5
Nh phn 001 010 011 100 101
Nhng s nh phn ny loi tr 000 v tt c u khc nhau, do , vit
chng nh cc ct ca mt ma trn kim tra, m thc cht s to ra mt m
s.e.c. c ba bit kim tra.
Nh trc y, nhng bit c c t tri sang phi, v c xp t
trn xung di, do , v d, 001 tr thnh
0
0
1
(
(
(
(

. Thc hin iu ny cho mi
s nh phn dn n ma trn:

0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1
(
(
=
(
(

H . (4.22)
y l ma trn kim tra cho mt m Hamming nh phn [5,2]. Ch
rng H trong (4.22) khng cn c dng m ba ct u to nn ma trn
3
I c
s chiu 3x3, nh trong (4.20). Thay vo , chng l nhng ct th nht, th
hai v th t trong (4.20) v ch cha mt s 1, tng ng vi biu din nh
phn ca 1, 2 v 4. Cc bit kim tra l x
1
,
2
x v x
4
. Vit li cc phng trnh
kim tra Hx = 0, trong
1 2 3 4 5
x x x x x x = , cho:
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69
x
4
+ x
5
= 0, x
2
+ x
3
= 0, x
1
+ x
3
+ x
5
= 0.
Do
i i
x x = trong h c s 2 nn h trn c th c sp xp li nh sau:

1 3 5
x x x = + ,
2 3
= x x ,
4 5
= x x .
Chn tt c cc gi tr c th cho cc bit thng tin x3 v x5, ta c
bng sau:
Bit kim tra Bit thng tin
1
x
2
x
4
x
3
x
5
x
0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1
Vit cc bit theo th t
1 2 3 4 5
x x x x x s c bn t m 00000, 11100,
10011, 01111.
By gi xt gii m bng cch s dng thut ton hi chng trong Mc
4.3. Nu mt li n xy ra th hi chng bng mt ct ca H. Tuy nhin,
khng cn phi kim tra H trong (4.22) xem n l ct no. V d, gi s
mt t nhn c l r = 01101, khi y hi chng l:
1
0
0
(
(
= =
(
(

s Hr
Chuyn vct ct s thnh s nh phn s = (100)
2
, nh vy s ny trong
h thp phn l 4, do li bit th t, v t m c truyn l r + 00010 =
01111. Xa cc bit kim tra x
1
, x
2
v x
4
, tin nhn c gii m l 11. iu
ny minh ha tnh cht c bn ca cc m nh phn Hamming: biu din nh
phn ca hi chng ngay lp tc ch ra bit li.
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70
Nu c nhiu hn mt li xut hin th Bc 4 ca thut ton hi chng
gii m khng nh rng hi chng ny khng phi l ct ca ma trn kim
tra. V d, nu r = 11010 th
1
1
1
(
(
= =
(
(

s Hr . Chuyn sang s nh phn (111)
2
=
7. M c chiu di ch l 5, do khng th c li bit th by: kt lun l
nhiu hn mt li xy ra.
Ngu nhin, m trong v d ny c th c s dng gi bn tin
nhn l 00, 10, 01, 11 v l ci tin ca m lp trong V d 2.1 v y ch
yu cu nm bit sa cc li n, trong khi m lp trong V d 2.1 yu
cu su.
4.5. Cc tnh cht ca m nh phn Hamming [n,k]
(1) M c di n, kch thc k v m = n - k bit kim tra. Nu
2 1
m
n = th m l hon ho, nu n < 2
m
- 1 m l rt ngn (shortened).
(2) Vi i =1,2, ..., n, ct th i ca ma trn kim tra H kch thc m n
l vect ct c to thnh t biu din nh phn ca i s dng m bit.
(3) Cc bit kim tra nhng v tr, ni m cc ct ca H ch cha mt
ch s 1, c th l
1 2 4 8
, , , ,....,
p
x x x x x vi
1
2

=
m
p .
(4) Theo cch xy dng, m sa c mi li n, v do c khong
cch ti thiu l 3. Tht ra, o thc s l bng 3.
(5) gii m mt t nhn c r, ta tnh cc hi chng s = Hr. Nu
0 s = th coi t m r c truyn i. Ngc li, nu ( ) ( )
2 10
= s s j n th gi
s mt li n xy ra trong bit th j; nu j > n th c nhiu hn mt li xy ra.
6) i vi m Hamming hon ho, mi hi chng (ngoi tr 0) xut
hin nh l mt ct ca ma trn kim tra, v do tng ng vi mt li n
sa c. i vi m Hamming rt gn, mt s hi chng ch ra cc li kp.
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71
V d 4.10 (M Hamming hon ho [7, 4])
y s bit kim tra m = 7- 4 = 3, v n = 2
3
- 1. Biu din nh phn
6=(110)
2
v 7 = (111)
2
cho hai ct b sung s c ni thm vo (4.22). Do
ma trn kim tra 3x7 l:
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1
H
(
(
=
(
(

. (4.23)
V d, gi s mt t nhn c l r = 0110111, v ti a mt li
xy ra trong truyn tin. Hi chng l:
0
1
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1
1
s Hr
(
(
(
(
( (
(
( (
= = =
(
( (
(
( (

(
(
(

.
iu ny dn n ( )
2
101 = 5 ch ra rng li xut hin ti bit th 5 v khi
y t m c chuyn l 0110011. Loi cc bit kim tra
1 2 4
, , x x x dn ti
tin nhn c gii m l 1011.
4.6. Cc p-m Hamming
Mt pm C c di n c nh ngha trong 3 l mt tp hp
cc t m
1 2
... =
n
x x x x vi
i p
x e . Di y ta ch xem xt cc m vi p l
mt s nguyn t, do
p
l mt trng hu hn. nh l 3.1 v pht hin
v sa li trong 3 c p dng cho bt k pm no, nhng nh ngha
tuyn tnh trong mc 4.1 cn sa i theo cch sau.
Cho hai pt m x v
1 2
... =
n
y y y y , tng z=x+y c cc ch s
( )( )
i i i
z x y mod p = + , i = 1, 2, , n. Khi y C l tuyn tnh khi v ch khi
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72
(i) + e x y C , vi mi x, y eC v
(ii) ax eC vi mi a e
p
.
i vi m nh phn, iu kin (ii) tr thnh lun ng v
{ }
2
0,1 = .
Trng s ca pt m by gi l s cc ch s khc khng ca n.
Vi nh ngha m rng ny, nh l quan trng (4.1) vn cn ng, tc
l khong cch ti thiu ca mt m tuyn tnh bng trng s nh nht ca t
m khc khng.
M tuyn tnh c kh nng sa mi li n t nht phi c khong cch
ti thiu l 3. iu ny tr v yu cu u tin l ma trn H phi khng c ct
gm ton cc s 0, ging nh trong m nh phn; yu cu th hai trc kia
trong m nh phn l khng c hai ct ca ma trn kim tra bng nhau, by
gi c thay th bi iu kin l khng c ct no l bi khc 0 ca ct
khc; bi ny c xc nh bng cch nhn mi phn t ca vct x vi
ce
p
, l
( )
1 1
2 2
mod
. .
. .
( (
( (
( (
=
( (
( (

x cx
x cx
c p .
Phng trnh kim tra (4.10) by gi tr thnh Hx 0 (mod p).
V d 4.11 M tuyn tnh tam phn
Ma trn kim tra
0 1 1 2
1 0 2 1
(
(

khng phi l ma trn cho mt m tam
phn s.e.c., bi v cc ct th t l bng 2 ln ct th ba, l,
1 2 2
2
2 4 1
( ( (
= =
( ( (

(mod 3). (4.24)
Tuy nhin, ma trn kim tra

0 1 1 1
1 0 1 2
(
=
(

H (4.25)
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73
xc nh mt m tam phn tuyn tnh s.e.c, bi v khng c ct no l bi ca
cc ct khc. xc minh iu ny, ta ch cn vit ra tt c cc bi khc
khng ca cc ct v xc nhn rng khng c ct no lp li. i vi m ny,
t m
1 2 3 4
= x x x x x c bng cch gii cc phng trnh kim tra
( ) 0 mod 3 Hx vi H trong (4.25). iu ny cho

2 3 4
0 + + = x x x ;
1 3 4
2 0 + + = x x x .
Ly
3
x v
4
x l ch s thng tin, nhng ch s kim tra c th c
biu din nh sau (v -1 = 2, - 2 = 1 theo mun 3):

1 3 4 3 4
2 3 4 3 4
2 2 ;
2 2 .
x x x x x
x x x x x
= = +
= = +
(4.26)
Cc ch s
3
x v
4
x c lp c th ly gi tr 0, 1, 2, vy c 3
2
= 9 t
m. Nh i vi cc m nh phn tuyn tnh, cc gi tr ca cc ch s kim
tra nhn c t (4.26), theo mun 3. V d, khi x
3
= 1, x
4
= 2 th x
1
=2 +2
=1, x
2
= 2 + 4 = 0, v cc t m tng ng l 1012. Mt s t m khc c
cho trong bng sau:
Ch s kim tra Ch s thng tin
1
x
2
x
3
x x
4

1 2 0 1
2 1 0 2
2 2 1 0
1 0 1 2
Cc m c xc nh bi ma trn kim tra H trong (4.25) thc s l
mt m tam phn Hamming chiu di 4 vi hai bit kim tra v hai bit thng
tin. Ghi cc ct ca H nh nhng s trong h c s 3:
( )
3
01 1 = ( )
3
10 3 = , ( )
3
11 4 = , ( )
3
12 5 = , (4.27)
ta thy cc ct ca H tha mn cc iu kin quy nh cho mt m s.e.c.
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74
4.7. Cc tnh cht ca p-m Hamming [n,k]
(1) M c chiu di
( ) ( ) 1 1
m
n p p = , m ch s kim tra, kch
thc k n m = , v cha
k
p t m.
(2) Cc ct ca ma trn kim tra H kch thc m n l cc vc t ct
to bi cc s c s p vi m ch s u tin, trong ch s u tin khc
khng l 1. Nhng s ny c chn theo chiu tng ca bin , ngha l:
00..01, 00010, 00..011, 00012, , 0001(p - 1), 000100,
(4.28)
(3) Cc ch s kim tra ti cc v tr m ti nhng ct ca H c
cc s khc 0 n bng 1.
(4) M c khong cch ti thiu 3, sa c mi li n, v l hon ho.
(5) gii m mt p-t
1 2
... =
n
r rr r nhn c, ta tnh cc hi chng
( )
mod s Hr p = . Nu s = 0 th coi t m r c truyn i. Ngc li, th
i
s eh = , trong e = 0 v
p
ee , v
i
h l ct th i ca H. Mt li n bin
e c coi l ti ch s th i, v ch s c sa l
i
r e.
Khng nh m l hon ho trong (4) cn c chng minh. Ta phi ch
ra rng mi hi chng khc 0 l bng e ln mt ct no ca H, trong e
0 v
p
ee .
Bt k hi chng khc khng s c m phn t, v c th c vit trong
dng chuyn v
[0, 0, , 0, s
1
, s
2
, , s
m q
], (4.29)
c q s 0, trong 0 s < q m v
1
s l s u tin khc 0 ca s, vi mi
i p
s e . s e = ln mt ct ca H th ct ca H phi c dng:
2 3
0, 0, ..., 0,1, , ,...,
m p
c c c

(

. (4.30)
So snh mi phn t trong (4.29) vi e ln phn t tng ng trong
(4.30) cho:
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75
1
, = s e
2 2
= s ec ,
3 3
= s ec , ,

=
m q m q
s ec . (4.31)
Khi p l s nguyn t, mi phn t ca
p
u c s nghch o. Ni
ring,
1 1
1 p
e s

= e , do (4.32) c th c gii c:
1
2 1 2
= c s s ,
1
3 1 3
= c s s , ,
1
1

=
m q m q
c s s .
iu ny ch ra rng, (4.30) thc s biu din ct ca H hay m l
hon ho.
V d 4.12 Cc p-m Hamming
a) Khi 5 p = v 3 m = , chiu di ca m c cho bi tnh cht (1) l:
( ) ( )
3
5 1 5 1 = n v k = 31 3 = 28.
Cc s vi ba ch s trong c s 5 nhn c t (4.28) l:
001, 010, 011, 012, 013, 014, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 110, 111, 112, 113,
114,120,121,122,123, 124, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144.
Ta c th kim tra rng trong h thp phn 31 s trn tng ng vi
cc s 1, 2, 7, 9, 25, 26, , 48, 49, xc nhn rng nhng s ny c sp
xp theo th t tng dn.
Chng c s dng nh cc ct ca ma trn kim tra 3x31 tng ng
vi 001, 010, v 100, v c
28 19
5 3.73 10 ~ t m.
b) Khi p = 3, m = 2 m c chiu di
( ) ( )
2
3 1 / 3 1 4 = = n . Cc s
(4.28) c lit k trong (4.27), v ma trn kim tra H l (4.25).
Gi s mt t nhn c l r = 1200. Theo (4.24) ta c
1 1
2 0 1 1 1 2 0.1 1.2 1.0 1.0 2 1
2 (mod 5)
0 1 0 1 2 0 1.1 0.2 1.0 2.0 1 2
0 0
s H
( (
( (
+ + +
( ( ( (
( (
= = = = =
( ( ( (
( ( + + +

( (

.
Hi chng ny gp 2 ln ct th t ca H, bi vy, theo tnh cht (5) th
c mt li 2 e = ch s th t. Ch s cn sa ca t nhn c l
( )
4
2 0 2 1 mod3 = = r , do t m c truyn i l 1201.
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76
c) Khi p = 5 v m = 2 chiu di ca m l
( )
( )
2
5 1
6
5 1
n

= =
v
6 2 4 k = = .
Nhng s c s 5 trong (4.28) vi hai ch s theo th t tng dn l:
01, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14. Chuyn nhng s ny thnh nhng ct theo cch thng
thng to ra ma trn kim tra

0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 2 3 4
(
=
(

H . (4.32)
Gi s t nhn c l r = 202123. S dng H trong (4.32), hi
chng l:
( )
2 2
0 0
2 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 0.2 1.0 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.3 3
mod5
1 1 0 1 2 3 4 1 1.2 0.0 1.2 2.1 3.2 4.3 4
2 2
3 3
s H
( (
( (
( (
( ( + + + + +
( ( (
= = = =
( (
( ( (
+ + + + +

( (
( (
( (
( (

.
D dng thy rng
5
1
3 3
3
(
= =
(

s h . V vy, c mt li e = 3 trong ch s
th nm ca r, c sa thnh 2 3 = 1 = 4, t m c truyn i l 202143.
d) Khi p =3, m = 3 m tam phn Hamming c chiu di
( ) ( )
3
3 1 / 3 1 13 = , kch thc k = 13 3 = 10. i cc s trong (4.28)
nhn c cc ct ca ma trn kim tra

0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 2
1 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2
H
(
(
=
(
(

.
Cc ch s kim tra l
1
x ,
2
x v
5
x , v c
10
3 59.049 = t m. Nu mt
t
1
r =1102112100112 nhn c th ta c th kim tra rng s = H
1
r = 0, do
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77
, cc t m
1
r c truyn i. Nu mt t khc
2
r = 1000101220120
nhn c, ta c th tnh
2 3
0
1
1
s Hr h
(
(
= =
(
(

= .
Ch s th ba ca
2
r c sa cha l 0 1 2 = , t m c truyn i
l 1020101220120.
5. M thp phn
Mt s m thp phn c gp trn s hiu hng ha chu u
(EAN) (v d 2.4), ngn phiu M (v d 2.5), m sch tiu chun quc t
(ISBN). im c trng chung ca chng l cc ch s ca t m thuc
{ }
1, 2,...,9 (ngoi tr cc ch s kim tra), mc d s hc modula rt khc
nhau gia ng d 9 v 10 hoc 11 ty theo nhng m c bit.
5.1. M s sch tiu chun quc t (ISBN)
Mi cun sch hoc vn ha phm xut bn c ng nht bi ISBN
ca n, th d nh trong Hnh 1.2, ISBN l mt m t gm 10 ch s
1 2 10
... x x x , trong
1
x n
9
x l cc ch s thp phn, nhng ch s kim tra
10
x c th nhn thm gi tr
10
x , c k hiu l X (ch s La M c gi tr l
10). iu ny l bi v ISBN c xc nh vi s hc mun 11, m c
nh ngha trn trng hu hn
11
. Hng s di thp hn trong Hnh 1.2
l s hiu hng ha chu u (EAN) cho sch. Nhng ch s u tin ca mt
ISBN, c gi l 'nhm nh danh' (Group Identifier), k hiu quc gia, hoc
nhm cc quc gia. V d,
1
0 x = c s dng cho tt c cc sch (cho d l
bng ting Anh hoc khng) c xut bn ti Hoa K, Vng quc Anh,
Canada. Australia v mt s nc khc;
1
x = 3 ch ra mt cun sch c
xut bn bng ting c; an Mch c
1 2
x x = 87, v Thy in
1 2
x x =90.
Phn th hai ca ISBN, c gi l "nh xut bn tin t" (Publisher Prefix)
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78
c th bao gm hai, ba, bn, nm, su hoc by ch s. Nhng ch ny ng
nht vi nh xut bn, v d nh nhng ch s
2 3
x x =13, l k hiu ca
Prentice Hall. Phn th ba ca ISBN c th di t mt n su ch s v l
"S tiu " (Title Number), l s c gn cho nhng cun sch c th
ca nh xut bn, v d, 053101 trong Hnh 1.2. Chiu di ca s tiu ph
thuc vo di ca cc phn trc ca ISBN, nhng Identifier Group,
Publisher Prefix v Title Number lun c tng l chn ch s. Ch s cui
10
x
l ch s kim tra, v c chn sao cho tng kim tra
10
1 2 3 10
1
2 3 ... 10
i
i
S ix x x x x
=
= = + + + +
(5.1)
l mt bi s ca 11, c ngha l,
( ) 0 mod11 S . (5.2)
Nhng du gch ni thng c chn vo gia nhng phn khc nhau
ca ISBN, nhng khng c ngha ton hc.
t tng (5.1) bng khng, v s dng -10 1(mod 11) ta i n biu din
( )
9
10
1
mod11
i
i
x ix
=
=
. (5.3)
iu ny cho php tnh ch s kim tra theo chn ch s u tin ca
ISBN. D dng thy rng nu tng bn phi ca (5.3) l s thp phn c ba
ch s abc th (5.3) c rt gn thnh
( )( )
10
mod11 = + x a b c . (5.4)
Tng t, nu trong (5.1) S=( )
1 2 3
10
s s s , th (5.2) tng ng vi
1 2 3
s s s + 0 (mod 11). Tt nhin, d dng tnh ton tng trong (5.1) v
(5.3) bng cch s dng my tnh. Tuy nhin, ISBN c a vo s dng
khong nm 1968, trc khi c cc my tnh gi r, do , ngi ta to ra
mt bng s dng rt n gin cho cc th th. Bng ny ch cn lm cc
php cng m khng cn php nhn no. iu kin (5.2) c kim tra nhng
quy tc di y:
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79
(1) Xy dng mt mng vi ba hng v mi ct. Cc mc trong dng
u tin l
1 2 10
, ,..., x x x , v trong ct u tin l
1 1 1
, , x x x .
(2) Nu cc s trong mt ct l
1 2 3
, , a a a th cc s
2 3
, b b trong ct bn
cnh bn phi c tnh theo cc mi tn sau.
Hng u
1
a
1
b

2
a
2
b =
2
a +
1
b

3
a
3
b =
3
a +
2
b
(3) iu kin (5.2) tng ng vi ch s cui cng trong dng di
cng ca bng l 0(mod 11).
kim tra (3), ta xy dng bng nh sau:

1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
10
x

1
x (
1
x +
2
x ) (
1
x +
2
x +
3
x ) (
1
x +
2
x +
3
x +
4
x )
1
T

1
x (2
1
x +
2
x ) (3
1
x + 2
2
x +
3
x ) (4
1
x +3
2
x +2
3
x +
4
x )
2
T
Ta c th kim tra rng
1 1 2 3 10
... = + + + + T x x x x , v s cui cng trong
dng di cng l
2 1 2 3 9 10
10 9 8 ... 2 = + + + + + T x x x x x .
Hn na, ta d dng thy rng
2
T + S = 11
1
T , trong S l tng trong
(5.2), do ,
2
T 0(mod 11) khi v ch khi S 0(mod 11).
Vic p dng cc quy tc (2) c th lm n gin bng cch thc hin
tng php cng ring l theo mun 11 trong qu trnh xy dng mng.
V d 5.1 (Kim tra mt ISBN)
Xt ISBN 3880531013 nh trong Hnh 1.2. Tng kim tra S trong
(5.2) l:
3880531013 1 3 2 8 3 8 4 0
5 5 6 3 7 1 8 0 9 1 10 3
3 5 2 3 7 7 9 8(mod11) 0(mod11).
= + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + + +

Tha mn iu kin ng ca ISBN.
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80

Hnh 1.2
S dng nhng quy tc (1) v (2), mng c cu to nh sau.
3 8 8 0 5 3 1 0 1 3 ISBN
3 11 19 19 24 27 28 28 29 32
3 14 33 52 76 103 131 159 188 220
S cui cng ca dng di cng l 220 ng d vi 0 (mod 11).
Phin bn n gin hn ca bng ny s dng php cng theo mun 11
trong sut qu trnh. V d, cc mc trong ct th hai gim thnh 8 3 0 + = ,
( )
3 0 3 mod11 + = . Bng n gin hn bng trn s l:
3 8 8 0 5 3 1 0 1 3 ISBN
3 0 8 8 2 5 6 6 7 10
3 3 0 8 10 4 10 5 1 11 (5.4)
V s cui cng l 11 ng d vi 0 (mod 11), ng nh trn.
Qui trnh ny cng cho php ta d dng tm c ch s kim tra nu
bit cc gi tr ca
1
x n
9
x . Trong v d ny, gi s
10
x cha c bit. Hai
ct cui ca mng s l:
1
10
x
7
10
x + 7
1
10
x +8
V i hi
10
x + 8 0(mod 11) cho gi tr
10
x =3.
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81
V d 5.2 (Sa ISBN)
Gi s rng ch s th su (bng 3) trong ISBN v d 5.1 v tnh
b mt, do , ISBN c dng 38805 1013 x . Hoc l tnh S t (5.2), hoc s
dng cc mng n gin (5.4). Nm ct u tin (5.4) hon ton nh trc,
nhng phn cn li ca mng by gi l
5 x 1 0 1 3
2 x+2 x+3 x+3 x+4 x+7
10 x+1 2x+4 3x+7 4x 5x+7
trong cc tng c ly ng d theo mod 11. Yu cu s cui cng
dng di l

( )
5 7 0 mod11 x + . (5.5)
Li gii l

( )
5 7 4 mod11 x .
Bi vy

1
5 4 9 4 36 3 x

= = = .
chnh l gi tr ca cc ch s b mt. Ch rng do 11 l s
nguyn t nn tn ti phn t nghch o trong
11
. Ngoi ra, ta c th gii
(5.5) ch n gin bng cch th x =1, 2, 3 cho n khi nhn c gi tr
ng l 3 x = . Phng trnh (5.5) trong
11
cho nghim duy nht.
Gi s nhn c s thp phn gm 10 ch s thp phn v pht hin
ra n khng c trong ISBN. Nu khng bit nhng ch s no li th c th
c truyn i nhiu ISBN. Thm ch gi thit thng thng thch hp nht l
ch c mt li n trong mt ch s, th cng khng sa mt li nh
vy. Tuy nhin, m ISBN pht hin mi li trong hai ch s (thng
thng, nhng khng phi nht thit, lin k) ngu nhin b i ch. thy
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82
iu ny, gi s mt ISBN ng
1 2 10
... x x x c truyn i, v t nhn c
c
j
x v
k
x b i ch, vi < j k v
j
x =
k
x (nu
j
x =
k
x th khng c li).
Cho t nhn c ta c tng kim tra S trong (5.2) cha cc s hng j
k
x +k
j
x
thay v j
j
x + k
k
x . D dng thy rng tng kim tra sai khc l (
j
x -
k
x )(k - j) v
tch ny khng th ng d vi 0 (mod 11) v mi s hng u khc khng.
Do tng kim tra cho t nhn c khng ng d vi 0 (mod 11), v vy
li c pht hin. Nu nh bit hai ch s lin k c i ch th li ny
c th sa c.
5.2. M sa li n
M ISBN hin nay c ci tin sa li n. M ny bao gm
cc t m c 10 ch s
1 2 10
, ,..., x x x tha mn vi cc phng trnh kim tra
trong (5.1) nh m ISBN, c th l
( )
10
1
1
0 mod11
i
i
S ix
=

(5.6)
b xung thm mt phng trnh kim tra tnh chn l
( )
10
2
1
0 mod11
i
i
S x
=

. (5.7)
V c hai phng trnh kim tra nn by gi c hai ch s kim tra
9
x
v
10
x . Nhng phng trnh kim tra ny xc nh mt 11-m, nhng b qua
mi t m cha ch s X (=10), m kt qu ch cn cha cc ch s thp
phn ng (cc ch s 1, 2, ..., 9).
Gi s mt li n e xy ra v tr th i ca mt t m c truyn
i, khi y t nhn c r c
i
r =
i
x +e. Nh i vi m ISBN, vi t r nhn
c tng kim tra (5.6) c mt s hng b xung ie, v vy
( )
1
mod11 S ie . (5.8)
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83
Tng kim tra th hai (5.7) tr thnh
2
S e (mod 11). V th bin
ca li ny l e
2
S (mod 11), v t (5.8) v tr ca li ny l:

( ) ( )
1 1
1 1 2
mod11 mod11 i S e S S

.
Thut ton gii m cho m ny l nh sau, trong tt c cc php ton
c ly ng d theo mod 11:
(1) Vi t nhn c r, tnh hi chng
2
1
S
Hr
S
(
=
(

vi

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
H
(
=
(

. (5.9)
(2) Nu
1
S = 0,
2
S = 0 th khng c li, v t m r c truyn i.
(3) Nu
1
S = 0 v
2
S = 0 th gi thit mt li duy nht xy ra ti ch
s i=
1
S
1
2
S , v ch s chnh xc l
i
r -
2
S .
(4) Nu
1
S =0 hoc
2
S = 0 (nhng khng c hai) th t nht hai li
c pht hin.
Tht ra (4) lun xy ra khi hai ch s c i ch, nhng khc vi
ISBN, m ny c th pht hin tt c cc li xy ra trn hai ch s. iu ny
l v m c khong cch ti thiu l 3. Cch d nht chng minh iu ny
l ch rng cc ma trn kim tra trong (5.9) chnh l ma trn kim tra cho
11- m Hamming
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
H
(
=
(

,
nhng b i hai ct u tin. iu ny khng lm thay i khong cch ti
thiu, u l 3 cho cc p- m Hamming.
V d 5.3 (Cc ng dng ca lc gii m)
(a) Vi mt t c 0206211909 d dng tnh c bng cch s
dng (5.6) v (5.7) l
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84

( )
1
213 4 mod11 S = ,
( )
2
30 8 mod11 = S .
Do theo bc (3) trn, mt li duy nht xy ra v tr th i, vi

( )
1
4 8 4 7 28 6 mod11 i

= = = .
V vy ch s th su ca t nhn c c sa li l
6
8 1 8 7 r = = 4(mod 11), do , t m c truyn l 0206241909.
(b) Vi t nhn c 5764013052 ta kim tra
1
S 1 v
2
S 0(mod 11).
Theo bc (4) c t nht hai li trong t nhn c, v yu cu truyn tin li.
5.3. M sa li kp
Cc m c trnh by trn c kh nng, trong trng hp tt nht,
sa c cc cc li n. By gi ta c th m t m sa c tt c cc li
kp, ngha l, nhng li trong hai ch s ca mt t m.
Ta bt u vi m s.e.c v chn nhng t m tha mn ngoi (5.6) v
(5.7) cn thm hai phng trnh kim tra
( )
10
2
3
1
0 mod 11
=
=
i
i
S i x v ( )
10
3
4
1
0 mod 11
=
=
i
i
S i x . (5.10)
By gi c bn ch s kim tra
7
x ,
8
x ,
9
x ,
10
x . Gi s mt t m
1 2 10
... x x x c truyn v hai li xy ra cc v tr th i v th j vi bin
1
e v
2
e tng ng, khi y t r nhn c c
i
r =
i
x +
1
e ,
j
r =
j
x +
2
e . T cc
biu din ca tng kim tra suy ra rng trong trng hp ny:
1 1 2 2 1 2
2 2 3 3
3 1 2 4 1 2
, ,
, .
S ie je S e e
S i e j e S i e j e
= + = +

`
= + = +
)
. (5.11)
Bn phng trnh trong (5.11) s gii c i vi bn n s i, j,
1
e ,
2
e .
Mt s tnh ton i s thch hp dn n kt qu l i v j (cc v tr ca li)
l hai nghim ca phng trnh bc hai:
a
2
x + bx + c = 0, (5.12)
trong :
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85
2
1 2 3
= a S S S ,
2 4 1 3
= b S S S S ,
2
3 1 4
= c S S S . (5.13)
Khi i v j c tm thy, th rt d dng gii hai phng trnh u
tin trong (5.11) c

( )( )
1
2 2 1

= e iS S i j ,
1 2 2
= e S e . (5.14)
Lu l nu ch mt li xy ra, th d , vi e
1
0, e
2
0 th trong (5.11)
S
1
=ie
1
, S
2
= e
1
, S
3
= i
2
e
1
, S
4
= i
3
e
1
, v thay th cc gi tr ny vo (5.13) ta
c a = 0, b = 0, c = 0.
Nghim ca phng trnh bc hai (5.12) c dng

2
4
,
2
b b ac
i j
a

= . (5.15)
Cc cn bc hai ca phn t q (nu chng tn ti) trong
11
c cho bi:
1 3 4 5 9
1 hoc10 5 hoc 6 2 hoc 9 4 hoc 7 3 hoc8
q
q

)
. (5.16)
Thut ton gii m cho m ny nh sau, trong tt c cc tnh ton
s hc c ly theo mun 11:
(1) Vi mt t r nhn c, tnh hi chng
2
1
3
4
.
S
S
S H r
S
S
(
(
(
= =
(
(
(

, trong

2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 ... 1
1 2 3 4 ... 10
1 2 3 4 ... 10
1 2 3 4 ... 10
(
(
(
=
(
(

H . (5.17)
(2) Nu S = 0 (c ngha l, S
1
= S
2
= S
3
= S
4
= 0) th gi thit khng c
li, v t m r c truyn i.
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86
(3) Nu S 0 v a = b = c = 0, th c mt li n xy ra ti ch s
i=
1
1 2
S S , v ch s c sa l r
i
S
2
.
(4) Nu S 0 v a 0, c 0, v q = b
2
4ac c mt gi tr cn bc
hai trong
11
theo (5.16), khi gi thit l c li cc v tr th i, j cho bi
(5.15). Cc ch s ny c sa l r
i
e
1
, r
j
e
2
, trong e
1
v e
2
c cho
bi (5.14).
(5) Nu cc iu kin (2), (3) hoc (4) khng tha mn, th c t nht ba
li c pht hin. T (5.16) ta thy rng iu ny bao gm c cc trng
hp (4) khi q nhn mt trong gi tr 2, 6, 7, 8, bi v cc s ny khng c cn
bc hai trong
11
.
C th ch ra rng m c khong cch ti thiu l 5, do , theo nh l
trong 3, m ny sa c tt c cc li kp.
V d 5.4 (ng dng ca thut ton gii m)
(a) Gi s mt t c nhn l 3254571396. Cc tng S
1
, S
2
, S
3
v S
4
trong (5.6), (5.7) v (5.8) c tnh ton vi s hc mun 11. thun tin
cho vic tnh ton ta a ra bng sau:
i
x
3 2 5 4 5 7 1 3 9 6
i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2
i 1 4 9 5 3 3 5 9 4 1
3
i 1 8 5 9 4 7 2 6 3 10
Trc tin,
2
1 = =
i
S x , v ly tch theo mun 11 ca dng u tin
ca bng vi cc hng tip theo ta c:
1
1 3 2 2 3 5 4 4 5 5 6 7 7 1 8 3 9 9 10 6 2 S = + + + + + + + + + =
V tng t

2
3
10 = =
i
S i x ;
3
4
3 = =
i
S i x .
T (5.13) ta c
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87
a = 4 110 = - 6 = 5; b = 13 210 = - 17 = 5; c = 100 23 = 6.
V vy, i lng q =
2
b - 4ac trong bc (2) l:
Q = 25 456 = - 95 = 4.
Ngha l 2 = q trong (5.16). Do cc iu kin trong bc (4) ca
thut ton c tha mn. Vy c hai li c truyn i. T (5.15) cc li
ny xy ra cc v tr
( )
1
, 5 2 10
= i j . V
1
10 10
= nn
3 10 30 3 i = = = ; 7 10 7 j = = .
Bin ca cc li tnh c t (5.14) l ( )( )
1
1
2
3 1 2 3 7 7 8 e

= = = v
1
e = 1 - 8 = 4. Do cc gi tr chnh xc ca cc ch s th ba v th by l
3
r - 4 = 5 - 4 = 1 v
7
r - 8 = 1 - 8 = - 7 = 4.
T nhn c khi y c gii m l 3214574396.
Nhn xt rng s dng gi tr 4 9 = trong (5.16) ta c
( ) ( )
1
, 5 9 10 5 9 10 30;40 3;7 i j

= = = =
nh trn khi chn gi tr 4 2 = .
Cng ch rng iu kin c 0 trong Bc (4) l cn thit cho vic
sa cha hai li, v nu c = 0 th (5.12) c mt nghim i = 0, v l.
(b) Gi s mt t c nhn l 4063101012. Lp li nhng tnh ton
trn cho
1
9 = S ,
2
S = 7,
3
S = 10,
4
S = 2 v a = 0, b = 1, c = 5. Bi v a = 0 nn
t Bc (5) ca thut ton suy ra c t nht ba li c pht hin v yu cu
truyn tin li.
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88
KT LUN
Da trn c s ca l thuyt ng d v trng hu hn, lun vn c
mc ch tm hiu v trnh by nhng kin thc, nhng kt qu c bn, s
ng nht ca l thuyt m sa sai. ng dng l thuyt s ni ring, cng c
ton hc ni chung (i s tuyn tnh, h m,) cho php nhn c nhiu
kt qu quan trng trong m sa sai, cng nh trong l thuyt mt m. iu
ny c th xem thm trong cc ti liu tham kho [1], [6], [7],...
Qua y ta cng thy rng, nhiu thnh tu ton hc tng chng nh
ch c ngha v l thuyt, li mang n nhng ng dng quan trng v bt
ng trong thc t. Nhiu kin thc ton hc tng chng nh s cp (c
ging dy trong trng ph thng, thm ch cp Trung hc c s), nhng c
th ging dy trong mi lin kt vi nhng thnh tu ng dng mi trong tin
hc v i sng. Hn na, hc sinh ph thng hon ton c kh nng tip
thu nhng kin thc mi c nhiu ng dng ny (h m, m sa sai, l
thuyt mt m, l thuyt th, ton ri rc,). Hy vng rng chng trnh
ton s cp s c b xung nhng mng kin thc ton ny.
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89
TI LIU THAM KHO
Ting Vit
[1] Phm Huy in, H Huy Khoi, M ha thng tin: C s ton hc v ng
dng, Nh xut bn i hc Quc gia, H Ni, 2004.
[2] Nguyn Hu Hoan, L thuyt s, Nh xut bn i hc S phm, H Ni,
2007.
[3] Bi Don Khanh, Nguyn nh Thc, M ha thng tin, L thuyt & ng
dng, Nh xut bn Lao ng X hi, Thnh ph H Ch Minh, 2004.
[4] H Huy Khoi, Nhp mn S hc thut ton, Nh xut bn Khoa hc, H
Ni, 1996.
[5] H Huy Khoi, Phm Huy in, S hc thut ton: C s l thuyt v
Tnh ton thc hnh, Nh xut bn i hc Quc Gia, H Ni, 2003.
Ting Anh
[6] Stephen Barnett, Discrete Mathematics: Numbers and Beyond, Addison
Wesley Longman, Singapore, 1998.
[7] Sebasti Xamb-Descamps, Block Error-Correcting Codes, A
Computational Primer, Springer-Verlag, 2000.
[8] Mt s trang WEB v tp ch Ton.

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cng l mt h thng d thu gn mun m.

l mt h gm (m) s nguyn nguyn t

cng l mt h thng d thu gn mun m.

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l cc thng d khng m nh nht tng ng

cng l h thng d thu gn mun m khng m

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