an application of iment parameters and environment di nation: ivariate statistics Busan Grrenwoop Department of Geography, University of Toronto and Scarborough College, Toromo, Ontario Received May 23, 1969 Accepted for publication July 23, 1969 Mutant di fon the bass of quan fnviconmental Indi Adiseriminant analysis proves uscfal in classifying sei ical composition. analysis is shown to be ive sediment properties. Sie Intro ‘The use of modern analogues in the study of ancient environments and processes is a fogical and useful line of research, If a mean- ingful uniformitarianism can be accepted any likely errors focus, at least in part, on the cor plexity of the situation and the great number cof variables involved, The unrestricted use of any single variable as a criterion for environ- ‘ment discrimination is often suspect because of its possible interaction with a number of other variables, The problem of discriminating be- tween sedimentary environments on the basis of measureable sediment parameters resolves itself, therefore, into an application of multi- variate statistics, Linear discriminant analysis provides a means of analyzing a large number of sediment parameters simultaneously and arriving at numerical indices which can be used to delineate particular sedimentary environ ments, tental Indicators Sediment parameters of significance in this ontext must: @) be quantitative, b) diserim- inate between environments (to vatying degree), ©) be constant through time (not subject to diagenetic changes), d) preferably universal (measureable in all Sediments both recent and a Thus sediment parameters must sat- teria established for Key Environ- ‘mental Indices, (Miller and Olson 1955) Having isolated key environmental indices Some overall generalization is necessary which Will allow a solution to the basic problem of Alisrimination In the examination of modern sediments the Objective is to obtain a number of measured useful ool in delineating sedimentary environments requency satsticscaleulated by moments provide 8 for wavedain and aeolian sandy from Barnstaple Bay, Engisnd, Linear iments of unknosm origin and of varied mineralog sediment parameters, (r), from a set of samples (n); the (r Xm) matrix then provides the basic information upon which a solution to the environment discrimination problem is to be based. The values of (r) are quantitative measures of the various sediment parameters which seem likely to provide environmental indices and eventually key environmental in dices, Manipulation of the (r x n) matrix through statistical analysis may lead eventually to a predictive model for environment disetim- ination, Consider two sedimentary environments: collection and analysis of a large number of random samples will provide unbiased estima- tors of the population parameters for the two environments. The need is then to select those sediment parameters which will differentiate between the two populations. Univariate tests of significance (Student's “?” etc.) will indicate those measured variables which differ signif- icantly between the two populations. The (rn) matrix can thus be condensed in this way to give a new [(r~ a) Xn] matrix which then contains only those parameters which indi- cate a difference between the populations, Alternative reduction of data of the two en- vironment matrices may be achieved by prin- cipal components or factor analysis” where dependent variables are combined into fewer new variables or components, (Imbrie 1963) which can then be tested for their differentiat: ing power. The problem with factor analysis techniques, however, is in the interpretation of the new variables derived, ie, they may well differ significantly between the two eaviron- ‘ments and thus provide environmental indices, but their geological significance may well be1a CANADIAN JOURNAL OF EARTH SCIENCES. VOL. 6 189 difficult to determine, Tt is better to retain the original variables where possible in order to understand the reasons, in terms of process environment relationships, for the differentiating power of the parameters used, Diserim ronment discrimination basically poses 1 problem of classification: the search is for a set of environmental indices for assigning par- ticular sediment types to their environment of deposition. A complete solution will provide exhaustive and mutually exclusive classes. ‘A multivariate grouping procedure ean be used which will assign individuals to distinct ‘groups on the basis of a series of variables, The discriminant function established by Fisher (1936), following the work by Mahalanobis (1927, 1930) on the D® statistic, provides a suitable method. Populations described by k variables may be pictured as clusters of sample points in k-dimen- sional space. Linear discriminant analysis is the computation of a k-dimensional surface that ‘most efficiently separates the clusters, In addi- tion the “locations” of the two populations are described by k-dimensional coordinates of their multivariate means, and the degree of \ifference of the two groups is measured by the distance between these means, Detailed mathematical development of the discriminant function will not be given here as this is readily available in any standard text (Hoel 1947; Rao 1952; Anderson 1958; Miller and Kahn 1965; Krumbein and Gray bill 1965). Suffice to say that the discriminant Coefficients are so chosen that the ratio of the difference between sample means to the stan- dard deviation within the two environments is maximized. A solution for the linear discri inant function is found by setting covariance and variance estimates for the two populations into linear equations which are equated to the differences between the means, The simulta. neous equations produced are then solved to give values for the discriminant coefficients: the function has the form: EY) R= Axe + ate + Baas. + Data where R is the discriminant value, xs, 2, x ete. are the measured variables and A, dey Ae lc, are the coefficients of the linear function, ‘The discriminant index, R's, is found by substitution in the above ‘equation using the means of the combined sample statistics; dig. criminant values for each of the samples from the two populations are determined, Any sample can then be classified on the basis of its position above or below ’s (cg. if it lies on the R, side of R's it is assigned to population one etc,). If R’y is used the probabilities of imisclassification ‘are equal ‘Tests for the significance of the discriminant exist, (Fisher 1936; Goulden 1952; Rao 1953; Middleton 1962), and the contribution made by each parameter (environmental index) can also be evaluated, (Middleton 1962; Brandow and Potter 1953), further isolating key indices. As with most statistical tests, however, the linear discriminant function necessitates certain assumptions and requirements concerning the initial data, Tt is here that cate is required in application of discriminant analysis to the dit. Ferentiation of sedimentary environments. Its necessary to define two classes or pop- ulations which are mutually exclusive and ex- hhaustive and which ean be shown to be different on a priori_grounds, The use of a multivariate test of differences (the analysis of dispersion, Hotelling’s T?, Mahalanobis" D? etc.) will show that two groups, which may not differ signif- icantly on the basis of any single variable, (sediment parameter), may differ on the basis of all variables considered simultaneously. The variables chosen to discriminate between the two populations must be independent, normally distributed variates, Little or nothing has been published to date on the validity of these assumptions with regard to geological opulations, although some studies have al- fempted to nonnalze skewed varibln, (Sa 1964; Middleton 1962). Normality can be examined by carrying out a chi square test 0° examination of the skewness and kurtosis values for the distribution of the individual variables. Highly correlated variables should not purposefully be included as this may lead to inefficiency; provided perfect correlation does not exist, however, dependent variables will still contribute to the discrimination pro- cedure, Samples should be random within eachCOREENWOOD: SEDIMENT PARAMETERS AND ENVIRONMENT DISCRIMINATION 1g oup: randomness in geological sampling is ery difficult to achieve and rarely is it so. However, much basic information is miseon- ‘raed unless samples selected have some mean ing in relation t0 a total “target” population, (Cochran ef al, 1954), which in most cases will be the “available” population, (Griffiths 1962) Acceptance of a homoscedastic situation {identical population covariance matrices) is fone assumption basic to discriminant analysis ‘which is frequently ignored. However, Middle- ton (1962) has pointed out that the assump- tion of equal variances and covariances for the two populations is rarely valid in practical applications. Reyment (1962) conclucled that small departures from homogeneity of covati- anee matrices do not have much effect upon Ds, the statistic on which discriminant analysis is developed, and it seems likely that the linear function produced in such a case will not be greatly in erzor, Also the effects of hetero- feoely ofthe covariance matrix only become ‘apparent when sample sizes differ greatly. Discriminant functions disclose the true degree of distinctness of multivariate samples and also condense information relative to a large number of characteristics, Although such analysis is widely known, usage in the earth sciences has been a relatively recent innov tion. Applications to the distinction of sedi- mentary systems have been made by Eme and Grifiths (1954), Millete (1955), Shadi and Grifiths, (1955), Grifiths (1957), Hulbe (1957), Stanonis (1958), Metntyre (1961), Middleton (1962), Melion (1964), Sahu (1964), Krumbein and Graybill (1965), Sevon (1966), Landim and Frakes (1968), and Moiola ‘and Weiser (1969). The potential of discriminant analysis was lested using size-frequency statistics from a Series of random samples selected from a de- Positional complex on the shore of Barnstaple Bay, North West Devon, England. Depositional Environments ‘The environment complex was divided up intuitively into: a) Foreshore: zone between tide levels, 10 limit of high water swash; b) Backshore: zone above the limit of the swash of normal high spring tide, only exceptionally under direct wave action; e) Dune: zone above any wave action, separated from the backshore by eroded cliff face in many instances. SAUNTON SANDS BagNstaPLE Bay" Fic. 1. Map shoving the location of sedimentary ‘The backshore and dune areas were thought to be aeolian environments where wind erosion and deposition is the dominant process, Figure 1, illustrates the area of deposition and the sites samples. The general pattern is of two large rivers, the Taw and Torridge, draining an area of approximately 777 square miles and converging in their ower estuarine reaches to flow as a single course into Barnstaple (Bide- ford) Bay, Both to the north and south of this outlet stretch two beach—dune complexes. The Saunton Sands — Braunton Burrows complex, (Risdon 1811; Watson 1918; Steers 1946; Willis 1959), extends for about 3 miles north ward from the joint estuary of the rivers Taw and Tortidge, sind varies in width from 14 to 2 miles, Saunton Sands provides a wide inter~ idal area with a low gradient, sloping seawards at not more than 5°. The dunes rising in height to over 100 ft in some places form one of the highest dune systems in the British Isles. The senward part of the Burrows is 2 complex