Lec Nhapmon2013

Tm tt bi ging
NHP MN TON CAO CP

Ngy 16 thng 10 nm 2012
Mc lc
1 Khi nim v tp hp 2
1.1 Khi nim tp hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Tp con ca mt tp hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Cc php ton trn cc tp hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 M rng cc php ton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Tch Descartes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Mt s tnh cht i s ca s thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 nh x 10
2.1 nh ngha nh x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 nh v to nh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 n nh, ton nh, song nh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Tch cc nh x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5 Cardinality of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.6 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Gii tch t hp 24
3.1 The product rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2 Chnh hp c lp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3 Chnh hp khng lp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4 Hon v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.5 T hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.6 T hp c lp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.7 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4 Php th 31
4.1 Khi nim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.2 Vng xch v chuyn tr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.3 Du ca php th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.4 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5 Quan h hai ngi 36
5.1 nh ngha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.2 Mt s tnh cht ca quan h hai ngi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.3 Quan h tng ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.4 Quan h th t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.5 Mt s phn t c bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.6 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1
Tm tt bi ging: NHP MN TON CAO CP
6 Cng thc hng ng 43
6.1 Mnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.2 Cc php ton trn mnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.3 Cng thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.4 S tng ng ca hai cng thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.5 Hm mnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.6 Lng t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.7 Lng t v hm mnh nhiu bin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.8 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7 Phng php chng minh 55
7.1 Phng php chng minh trc tip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.2 Phng php chng minh o v phn chng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.3 Phng php chng minh qui np (Proof by Induction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.4 Phng php chng minh bng cch xt tt c cc trng hp(Proof by Cases) . 60
7.5 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8 Xy dng cc tp s 63
Ti liu tham kho 63
1 Khi nim v tp hp
1.1 Khi nim tp hp
Khi ta xt cc vn c bn ca ton hc th ta s gp phi nhng cu hi rt kh.
Gi s, chng ta mun nh ngha "ng trn". Theo t in ting Vit
1
, ta c "ng
trn l tp hp tt c cc im trong mt phng cch u mt im c nh (gi l tm)
mt khong cch khng i (gi l bn knh)." Khi xt nh ngha ny, ta cm thy khng
hi lng v chng ta cha nh ngha "tp hp", "im", "mt phng", "khong cch".
Khi nh ngha mt khi nim mi, ta dng cc "t" (khi nim) c xy dng nn
v nhng "khi nim c" li c xy dng t cc khi nim c trc na. Nh
vy. chng ta c truy hi mi ?
Cc phng php c chp nhn i ph vi vn ny l bt u vi nhng
thut ng nht nh (cng t cng tt) m chng c ng l "khng th nh ngha
c". Nhng thut ng ny nn tht n gin th c t s tranh ci v ngha ca
chng. Nhng n c tho thun trc rng nhng "khi nim khng th nh ngha
c" ch n gin l khng th c nh ngha bng cc tng c trc . Nhng
khi nim khng c nh ngha l ni chng ta bt u. Cc khi nim khng c
nh ngha cn c gi l "khi nim c bn" hay "khi nim nguyn thy".
Tp hp (hay gi n gin l tp) l mt trong nhng khi nim c bn nht ca ton
hc, ta khng th a ra mt khi nim tng minh ca n. Tp hp c m t nh l
s t tp ca mt s i tng theo mt tnh cht chung no . Khi cho mt tp hp ta
phi nu ln c du hiu, nh vi mi i tng c th ta c th khng nh c
i tng c nm trong tp hp hay khng.
Tp hp c k hiu bng cc ch ci in hoa A, B, X, Y, . . . Nhng i tng, vt to
thnh tp hp c gi l cc phn t ca tp hp y. Cc phn t ca tp hp thng
c k hiu bng cc ch ci thng nh: a, b, c, x, y, . . .
V d 1.1. Tp hp cc sinh vin ca mt lp i hc Ton K37.
Tp hp cc hnh tinh trong h mt tri.
1
Hong Ph (ch bin), T in ting Vit, NXB Nng, 1997.
2
V d 1.2. Ta k hiu cc tp hp s nh sau:
N l tp hp cc s t nhin. Z l tp hp cc s nguyn. Q l tp hp cc s hu t.
R l tp hp cc s thc. C l tp hp cc s phc.
biu th x l mt phn t ca tp Y , ta vit x Y v c x thuc vo tp Y .
Nu y khng l phn t ca tp hp Y, ta vit y Y v c y khng thuc tp Y .
V d 1.3. Ta c 1 N v 2012 N v 1 v 2012 l cc s t nhin;
1
2
, 2 N v
1
2
v
2 khng l cc s t nhin.
Tp hp c biu din bng cc lit k cc phn t gia hai du ngoc mc nh cc
v d sau:
V d 1.4. 1. A = {a} l tp hp ch cha mt phn t a.
2. B = {x, y} l tp hp cha hai phn t x v y.
3. C = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} l tp cc s t nhin nh hn 6.
4. D = {0, 2, 4, 6, . . .} l tp cc s t nhin chn.
5. E = {. . . , 3, 0, 3, 6, . . .} l tp cc s nguyn chia ht cho 3.
Hoc tp hp c th biu din bng cch nu mt tnh cht chung ca cc phn t.
V d 1.5. Cc tp hp C, D, E trong v d 1.4 c vit li nh sau:
1. C = {c N | c < 6}.
2. D = {n N | n l s chn}.
3. E = {a Z | a chia ht cho 3}.
nh ngha 1.1. Hai tp hp A v B c gi l bng nhau khi v ch khi chng cha
cc phn t nh nhau. K hiu A = B.
V d 1.6. 1. Cho tp A = {1, 2} v tp B = {x R | x
2
3x + 2 = 0}. Khi ta
c A = B.
2. Cho tp X = {0, 1, 2} v tp B = {x R | x
2
3x + 2 = 0}. Khi X = B v
0 X nhng 0 B.
nh ngha 1.2. Tp hp khng cha phn t no gi l tp rng. K hiu .
V d 1.7. Tp B = {x R | x
2
3x + 3 = 0} = v phng trnh x
2
3x + 3 = 0
khng c nghim trn tp R.
1.2 Tp con ca mt tp hp
nh ngha 1.3. Mt tp hp A c gi l tp con ca tp hp X nu v ch nu mi
phn t ca A u l phn t ca tp hp X. K hiu A X hay X A v c l "A
l con ca X" hay "X cha A".
Quan h A l tp con ca tp X gi l quan h bao hm.
V d 1.8. A l tp tt c cc hnh vung, B l tp hp cc hnh ch nht. Khi
A B.
V d 1.9. Cho cc tp hp A = {0, 1, 2, 3}, B = {1, 3} v C = {0, 2, 4}. Ta c B
A, A A; v C A v 4 C nhng 4 A.
3
V d 1.10. Cho A = {x N | n
.
.
.6} v B = {n N | n
.
.
.12}. Khi B A.
V d 1.11. Cho S = {x N | x > 3} v T = {x N | x
2
> 4}. Hy xc nh S T
hay T S.
V d 1.12. Cho S = {x N | x 4} v T = {x N | x < 9}. Khi S T hay T S
Nu A l mt tp con ca tp X m A = X th ta ni A l tp con thc s ca X.
Ta coi tp rng l con ca mi tp hp.
nh l 1.4. Cho A, B, C l cc tp hp ty . Khi
i. A A
ii. Nu A B v B C th A C
iii. Nu A B v B A th A = B
Gi s cho tp hp X. Ta xt mt tp hp mi m cc phn t l cc tp hp con
ca tp X. Tp mi ny gi l tp hp tt c cc tp con ca tp hp X v k hiu l
P(X). T khi nim tp con ta suy ra rng tp hp P(X) bao gi cng cha t nht 1
phn t, l X, v nu X = th P(X) c thm mt phn t na l .
V d 1.13. Cho X = {a, b} th khi :
P(X) = {, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}
nh l 1.5. Nu X l mt tp c n phn t th P(X) c 2
n
phn t.
Chng minh. Chng ta chng minh qui np theo n.
1. Khi n = 1, ta c X c 2
1
= 2 tp con l v X. Do nh l ng trong trng
hp ny.
2. Gi s X = {a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
} v P(X) c 2
n
phn t. By gi ta ly Y = {a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
, a
n+1
},
ta c X Y. Khi P(X) P(Y ) (v mi tp con ca X u l tp con ca Y ).
Hn na, P(Y ) cng cha nhng tp hp con ca Y c cha phn t a
n+1
(chng
l cc tp con ca X hp vi {a
n+1
}). M s cc tp con ca Y c cha phn t
a
n+1
l 2
n
tp. Do , s phn t ca P(Y ) l
2
n
+ 2
n
= 2
n+1
.
Nh vy, ta c iu cn chng minh.
1.3 Cc php ton trn cc tp hp
nh ngha 1.6 (Php hp). Hp ca hai tp hp X v Y , k hiu X Y , l tp hp
gm cc phn t thuc X hoc thuc Y
X Y = {x | x X hoc x Y }
V d 1.14. Ly X = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16} v Y = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} th XY = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 16}
Ch : x (X Y ) (x X hoc x Y )
Nu x (X Y ) ?
nh ngha 1.7 (Php giao). Giao ca hai tp hp X v Y , k hiu X Y , l tp hp
gm cc phn t va thuc X va thuc Y .
X Y = {x|x X v x Y }
4
V d 1.15. Ly X = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16} v Y = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} th X Y = {1, 2, 4}
Ch : x (X Y ) (x X v x Y )
Nu x (X Y ) ?
Nu A B = , tc l A v B khng c phn t chung no, th ta ni A, B ri nhau
hay khng giao nhau.
nh ngha 1.8 (Hiu). Hiu ca hai tp hp X v Y , k hiu X \ Y , l tp hp gm
cc phn t thuc X nhng khng thuc Y .
X \ Y = {x|x X v x Y }
V d 1.16. Ly X = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16} v Y = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} th X \ Y = {8, 16}
Ch : x X \ Y (x X v x Y )
Nu x X \ Y ?
nh ngha 1.9 (Phn b). Gi s ta c A X th X \ A gi l phn b ca A trong
X. K hiu: C
X
A
nh l 1.10. Cho cc tp hp X, Y, A, B vi A, B X, khi ta c cc tnh cht sau:
X Y = Y X X Y = Y X
(X Y ) Z = X (Y Z) (X Y ) Z = X (Y Z)
X (X Y ) (X Y ) X
A (X \ A) = X A (X \ A) =
X \ (A B) = (X \ A) (X \ B) X \ (A B) = (X \ A) (X \ B)
Chng minh. Chng minh X Y = Y X.
X Y = {x|x X hoc x Y } = {x|x Y hoc x X} = Y X.
Chng minh X (X Y ).
x X, ta chng minh x X Y.
Ta c x X x X hoc x Y x X Y.
Tng t, ta chng minh cc tnh cht cn li.
1.4 M rng cc php ton
Nu chng ta lm vic vi t hn 4 tp hp cng mt lc th ta c th k hiu cc tp
hp l A, B, v C. Nu ta c 10 tp hp (gi chung l mt h cc tp hp) khi ta cn
c cc k hiu khc v ta c th k hiu l A
1
, A
2
, . . . , A
10
. Trong trng hp ny, ta ni
tp {1, 2, 3, . . . , 10} l cc ch s ca h cc tp hp. Nu ta k hiu I = {1, 2, 3, . . . , n}
th ta c th vit nh sau:
{A
1
, A
2
, . . . , A
n
} = {A
i
}
n
i=1
= {A
i
}
iI
v ta ni rng tp I l tp cc ch s ca h cc tp hp.
K hiu ny s thun tin hn khi ta vit cc php ton hp v giao
A
1
A
2
. . . A
n
=
n
_
i=1
A
i
A
1
A
2
. . . A
n
=
n
i=1
A
i
5
V d 1.17. Cho cc tp hp A
1
= {1, 2}, A
2
= {2, 3}, . . . , A
10
= {10, 11}, ngha l
A
i
= {i, i + 1} vi i = 1, 2, . . . , 10. Khi , ta c cc tp
a.
5
_
i=1
A
i
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
b.
6
_
i=3
A
i
= {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
c.
k
_
i=j
A
i
= {j, j + 1, . . . , k + 1}, vi 1 j k 10.
d.
5
i=1
A
i
=
e.
j+1
i=j
A
i
= {j + 1}
f.
k
i=j
A
i
= {j + 1} nu k = j + 1 v
k
i=j
A
i
= nu k > j + 1.
i khi chng ta lm vic vi v hn cc tp hp. Do , ta cn cc k hiu ph hp
i vi cc php ton hp v giao. Nu A
1
, A
2
, . . . l cc tp hp th ta nh ngha
_
i=1
A
i
= {x | tn ti j sao cho x A
j
}.
Tng t, ta nh ngha
i=1
A
i
= {x | x A
i
vi mi i}.
Trng hp tp cc ch s phc tp hn, n khng bt u t 1 v tin n v cng. Gi
I l mt tp ch s ca mt h cc tp hp, ta c th k hiu mi tp hp trong h cc
tp hp l A
vi I v k hiu h cc tp hp l {A
}
I
. Khi , php hp v
php giao ca h cc tp hp ny c vit nh sau:
_
I
A
= {x | tn ti I sao cho x A
}.
I
A
= {x | x A
vi mi I}.
V d 1.18. Cho Q l tp cc s hu t v X
i
= {x Q | 0 < x < 1 +
1
i
}, i = 1, 2, . . . .
Ta hy m t
i=1
X
i
v
i=1
X
i
.
Ta ch rng X
1
X
i
vi mi i, do
_
i=1
X
i
= X
1
= {x Q | 0 < x < 2}.
Tip theo, ch rng, nu x Q v x > 1 th nu ta chn j >
1
x 1
th x X
j
. Ta suy
ra x
i=1
X
i
. Mt khc {x Q | 0 < x 1} X
i
, vi mi i. Nh vy
i=1
X
i
= {x Q | 0 < x 1}.
6
V d 1.19. One important contribution of the German mathematician Richard Dedekind
(18311916) is a rigorous foundation of the set of real numbers. He employed what is now
called a Dedekind cut, whereby the set of rational numbers is "cut" into two pieces.
Specifically, for some r R, Dedekind worked with sets of the form
A
r
= {x | x Q and x < r}
B
r
= {x | x Q and x > r}
Although,
2 is irrational, it certainly makes sense to talk about A
2
, the set of all
rational numbers less than
2. The set R is the index set for the families {A

r
}
rR
and
{B
r
}
rR
.
1.5 Tch Descartes
nh ngha 1.11. Cho hai tp hp A v B ty khc rng. Ta gi tch Descartes ca
hai tp hp A v B, k hiu A B l tp hp cc cp (a, b) trong a A, b B.
Ta c th vit: A B = {(a, b)|a A, b B}.
Cc cp (a, b) c tnh cht sau: (a, b) = (c, d) khi v ch khi a = c v b = d.
V d 1.20. Cho A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {x, y}. Ta c AB = {(1, x), (1, y), (2, x), (2, y), (3, x), (3, y)}.
Nhn xt:
Ta c A B = B A.
Ta qui c A = A = .
Nu B = A th ta c th vit A A = A
2
.
Ta c th nh ngha tch Descartes ca nhiu hn hai tp hp.
nh ngha 1.12. Gi s {A
i
}
n
i=1
l mt h cc tp hp vi ch s thuc N. Khi , ta nh
ngha tch Descartes ca n tp hp A
1
, A
2
, . . . , A
n
l tp hp, k hiu l A
1
A
2
. . . A
n
,
gm tt c cc b n phn t (a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
) trong a
i
A
i
(i = 1, n).
Ta k hiu
A
1
. . . A
n
=
n
i=1
A
i
.
Hay ta vit nh sau:
n
i=1
A
i
= {(a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
) | a
i
A
i
, i = 1, n}
Trong trng hp A
1
= A
2
= . . . = A
n
= A th ta vit A
n
thay cho A A . . . A
A
n
= {(a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
) | a
i
A, i = 1, n}
Khi (a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
) l mt b gm n phn t ca A, khng nht thit khc nhau.
7
1.6 Mt s tnh cht i s ca s thc
Mc ch ca phn ny l cung cp mt s nhng kin thc v tp s thc m chng
ta thng xuyn lm vic vi chng. Cc tnh cht ny c vit ra di ngn ng n
gin m chng ta c th d hnh dung.
Tp s thc k hiu l R m ta gi s cc phn t ca chng c cho mt quan h
bng nhau v cc php ton cng v nhn tha cc tnh cht sau. u tin, ng thc
c cho theo cch di y:
(A1) Tnh cht ng thc:
(a) Vi mi a R, a = a (tnh phn x)
(b) Nu a = b th b = a (tnh i xng)
(c) Nu a = b v b = c th a = c (tnh bc cu).
(A2) Php cng c nh ngha tt: Ngha l, nu a, b, c, d R, vi a = b v c = d th
a + c = b + d.
Mt trng hp c bit ca tnh cht A2 dn n mt qui lut quen thuc m ta
rt quen thuc khi hc i s ph thng l: Nu a = b th v c = c nn ta c
a + c = b + c.
(A3) ng i vi php cng: Vi mi a, b R, a +b R. Ngha l, tng ca hai s thc
l mt s thc. Tnh cht ng ny cng c gi nguyn i vi cc tp N, Z v
Q.
(A4) Tnh kt hp ca php cng: Vi mi a, b, c R,
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
Php cng c gi l mt php ton hai ngi, c ngha l n l s kt hp ca ch
2 phn t v cho ta duy nht 1 phn t.
(A5) Tnh giao hon ca php cng: Vi mi a, b R, a + b = b + a.
(A6) Tn ti phn t n v ca php cng: Tn ti mt phn t 0 R c tnh cht l
a + 0 = a vi mi a R.
(A7) Tn ti phn t i xng i vi php cng: Vi mi phn t a R, c mt phn
t b R sao cho a + b = 0. Phn t b c gi l phn t i ca a, v c k
hiu a.
Tng t nh cc tnh cht A2 A7, ta c cc tnh cht i vi php nhn.
(A8) Php nhn c nh ngha tt: Ngha l, nu a, b, c, d R, vi a = b v c = d th
ac = bd.
(A9) Tnh cht ng ca php nhn: Vi mi a, b R, th a.b R. Tnh cht ng ca
php nhn cng ng i vi tp N, Z v Q.
(A10) Tnh cht kt hp ca php nhn: Vi mi a, b, c R, (a.b).c = a.(b.c)
(A11) Tnh cht giao hon ca php nhn: Vi mi a, b R, a.b = b.a
(A12) Tn ti phn t n v ca php nhn: Tn ti phn t 1 R sao cho a.1 = a vi
mi a R.
8
(A13) Tn ti phn t i xng i vi php nhn: Vi mi a R, a = 0, tn ti duy nht
phn t b R sao cho ab = 1. Phn t b gi l phn t nghch o ca a v k hiu
l a
1
.
(A14) Tnh cht phn phi ca php nhn v php cng: Vi mi a, b, c R, a(b + c) =
ab + ac, trong php nhn c gi nh l thc hin trc php cng.
(A15) 1 = 0.
1.7 Bi tp
Bi 1.1. Chng minh rng
a. Nu A B v B C th A C
b. A B = A A B
c. A B = A B A
d. A B = A B A = B.
e. A \ (A \ B) = A B
f. (A \ B) \ C = (A \ C) \ (B \ C)
Bi 1.2. Cc mnh sau ng hay sai?
a. A \ B = C A = B C.
b. A = B C A \ B = C
Bi 1.3. Cc ng thc sau ng hay khng?
a. A \ (B C) = (A \ B) \ C.
b. A (B \ C) = (A B) \ C.
c. (A \ B) C = (A C) \ B.
Bi 1.4. Trong s 200 hc sinh ca mt trng hc c 50% s ngi bit chi bng
chuyn, 65% s ngi bit chi bng , cn li 15% s ngi khng bit chi mn no
c. Hi bao nhiu ngi bit chi ng thi c hai loi bng?
Bi 1.5. Chng minh rng vi hai tp A, B bt k:
a. Nu A B = th (A B) (B A) =
b. Nu A B = th (A B) (B A) =
Bi 1.6. Cho A, B, C, D l cc tp hp ty . Chng minh rng:
a. A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
b. A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
c. A (B \ C) = (A B) \ (A C)
d. (A B) (C D) = (A C) (B D)
Bi 1.7. Cc khng nh sau ng hai sai?
9
a. P(A B) = P(A) P(B)
b. P(A B) = P(A) P(B)
c. P(A \ B) = P(A) \ P(B)
Bi 1.8. Cho r l mt s thc, A
r
= {r
2
}, B
r
= [r 1, r + 1] v C
r
= (r, +). Cho
S = {1, 2, 4}, xc nh cc tp hp sau:
a.
S
A
S
A
.
b.
S
B
S
B
.
c.
S
C
S
C
.
Bi 1.9. Vi mi s t nhin n N, ta k hiu A
n
on [
1
n
,
1
n
] cc s thc, tc l
A
n
=
_
x R |
1
n
x
1
n
_
.
Hy xc nh
_
i=1
A
i
v
i=1
A
i
.
Bi 1.10. Cho cc tp hp X
i
= {x Q | 0 < x <
1
i
}, i = 1, 2, . . . . Ta hy m t
i=1
X
i
.
Bi 1.11. Vi mi s thc , ta t X
= {x R | x < +1}. Hy m t
R
X
R
X
2 nh x
2.1 nh ngha nh x
nh ngha 2.1. Gi s X v Y l hai tp hp bt k. Mt nh x f t X n Y l mt
qui tc cho tng ng mi phn t x X vi duy nht mt phn t, k hiu f(x), thuc
Y. Ta vit
f : X Y
x f(x)
Tp hp X gi l min xc nh hay tp ngun ca nh x f.
Tp hp Y gi l tp ch ca nh x f.
Phn t f(x) gi l nh ca phn t x qua nh x f.
Phn t x gi l to nh (to nh ton phn) ca phn t f(x) qua nh x f.
10
Ch :
Lets present some clarifying thoughts and examples to give us a handle on Definition
2.1. First, for a mapping f : X Y to be a function, every x X must have an
image y Y . That is:
(F1) For every x X, there exists y Y such that f(x) = y.
In addition to property F1, the rule defining f must produce a unique f(x) for all
x X. Mathematically, we say that f is well-defined if f(x) is unique for every
x X. How can we say mathematically that the image of x X must be unique?
One way to say that f is well-defined is to say
(F2) If b
1
, b
2
Y such that f(a) = b
1
and f(a) = b
2
, then b
1
= b
2
.
How could b
1
different from b
2
when all you have to do is apply the transitive
2
prop-
erty of the equality
3
to the two equations
4
f(a) = b
1
and f(a) = b
2
? Unfortunately,
this way of expressing the uniqueness of f(a) doesnt reveal possible problems that
can prevent f from being well defined. Here are two examples that illustrate how a
mapping can fail to be well defined.
V d 2.1. Ta c th cho mt s tng ng sau: cho f : R
+
R c xc nh
nh sau. Vi mi x R
+
, ta nh ngha f(x) l nghim y ca phng trnh y
2
= x.
Ta c th thy rng vi mi x u c phn t tng ng f(x). Tuy nhin, qui tc
xc nh f(x) khng r khi x = 0. Ta ly x = 25, y
1
= 5 v y
2
= 5, ta thy rng
tn ti y
1
, y
2
R vi f(x) = y
1
, f(x) = y
2
v y
1
= y
2
.
V d 2.1 minh ha cho vic ta c th mc sai lm khi k hiu f(x) nu ta khng
chng minh f l c nh ngha tt. Tr khi ta bit f c nh ngha tt th ta
c s dng k hiu f(25). Ta phi chc chn rng cch xc nh f(x) l duy nht
i vi mi x thuc tp xc nh.
Heres another example of how a mapping can fail to be well defined, this time
because a single element in the domain might have more than one distinct name.
V d 2.2. Cho s tng ng f : Q Z xc nh nh sau: vi mi
p
q
Q, ta nh
ngha f(
p
q
) = p. iu ny c ngha l nh ca mt s hu t l t s ca n. Ta
thy rng mc d
3
4
=
6
8
nhng f(
3
4
) = f(
6
8
). Thc t l mt phn t c th biu
din bng nhiu cch khc nhau do nh ca n cng c th khc nhau. Trong v
d ny, f khng c nh ngha tt v cng mt phn t a Q tn ti b
1
, b
2
Z
sao cho f(a) = b
1
, f(a) = b
2
v b
1
= b
2
.
V d 2.2 minh ha cho ta mt pht biu khc ca tnh cht F2. Nu a
1
, a
2
l hai
cch biu din khc nhau ca cng mt phn t, ngha l a
1
= a
2
th qui tc xc
nh gi tr ca a
1
v a
2
phi l duy nht. Ngha l f(a
1
) = f(a
2
).
(F2) If a
1
, a
2
X and a
1
= a
2
, then f(a
1
) = f(a
2
).
Trong trng hp nh x f : X Y m mt phn t ca tp X c nhiu cch biu
din th ta cn kim tra tnh "nh ngha tt" ca nh x f. Tc l chng minh
cch xc nh nh x khng ph thuc vo cc s biu din khc nhau .
2
tnh bc cu
3
ng thc
4
phng trnh
11
Khi nim nh x l s m rng ca khi nim hm s. i vi hm s th tp
ngun v tp ch l cc tp con ca tp s thc R hoc l tp R. Cn i vi nh
x th tp ngun v tp ch l cc tp hp bt k.
Suppose someone gives us two sets X and Y, and a rule f for pairing elements of A with
elements of B. If we are asked to verify that f is a function, then we must verify that F1
and F2 hold.
V d 2.3. Chng minh rng f : R \ {1} R xc nh bi
f(x) =
x
2
+ 2
x 1
l mt nh x.
Chng minh. Ly x R\ {1}. Khi x
2
+2 v x 1 cng l mt s thc (v tng
hai s thc l mt s thc, tch hai s thc l mt s thc). Hn na, v x = 1 th
x 1 = 0 v th
1
x 1
R. Cui cng (x
2
+ 2).
1
x 1
R. Do f(x) R.
Ly x
1
, x
2
R\ {1} v gi s x
1
= x
2
. V php cng v php nhn c nh ngha
tt nn x
2
1
+ 2 = x
2
2
+ 2 v x
1
1 = x
2
1. Khi
1
x
1
1
=
1
x
2
1
. Cui cng ta
c
x
2
1
+ 2
x
1
1
=
x
2
2
+ 2
x
2
1
, v th f(x
1
) = f(x
2
).
V d 2.4. Cho qui tc tng ng
f : N N N
(x, y) f((x, y)) = x + y
Ta thy f l mt nh x v tng hai s t nhin l mt s t nhin (duy nht). nh x
f gi l php cng hai s t nhin.
V d 2.5. Xt qui tc tng ng
g : N N N
(x, y) g((x, y)) = x y
V g((3, 5)) = 3 5 = 2 N do g khng l nh x t NN n N. Hay ta ni php
tr khng l mt nh x t N N n N.
nh ngha 2.2 (nh x bng nhau). Gi s f, g : X Y l hai nh x. nh x f
c gi l bng nh x g nu f(x) = g(x) vi mi x X. K hiu f = g.
V d 2.6. Hai nh x
f : R R v g : R R
x f(x) = x
2
+ 2x + 1 x g(x) = (x + 1)
2
l hai nh x bng nhau.
Tht vy, vi mi x R, ta c
f(x) = x
2
+ 2x + 1 = (x + 1)
2
= g(x).
Vy f = g.
V d 2.7. Hai nh x xc nh bi f(x) =
x
2
1
x 1
v g(x) = x + 1 khng bng nhau v
tp ngun khc nhau.
nh ngha 2.3 ( th). Gi s f : X Y . Tp con F ca X Y xc nh nh sau
F = {(x, f(x))|x X}
gi l th ca nh x f.
12
2.2 nh v to nh
Gi s f : X Y l mt nh x, A X v B Y. Th th, ta gi:
f(A) = {f(x) | x A} l nh ca tp A qua nh x f.
f
1
(B) = {x X | f(x) B} l to nh (to nh ton phn) ca tp hp B qua
nh x f.
c bit, nu tp B c 1 phn t B = {b} th f
1
({b}) thng c vit li l
f
1
(b) v gi l to nh (to nh ton phn) ca b. Khi , ta c
f
1
(b) = {x X | f(x) = b}.
Nu B = Y th f
1
(Y ) = X.
V d 2.8. Cho nh x
f : R R
x x
2
1
Khi :
f(2) = 2
2
1 = 3; f(1) = (1)
2
1 = 0; f(0) = 1
Nu A = {1, 0, 2} th f(A) = {3, 0, 1}.
Cho B = [1, 2], khi f(B) = [1, 3] (Dng bng bin thin).
V d 2.9. Cho nh x
f : R R
x x + 2
Khi :
f
1
(1) = {x R|x + 2 = 1} = {1}
f
1
([3, 0]) = {x R| 3 x + 2 0} = {x R| 5 x 2} = [5, 2]
nh l 2.4. Cho nh x f : X Y . Gi s A, B X v C, D Y . Khi
1. f(A B) f(A) f(B)
2. f(A B) = f(A) f(B)
3. f
1
(C D) = f
1
(C) f
1
(D)
4. f
1
(C D) = f
1
(C) f
1
(D)
Chng minh. Chng minh xem nh bi tp.
2.3 n nh, ton nh, song nh
nh ngha 2.5. nh x f : X Y c gi l mt n nh khi v ch khi vi mi
x
1
, x
2
X m x
1
= x
2
th f(x
1
) = f(x
2
).
Ta c nhn xt sau:
f l n nh x
1
, x
2
X, (x
1
= x
2
f(x
1
) = f(x
2
))
x
1
, x
2
X, (f(x
1
) = f(x
2
) x
1
= x
2
)
y Y, f
1
(y) c ti a 1 phn t.
iu kin nh x f khng l n nh l g?
13
V d 2.10. nh x ng nht 1
X
: X X xc nh bi 1
X
(x) = x. Khi 1
X
l n
nh.
V d 2.11. Cho nh x f : R R xc nh bi f(x) = x
3
vi mi x R. Chng minh
f l n nh.
Gii. (Dng nh ngha) Vi mi a, b X sao cho a = b. Ta chng minh f(a) = f(b).
Vi mi a, b R sao cho a = b. Ta c:
f(a) f(b) = a
3
b
3
= (a b)(a
2
+ ab + b
2
) = (a b)[(a +
b
2
)
2
+
3b
2
4
].
V a = b nn (a b) = 0 v [(a +
b
2
)
2
+
b
2
4
] = 0.
Vy f(a) = f(b) hay f l n nh.
V d 2.12. Cho nh x f : R
R xc nh bi f(x) =
3 x
x
vi mi x R
. Chng
minh f l n nh.
Gii. (Dng o ) Vi mi a, b X, gi s f(a) = f(b). Ta chng minh a = b.
Vi mi a, b R
, gi s f(a) = f(b). Khi , ta c:

3 a
a
=
3 b
b
(3 a)b = (3 b)a 3b = 3a a = b.
Vy f l n nh.
V d 2.13. Cho nh x f : R R xc nh bi f(x) = 2xsin x vi mi x R. Chng
minh f l n nh.
Gii. (Dng phng php kho st hm s) Chng minh f ng bin hoc nghch
bin.
Ta c f
(x) = 2 cos x > 0 vi mi x R. Vy f ng bin nghim ngt trn R. Do

nu a > b th f(a) > f(b). Tc l nu a = b th f(a) = f(b). Vy f l n nh.
V d 2.14. Cho f(x) = x
2
+ 2x vi mi x R. Kho st s n nh ca f.
Gii. (Chng minh f khng n nh) chng minh nh x f khng n nh, ta
phi tm trong X hai phn t a, b sao cho a = b nhng f(a) = f(b).
Cho a, b R, ta c
f(a) f(b) = (a
2
+ 2a) (b
2
+ 2b) = (a
2
b
2
) + 2(a b) = (a b)(a + b + 2)
T , nu ta ly a = 0, b = 2 th f(0) = f(2) = 0.
Vy f khng n nh.
nh ngha 2.6. nh x f : X Y l mt ton nh khi v ch khi mi phn t y Y
u l nh ca t nht ca mt phn t x X.
Ta c nhn xt sau:
f l ton nh y Y, x X : f(x) = y
y Y, f
1
(y) =
f(X) = Y.
iu kin nh x f khng l ton nh l g?
X
: X X l ton nh.
14
V d 2.16. nh x
f : R R
x x
3
l ton nh.
Chng minh.
Cch 1: y R, x =
3
y R : f(x) = f(
3
y) = y.
Cch 2: y R, f
1
(y) = {
3
y} = .
Cch 3: Ta c f(R) = R.
V d 2.17. nh x
f : R R
x x
2
khng l ton nh.
Chng minh.
Cch 1: Vi y R, ta c
f
1
(y) = {x R|f(x) = y} = {x R|x
2
= y}.
Ta thy rng nu ly y = 1 th f
1
(1) = .
Cch 2: Ta c f(R) = [0, +) = R.
nh ngha 2.7. nh x f : X Y gi l mt song nh khi v ch khi f va l n
nh va l ton nh.
Hay f l song nh khi v ch khi vi mi y Y, f
1
(y) c duy nht 1 phn t.
iu kin nh x f khng l song nh l g?
X
: X X l song nh.
V d 2.19. nh x
f : R R
x x
3
l song nh.
V d 2.20. nh x
f : R R
x x
3
x
2
khng l song nh.
T cc nh x v cc php ton s hc c bn, ta kt hp chng vi nhau to thnh
cc nh x mi. Trong phn ny, ta s vit nh x km theo cng thc ca n.
nh ngha 2.8. Cho f, g l cc nh x c cng tp ngun X v tp ch Y. Gi s rng
Y l tp hp trong cc php ton s hc (bn di) c xc nh. Ta nh ngha
(a) (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x);
(b) (f g)(x) = f(x) g(x);
(c) (f.g)(x) = f(x).g(x);
(d) (
f
g
)(x) =
f(x)
g(x)
vi g(x) = 0.
15
Ch rng, trong mi (a) (d), chng ta nh ngha mt nh x mi c xy dng
t nh x f v g.
V d 2.21. Cho X = Y = R. Xc nh cc nh x
f(x) = x
2
x v g(x) = sin(2x).
Hy tnh f + g, f g, f.g,
f
g
.
Ta c
(f + g)(x) = (x
2
x) + sin(2x)
(f g)(x) = (x
2
x) sin(2x)
(f.g)(x) = (x
2
x). sin(2x)
(
f
g
)(x) =
x
2
x
sin(2x)
vi x =

2
+ k, k Z.
2.4 Tch cc nh x
nh ngha 2.9. Cho hai nh x f : X Y v g : Y Z. Khi ta c th lp mt
nh x t X n Z nh sau:
h : X Z
x g[f(x)]
nh x h gi l nh x tch ca nh x f v nh x g, k hiu h = g f hay h = gf
Ch n th t cc nh x.
V d 2.22. Cho nh x
f : R R v g : R R
x f(x) = 2x + 1 x g(x) = sin x
th tch g f c xc nh bi:
g f : R R
x sin(2x + 1)
v tch f g c xc nh bi:
f g : R R
x 2 sin x + 1
V d 2.23. Cho nh x
f : N R v g : R R
x f(x) = 2x + 1 x g(x) = sin x
th tch g f c xc nh bi:
g f : R R
x sin(2x + 1)
Tuy nhin, ta khng xy dng c nh x f g v tp ch ca nh x g khng trng
vi tp ngun ca nh x f.
16
Ch : Ni chung f g = g f ngha l tch cc nh x khng c tnh cht giao hon.
Tch gf ch thc hin c khi tp ngun ca nh x g trng vi tp ch ca nh x f.
Nu nh x f : X Y th 1
Y
f = f v f1
X
= f.
nh l 2.10. Cho cc nh x f : X Y, g : Y Z, h : Z T. Khi h(gf) = (hg)f.
Hay ta ni php nhn cc nh x c tnh kt hp.
Chng minh. Vi mi x X, ta c:
(h(gf))(x) = h[(gf)(x)] = h(g(f(x))) = (hg)(f(x)) = ((hg)f)(x)
Vy ta c iu phi chng minh.
nh l 2.11. Tch hai nh x c cc tnh cht sau:
1. Tch hai n nh l mt n nh.
2. Tch hai ton nh l mt ton nh.
3. Tch hai song nh l mt song nh.
nh l 2.12. Cho cc nh x f : X Y , g : Y Z v h = g f.
1. Nu h l n nh th f l n nh.
2. Nu h l ton nh th g l ton nh.
3. Nu h l n nh, f l ton nh th g l n nh.
4. Nu h l ton nh, g l n nh th f l ton nh.
nh ngha 2.13 (Thu hp v m rng nh x). Cho f : X Y l mt nh x, A l
mt tp con ca X. Khi nh x i : A X xc nh bi i(a) = a gi l n nh chnh
tc.
nh x f i : A Y gi l thu hp ca nh x f trn A, k hiu l f|
A
; f cn gi l
m rng ca f|
A
ln X. Ta c f|
A
(x) = f(x) vi mi x A.
nh ngha 2.14. Gi s f : X Y, g : Y X l hai nh x sao cho:
g f = 1
X
, f g = 1
Y
,
trong 1
X
, 1
Y
l nh x ng nht.
Khi , nh x g gi l nh x ngc ca nh x f.
K hiu nh x ngc ca nh x f l f
1
.
V d 2.24. Cho hai nh x
f : R R v g : R R
x 2x + 1 x
1 x
2
Khi f, g l hai nh x ngc nhau.
nh l 2.15 (iu kin c nh x ngc). nh x f : X Y c nh x ngc khi
v ch khi f l song nh. Khi , nh x ngc ca f cng l mt song nh.
17
Chng minh. () Gi s f : X Y l song nh, ta s chng minh n c nh x ngc.
Vi mi y Y , v f
1
(y) c duy nht 1 phn t v ta gi s x f
1
(y), ngha l
f(x) = y. Khi , ta nh ngha nh x g : Y X nh sau:
g(y) = x.
R rng g l nh x ngc ca f. Tht vy, vi mi y Y :
fg(y) = f[g(y)] = f(x) = y.
Ngha l fg = 1
Y
.
Vi mi x X,
gf(x) = g[f(x)] = g(y) = x.
Ngha l gf = 1
X
.
() Gi s f : X Y c nh x ngc, ta s chng minh n l song nh.
Gi s nh x ngc ca f l g : Y X.
Chng minh f l ton nh. Ly y Y bt k, gi s g(y) = x. Ta c
f(x) = f[g(y)] = fg(y) = 1
Y
(y) = y.
Nh vy f
1
(y) = .
Chng minh f l n nh. Gi s vi mi x
1
, x
2
X sao cho f(x
1
) = f(x
2
).
Ta s chng minh x
1
= x
2
.
Ta c: f(x
1
) = f(x
2
) g[f(x
1
)] = g[f(x
2
)] gf(x
1
) = gf(x
2
) x
1
= x
2
.
Nh vy, f l n nh.
nh x f va l ton nh, va l n nh do n l song nh.
nh l 2.16. Gi s g : Y X v g
: Y X u l nh x ngc ca nh x
f : X Y th g = g
.
Chng minh. Vi mi y Y , ta c:
g(y) = g(1
Y
(y)) = g((fg
)(y)) = ((gf)g
)(y) = (1
X
g
)(y) = g
(y).
Vy g = g
.
V d 2.25. Cho nh x f : R {x R | x 0} xc nh bi f(x) = x
2
. Khi , f l
ton nh nhng khng n nh. Do f khng c nh x ngc.
V d 2.26. Cho nh x f : {x R | x 0} R xc nh bi f(x) = x
2
. Khi ,
f l n nh nhng khng l ton nh. Do f khng c nh x ngc. Tuy nhin
ta c th tm c mt nh x g : R {x R | x 0} sao cho (g f)(x) = x
vi mi x {x R | x 0} (l nh x g(x) =
_
|x|). Nhng khng c nh x
g : R {x R | x 0} sao cho (f g)(x) = x vi mi x.
V d 2.27. Cho nh x f : R \ {2} R \ {3} xc nh bi
f(x) =
3x
x 2
nh x f l song nh (chng minh!). Hy xc nh f
1
.
18
V (f f
1
)(x) = x vi mi x R \ {3}, ta c
(f f
1
)(x) = f(f
1
(x)) =
3f
1
(x)
f
1
(x) 2
= x.
Do x(f
1
(x) 2) = 3f
1
(x), suy ra 3f
1
(x) = xf
1
(x) 2x. T , ta c
3f
1
(x) xf
1
(x) = 2x
Do
f
1
(x) =
2x
3 x
.
2.5 Cardinality of Sets
nh ngha 2.17. Cho cc tp hp A v B. Ta ni tp hp A v B c cng bn s (lc
lng), v vit A B, nu c mt song nh f t A n B.
V d 2.28. Tp {a, b, c, d} tng ng vi tp {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Nu hai tp hp c cng bn s th c nhiu song nh gia chng (tr khi mi tp
hp c mt hoc khng phn t). iu quan trng l khi chng minh hai tp hp cng
bn s th ta phi ch ra mt song nh t tp ny n tp kia ch khng phi bng cch
m s phn t ca cc tp hp. B sau y cho chng ta cc tnh cht c bn ca
quan h .
B 2.1. Quan h trn c cc tnh cht:
1. Tnh phn x: Vi mi tp hp A, ta c A A
2. Tnh i xng: Vi mi tp hp A, B nu A B th B A
3. Tnh bc cu: Vi mi tp hp A, B, C nu A B v B C th A C
Ta thy quan h cng bn s c tnh cht ca mt quan h tng ng. V vy, khi
A c cng bn s vi B ta cng ni A tng ng vi B, v ta c th ni v lp cc tp
hp c cng bn s.
V d 2.29. Mt v d rt th v l tp cc s t nhin N c cng bn s vi tp cc s
nguyn Z. Ta xy dng nh x f : N Z nh sau
f(n) =
_
n
2
, nu nl s chn
n1
2
, nu nl s l.
Chng minh xem nh bi tp.
V d 2.30. Cho [a, b] v [c, d] l cc on ng trong R vi a < b v c < d. Khi
[a, b] [c, d]. Ly nh x g : [a, b] [c, d] xc nh bi
g(x) =
d c
b a
(x a) + c
vi mi x [a, b]. Phn chng minh song nh dnh cho cc bn sinh vin.
19
A similar argument shows that any two open intervals of the form (a, b) and (c, d)
have the same cardinality, and similarly for half-open intervals. What is less obvious, but
nonetheless true, is that any two intervals of real numbers, possibly of different types
(including infinite intervals), have the same cardinality. More precisely, let a, b R be
numbers such that a < b. Then any two of the following intervals have the same cardinal-
ity: [a, b], [a, b), (a, b], (a, b), [a, m), (a, w), (, b], (, b) and (, +).
Khi phn tch k hn v bn s ca tp hp, ta cn c cc nh ngha khc nhau nh
l tp hu hn v tp v hn. n tn by gi, chng ta s dng khi nim tp hu
hn mt cch trc gic, by gi chng ta s c nh ngha chnh xc v khi nim ny.
Mt hnh nh n gin nht v tp hu hn l tp con ca tp cc s t nhin c dng
{1, 2, . . . , n}. V k hiu ". . ." l khng r rng, ta cn nh ngha sau y.
nh ngha 2.18. Cho n N. Ta t tp [[1, n]] = {x N | 1 x n}.
By gi, chng ta nh ngha cc loi bn s m chng ta s lm vic vi chng.
nh ngha 2.19. (1) A set is finite if it is either the empty set or it has the same
cardinality as [[1, n]] for some n N.
(2) A set is infinite if it is not finite.
(3) A set is countably infinite if it has the same cardinality as N.
(4) A set is countable (also known as denumerable) if it is finite or countably infinite.
(5) A set is uncountable if it is not countable.
We start with some remarks about finite sets. First, we make the rather trivial obser-
vation that finite sets exist, since the set [[1, n]] is finite for each n N. We mentioned the
notation |A| for the number of elements of a finite set A, and we subsequently used this
notion repeatedly in an informal manner. We are now in a position to make this concept
rigorous, using the following definition.
nh ngha 2.20. Let A be a finite set. We define the cardinality of A, denoted |A|, as
follows. If A = , we let |A| = 0. If A = , we let |A| = n, where A [[1, n]].
There is a potential cause for worry with this definition. It uses the fact that a finite
set is either empty or has the same cardinality as some set [[1, n]]. Could it happen that a
set has the same cardinality as both [[1, n]] and [[1, m]] for some different positive integers
n and m? If so, the above definition would not make sense. Our intuition tells us that
this problem cannot occur; the following lemma shows that our intuition here is correct.
You can either simply accept these quoted facts (they are all statements that fit with our
intuitive understanding of the natural numbers), or you can read their proofs when we get
to them. The proofs of these facts in Section 8.3 make use of some ideas we have not yet
developed, but they do not make any use of the present chapter, so there is no circular
reasoning involved. Given that the set of natural numbers is used in our definitions of finite
sets and countable sets, it is unavoidable that some properties of the natural numbers are
needed in our discussion of such sets.
B 2.2. Let m, n N. Then [[1, n]] [[1, m]] iff n = m.
H qu 2.1. Let A, B be finite sets. Then A B iff |A| = |B|.
We now prove a few properties of the cardinalities of finite sets. These properties
involve ideas that you have probably used many times without having had a second
thought.
20
nh l 2.21. Let A, B be finite sets.
(1) If X A, then X is finite.
(2) If X A, then |A| = |X| +|A \ X|.
(3) If X A, then |X| < |A|.
(4) If X A, then X A.
Chng minh. Xem chng minh nh l 6.1.6 ca [1].
Part (4) of this lemma might seem trivial, but it should not be taken for granted, since
it does not hold for all sets. For example, the set of natural numbers N is a proper subset
of Z, and yet we saw in Example 6.1.2 that N Z. In fact, it can be shown that Theorem
2.21 (4) completely characterizes finite sets. That is, a set is finite iff it has no proper
subset with the same cardinality as itself. See [Sup60, Section 4.21] for more details. This
characterization of finite sets is quite nice, since it does not make any reference to the
Natural Numbers. Some authors in fact take this property as the definition of finiteness,
and deduce our definition. An alternate way of stating this characterization of finiteness
is that if A is a finite set, then a map f : A A is bijective iff it is injective iff it is
surjective. For an infinite set B, by contrast, a surjective or injective map g : B B need
not he bijective; the reader should supply examples.
We now turn to infinite sets. Our first result is a simple corollary to Theorem 2.21 (1);
details are left to the reader.
H qu 2.2. Let A be a set. Then A is infinite iff it contains an infinite subset.
We need to clear up one matter before going any further. The term "countably infinite"
would seem to suggest that such a set is infinite. However, the definitions of "countably
infinite" and "infinite" were made separately, and so we have to prove that countably
infinite sets are indeed infinite (othenvise our choice of terminology would be rather
misleading).
nh l 2.22. (i) The set N is infinite,
(ii) A countably infinite set is infinite.
Chng minh. Tham kho chng minh nh l 6.1.8 ca [1].
From part (i) of the above theorem we see that there are infinite sets. From part (ii)
of the theorem and Corollary 2.2 we deduce that if a set A contains a countably infinite
subset, then A is infinite; if a countable set B contains a countably infinite subset, then B
is countably infinite. It also turns out that, conversely, any infinite set contains a countably
infinite subset. The proof of this fact depends upon the Axiom of Choice. See [[7], Section
8.11] for details.
nh l 2.23. Let A be a non-empty set. The following are equivalent.
(i) The set A is countable.
(ii) The set A is a subset of a countable set.
(iii) There is an injective map f : A N.
(iv) There is a surjective map g : N A.
Chng minh. Xem chng minh nh l 2.23 trong [1].
21
nh l 2.24. Let I be a non-empty set and let {A
i
}
iI
be a family of sets indexed by I,
where A
i
is countable for each i I.
(i)
iI
A
i
is countable.
(ii) If I is countable, then
iI
A
i
is countable.
Chng minh. Xem chng minh nh l 2.24 trong [1].
nh l 2.25. Let A
1
, . . . , A
n
be cointable sets, for some n N. Then A
1
. . . A
n
is
countable.
nh l 2.26. Let A be a set. Then A P(A).
H qu 2.3. The set P(N) is uncountable.
nh l 2.27. The set Q is countably infinite.
nh l 2.28. The set R is uncountable.
nh l 2.29. The set of irrational numbers has the same cardinality as R.
nh l 2.30. Let n N. Then R
n
R.
2.6 Bi tp
Bi 2.1. Cho nh x
f : R R
x x
2
2x + 1
Hy tm:
a. nh ca 1,0,-1
b. To nh ca -1, 4
c. nh ca [1, 1]
d. To nh ca (4, 9]
Bi 2.2. Cho tp X = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Hy thit lp mt nh x f : X X sao cho:
a. f l n nh.
b. f khng l n nh.
c. f l ton nh.
d. f khng l ton nh.
e. f l song nh v tm nh x ngc ca f
Bi 2.3. Cho hai nh x:
f : R \ {0} R
x
1
x
;
g : R R
x
2x
1 + x
2
a. Xt tnh n nh, ton nh ca 2 nh x trn.
b. Tm g(R)
c. Xc nh gf
Bi 2.4. Vi mi nh x f : Z Z, hy xt xem n c l n nh hay ton nh khng?
a. f(x) = x + 7
b. f(x) = 2x 3
c. f(x) = x
2
+ x
d. f(x) = |x|
22
Bi 2.5. Cng cu hi tng t nh bi 2.4 nhng i vi nh x f : R R
Bi 2.6. Cho f : X Y l mt nh x, A, B X v C, D Y . Chng minh:
a. Nu A B th f(A) f(B)
b. Nu C D th f
1
(C) f
1
(D)
c. f(A B) f(A) f(B)
d. f(A B) = f(A) f(B)
e. f
1
(C D) = f
1
(C) f
1
(D)
f. f
1
(C D) = f
1
(C) f
1
(D)
g. f(A B) = f(A) f(B) khi f l n nh.
Bi 2.7. Cho f : X Y l mt nh x v A X
a. Chng minh A f
1
(f(A))
b. Chng minh f
1
(f(A)) = A vi mi tp con A ca X khi v ch khi f l n nh.
Bi 2.8. Cho f : X Y l mt nh x v B Y
a. Chng minh f(f
1
(B)) B
b. Chng minh f(f
1
(B)) = B vi mi tp con B ca Y khi v ch khi f l ton nh.
Bi 2.9. Cho f : X Y l mt nh x, A, B X v C, D Y . Cc iu sau y c
ng khng?
a. f(A \ B) f(A) \ f(B)
b. f(A) \ f(B) f(A \ B)
Bi 2.10. Chng minh nh l 2.11
Bi 2.11. Chng minh nh l 2.12
Bi 2.12. Xt hai nh x f, g : R R xc nh bi f(x) = ax +b v g(x) = x
2
x + 1.
Gi s (g f)(x) = 9x
2
9x + 3, x R. Hy xc nh a, b.
Bi 2.13. Xt nh x f : Z N xc nh bi
_
2x 1 nu x > 0
2x nu x 0
a. Chng minh rng f l mt song nh.
b. Tm nh x ngc ca f.
Bi 2.14. Gi s n l mt s t nhin cho trc. nh x f : N N xc nh nh sau:
f(k) =
_
n k nu k < n
n + k nu k n
nh x f c phi l n nh, ton nh, song nh hay khng?
Bi 2.15. Cho tp X = R \ {1} v nh x f : X X xc nh bi f(x) =
x + 2
x 1
vi
mi x X.
a. Chng minh f l song nh.
b. Tm f
1
c. Tnh f f f
Bi 2.16. Cho nh x f : N
tha mn f(mf(n)) = n
2
f(mn). Chng minh f l
n nh.
23
3 Gii tch t hp
3.1 The product rule
nh l u tin s phc v cho vic chng minh nh l 3.3.4.
nh l 3.1. Gi s |A| = 1 v |B| = n 1. Khi |B| = |A B|.
Chng minh. Gi s A = {a} v B = {b
1
, b
2
, . . . , b
n
}. Ta xy dng nh x f : B AB
nh sau
f(b
i
) = (a, b
i
).
Ta s chng minh f l song nh. u tin, ta chng minh f l nh x. Vi b
k
B th
tn ti (a, b
k
) A B, do iu kin (F1) c tha. Tip theo, nu b
j
= b
k
th
f(b
j
) = (a, b
j
) = (a, b
k
) = f(b
k
), v th f tha iu kin (F2).
Tip theo, ta chng minh f l n nh. Gi s f(b
j
) = f(b
k
), ngha l (a, b
j
) = (a, b
k
),
iu ny suy ra b
j
= b
k
. Do f l n nh.
Cui cng, ta chng minh f l ton nh. Vi mi (a, b
j
) A B th b
j
B, do
tn ti b
j
B sao cho f(b
j
) = (a, b
j
). V vy f l ton nh.
T cc iu pha trn, ta c f l song nh t B n AB. Do B AB hay
|B| = |A B|.
Trong phn tp hp, ta chng minh (bi tp) c nh l sau
nh l 3.2. Nu A
1
, A
2
v B l cc tp hp. Khi
(A
1
A
2
) B = (A
1
B) (A
2
B).
Hn na, nu A
1
A
2
= th A
1
B A
2
B = .
H qu 3.1. If A
1
, A
2
and B are finite sets and A
1
A
2
= , then
|(A
1
A
2
) B| = |(A
1
B) (A
2
B)|.
Chng minh. Theo nh l 3.2.
With Theorem 3.1 and Corollary 3.1, we have following theorem.
nh l 3.3. Suppose A and B are nonempty, finite sets. Then
|A B| = |A| |B|.
nh l 3.4. Suppose {A
i
}
n
i=1
is a family of finite sets. Then
i=1
A
i
=
n
i=1
|A
i
|.
V d 3.1. Gi s bn c 5 ci o s mi, 3 ci qun di, 5 i vi v 2 i giy, tt c
chng u c th mc vi nhau. C bao nhiu b qun o khc nhau m bn c th mc
bit mt qun o gm mt o s mi, mt qun di, mt i v v mt i giy?
Gii Nu ta gi s A
1
, A
2
, A
3
v A
4
tng ng l cc tp hp cc o s mi, cc qun
di, cc i v v cc i giy. Khi
4
i=1
A
i
l tp tt c cc b qun o. V ta c
|
4
i=1
A
i
| = 5 3 5 2 = 150, v vy c 150 b qun o khc nhau m bn c th mc.
Gi s A v B l cc tp khc rng vi |A| = m v |B| = n. Ta c th dng nh l 3.4
tnh s nh x t A n B. Nu ta ly tch Descartes m ln ca tp B th bt k mt
b gm m phn phn ca
m
i=1
B c th xem l mt nh x t f : A B, vi thanahf
phn u tin ca b m phn t l f(a
1
), thnh phn th hai l f(a
2
), . . . V bn s ca
m
i=1
B l n
m
nn ta c nh l sau:
24
nh l 3.5. If A and B are nonempty sets with |A| = m and |B| = n, then there are
n
m
distinct functions from A to B.
V d 3.2. Gieo mt ng xu 10 ln v quan st s xut hin ca mt hnh (H) v mt s
(S). Mi kh nng xut hin ca 10 ln gieo l mt b 10 thnh phn, chng hn (H, S, H,
H, S, S, S, H, H, H), mi mt b nh vy c th xem l mt nh x f : [[1, 10]] {H, S}.
Do , ta c 2
10
= 1024 nh x.
Nu bi ton yu cu xp m vt vo n ngn, trong mi ngn c th cha nhiu vt.
Khi s cch xp cc vt vo cc ngn l n
m
.
V d 3.3. Mt password ca my tnh l 7 k t, ngha l mt dy gm 7 k t trong
26 ch ci v 0-9 ch s. in 36 k t vo 7 v tr vi th t bt k th ta c 36
7
cch.
Do c th c 36
7
cch thit lp password.
3.2 Chnh hp c lp
nh ngha 3.6. Xt tp hp N
k
= {1, 2, . . . , k} v mt tp hp A c n phn t. Gi
s f : N
k
A l mt nh x. Khi , f(1) = a
1
, f(2) = a
2
, . . . , f(k) = a
k
cho ta mt b
sp th t gm k phn t ca A, khng nht thit khc nhau. Mi b gm k phn t sp
th t ca A c gi l mt chnh hp c lp chp k ca n phn t.
o li, nu ta c mt chnh hp c lp chp k ca n phn t, tc l ta c mt b
gm k phn t (a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
k
), th ta t f(1) = a
1
, f(2) = a
2
, . . . , f(k) = a
k
. Do , ta
c mt nh x t N
k
vo A.
Nh vy, cho mt nh x t N
k
n A tng ng vi cho mt chnh hp lp chp k
ca n phn t ca A. Do s cc nh x t N
k
n A bng vi s chnh hp lp chp
k ca n phn t.
K hiu s chnh hp lp chp k ca n phn t l F
k
n
. Mi chnh hp lp nh th l
mt phn t ca tp AA. . . A (k tha s) v ngc li. Theo cng thc ?? trong
3.1, ta c:
F
k
n
= s(A A . . . A
. .
k ln
) = s(A)s(A) . . . s(A) = n
k
cng chnh l s nh x t N
k
n A. D nhin, nu thay N
k
bi mt tp hp K
bt k c k phn t th s cc nh x t K n A cng bng n
k
.
Kt qu trn c th pht biu mt cch hnh tng nh sau: Gi s tp K l mt tp
cc vt, A l tp hp cc ngn ko. Khi mi nh x f : K A l mt cch sp
xp vt vo cc ngn ko. Vy s cch xp k vt khc nhau vo n ngn ko (mt
ngn ko c th cha nhiu vt hoc cng c th rng) l n
k
.
V d 3.4. Cho A = {a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
}.
Mi dy c di 3 phn t ca X sp xp theo mt th t nht nh di y gi
l mt chnh hp lp chp 3 ca 4 phn t ca A
a
1
a
1
a
1
, a
1
a
1
a
2
, a
1
a
1
a
3
, a
1
a
1
a
4
, . . .
C tt c 4
3
chnh hp lp.
V d 3.5. C bao nhiu s c 5 ch s:
a. Bt u vi ch s 1?
b. Khng bt u vi ch s 2?
c. Bt u vi 34?
25
Gii.
a. S cc s c 5 ch s bt u bng ch s 1 l s chnh hp lp chp 4 ca 10 phn
t. Vy c tt c 10
4
= 10000 s.
b. S cc s c 5 ch s l: 9.10
4
= 90000 s.
Theo cu a. th c 10000 s c 5 ch s bt u bng ch s 2.
Vy c 90000 10000 = 80000 s c 5 ch s khng bt u bng ch s 2.
c. S cc s c 5 ch s bt u vi 34 l: 10
3
= 1000 s.
3.3 Chnh hp khng lp
k
= {1, 2, . . . , k} v mt tp hp A c n phn t (n k).
Gi s f : N
k
A l mt n nh. Khi , f(1) = a
1
, f(2) = a
2
, . . . , f(k) = a
k
cho ta
mt b sp th t gm k phn t phn bit ca A (nu 1 i, j k v i = j th a
i
= a
j
).
Mi b gm k phn t phn bit, sp th t ca A c gi l mt chnh hp khng
lp chp k ca n phn t hay gi tt l chnh hp chp k ca n phn t.
Vy, mi n nh f : N
k
A xc nh mt chnh hp (khng lp) chp k ca n phn
t, v o li vi mi b sp th t gm k phn t phn bit (a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
k
) trong n phn
t cho ta c mt n nh f : N
k
A khi t f(i) = a
i
, (i = 1, k).
V d 3.6. Cho tp hp A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Cc b sp th t
(1, 2, 6), (3, 2, 5), (3, 5, 2) l nhng chnh hp chp 3 ca 6 phn t.
V d 3.7. Cho tp hp A = {a, b, c, d}. Tt c cc chnh hp chp 2 ca 4 phn t ca
A l
(a, b), (a, c), (a, d), (b, c), (b, d), (c, d)
(b, a), (c, a), (d, a), (c, b), (d, b), (d, c)
C tt c 12 chnh hp chp 2 ca 4 phn t.
Ta hy tm s n nh t N
k
n A hay s chnh hp chp k ca n phn t ca A.
nh l 3.8. S chnh hp chp k ca n phn t l:
A
k
n
= n(n 1)(n 2) . . . (n k + 1) (1)
Ta c cch vit khc ca A
k
n
l
A
k
n
=
n!
(n k)!
Chng minh. Ta c th chn mt phn t bt k trong n phn t ca A lm nh ca 1.
Nh vy c n kh nng chn nh .
Khi chn nh ca 1 ri th ta chn tip nh ca 2 trong n1 phn t cn li. Nh
vy c n 1 cch chn nh ca 2.
Sau khi chn nh ca 2, ta tip tc chn nh ca 3 trong n 2 phn t cn li,...
Cui cng, sau khi chn nh ca cc phn t 1, 2, . . . , k1 th ta cn li n(k1) =
n k + 1 phn t chn lm nh ca k. Nh vy c n k + 1 cch chn nh ca k.
Nh vy, s cc b sp th t gm k phn t phn bit trong n phn t ca A, tc
l s cc chnh hp (khng lp) chp k ca n phn t, cng l s n nh t N
k
vo A
l tch ca n(n 1)(n 2) . . . (n k + 1). Hay ta c
A
k
n
= n(n 1)(n 2) . . . (n k + 1).
26
V d 3.8. Trong mt phng, cho mt tp hp gm 6 im phn bit. C bao nhiu
vect khc

0 c gc v ngn thuc tp hp ny?
Gii : Mi cp sp th t gm 2 im phn bit ca 6 im s to thnh 1 vect. Do
c th xem 1 vect l 1 chnh hp chp 2 ca 6 phn t.
Nh vy ta c A
2
6
= 6 5 = 30 vect.
V d 3.9. C bao nhiu s t nhin c 6 ch s khc nhau?
Gii : Cc ch s ca s c 6 ch s thuc tp hp A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} gm
10 phn t
S c 6 ch s c dng abcdef. V a = 0 nn c 9 cch chn a. Sau cn 9 ch s
xp vo 5 v tr. Mi cc xp nh vy l mt chnh hp chp 5 ca 9 phn t. Do c
A
5
9
cch sp cc ch s vo 5 v tr cn li. Nh vy, ta c
9.A
5
9
= 9.(9.8.7.6.5) = 136080 s
3.4 Hon v
n
= {1, 2, . . . , n} v mt tp hp A c n phn t th cc
n nh f : N
n
A cng l song nh t N
n
n A. Mi song nh u hon ton xc
nh bi mt b sp th t ca n phn t ca A. Mt b sp th t nh th gi l mt
hon v ca n phn t ca A.
K hiu s cc hon v ca n phn t l P
n
, tc l s song nh t N
n
n A. V mi
hon v ca n phn t hin nhin l 1 chnh hp khng lp chp n ca n phn t, nn
theo cng thc 1 ta c:
P
n
= n(n 1)(n 2) . . . 3.2.1 (2)
hay P
n
= n!
V d 3.10. Cho tp hp A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Cc b s gm 4 phn t ca A l (1, 2, 3, 4),
(1, 2, 4, 3), (1, 3, 2, 4),. . . l cc hon v ca cc phn t ca A.
V d 3.11. Vi cc ch s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. C th lp c bao nhiu s c 5 ch s khc
nhau t cc ch s trn?
3.5 T hp
nh ngha 3.10. Cho tp hp A gm n phn t. Mt nhm gm k phn t ly ra t
tp trn v khng k th t c gi l mt t hp chp k ca n phn t (0 k n).
Hay ta ni mi t hp chp k ca n phn t l mt tp con ca A gm k phn t.
Trong mt t hp, ta khng quan tm n th t cc phn t ca n. V d {a, b}
v {b, a} l mt t hp chp 2 ca 3 phn t a, b, c trong khi (a, b) v (b, a) l 2 chnh
hp khc nhau ca 3 phn t .
S t hp chp k ca n phn t l C
k
n
V d 3.12. Mt t sinh vin gm 5 ngi: A, B, C, D, E. Mt nhm gm 3 ngi ca
t c c i trc nht s l mt t hp chp 3 ca 5 phn t.
Ta c cc cch phn cng trc nht nh sau:
(A, B, C), (A, B, D), (A, B, E), (A, C, D), (A, C, E),
(A, D, E), (B, C, D), (B, C, E), (B, D, E), (C, D, E).
C 10 t hp chp 3 ca 5 phn t.
27
nh l 3.11. S t hp chp k ca n phn t l:
C
k
n
=
n!
(n k)!k!
Chng minh. Mi t hp chp k ca n phn t l mt tp con gm k phn t, do c
th lp c k! hon v. Mi hon v ca tp con ny chnh l mt chnh hp chp k ca
n phn t. Nh vy ta c: k!C
k
n
= A
k
n
.
Hay C
k
n
=
A
k
n
k!
.
Vy: C
k
n
=
n!
(n k)!k!
.
V d 3.13. Mt hp c 10 bng n. Ly ngu nhin 3 bng ra kim tra th c bao
nhiu cch?
Gii. Mi cch ly ra 3 bng n t 10 bng n l mt t hp chp 3 ca 10. Do ,
s cch ly l: C
3
10
.
V d 3.14. Tm s ng cho ca a gic n cnh. T , tm s a gic c s cnh
bng s ng cho.
Gii. a gic c n cnh c n nh trong khng c 3 nh no thng hng. S cc
on thng ni 2 nh ca n nh l s t hp chp 2 ca n phn t.
Vy s ng cho ca a gic n cnh l:
C
2
n
n =
n(n 1)
2
n =
n(n 3)
2
a gic c s ng cho bng s cnh phi tha iu kin:
n(n 3)
2
= n n = 5.
3.6 T hp c lp
V d 3.15. How many ways are there to select four pieces of fruit from a bowl containing
apples, oranges, and pears if the order in which the pieces are selected does not matter,
only the type of fruit and not the individual piece matters, and there are at least four
pieces of each type of fruit in the bowl?
Gii To solve this problem we list all the ways possible to select the fruit. There are
15 ways:
4 apples 4 oranges 4 pears
3 apples, 1 orange 3 apples, 1 pear 3 oranges, 1 apple
3 oranges, 1 pear 3 pears, 1 apple 3 pears, 1 orange
2 apples, 2 oranges 2 apples, 2 pears 2 oranges, 2 pears
2 apples, 1 orange, 1 pear 2 oranges, 1 apple, 1 pear 2 pears, 1 apple, 1 orange
The solution is the number of 4-combinations with repetition allowed from a three-
element set, {apple, orange, pear}.
To solve more complex counting problems of this type, we need a general method for
counting the r-combinations of an n-element set. In Example 3.16 we will illustrate such
a method.
V d 3.16. C bao nhiu cch chn 5 t tin t mt hp tin cha cc t tin 1$, 2$,
5$, 10$, 20$, 50$ v 100$? Gi s rng ta khng phn bit th t khi ly cc t tin,
mnh gi ca cc t tin cng khng th xc nh trc.
28
Gii V th t cc t tin l khng quan trng v c 7 loi mnh gi khc nhau m
ta c th chn bt k 5 ln. Vn y l lin quan n t hp ca 5 v c s lp li
trn 7 phn t. Lit k tt c cc trng hp th qu chn ngt bi v s trng hp l
kh lp. Thay vo , chng ta s minh ha bng k thut tnh ton bng t hp c lp.
Gi s rng mt hp tin c 7 ngn, mi ngn cha mt loi tin, nh minh ha trong
hnh 1. Cc ngn ny c tch bit bi 6 vch ngn, nh trong hnh v. Vic chn 5 t
tin tng ng vi vic t 5 vt vo cc ngn cha cc loi tin khc nhau. Hnh 2 minh
ha cho 3 cch ly khc nhau ca 5 t tin, trong cc vch ngn c tng trng bi
cc gch ng v cc t tin c minh ha bng cc ngi sao.
S cch chn 5 t tin tng ng vi s cch sp xp 6 gch ng v 5 ngi sao
vo mt hng c 11 v tr. Do , s cch chn 5 t tin bng s cch chn 5 ngi sao t
11 v tr. S tng ng ny ging nh s cch chn 5 vt t 11 vt m khng phn bit
th t, do c C
5
11
cch. Nh vy, c
C
5
11
=
11!
5!6!
= 462
cch chn 5 t tin t 11 t tin.
nh l 3.12. C C
r
n+r1
cch chn r phn t c lp li t mt tp c n phn t.
Chng minh. Mi cch chn r phn t c lp li t n phn t c xem nh vic chn
n1 du gch ng vo cc ngi sao. Khi chn n1 du gch ng vo cc ngi sao th
ta to ra n khong.
Ta thy rng mi cch chn n 1 du gch ng vo r ngi sao tng ng vi mt
cch chn r phn t t n phn t c lp li. S cch chn l C
r
n1+r
v mi cch chn r
v tr t r ngi sao trong n 1 + r v tr.
V d 3.17. Phng trnh
x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
= 11
c bao nhiu nghim nguyn khng m?
Gii Vic tnh s nghim c xem nh vic chn 11 vt t 3 loi vt gm x
1
vt loi
mt, x
2
vt loi 2 v x
3
vt loi 3. Do , s nghim ca phng trnh bng vi s cch
chn 11 vt t 3 loi vt m c lp li. Do s nghim ca phng trnh l
C
1
31+11
1 =
13!
11!2!
= 78.
29
nh l 3.13. Cho x, y R, ta c:
(x + y)
n
= x
n
+ C
1
n
x
n1
y + . . . + C
n
n
y
n
=
n
k=0
C
k
n
x
nk
y
k
Chng minh. Ta khai trin
(x + y)
n
= (x + y)(x + y) . . . (x + y)
thnh tng cc s hng c dng a
1
a
2
. . . a
n
trong a
i
= x hoc a
i
= y, 1 i n. Vi
0 k n ta gp tt c cc s hng c ng k tha s bng y, cc s hng ny c
dng x
nk
y
k
. S cc s hng ny chnh l bng s cch chn k phn t phn bit ca
{1, 2, . . . , n}, chnh l s t hp C
k
n
nn ta c iu phi chng minh.
H qu: Ta c:
1. 2
n
= 1 + C
1
n
+ C
2
n
+ . . . + C
n
n
2. 0 = 1 C
1
n
+ C
2
n
+ . . . + (1)
k
C
k
n
+ . . . + (1)
n
C
n
n
3.7 Bi tp
Bi 3.1. C bao nhiu s c 6 ch s m:
a. Ch s u v ch s cui ging nhau?
b. Ch s u v ch s cui khc nhau?
c. Hai ch s u v hai ch s cui ging nhau?
Bi 3.2. Cho 2 < 2m < n. Hi c bao nhiu s c n ch s m c m ch s u v m
ch s cui ging nhau?
Bi 3.3. C bao nhiu s c 5 ch s vi cc ch s khc nhau i mt m:
a. Bt u bng ch s 1?
b. Khng bt u bng s 2?
c. Bt u bng 34?
d. Khng bt u bng 123?
Bi 3.4. Lp hc ch c cc bn c ba ch ngi. C bao nhiu hc sinh trong lp bit
rng s s khc nhau c th sp xp ch ngi cho hc sinh nhiu gp 240 ln s hc
sinh v s ch ngi va cho s hc sinh ca lp.
Bi 3.5. Cho X = {1, 2, 3, 4}
a. C bao nhiu s c hai ch s c lp thnh t cc ch s ca tp hp X?
b. C bao nhiu nh x t X v chnh n?
Bi 3.6. Cho n im trong khng gian, trong khng c 4 im no cng nm trn
mt mt phng. C th xc nh c bao nhiu mt phng vi n im ?
Bi 3.7. C th v c bao nhiu tam gic t n im trn mt phng trong c m
im nm trn mt ng thng d, ngoi ra mi b 3 im khng nm trn d th khng
thng hng?
Bi 3.8. Trong mt hp c 7 bi xanh v 3 bi . Ly ngu nhin hai vin bi. C bao
nhiu cch ly:
a. Hai vin bi bt k?
b. c 2 vin bi ?
c. c t nht 1 bi ?
30
Bi 3.9. Chng minh cc cng thc sau:
a. C
k
n
= C
nk
n
(0 k n)
b. C
k+1
n+1
= C
k
n
+ C
k+1
n
(0 k n)
c. C
k
k
+ C
k
k+1
+ . . . + C
k
n
= C
k+1
n+1
(0 k n)
d. C
p
mp+q
.C
mp+q
m
= C
p
m
.C
q
p
(q p m)
e. 1.C
1
n
+ 2.C
2
n
+ + nC
n
n
= n2
n1
f. C
0
n
+
1
2
C
1
n
+ +
1
n + 1
C
n
n
=
2
n+1
1
n + 1
Bi 3.10. Xt phng trnh
x
1
+ x
2
+ . . . + x
n
= r
trong n, r l cc s nguyn khng m cho trc v x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
l cc s nguyn khng
m. Hi phng trnh trn c bao nhiu nghim?
4 Php th
4.1 Khi nim
nh ngha 4.1. Gi s X l mt tp hp c n phn t, mt song nh f : X X gi
l mt php th bc n trn X.
Khng mt tnh tng qut, gi s X = {1, 2, 3, . . . , n}. Khi mt php th bc n c
th vit di dng
f =
_
1 2 n
f(1) f(2) f(n)
_
(3)
trong dng trn l n phn t ca tp X, dng di l nh tng ng ca chng qua
nh x f. V f l song nh nn cc phn t f(1), f(2), . . . , f(n) nm dng di u
khc nhau v do l mt hon v ca n phn t 1, 2, . . . , n. Tp cc php th bc n k
hiu l S
n
.
V d 4.1. Cho X = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Ta xt hai php th bc 4:
f =
_
1 2 3 4
3 1 4 2
_
v g =
_
1 2 3 4
2 3 4 1
_
Ngha l:
f(1) = 3; f(2) = 1; f(3) = 4; f(4) = 2
g(1) = 2; g(2) = 3; g(3) = 4; g(4) = 1
V d 4.2. Php th ng nht (nh x ng nht 1
X
) l:
f =
_
1 2 n
1 2 n
_
C mi mt hon v ca {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} tng ng vi 1 php th bc n. Do c n!
php th bc n.
V tch hai song nh l 1 song nh, nh x ngc ca song nh l song nh cho nn
vi hai php th bc n ty f, g S
n
, ta c cc tch fg v gf cng l mt php th bc
n, nh x ngc f
1
cng l mt php th bc n v nh x ng nht 1
X
cng l mt
php th bc n.
Tch cc php th f, g S
n
chnh l tch cc nh x .
31
V d 4.3. Cho 2 php th bc 6 nh sau:
f =
_
1 2 3 4 5 6
2 4 6 1 3 5
_
; g =
_
1 2 3 4 5 6
6 2 1 4 3 5
_
Khi ta c tch gf xc nh nh sau:
gf(1) = g[f(1)] = g(2) = 2; gf(2) = g[f(2)] = g(4) = 4; gf(3) = 5
gf(4) = 6; gf(5) = 1; gf(6) = 3
Nh vy:
gf =
_
1 2 3 4 5 6
6 2 1 4 3 5
__
1 2 3 4 5 6
2 4 6 1 3 5
_
=
_
1 2 3 4 5 6
2 4 5 6 1 3
_
Tng t nh vy ta c:
fg =
_
1 2 3 4 5 6
2 4 6 1 3 5
__
1 2 3 4 5 6
6 2 1 4 3 5
_
=
_
1 2 3 4 5 6
5 4 2 1 6 3
_
Ch : Php nhn cc php th c thc hin t bn phi sang v khng c tnh
giao hon.
Khi k hiu php th f di dng (3), ta vit cc phn t dng trn theo th t
t nhin, iu khng nht thit nh vy. Php th f c th biu din di nhiu cch
khc nhau bng cch thay i th t cc phn t dng trn v ng thi thay i th
t cc phn t tng ng dng di. Tng qut, ta c th vit php th f di dng:
f =
_
i
1
i
2
i
n
f(i
1
) f(i
2
) f(i
n
)
_
trong i
1
, i
2
, . . . , i
n
l mt hon v ca n phn t 1, 2, . . . , n.
V d 4.4. i vi php th f bn di ta c th vit di nhiu dng khc nhau:
f =
_
1 2 3 4
3 1 4 2
_
hay f =
_
2 1 3 4
1 3 4 2
_
Do ta c th d dng xc nh nh x ngc f
1
ca php th f nh sau:
f =
_
1 2 n
f(1) f(2) f(n)
_
khi
f
1
=
_
f(1) f(2) f(n)
1 2 n
_
V d 4.5. Cho g S
6
, khi
g
1
=
_
1 2 3 4 5 6
6 2 1 4 3 5
_
1
=
_
6 2 1 4 3 5
1 2 3 4 5 6
_
=
_
1 2 3 4 5 6
3 2 5 4 6 1
_
32
4.2 Vng xch v chuyn tr
Ta thy th t cc phn t vit dng th nht ca php th l ty , iu c bn
l php th bin mi phn t dng trn thnh phn t ng ngay di n. Chng
hn nh:
f =
_
1 2 3 4
3 1 2 4
_
=
_
1 3 2 4
3 2 1 4
_
chnh l f(1) = 3; f(3) = 2; f(2) = 1; f(4) = 4
T nhn xt ta c th n gin cch vit mt php th, bng cch qui c nh
sau: f = (1 3 2), ngha l phn t ng sau l nh ca phn t ng ngay trc n, cn
phn t 4 khng c mt trong cch vit trn v nh ca n chnh l n.
Ngoi ra, ta cn c th vit li: f = (1 3 2) = (3 2 1) = (2 1 3)
nh ngha 4.2. Php th f va vit li c gi l mt vng xch.
Tt nhin, khng phi mi php th u l vng xch, chng hn php th bc 7:
f =
_
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4 7 2 5 6 1 3
_
=
_
1 4 6 2 7 3
4 5 1 7 3 2
_
khng phi l 1 vng xch, m gm hai 2 vng xch (1 4 5 6) v (2 7 3).
Ta s nh ngha vng xch mt cch tng qut nh sau:
nh ngha 4.3. Nu php th bc n c vit di dng:
f =
_
i
1
i
2
i
3
i
k1
i
k
i
k+1
i
n
i
2
i
3
i
4
i
k
i
1
i
k+1
i
n
_
trong i
1
, i
2
, . . . , i
n
l mt hon v ca {1, 2, . . . , n} th f c gi l vng xch di
k v ta vit
f = (i
1
i
2
. . . i
k
) = (i
2
i
3
. . . i
k
i
1
) =
Trng hp k = 1 th f l php th ng nht v ta vit
f = (i
1
) = (i
2
) = . . . = (i
n
)
Vng xch c di 2 gi l chuyn tr.
V d 4.6. Trong S
8
cho cc php th sau:
f =
_
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 4 3 5 6 8 7 2
_
= (2 4 5 6 8)
g =
_
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 4 6 2 5 7 3 8
_
= (2 4)(3 6 7)
(2 3 5 6 7)
1
= (2 7 6 5 3)
nh ngha 4.4. Hai vng xch (i
1
i
2
. . . i
k
), (j
1
j
2
. . . j
l
) trong
i
1
, i
2
, . . . , i
k
, j
1
, j
2
, . . . , j
l
{1, 2, . . . , n} c gi l c lp vi nhau nu
{i
1
, i
2
, . . . , i
k
} {j
1
, j
2
, . . . , j
l
} =
V d 4.7. Hai vng xch (2 4) v (3 6 7) l c lp vi nhau, cn cc vng xch (1 2 3)
v (2 4 6) l khng c lp vi nhau v c chung phn t 2.
Ta thy rng tch ca cc vng xch c lp th giao hon.
33
V d 4.8. Trong S
5
(1 2 3)(4 5) =
_
1 2 3 4 5
2 3 1 4 5
__
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 5 4
_
=
_
1 2 3 4 5
2 3 1 5 4
_
(4 5)(1 2 3) =
_
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 5 4
__
1 2 3 4 5
2 3 1 4 5
_
=
_
1 2 3 4 5
2 3 1 5 4
_
nh l 4.5. Mi php th (khc ng nht) u phn tch c thnh tch cc vng
xch c lp.
Chng minh. Ta ly mt php th ty
f =
_
1 2 n
f(1) f(2) f(n)
_
dng th nht ta ly 1 phn t ty , chng hn l i
1
; gi s i
2
l nh ca i
1
tc l
f(i
1
) = i
2
, i
3
l nh ca i
2
, . . . Ta c ly lin tip nh vy cho n khi nh ca mt phn
t i
m
no (trong dy i
1
, i
2
, . . . , i
m
) l i
1
. Ta c mt vng xch (i
1
i
2
. . . i
m
). Ta tip
tc phng php nh vy i vi cc phn t cn li ca tp hp {1, 2, . . . , n} v c nh
th cho n khi ht cc phn t ca tp hp . Cc vng xch m ta c l c lp vi
nhau v c tch bng f.
V d 4.9. Trong S
8
, ta c:
_
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
5 4 8 7 6 3 2 1
_
= (1 5 6 3 8)(2 4 7)
nh l 4.6. Mi vng xch u phn tch c thnh tch cc chuyn tr.
(i
1
i
2
. . . i
k
) = (i
1
i
k
)(i
1
i
k1
) . . . (i
1
i
2
)
Chng minh. Xt vng xch (i
1
i
2
. . . i
m
).
Nu m = 1 th f l php th ng nht, ta c f = (i) = (i j)(i j), trong (i j) l
mt chuyn tr no .
Nu m > 1 ta c th phn tch f thnh tch cc chuyn tr nh sau:
f = (i
1
i
m
)(i
1
i
m1
) . . . (i
1
i
3
)(i
1
i
2
)
H qu: Mi php th u phn tch c thnh tch cc chuyn tr.
V d 4.10.
f =
_
1 2 3 4
4 1 3 2
_
= (1 4 2) = (1 2)(1 4) = (1 4)(4 2)
34
4.3 Du ca php th
Trong nhng ng dng quan trng ca php th, ngi ta phn cc php th bc n
thnh 2 loi: cc php th chn v cc php th l. Trc tin ta c khi nim du ca
php th.
nh ngha 4.7 (Du ca vng xch). Gi s cho vng xch g = (i
1
i
2
. . . i
m
) di m.
Ta gi s(g) = (1)
m+1
l du ca vng xch g.
Theo nh l 4.5, mi php th u phn tch c thnh tch (mt cch duy nht)
cc vng xch c lp nh sau
f = g
p
. . . g
2
g
1
nh ngha 4.8. Gi s cc vng xch g
i
(i = 1, 2, . . . , p) u c du tng ng l (1)
k
i
.
Khi , ta nh ngha du ca php th f l:
s(f) = (1)
k
1
+k
2
+...+k
p
nh ngha 4.9. Nu tng k
1
+ k
2
+ . . . + k
p
l mt s chn th du ca f l + v f
c gi l mt php th chn. Ngc li, nu tng l mt s l th du ca php th
f l v f c gi l mt php th l.
V d 4.11. Mt chuyn tr (i j) l mt php th l. Php th ng nht l mt php
th chn.
V d 4.12. Xt php th
f =
_
1 2 3 4 5
3 5 4 1 2
_
= (1 3 4)(2 5)
Ta c s(f) = (1)
4+3
= 1. Vy f l mt php th l.
Cn php th
g =
_
1 2 3 4 5
1 4 5 2 3
_
= (2 4)(3 5)
Ta c s(g) = (1)
3+3
= +1. Vy g l mt php th chn.
Cc tnh cht ca du
1. Du ca php th f: s(f) {1, 1}
2. s(gf) = s(f).s(g)
3. Mt php th chn th phn tch c thnh tch ca mt s chn cc chuyn tr.
Mt php th l th phn tch c thnh tch mt s l cc chuyn tr.
4.4 Bi tp
Bi 4.1. Trong S
8
cho cc php th
f =
_
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 1 3 6 7 5 4 2
_
, g =
_
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
6 5 1 2 4 7 8 3
_
a. Phn tch f, g thnh tch cc vng xch c lp, tch cc chuyn tr.
b. Tm du ca f v g.
35
c. Phn tch gf, (gf)
1
thnh tch cc vng xch c lp, tch cc chuyn tr.
Bi 4.2. Compute
1
a. = (1 3 5)(1 2); = (1 5 7 9)
b. = (5 7 9); = (1 2 3)
Bi 4.3. Let = (1 2)(3 4) and = (5 6)(1 3). Find x such that
1
x = .
Bi 4.4. Prove that there is no such that
1
(1 2 3) = (1 3)(5 7 8).
Bi 4.5. Let = (1 3 5 9 8 6)(2 4 10), what is the smallest positive integer n for which
n
=
5
?
Bi 4.6. Let = (1 3 5 7 9)(2 4 6)(8 10). If
n
is a 5cycle, what is you can say about
n?
Bi 4.7. Let be 10-cycle, find i from 2 to 10 such that
i
is also 10cycle?
Bi 4.8. Let , S
4
such that = (1 4 3 2); = (1 2 4 3) and (1) = 4. Determine
and .
Bi 4.9. Find (1 2 . . . n)
1
.
Bi 4.10. Let be ncycle. Prove that
n
is identity.
5 Quan h hai ngi
5.1 nh ngha
Cho X = {1, 2, 3} v R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)}. Ta c R X
2
v R
c th c vit li nh sau:
R = {(x, y) X
2
|x y}
Khi ta gi R l mt quan h hai ngi trn X v gi l quan h "b hn hoc bng".
Thng qua v d trn, ta a ra nh ngha nh sau:
nh ngha 5.1. Cho X l mt tp ty khc rng. Mt quan h hai ngi (hay quan
h) R trn tp hp X l tp con R ca tp X
2
.
Nu (x, y) R th ta ni "x c quan h R vi y" v vit xRy. Nu (x, y) R th ta
ni "x khng c quan h R vi y" v vit x Ry.
V d 5.1. Cho S l quan h "b hn hoc bng" trn tp N xc nh bi:
S = {(x, y) N
2
|x y}
Quan h S c th c vit li nh sau:
x, y N : xSy x y
V d 5.2. R l quan h "ng d theo mun 3" trn tp Z c xc nh bi:
x, y Z : xRy x, y ng d theo mun 3
Quan h R c th c vit li nh sau:
x, y Z : xRy (x y)
.
.
.3
36
5.2 Mt s tnh cht ca quan h hai ngi
Cho R l mt quan h hai ngi trn tp X.
nh ngha 5.2. Tnh cht phn x: R c tnh cht phn x nu
x X : xRx.
Nu R khng c tnh phn x th iu kin l g?
V d 5.3. 1. Cho T l tp tt c cc tam gic trn mt mt phng P, xt quan h
R l "ng dng" trn T. Vi bt k x T, ta c x ng dng vi chnh n do
xRx vi mi x T v nh vy R c tnh phn x.
2. Xt R l quan h "c din tch gp i" trn T. R rng vi x T, x khng c din
tch gp i x. Do x Rx, nh vy R khng c tnh phn x.
nh ngha 5.3. Tnh cht i xng: R c tnh cht i xng nu
x, y X : xRy yRx.
Nu R khng c tnh i xng th iu kin l g?
V d 5.4. 1. Cho P l tp tt c cc sinh vin ca trng i hc ng Nai v R
l quan h "cng h". Khi x P c cng h vi y P th y cng c cng h vi x.
Tc l xRy th suy ra yRx v do R c tnh i xng.
2. Cho R l quan h "l anh trai ca" trn P. Gi s xRy ngha l "x l anh trai ca
y". Khi y c th l em trai hay em gi ca x. Do , t xRy ta khng th suy
ra yRx do R khng c tnh i xng.
nh ngha 5.4. Tnh cht phn i xng: R c tnh cht phn i xng nu
x, y X :
_
xRy
yRx
x = y.
Nu R khng c tnh phn i xng th iu kin l g?
V d 5.5. 1. Cho L l tp cc ng thng trn mt phng P v R l quan h "song
song" trn L. Gi s xRy v yRx ngha l x song song vi y v y song song vi x.
Tuy nhin ta khng th suy ra x = y nu ta ly x, y l hai ng thng phn bit.
Do R khng c tnh phn i xng.
2. Xt quan h R l quan h "vung gc" trn L. Gi s xRy v yRx ngha l x vung
gc vi y v y vung gc vi x. Do ta khng th suy ra x = y. Nh vy R khng
c tnh phn i xng.
nh ngha 5.5. Tnh cht bc cu: R c tnh cht bc cu nu
x, y, z X :
_
xRy
yRz
xRz.
Nu R khng c tnh bc cu th iu kin l g?
V d 5.6. 1. Cho L l tp cc ng thng trn mt phng P v R l quan h "song
song" trn L. Gi s xRy v yRz ngha l x song song vi y v y song song vi z,
t y suy ra x song song vi z. Do , t xRy v yRz suy ra xRz. Vy R c tnh
bc cu.
37
2. Xt quan h R l quan h "vung gc" trn L. Gi s xRy v yRz ngha l x vung
gc vi y v y vung gc vi z. Do ta khng th suy ra x vung gc vi z. Nh
vy R khng c tnh bc cu.
V d 5.7. Trn tp cc s thc R, cho quan h hai ngi T nh sau:
x, y R : xTy x y
Kim tra cc tnh cht ca T.
Gii
Tnh phn x: (Ta cn kim tra, vi mi x ta c xTx hay khng? Ngha l ta cn
xt x x c ng vi mi x R khng?)
x R, ta c x x xTx.
Vy T c tnh phn x.
Tnh i xng: (Nu vi mi a, b ta c aTb th ta c bTa hay khng? Tc l nu
a b th b a hay khng?)
Ly a = 2, b = 3 ta c aTb m khng c bTa.
Vy T khng c tnh i xng.
Tnh phn i xng: (Nu vi mi a, b ta c aTb v bTa th a c bng b hay khng?
Tc l nu a b v b a th a = b?)
a, b R :
_
aTb
bTa
_
a b
b a
a = b
Vy T c tnh phn i xng.
Tnh bc cu: (Nu vi mi a, b, c ta c aTb v bTc th ta c aTc hay khng? Tc
l nu a b v b c th c a c hay khng?)
a, b, c R :
_
aTb
bTc
_
a b
b c
a c aTc
Vy T c tnh bc cu.
5.3 Quan h tng ng
nh ngha 5.6. Quan h hai ngi R trn tp X gi l quan h tng ng nu n c
cc tnh cht: phn x, i xng, bc cu.
V d 5.8. Quan h c "ng d theo mun 3" trn tp s nguyn l quan h tng
ng (Chng minh xem nh bi tp).
Thng thng ta k hiu quan h tng ng l , nu x y th ta ni "x tng
ng vi y"
nh ngha 5.7. Cho tp X trn xc nh quan h tng ng . Gi s a X,
khi lp tng ng ca phn t a, k hiu [a] hay a, l tp tt c cc phn t ca X
tng ng vi a. Phn t a gi l phn t i din.
Mt lp tng ng c th c nhiu phn t i din.
Theo nh ngha ta c: a = {x X|x a}
38
V d 5.9. Xt quan h "bng nhau" trn tp cc s t nhin. Ta c 4 = {4}
Xt quan h "ng d theo mun 3" trn tp cc s nguyn Z. Ta c
0 = {. . . , 3, 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, . . .}
1 = {. . . , 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, . . .}
2 = {. . . , 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, . . .}
5 = {. . . , 1, 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, . . .}
Ch : Quan h "ng d theo mun 3" trn tp Z ch c 3 lp tng ng. Nu
ta tm thm cc lp tng ng khc th chng s trng lp li vi 1 trong 3 lp nu
trn. Chng hn, ta c 0 = 3; 1 = 4 = 100; 2 = 5 = 101.
nh l 5.8. Cho tp X = v mt quan h tng ng trn X. Gi s x, y X ta
c cc kt qu sau
1. x X, x x hay x = ;
2. x = y x y;
3. x = y hoc x y = .
Chng minh. 1. x X ta c x x do x x hay x = .
2. () Ta c x = y do x y x y.
() Ta c x y. Ta cn chng minh x = y.
Tht vy, a x. Khi a x, v x y nn a y (do tnh bc cu). Do a y.
Hay x y.
a y. Khi a y, v y x nn a x (do tnh bc cu). Do a x. Hay
y x. Nh vy x = y.
3. Gi s x y = th c a x y. T a x v a y cho nn a x v a y. Do
, theo tnh cht 1, ta c a = x v a = y. Vy x = y.
T cc tnh cht ca lp tng ng trn tp X ta c kt lun sau: Quan h tng
ng chia tp X thnh cc tp con khc rng, i mt ri nhau (cc lp tng ng)
sao cho mi phn t ca X u thuc vo duy nht mt tp con (lp tng ng), hai
phn t trong cng mt tp con (lp tng ng) th tng ng vi nhau.
nh ngha 5.9 (Tp thng). Gi s X = , l mt quan h tng ng trn X.
Tp cc lp tng ng i vi quan h tng ng gi l tp thng ca tp X i
vi quan h v k hiu X/ . Nh vy:
X/ = {a|a X}.
V d 5.10. Quan h "ng d theo mun 3" trn tp cc s nguyn Z. Khi tp
thng ca Z i vi quan h ny c 3 phn t 0, 1, 2 (mi phn t l mt lp tng
ng). Ta c
Z/ = {0, 1, 2}
Tp thng ny c k hiu l Z
3
v gi l tp cc lp thng d theo mun 3.
Tng qut hn, ta c tp cc lp thng d theo mun n nh sau:
Z
n
= {0, 1, . . . , n 1}.
39
5.4 Quan h th t
nh ngha 5.10. Quan h hai ngi R trn tp X gi l quan h th t nu n c cc
tnh cht: phn x, phn i xng, bc cu.
V d 5.11. Quan h "b hn hoc bng" trn tp cc s thc R l mt quan h
th t trn tp R.
Quan h "chia ht cho" trn tp N
l mt quan h th t trn N
(Chng minh
xem nh bi tp).
Thng thng quan h th t c k hiu l , nu x y th ta ni x b hn hoc
bng y hay "x nh hn hoc bng y"
nh ngha 5.11. Khi tp X c trang b mt quan h th t th ta ni X l mt
tp sp th t (theo quan h th t ).
Trong mt tp sp th t xy ra hai trng hp:
1. Tp sp th t ton phn (sp th t tuyn tnh) nu vi mi x, y X th ta c
x y hoc y x.
V d 5.12. Cc tp hp N, Z, Q, R cng vi quan h "b hn hoc bng" (theo
ngha thng thng) l tp sp th t ton phn.
2. Tp sp th t khng ton phn (sp th t b phn) nu c 2 phn t x, y X
sao cho ta khng c x y v cng khng c y x.
V d 5.13. Tp N
cng vi quan h "chia ht" (hay quan h "chia ht cho") l

mt tp sp th t b phn.
5.5 Mt s phn t c bit
Cho tp (X, ) l mt tp sp th t (X = ), A l mt tp con ca X.
nh ngha 5.12 (Phn t nh nht, phn t ln nht). Phn t a A gi l phn t
nh nht ca A, k hiu l min A, nu vi mi x A : a x
Phn t b A gi l phn t ln nht ca A, k hiu l max A, nu vi mi x A : x b.
V d 5.14. Xt N
vi quan h "chia ht cho" v A = {1, 2, 4, 5, 40}, B = {2, 3, 6, 24}.

Ta c 40 l phn t nh nht ca A v 1 l phn t ln nht ca A.
V d 5.15. Trng hp tp B nh th no?
V d 5.16. Nu ta xt tp N
cng vi quan h "chia ht" th kt qu nh th no i

vi tp A, B?
nh ngha 5.13 (Chn trn, chn di). Phn t x X gi l chn trn ca A nu
a x vi mi a A.
Phn t y X gi l chn di ca A nu y a vi mi a A.
V d 5.17. Xt N
vi quan h "chia ht cho" v A = {1, 2, 4, 5, 40}. Khi 1 l chn

trn ca A; 40, 80 l cc chn di ca A.

vi tp A, B?
40
nh ngha 5.14 (Chn trn nh nht, chn di ln nht). t T(A) l tp cc chn
trn ca A, khi phn t nh nht ca T(A) gi l chn trn nh nht ca A, k hiu
sup A (gi l supremum ca A)
t D(A) l tp cc chn di ca A, khi phn t ln nht ca D(A) gi l chn
di ln nht ca A, k hiu inf A (gi l infimum ca A)
V d 5.20. Xt N
vi quan h "chia ht cho" v A = {1, 2, 4, 5, 40}. Khi 1 l chn

trn nh nht ca A; inf A = 40

vi tp A, B?
nh ngha 5.15 (Phn t ti i, phn t ti tiu). Phn t m A gi l phn t ti
tiu ca A nu vi mi a A m a m th a = m.
Phn t n A gi l phn t ti i ca A nu vi mi a A m n a th a = n.
V d 5.23. Trong tp c sp th t (R, ) cc s thc vi quan h th t thng
thng ta xt cc tp sau y:
A = {x R|0 x < 1}
Ta thy rng min A = 0, sup A = 1, inf A = 0, max A khng tn ti. Tht vy, gi s
max A = a, khi a < 1, o tn ti mt s b gia a v 1 (ta c th ly b l trung
bnh cng ca a v 1). Nh vy, b < 1 v b A, iu ny mu thun vi a = max A.
B 5.1 (B Zorn). Cho X l mt tp sp th t. Nu vi mi tp con sp th t
ton phn ca X u c chn trn th X c phn t ti i.
nh ngha 5.16 (sup v inf ca mt tp A R). Tp A R c gi l b chn trn
(b chn di) nu A tn ti t nht mt chn trn (chn di). Tp A gi l b chn nu
n c chn trn v chn di.
nh l 5.17 (Nguyn l supremum). Mt tp con A khc rng ca R b chn trn (b
chn di) th tn ti chn trn nh nht (chn di ln nht).
Gi s = sup A khi v ch khi hai iu kin sau y c tha:
_
x A : x
< , x A :
< x
iu kin th nht c ngha l l mt chn trn ca A, iu kin th 2 ni rng nu
l chn trn b nht nn nu c
< th
khng cn l chn trn na.

5.6 Bi tp
Bi 5.1. A relation R is defined on R by
xRy |x y| 2.
Which properties the relation R possses?
Bi 5.2. Gi P = {
a
b
|a, b N, b = 0} Trong P ta xc nh quan h hai ngi S nh sau:
a
b
S
c
d
ad = bc
41
a. Chng minh S l mt quan h tng ng trn P
b. Xc nh cc lp tng ng
0
2
;
2
2
;
1
2
Bi 5.3. Trn tp Z Z xc nh quan h nh sau:
(a, b), (c, d) Z Z : (a, b) (c, d) a + d = b + c.
a. Chng minh rng l quan h tng ng.
b. Tm lp tng ng (1, 0), (0, 1).
Bi 5.4. Trn tp Z N
xc nh quan h nh sau:
(a, b), (c, d) Z N
: (a, b) (c, d) ad = bc.

a. Chng minh rng l quan h tng ng.
b. Tm lp tng ng (1, 1), (4, 2).
Bi 5.5. Trn tp R cho quan h hai ngi T nh sau:
x, y R : xTy x
3
y
3
= x y.
a. Chng minh T l quan h tng ng trn R.
b. Tm lp tng ng ca 1.
Bi 5.6. Cho X l mt tp hp. Chng minh rng quan h bao hm trn P(X) l mt
quan h th t.
Bi 5.7. Cho R l mt quan h hai ngi trn C xc nh nh sau:
z
1
, z
2
C, z
1
Rz
2
|z
1
| |z
2
|.
R c phi l quan h th t khng?
Bi 5.8. A relation R is defined on Z by
xRy 11x 5y is even.
Prove that R is an equivalence relation.
Bi 5.9. A relation R is defined on Z by
xRy 2z + y 0(mod3).
Prove that R is an equivalence relation.
Bi 5.10. Cho tp A =
_
2n + 1
n + 1
| n N
_
. Tm sup, inf, max, min ca A.
42
6 Cng thc hng ng
6.1 Mnh
Nhng cu phn nh hoc ng hoc sai s tht khch quan th c coi l nhng
mnh .
Khng phi mi cu trong ngn ng thng thng u l mnh khi xt trong logic
ton. Cc cu hi, cu cm thn, cu mnh lnh, cc nh ngha trong ton hc, v ni
chung cc cu khng phn nh ng, sai s tht khch quan, u khng phi l nhng
mnh ca logic ton.
V d 6.1. Cc cu sau l mnh
1. H Ni l th ca Vit Nam.
2. 1 + 3 4.
3. 2 + 2 = 5.
V d 6.2. Cc cu sau y khng l mnh
1. My gi ri?
2. Ngy mai tri ma.
3. Bi hc ny d qu!
4. Hy c cn thn.
5. x + 3 = 4.
Trong logic ton, khi xt mt mnh , ngi ta khng quan tm n ngha, ni
dung ca mnh m ch quan tm n tnh ng hoc sai ca n. Gi tr "ng" hay
"sai" ca mt mnh gi l gi tr chn l ca mnh . Nu mnh ng th ta
ni n c gi tr chn l bng 1. Nu mnh sai th ta ni n c gi tr chn l bng 0.
Mt mnh m khng mt b phn thc s no ca n cng l mt mnh th
c gi l mnh n gin. Ta k hiu cc mnh n gin bng cc ch ci thng
p, q, r, s, . . .. y l cc bin ly gi tr 0 hoc 1 khi ta thay chng bng cc gi tr c th.
V vy, ta gi chng l cc bin mnh .
T cc mnh n gin, nh cc php ton logic ta lp c cc mnh phc tp.
Cc mnh phc tp cng ch c mt trong hai gi tr "ng" hoc "sai". Tnh "ng -
sai" ca mnh phc tp ph thuc v tnh "ng - sai" ca cc mnh cu to nn
n.
V d 6.3. Cho cc mnh
1. p: S 252 chia ht cho 3. (p = 1)
2. q: Tam gic ABC c hai gc vung. (q = 0)
3. s: 15 l s nguyn t hoc 15 chia ht cho 5. (s = 1)
4. r: Nu 2 + 3 = 5 th Bc Kinh l th ca Nht Bn. (r = 0)
Cc mnh p, q l cc mnh n gin. Trong khi mnh r l mnh phc tp
v n cha hai mnh l "2 + 3 = 5" v "Bc Kinh l th ca Nht Bn".
43
6.2 Cc php ton trn mnh
Khi c hai mnh p v q, ngi ta xy dng cc php ton tc ng vo hai mnh
nhn c mnh mi. Cc php ton trn mnh gm:
nh ngha 6.1 (Php ph nh). Ph nh ca mnh p l mt mnh m n ng
khi p sai v sai khi p ng. K hiu l p v c l "khng p."
Bng gi tr chn l ca php ph nh nh sau:
p p
1 0
0 1
V d 6.4. 1. p : "S 5 l s nguyn t."
p : "S 5 khng l s nguyn t."
2. q : "8 < 0"
Khi q c pht biu l "8 khng nh hn 0". Tuy nhin, ta c th k hiu
"8 0".
nh ngha 6.2 (Php hi). Hi ca hai mnh p v q l mt mnh m n ng
khi c hai mnh p, q cng ng v sai trong cc trng hp cn li. K hiu l p q v
c l "p v q".
Bng gi tr chn l ca php hi nh sau:
p q p q
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
V d 6.5. 1. Cho hai mnh p : "S 5 l s nguyn t." v q : "S 5 l s t nhin
chn."
Khi p q l mnh "S 5 l s nguyn t v s 5 l s t nhin chn". Ta cng
c th vit gn li l "S 5 l s nguyn t chn." y l mnh sai v n l hi
ca mt mnh ng v mt mnh sai.
2. Cho cc mnh q : " > 3" v r : " < 4".
Khi q r l " > 3 v < 4". Ta c th vit li l "3 < < 4". y l mnh
ng.
nh ngha 6.3 (Php tuyn). Tuyn ca hai mnh p v q l mt mnh m n
ng khi t nht mt trong hai mnh p, q ng; v sai khi c hai mnh cng sai. K
hiu p q v c l "p hoc q" ("p hay q").
Bng gi tr chn l ca php tuyn:
p q p q
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
44
V d 6.6. 1. Cho hai mnh p : "Tm bng ny mu en." v q : "Tm bng ny
mu xanh l."
Khi p q : "Tm bng ny mu en hoc xanh l."
2. Cho hai mnh p : "S 15 l s chnh phng." v q : "4 l s chn."
Khi p q l "S 15 l s chnh phng hoc 4 l s chn." y l mnh ng
v n l tuyn ca mt mnh sai v mt mnh ng.
3. Cho hai mnh q : "2 < 3" v r : "2 = 3".
Khi q r : "2 < 3 hoc e = 3". y l mnh ng.
nh ngha 6.4 (Php ko theo). Cho hai mnh p v q. Mnh p ko theo q l
mnh sai khi p ng, q sai; v ng trong cc trng hp cn li. K hiu p q v
c l "Nu p th q", "q l iu kin cn c p", "p l iu kin c q".
Bng gi tr chn l ca php ko theo:
p q p q
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 1
0 0 1
V d 6.7. 1. Cho hai mnh p : "S 5 l s nguyn t." v q : "5 l s chn."
Khi p q : "Nu 5 l s nguyn t th 5 l s chn." y l mnh sai v n
l mnh ng ko theo mnh sai.
2. Cho hai mnh q : " > 4" v r : "
2 < 1".
Khi q r : "Nu > 4 th
2 < 1." y l mnh sai v n l mnh sai

ko theo mnh sai.
nh ngha 6.5 (Php tng ng). Cho hai mnh p, q. Mnh p tng ng q
l mnh ng khi c p, q cng ng hoc cng sai v sai trong cc trng hp cn li.
K hiu: p q, c l "p khi v ch khi q" (p nu v ch nu q, "p tng ng q").
Bng gi tr chn l ca php tng ng:
p q p q
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
V d 6.8. 1. Cho hai mnh p : "
2 l s hu t." v q : "
3 l s s hu t."
Khi p q : "
2 l s hu t khi v ch khi
3 l s hu t". y l mnh
ng.
2. Cho hai mnh q : "1 + 1 = 2" v r : "1 + 0 = 0".
Khi q r : "1 + 1 = 2 nu v ch nu 1 + 0 = 0". y l mnh sai.
nh ngha 6.6 (Mnh thun, mnh o, mnh phn v mnh phn o).
Cho mnh p q. Khi ta ni mnh ny l mnh thun. T mnh ny, ta
c cc mnh lin quan n n nh sau:
45
1. Mnh q p c gi l mnh o.
2. Mnh p q c gi l mnh phn.
3. Mnh q p c gi l mnh phn o.
V d 6.9. Cho mnh "Nu 20 l s nguyn t th hm nay tri ma". Khi , ta c
cc mnh sau:
1. Mnh o: "Nu hm nay tri ma th 20 l s nguyn t."
2. Mnh phn: "Nu 20 khng l s nguyn t th hm nay tri khng ma."
3. Mnh phn o: "Nu hm nay tri khng ma th 20 khng l s nguyn t."
V d 6.10. Cho mnh "Nu ABCD l hnh vung th ABCD l hnh ch nht". Khi
, ta c cc mnh sau:
1. Mnh o: "Nu ABCD l hnh ch nht th ABCD l hnh vung".
2. Mnh phn: "Nu ABCD khng l hnh vung th ABCD khng l hnh ch
nht".
3. Mnh phn o: "Nu ABCD khng l hnh ch nht th ABCD khng l hnh
vung".
6.3 Cng thc
nh ngha 6.7. Gi s cho p, q, r, . . . l cc mnh no (do tnh khng xc nh
ca cc k hiu p, q, r, . . . nn ta phi gi chng l cc bin mnh ). T cc mnh ,
s dng cc php ton logic , , , , ta lp c cc mnh mi, phc tp hn.
Chng c gi l cng thc. Nh vy, mi cng thc ca logic mnh l mt dy cc
k hiu thuc bn loi sau:
1. Cc hng: 1, 0 tng ng l k hiu ca mnh ng hoc sai.
2. Cc bin mnh p, q, r, s, . . .
3. Cc k hiu ca cc php ton logic , , , ,
4. Cc du ( ) ch th t cc php ton
Theo nh ngha th ta c:
Cc hng v cc bin mnh l cc cng thc.
Nu P, Q l cc cng thc th P, P Q, P Q, P Q, P Q cng l cc cng
thc.
V d 6.11. Ta c cc cng thc
p 1
q p r
p q p
46
nh ngha 6.8 (Gi tr chn l ca mt cng thc). Cho cng thc P. Khi gn cho mi
bin mnh c mt trong cng thc P cc gi tr chn l xc nh th cng thc P tr
thnh mt mnh (ng hoc sai). Nu P l mnh ng (hoc sai) th ta ni cng
thc P c gi tr chn l bng 1 (hoc 0) ng vi h chn l va gn cho cc bin mnh
c mt trong cng thc P.
V d 6.12. Lp bng gi tr chn l ca cng thc p q r
p q r q r q r p q r
1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
6.4 S tng ng ca hai cng thc
nh ngha 6.9. Cho hai cng thc P, Q. Ta ni hai cng thc P, Q tng ng logic
vi nhau, k hiu P Q, nu vi mi h chn l gn cho cc bin mnh c mt trong
hai cng thc ta lun nhn c gi tr chn l bng nhau.
P Q gi l ng thc.
V d 6.13. Chng minh ng thc sau: p q p q
Ta c bng gi tr chn l:
p q p p p q
1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1
Da vo bng gi tr chn l, ta thy rng 2 cng thc trn tng ng vi nhau.
V d 6.14. Chng minh ng thc sau: p q q p.
Ta c bng gi tr chn l:
p q p q p p q p
1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1
Da vo bng gi tr chn l, ta thy rng 2 cng thc trn tng ng vi nhau.
T y, ta c nhn xt sau: Mnh thun v mnh phn o l tng ng vi
nhau. Tng t, ta chng minh c mnh o v mnh phn l tng ng vi
nhau.
V d 6.15. Ta c hai mnh sau l tng ng:
"Nu ABCD l hnh vung th n l hnh ch nht."
"Nu ABCD khng l hnh ch nht th n khng phi l hnh vung."
47
Mt s cng thc tng ng logic thng gp
1. p p
2. p q p q
3. p q p q
4. (p q) r p (q r)
5. (p q) r p (q r)
6. p q q p
7. p q q p
8. p q q p
9. (p q) r (p r) (q r)
10. (p q) r (p r) (q r)
11. p p p
12. p p p
13. p q p q
14. p q (p q) (q p)
15. p 0 0; p 1 p
16. p 0 p; p 1 1
17. p p 0; p p 1
V d 6.16. Hy pht biu mnh ph nh ca mnh "2011 l s nguyn t v
2011 chia ht cho 53."
Gii.
Nu ta t p l "2011 l s nguyn t" v q l "2011 chia ht cho 53". Khi mnh
"2011 l s nguyn t v 2011 chia ht cho 53" c biu din l p q. p dng ng
thc p q p q. Do , ta pht biu mnh ph nh nh sau: "2011 khng l s
nguyn t hoc 2011 khng chia ht cho 53".
Php bin i cng thc Trong logic mnh , ta hnh thnh khi nim cng thc
tng t nh khi nim biu thc trong ton hc, v khi nim ng thc tng ng
vi khi nim hng ng thc trong ton hc.
Da vo cc ng thc, chng ta c th thc hin php bin i ng nht tng t
nh cc php bin i ng nht trong ton hc.
Ngi ta thng dng php bin i ng nht chng minh mt ng thc hoc
a mt cng thc v dng n gin hn.
V d 6.17. Chng minh p q p q.
Gii.
48
Ta c th lp bng gi tr chn l chng minh ng thc ny. Tuy nhin khng
cn thit phi lm nh vy. Ta c th s dng cc ng thc tng ng chng minh
nh sau.
p q p q
p q (theo ng thc (13))
V d 6.18. Chng minh ng thc
(p q r) (p q r) (q r) (p q) r
Gii. Ln lt bin i bng cch dng cc ng thc tng ng, ta c:
(p q r) (p q r) (q r) [(p q) (p q)] r (q r)
[p (q q)] r (q r)
(p 1) r (q r)
p r (q r)
(p q) r
(p q) r
nh ngha 6.10 (Cng thc hng ng). Cng thc P c gi l cng thc hng ng
nu n lun nhn gi tr bng 1 vi mi h chn l gn cho cc bin mnh c trong P.
V d 6.19. p (q p) l cng thc hng ng.
Gii. Cch 1: Ta c bng gi tr chn l sau
p q q q p p (q p)
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1
Da vo bng gi tr chn l, ta c cng thc cho l cng thc hng ng.
Cch 2: Dng php bin i tng ng.
p (q p) p (q p) ng thc (13)
(p p) q ng thc (7) v (5)
1 q ng thc (17)
1 ng thc (16)
6.5 Hm mnh
Xt khng nh x l s t nhin chn (x N) th ta thy y khng l mnh v
ta khng th xc nh c tnh ng sai ca n. Nhng khi thay x bng cc gi tr c
th th ta c mnh .
Vi x = 3 ta c mnh sai: "3 l s t nhin chn"
Vi x = 6 ta c mnh ng: "6 l s t nhin chn"
Ta ni khng nh x l s t nhin chn l mt hm mnh xc nh trn tp cc
s t nhin. Ta c khi nim hm mnh nh sau:
49
nh ngha 6.11. Cho X l mt tp khng rng v x l mt phn t bt k ca X. Ta
k hiu p(x) l mt khng nh v x. N s tr thnh mnh khi ta thay x bi mt phn
t c th thuc X. V mi mnh ch nhn mt trong hai gi tr 0 hoc 1 nn ta c th
xem p(x) l mt hm xc nh trn X v ly gi tr trong tp {0, 1}. Ta gi p(x) l hm
mnh mt bin xc nh trn X.
Tng t, ta c th nh ngha cc hm mnh 2 bin, 3 bin,. . ., n bin trn mt
tp hp X : Mt hm mnh n bin l mt tp hp xc nh trn tp tch Descartes
X
n
v ly gi tr trong tp {0, 1}.
V d 6.20. 1. p(n) : "n l mt s nguyn t" l mt hm mnh theo bin n N.
Vi n = 2, 3, 5, 7 ta c cc mnh ng, cn vi n = 4, 6, 8 ta c cc mnh
sai.
2. q(x, y) : "x + 2, y + 3 l s chn" l mt hm mnh vi hai bin x, y Z. Ta c
q(2, 1) l mnh ng, q(2, 0) l mnh sai.
nh ngha 6.12. Cho p(x), q(x) l cc hm mnh xc nh trn tp X. Khi :
Tp X gi l min xc nh, tp cc phn t thuc X khi thay vo ta c mnh
ng gi l min ng, thay vo ta c mnh sai th gi l min sai ca hm
mnh . Min ng ca mnh p(x) k hiu l E
p(x)
.
E
p(x)
= {a X|p(a) = 1}
Ph nh ca p(x), k hiu l p(x) l hm mnh m khi thay x bi mt phn t
a c nh ca X th ta c mnh p(a).
Php hi (tuyn, ko theo, tng ng) ca p(x) v q(x), k hiu bi p(x) q(x)
(tng ng p(x) q(x), p(x) q(x), p(x) q(x)) l cc hm mnh theo bin x
m khi thay x bi phn t c th a X ta c cc mnh p(a) q(a) (tng
ng p(a) q(a), p(a) q(a), p(a) q(a))
V d 6.21. Cho hm mnh p(n) : "S t nhin n chia ht cho 3".
Khi ta c X = N v E
p(n)
= {0, 3, 6, 9, 12, . . .}.
6.6 Lng t
Cho hm mnh p(x) xc nh trn X.
Nu thay x bi mt phn t a ty trong X, ta lun c mnh ng p(a). Khi
mnh "Vi mi x X ta c p(x)" l mnh ng. Mnh ny c k hiu:
x X, p(x). Nh vy, mnh ny ng nu E
p(x)
= X.
V d 6.22. 1. "Tt c cc hnh ch nht u c 4 gc vung" l mnh ng.
2. "x R, x
2
> 0" l mnh sai v ta c 0
2
= 0. Nh vy pht biu ny khng ng
khi x = 0.
3. "Mi s thc u l s hu t" l mnh sai. Thc vy, ta c s thc khng phi
l s hu t.
Nu c mt s phn t a X sao cho p(a) l mnh ng th ta ni mnh "Tn
ti x X sao cho p(x)" l mt mnh ng. Mnh ny c k hiu: x X : p(x).
Nh vy, mnh ny ng nu E
p(x)
= .
V d 6.23. 1. "Tn ti s t nhin n sao cho n chia ht cho 3." l mnh ng.
C th ta c th ly s t nhin l s 3.
50
2. "n Z : n +4 = 0" l mnh ng. Mnh ny c pht biu li l "C mt
s nguyn sao cho s cng vi 4 th c 0" v ta tm c s nguyn 4 tha
yu cu.
3. "x N : x+4 = 0" l mnh sai. Mnh ny c pht biu li l "C mt s
t nhin sao cho s cng vi 4 th c 0". Ta khng tm c s t nhin no
tha iu kin trn, do mnh ny sai.
nh ngha 6.13. Cc mnh dng "x X, p(x)" v "x X : p(x)" c gi l
cc lng t ha ca hm mnh p(x) bi cc lng t tng qut () v lng t tn
ti ().
Ph nh ca mnh tn ti v tng qut:
x X, p(x) x X : p(x)
x X : p(x) x X, p(x)
V d 6.24. Ph nh mnh "Tt c cc sinh vin u mc o trng" l mnh "C
mt sinh vin khng mc o trng".
V d 6.25. Ph nh mnh A B (x A x B) l mnh :
A B x A, x B
V d 6.26. Ph nh mnh x Q : x
2
= 2 l mnh
x Q : x
2
= 2
6.7 Lng t v hm mnh nhiu bin
Cho X, Y l hai tp hp, p(x, y) l mt hm mnh xc nh trn XY . Nu ta thay
x bi mt phn t c nh nhng ty a X th p(a, y) tr thnh hm mnh theo
bin y Y nn ta c th lng t ha n theo bin y v c hai mnh y Y, p(a, y)
hoc y Y, p(a, y). Bng cch ny ta c hai hm mnh theo bin x X l
"y Y, p(x, y)" v "y Y, p(x, y)". Nu lng t ha hm mnh p(x, y) th ta c
4 mnh
x, y Y, p(x, y)
x, y Y, p(x, y)
x, y Y, p(x, y)
x, y Y, p(x, y)
Khi c hai lng t tc ng ln hm mnh T(x, y) th mnh hon ton c
xc nh.
V d 6.27. 1. x, R, y R, x > y l mnh sai. V khi x = 1 v y = 2 th mnh
ny khng tha.
2. x, R, y R, x > y l mnh ng. V vi mi s thc x, ta chn s thc
y = x 1 th ta c x > x 1 = y.
3. x, R, y R, x > y l mnh sai. Thc vy, nu ta ly mt s x th ta tm
c s thc y = x + 1 lm cho x khng ln hn y.
4. x, R, y R, x > y l mnh ng. Thc vy, nu ta ly mt s x th ta tm
c s thc y = x 1 lm cho x > y.
51
V d 6.28. Vit mnh sau y bng cch dng cc k hiu lng t: "Vi mi s
thc dng c mt s nguyn dng N sao cho |a
m
a
n
| < vi mi s nguyn dng
m v n ln hn hoc bng N".
> 0, N N : |a
m
a
n
| < , m, n N
Ta c cc tnh cht sau:
x, y, T(x, y) y, x, T(x, y)
x, y, T(x, y) y, x, T(x, y)
x, y, T(x, y) y, x, T(x, y)
V d 6.29. Cho p(x, y) l hm mnh "x +y = y +x" vi x, y l cc s thc. Khi
mnh xy, p(x, y) v yx, p(x, y) l tng ng.
Ta c p(x, y) ng vi mi s thc x, y (php cng cc s thc c tnh giao hon) do
mnh "Vi mi s thc x, vi mi s thc y, x + y = y + x" l ng. Tng t,
mnh "Vi mi s thc y, vi mi s thc x, x + y = y + x" cng ng. iu c
ngha l xy, p(x, y) v yx, p(x, y) l tng ng.
V d 6.30. Cho q(x, y) l hm mnh "x + y = 0" vi x, y l cc s thc. Khi
mnh xy : q(x, y) v yx, q(x, y) l khng tng ng.
Tht vy, mnh xy : q(x, y) c pht biu l;
"Vi mi s thc x, tn ti s thc y sao cho q(x, y)."
Ngha l cho mt s thc x bt k, khi c mt s thc y sao cho x + y = 0, ta ly
y = x. Do mnh xy : q(x, y) l mnh ng.
Trong khi mnh yx, q(x, y) c pht biu l
"C mt s thc y sao cho vi mi s thc x ta u c q(x, y)."
Tuy nhin, vi s thc y chn ch c duy nht mt s thc x tha x + y = 0. Bi v
khng c mt s thc y sao cho x +y = 0 vi mi s thc x nn mnh yx, q(x, y) l
mnh sai.
V d 6.31. Pht biu mnh sau y
x(C(x) y(C(y) F(x, y)))
trong C(x) l "x c mt laptop", F(x, y) l "x v y l bn" v hm mnh xc nh
trn tp tt c cc sinh vin ca lp i hc ton kha 37.
Gii. Mnh trn c pht biu nh sau: "Vi mi sinh vin x trong lp, x c mt
laptop hoc c mt sinh vin y trong lp m y c laptop v x v y l bn."
6.8 Bi tp
Bi 6.1. Lp bng gi tr chn l ca cc cng thc di y:
a. (p q) p q
b. p q r
c. ((p q) r q) (p r)
d. (p q) (p q)
e. (p q) p q
52
f. p (q p)
Bi 6.2. Hy chng minh:
a. (p q) r r p q
b. p (q r) (p q) r
c. (p r) (q r) p q r
d. p (q r) q (p r)
Bi 6.3. Dng php bin i ng nht chng minh cc ng thc:
a. (p q) q p q
b. (p q) (p q) (p q) p q
c. p (q r) q (p r)
d. p q (q p) p q p q
Bi 6.4. Cho cc mnh sau:
p : Mi con c u c mi mt.
q : Khng c s cng bng trn th gii.
r : Ti tin tng nhng iu m ti c c.
s : Mt trng l mt qu bng.
Hy din t cc cu sau bng cc s dng cc mnh p, q, r, s v cc php ton trn
mnh . Khng c s dng cc lng t.
a. Nu mi con c u c mi mt th c mt vi th cng bng trn th gii.
b. Nu ti tin mi th ti c th mt trng l mt qu bng hoc c vi con c c mi
mt.
c. Nu nh mt trng khng phi l mt qu bng hoc c mt vi s cng bng trn
th gii th ti nghi ng mt vi iu m ti c.
d. c c mi mt th iu kin cn l mt trng l mt qu bng.
e. Nu c c mi mt th c t nht vi s cng bng trn th gii.
f. c s cng bng trn th gii th iu kin cn l c c mi mt.
g. Nu mt trng khng l mt qu bng v nu ti khng tin tt c nhng iu m
ti c th c t nht vi con c khng c mi mt.
h. Nu ti khng tin mt s iu m ti c c th c vi con c khng c mi mt.
Bi 6.5. Pht biu cc mnh o v phn o ca cc cu di y.
a. iu kin cn tri ma l tri c nhiu my.
b. iu kin tri ma l tri c nhiu my.
c. Nu ti khng lm th nga n c.
d. iu kin nc bc hi l nhit phi hn 100
o
C.
e. Nu Ronaldo khng banh th anh y s tr thnh din vin.
53
f. Nu An mun hc bi th Bnh s dy cho An.
Bi 6.6. Chng minh cc cng thc sau l cc cng thc hng ng
a. p p
b. p (q p)
c. p q p
d. p (p q)
e. (p (p q)) q
f. (p q) p q
Bi 6.7. Pht biu mnh ph nh v tm gi tr chn l ca cc mnh ph nh
ca cc mnh sau:
a. Bin Ha thuc tnh ng Nai v nm gn thnh ph H Ch Minh.
b.
2101
101
l phn s ti gin hoc c chung ln nht ca 2101 v 101 bng 1.
c. Nu tm bng ny mu trng th hm nay l th by.
d. Nu 2013 l s nguyn t th 2 < 4.
e. Ti s tt nghip i hoc v ba m s rt t ho.
f. Nu ti hc hnh chm ch th ti s thi u mn Ton.
Bi 6.8. Tm gi tr chn l ca p, q sao cho
_
_
p q = 1
p q = 0
p q = 1
Bi 6.9. Trong thi gian ngh Tt, 4 sinh vin A,B,C, D c phn cng trc trng,
mi ngi mt ngy t 30 thng chp n ht ngy 3 thng ging. Hy lp bng phn
cng cho hc sinh, bit rng:
1. B v D khng trc ngy th nht (ngy 30 thng chp).
2. Nu D trc ngy th hai hoc C trc ngy th ba th B trc ngy th t.
3. Nu A khng trc ngy th ba th B trc ngy th hai.
4. Nu A hoc C trc ngy th hai th D trc ngy th t.
5. Nu C khng trc ngy th t th A trc ngy th nht v D trc ngy th ba.
Bi 6.10. Tm min ng ca cc hm mnh sau:
a. T(x) : "x l c chung ca 12 v 18"
b. P(x, y) : "x, y l cc s thc tha mn x
2
+ y
2
= 1"
Bi 6.11. Hy vit li cc cu sau y bng cch dng cc k hiu, cc php ton logic
v cc lng t. Hy cho bit mnh ng hay sai (khng cn gii thch).
54
a. S 5 c mt cn bc hai dng.
b. C mt a thc bc hai vi h s thc khng c nghim thc.
c. Nu xy = 0 th x
2
+ y
2
> 0.
d. Mi s thc c hai cn bc bn l s thc khc nhau.
e. Nu z v w l hai s thc th z.w cng l mt s phc.
f. Tng ca hai s v t khng nht thit l mt s v t.
g. Cn bc hai ca mt s hu t khng nht thit l mt s hu t.
h. Bnh phng ca mt s hu t lun l mt s hu t.
Bi 6.12. Hy dng cc k hiu logic vit cc mnh sau ri ch ra gi tr chn l
ca chng
a. Tn ti s thc x sao cho vi mi s thc y ta c x + y = x.
b. Tn ti s thc x sao cho vi mi s thc y ta c x + y = y.
c. Vi mi cp s nguyn x, y tn ti s nguyn z sao cho x + z = y.
d. Tn ti s thc x sao cho vi mi s thc y ta c yx = y
Bi 6.13. Tm ph nh ca cc mnh sau:
a. x R, y R, z R : x + y = z
b. > 0, > 0, x R, |x a| < |f(x) f(a)| <
c. x R, y R : (x = y) f(x) = f(y)
d. x R, y R, z R : (x y
.
.
.3) (y z
.
.
.3) (x z
.
.
.3)
7 Phng php chng minh
Trong phn ny, chng ta gi s bit tp s t nhin (natural numbers) l tp cc
s {0, 1, 2, . . .} v ta k hiu tp l N. Ta c cc nh ngha sau
nh ngha 7.1. Mt s t nhin n c gi l s chn (even) nu s chia ht cho 2.
Mt s t nhin n c gi l s l (odd) nu s chia cho 2 th c s d (remainder)
l 1.
Tuy nhin, mt s t nhin l s chn th ta c th xem n c dng 2m; mt s t
nhin l th ta c th biu din n di dng 2m + 1, vi m l mt s t nhin no .
55
7.1 Phng php chng minh trc tip
Khi chng minh mt mnh B bng cch ch r B l kt lun ca cc tin
A
1
, A
2
, . . . , A
n
, ngha l B l kt lun ca mt chng minh th ta ni rng chng minh
trc tip mnh B.
V d 7.1. The square of an even natural number is even.
Chng minh. We may reformulate our statement as "If n is even then nn is even." This
statement makes a promise.
If n can be written as twice a natural number then n n can be written as twice a
natural number.
The hypothesis of the assertion is that n = 2m for some natural number m. But then
n
2
= n.n = (2m).(2m) = 4m
2
= 2(2m
2
).
Our calculation shows that n
2
is twice the natural number 2m
2
. So n
2
is also even.
We have shown that the hypothesis that n is twice a natural number entails the
conclusion that n
2
is twice a natural number. In other words, if n is even then n
2
is even.
That is the end of our proof.
V d 7.2. The square of an odd natural number is odd.
Chng minh. We follow the paradigm laid down in the proof of the previous proposition.
Assume that n is odd. Then n = 2m + 1 for some natural number m. But then
n
2
= n.n = (2m + 1)(2m + 1) = 4m
2
+ 4m + 1 = 2.(2m
2
+ 2m) + 1
We see that n
2
is 2m
0
+ 1, where m
0
= 2m
2
+ 2m. In other words, according to our
definition, n
2
is odd.
V d 7.3. Prove that, if n is a natural number, then the quantity n
2
+ 3n + 2 is even.
V d 7.4. The sum of two odd natural numbers is even.
V d 7.5. Prove the Pythagorean theorem
5
.
7.2 Phng php chng minh o v phn chng
Trong phn ny chng ta s xem xt cch chng minh mnh c dng A B.
Phng php chng minh ny da vo s tng ng ca hai mnh A B v
B A. Do , thay v chng minh A B, ta s chng minh B A bng phng php
chng minh trc tip. Ta tin hnh theo cc bc sau: gi s B sai, khi ta vn dng
cc nh ngha, tnh cht c chng minh t trc suy ra mt mnh tri vi
mt iu bit l ng. Nh vy, mu thun pht sinh l do ta gi thit B sai, v
vy gi thit l khng ng. Do , mnh B l ng. Phng php chng minh
no gi l chng minh o .
V d 7.6. Cho n l mt s nguyn. Nu n
2
l mt s l th n cng l mt s l.
Nu s dng phng php chng minh trc tip th ta gi s n
2
l mt s nguyn l,
tc l n
2
= 2k +1 v chng ta khng bit nn lm g tip theo. Thay vo , ta s chng
minh bng o . i vi chng minh ny, ta gi s n khng l s l, tc l n l s chn.
Khi n = 2k vi k l mt s t nhin no , bng cc tnh ton n
2
theo k ta s c
iu cn chng minh.
5
nh l
56
Chng minh. Gi s n l s chn. Khi , c s nguyn k sao cho n = 2k. Do n
2
=
(2k)
2
= 4k
2
= 2(2k
2
). V 2k
2
l mt s nguyn nn n
2
l s chn. Theo tnh cht ca o
, ta c n
2
l th n cng l l.
Mt phng php khc chng minh mnh A B, tng t nh phng php
o , l phng php phn chng. Ta bit A B A B. Gi s ta chng minh
c A B l sai th ta kt lun c rng A B l sai. Do , A B l ng, theo
tnh cht ca ph nh hai ln th A B l ng.
chng minh A B ng bng phng php phn chng, ta gi s A B ng,
v bng cc suy lun hp l ta a ra mt mu thun no (iu c ngha l AB
l sai). Mt cch khc chng minh phn chng l ta xem xt bng gi tr chn l ca
mnh A B, c duy nht mt trng hp mnh ny sai l A ng v B sai, c
ngha l A ng v B ng. Do , nu ta gi s A ng v B ng v bng cc qui tc
suy lun hp l m dn n mt mu thun th ta ni rng A B l khng th sai, nh
vy A B l ng.
V d 7.7. Chng minh rng
2 l s v t.
Ta cn ni li v cn bc hai ca mt s. Gi s b l mt s thc khng m. Theo nh
ngha, s thc x l cn bc hai ca b khi v ch khi x
2
= b. Ta c th pht biu mnh
li di dng A B nh sau: "Cho x l mt s thc, nu x
2
= 2 th x l mt s v t."
Bng phng php phn chng, ta gi s x khng l mt s v t hay l mt s hu t.
Chng minh. Since x is rational, we may write x =
p
q
, where p and q are integers
6
.
We may assume that it is a simplifying fraction
7
so p and q have no common factors
8
which are different from 1. Now our hypothesis asserts that
x
2
= 2
or
_
p
q
_
2
= 2.
We may write this out as
p
2
= 2q
2
. (4)
Observe that this equation asserts that p
2
is an even number. But then p must be an
even number (p cannot be odd, for that would imply that p
2
is odd). So p = 2r for some
natural number r.
Substituting this assertion into equation (4), now yields that
(2r)
2
= 2q
2
.
Simplifying, we may rewrite our equation as
2r
2
= q
2
.
This new equation asserts that q
2
is even. But then q itself must be even.
We have proven that both p and q are even. But that means that they have a common
factor of 2. This contradicts our starting assumption that p and q have no common factor
which is not 1.
nh l 7.2 (Dirichlet). Suppose that n + 1 pieces of mail are delivered to n mailboxes.
Then some mailbox contains at least two pieces of mail.
6
s nguyn
7
phn s ti gin
8
nhn t chung
57
Chng minh. Seeking a contradiction, we suppose that the assertion is false. Then each
mailbox contains either zero or one piece of mail. But then the total amount of mail in
all the mailboxes cannot exceed
1 + 1 + + 1
. .
n times
.
In other words, there are at most n pieces of mail. That conclusion contradicts the fact
that there are n + 1 pieces of mail. We conclude that some mailbox contains at least two
pieces of mail.
Today, at least in this country, it is more commonly known as "the pigeonhole princi-
ple".
V d 7.8. Gi s a, b l hai s thc sao cho ab = 0. Chng minh rng t nht mt trong
2 phng trnh sau c nghim
ax
2
+ 2ax + b = 0
bx
2
+ 2bx + a = 0
Chng minh. V ab = 0 nn 2 phng trnh cho l phng trnh bc 2.
Gi s c hai phng trnh u v nghim (tri vi iu cn chng minh).
Khi
1
= a
2
ab < 0 v
2
= b
2
ab < 0.
Suy ra
1
+
2
= a
2
2ab + b
2
< 0
Hay (a b)
2
< 0 (mu thun).
Vy c t nht mt trong 2 phng trnh c nghim.
V d 7.9. V mt on thng di 10cm. Ly 11 im bt k trn on thng . Chng
minh rng c 2 im no m khong cch gia chng khng ln hn 1cm.
V d 7.10. We shall prove by contradiction that there are infinitely many prime num-
bers
9
(this is an ancient result of Euclid).
V d 7.11. Show that there are no positive integer solutions
10
to the equation x
2
y
2
= 1.
V d 7.12. Show that the sum of a rational number and an irrational number is always
irrational
11
.
V d 7.13. Show that, if x; y are integers and x +y is even then x and y have the same
parity (i.e., either both are even or both are odd).
7.3 Phng php chng minh qui np (Proof by Induction)
Gi s T(n) l mt tnh cht ph thuc vo s t nhin n. chng minh T(n) ng
vi mi s t nhin n (hay vi mi s t nhin ln hn hoc bng m), tc ta phi chng
minh mnh sau:
T(n) ng , n N(n m)
Ta tin hnh cc bc nh sau:
Chng minh T(n) ng vi n = 0 (nu ta mun chng minh rng T(n) ng vi
mi n m th ta bt u vi n = m).
Gi s T(n) ng vi n = k v vi gi thit ta s chng minh T(n) ng vi
n = k + 1.
9
s nguyn t
10
nghim nguyn dng
11
s v t
58
Kt lun: T(n) ng vi mi s t nhin n (n m)
V d 7.14. Chng minh vi mi s t nhin n N
ta c
1 + 2 + + n =
n(n + 1)
2
()
Chng minh. Vi n = 1 ta c 1 =
1(1 + 1)
2
do () ng vi n = 1.
Gi s () ng vi n = k, ngha l ta c
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
2
Ta cn chng minh () ng vi n = k + 1, ngha l cn chng minh
1 + 2 + + k + (k + 1) =
(k + 1)[(k + 1) + 1]
2
Tht vy,
V T = 1 + 2 + + k + (k + 1) =
k(k + 1)
2
+ (k + 1)
=
k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1)
2
=
(k + 1)(k + 2)
2
=
(k + 1)[(k + 1) + 1]
2
Vy 1 + 2 + + n =
n(n + 1)
2
, n N
V d 7.15. Let us prove that, for n 4, we have the inequality

12
3
n
> 2n
2
+ 3n.
V d 7.16. Recal that the sequence {f
i
} of Fibonacci numbers are defined by
f
0
= 0, f
1
= 1, f
2
= 1, f
3
= 2, . . . , f
i
= f
i1
+ f
i2
for all i 2.
The first several Fibonacci numbers are therefore 0; 1; 1; 2; 3; 5; 8; 13; 21; 34; 55; 89; . . . . We
will prove now that every third Fibonacci number is even (note that the first Fibonacci
number is f
0
, so we are claiming that f
3
; f
6
; f
9
; . . . are even).
The statement P(n) is
f
3n
is even.
V d 7.17. Cho a
0
= 1 v cho a
n+1
= 3a
n
+ 1 vi mi s nguyn dng n 1. Tm
cng thc tng qut ca a
n
.
We will learn techniques that enable us to solve problems like this without any guess-
ing. For now, however, let us compute the first few values of the sequence. We get that
they are 1,4,13,40,121. It is easy to conjecture that a
n
=
3
n
1
2
. Now we are going to
prove our statement by induction. For m = 1, the statement is trivially true. Now assume
that the statement holds for n. Then
a
m+1
= 3a
n
+ 1 = 3
3
n
1
2
+ 1 =
3
n+1
1
2
,
so the statement also holds for n + 1, and the proof follows.
12
bt ng thc
59
7.4 Phng php chng minh bng cch xt tt c cc trng
hp(Proof by Cases)
Mt phng php chng minh A B l phn chia cc chng minh thnh cc
trng hp. C th, ta s dng phng php ny nu tin A c th vit di dng
P Q. Ta c mnh (P Q) B tng ng vi mnh (P B) (Q B). Do
, chng minh mnh (P Q) B ng, ta s chng minh c hai mnh P B
v Q B u ng.
V d 7.18. Chng minh n
3
n
.
.
.3 vi mi n N.
Chng minh. Ta c: n
3
n = n(n 1)(n + 1).
Mt s t nhin n khi chia cho 3 th c 3 kh nng xy ra: n chia ht cho 3; n chia 3
d 1 hoc n chia 3 d 2. Do ta xt 3 trng hp sau:
n = 3k khi n
.
.
.3 do n(n 1)(n + 1)
.
.
.3.
n = 3k + 1 khi n 1
.
.
.3 do n(n 1)(n + 1)
.
.
.3.
n = 3k + 2 khi n + 1
.
.
.3 do n(n 1)(n + 1)
.
.
.3.
Nh vy, sau khi kim tra c tt c cc trng hp c th c ca n, ta c iu phi
chng minh.
Nu nh l cn chng minh c dng P (A B). i vi mnh ny c hai cch
chng minh. Cch 1 l dng o , cng vi lut De Morgan, ta suy ra P (A B)
tng ng vi (A B P). Cch 2 l dng mnh P (A B) tng ng vi
(P A) B (vai tr ca mnh A v mnh B l nh nhau).
nh l 7.3. Let x and y be real numbers. If xy is irrational, then x or y is irrational.
The statement of this theorem has the form P (AB). We will prove (P A) B,
which we do by assuming that xy is irrational and that x is rational, and deducing that
y is irrational.
Chng minh. Assume that xy is irrational and that x is rational. Hence x =
a
b
for some
integers a and b such that b = 0. We will show that y is irrational, by using proof by
contradiction. Suppose that y is rational. It follows that y =
m
n
for some integers m and
n such that n = 0. Hence xy =
am
bn
, where bn = 0, contradicting the irrationality of xy.
Hence y is irrational.
Having discussed the appearance of in the statements of theorems, we could also
consider the appearance of , though these occurrences are more straightforward. As
expected, a theorem with statement of the form (A B) Q is proved by assuming
A and B, and using both of these statements to derive Q. To prove a theorem with
statement of the form P (A B), we can use that P (A B) is equivalent to
(P A) (P B). Thus, to prove a theorem with statement of the form P (AB),
we simply prove each of P A and P B, again as expected.
Mt s nh l c pht biu di dng P Q, tuy nhin cng c mt s pht biu
dng P Q. Ta ang cp n nhng nh l c cc t "khi v ch khi", "nu v ch
nu", "iu kin cn v ". chng minh nh l dng ny, ta nh rng P Q tng
ng vi (P Q) (Q P). Do chng minh mnh P Q, ta s chng minh
hai mnh P Q v Q P ng.
nh l 7.4. Let a and b be non-zero integers. Then a | b and b | a iff a = b or a = b.
60
Chng minh. () Assume that a | b and b | a. Since a | b, there is some integer m such
that am = b, and since b | a, there is some integer k such that bk = a. Plugging this last
equation into the previous one, we obtain (bk)m = b, and hence b(km) = b. Since b = 0,
it follows that km = 1. Because k and m are integers, we know that either k = 1 = m or
k = 1 = m. In the former case a = b, and in the latter case a = b.
() Assume that a = b or a = b. First, suppose that a = b. Then a.1 = b, so a | b,
and b.1 = a, so b | a. Similarly, suppose that a = b. Then a.(1) = b, so a | b, and
b.(1) = a, so b | a.
V d 7.19. Let m and n be integers. Then mn is odd iff both m and n are odd.
Mt dng khc ca vic chng minh cc mnh tng ng vi nhau l trong
trng hp ta c nhiu hn hai mnh tng ng. Trong cc nh l dng ny thng
c cm t "cc iu sau y l tng ng". Ta s ly mt v d c th hiu r hn.
Ta xt khi nim ma trn. Mt ma trn cp 2 l mt bng s c dng
M =
_
a b
c d
_
,
vi a, b, c, d l cc s thc. nh thc ca ma trn M c k hiu l detM = ad bc v
vt ca ma trn M c k hiu l trM = a +d. Ma trn tam gic trn cp 2 l ma trn
c dng
M =
_
a b
0 d
_
,
vi a, b, d l cc s thc.
nh l 7.5. Cho M =
_
a b
0 d
_
l ma trn tam gic trn cp 2 v gi s a, b, d l cc s
nguyn. Cc iu sau y l tng ng
(1) detM = 1;
(2) a = d = 1;
(3) trM = 2 v a = d.
What the above theorem says is that (1) iff (2), that (1) iff (3), and that (2) iff
(3). Hence, to prove these three iff statements we would in theory need to prove that
(1) (2), that (2) (1), that (1) (3), that (3) (1), that (2) (3) and that
(3) (2). In practice we do not always need to prove six separate statements. The idea
is to use the transitivity of logical implication. For example, suppose we could prove that
(1) (2), that (2) (3) and that (3) (1); the other three implications would then
hold automatically. We could just as well prove that (1) (3), that (3) (2) and that
(2) (1), if that were easier.
Alternately, it would suffice to prove that (1) (3), that (3) (1), that (1) (2)
and that (2) (1). Any collection of logical implications suffices if all the other logical
implications of the original six can be deduced using transitivity; the choice depends
upon the particular theorem being proved. Similar reasoning holds when morethan three
statements are being proved equivalent.
We can now proceed to the proof of Theorem 7.5.
Chng minh. We will prove that (1) (2), that (2) (3) and that (3) (1).
(1) (2). Assume that detM = 1. This condition means that ad = 1. Since both a
and d are integers, it must be the case that either a = 1 = d, or a = 1 = d.
61
(2) (3). Assume that a = d = 1. First, suppose that a = d = 1. Then trM =
a +d = 2. Second, suppose that a = d = 1. Then trM = a +d = 2. Hence trM = 2
and a = d.
(3) (1). Assume that trM = 2 and a = d. We can rewrite trM = 2 as a+d = 2.
Hence 4 = (a +d)
2
= a
2
+2ad +d
2
. Since a = d, we deduce that a
2
= ad = d
2
. Therefore
4 = 4ad. Thus ad = 1, and since detM = ad for an upper triangular 2 2 matrix, it
follows that detM = 1.
7.5 Bi tp
Bi 7.1. Chng minh vi mi s t nhin n N
a. 1 + 3 + 5 + + (2n 1) = n
2
b. 1 + 2
2
+ 3
2
+ + n
2
=
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
c. (1 + a)
n
1 + na, (a > 1)
d. 2
n
> 1 + 2n vi n > 2.
e. n
3
+ 11n
.
.
.6
f. 7
n
+ 3n 1
.
.
.9
Bi 7.2. Let the sequence {a
n
} be defined by the relations a
0
= 0, and a
n+1
= a
0
+a
1
+
a
2
+. . . +a
n
+n+1 if n > 1. Prove that for all positive integers n, the equality a
n
= 2
n
1
holds.
Bi 7.3. Let f : N N be a function satisfying f(m + n) = f(n) + f(n) for all m and
n. Prove that there exists a constant c so that f(n) = cn.
Bi 7.4. Chng minh rng c v s s nguyn t.
Bi 7.5. Gi s x
1
, x
2
l hai nghim ca phng trnh
x
2
6x + 1 = 0
Chng minh rng vi mi s t nhin n ta c x
n
1
+ x
n
2
khng chia ht cho 5.
Bi 7.6. Chng minh rng phng trnh sau y khng c nghim nguyn
x
2
+ 1 = 3y
Bi 7.7. Chng minh rng n
2
n vi mi s nguyn n.
Bi 7.8. Chng minh rng phng trnh x
2
+ 3y
2
= 8 khng c nghim nguyn.
Bi 7.9. Chng minh rng
3
2 khng l s hu t.
62
8 Xy dng cc tp s
C nhiu quan im khc nhau khi xy dng cc tp hp s t nhin, s thc, s hu
t, s thc v s phc.
Cc nhm t nghin cu, tham kho cc ti liu v vit bi v cch xy dng cc tp
hp s.
Bi vit c th nh my hay vit tay trn giy A4 v hon thnh trc tun 12 ca
mn hc.
Cc nhm s bc thm v bo co trc lp mt phn ca bi vit.
Ni dung ca bi vit v cc tp hp s:
- Xy dng tp hp s.
- Cc php ton cng v nhn. Chng minh cc tnh cht c bn.
- Xy dng quan h trn tp s cc tnh cht c lin quan.
Ti liu
[1] Ethan D. Bloch, Proof and Fundamentals: a first course in abstract mathematics,
Birkhauser Boston, 2000.
[2] G. Chartrand, D. Polimeni, P. Zhang, Mathematical Proofs: A transition to Advanced
Mathematics, 2nd Edition
[3] Trn Vn Ho, i s cao cp. i s tuyn tnh (tp 1), NXB Gio dc, 1976.
[4] Bi Huy Hin, Phan Don Thoi, Nguyn Hu Hoan, Bi tp i s v s hc (tp
2), NXB Gio dc, 1985.
[5] Steven G. Krantz, The element of advanced mathematics, 3rd edition, 2011.
[6] Randall B. Maddox, Mathematical thinking and writing: a transition to abstract math-
ematics, Harcourt/Acedamic Press, 2002.
[7] Patrick Suppes, Axiomatic Set Theory, Van Nostrand, Princeton, 1960.
[8] Hong K, V Tun, Bi tp i s cao cp (tp 1), NXB Gio dc, 1978.
[9] Ng Thc Lanh, i s v s hc (tp 1, 2), NXB Gio dc, 1986.
[10] Hong Xun Snh (cb), Trn Phng Dung, Nhp mn ton cao cp, NXB H S
phm, 2004.
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Tm tt bi ging

NHP MN TON CAO CP

2 is irrational, it certainly makes sense to talk about A

2. The set R is the index set for the families {A

, gi s f(a) = f(b). Khi , ta c:

(x) = 2 cos x > 0 vi mi x R. Vy f ng bin nghim ngt trn R. Do

cng vi quan h "chia ht" (hay quan h "chia ht cho") l

vi quan h "chia ht cho" v A = {1, 2, 4, 5, 40}, B = {2, 3, 6, 24}.

cng vi quan h "chia ht" th kt qu nh th no i

vi quan h "chia ht cho" v A = {1, 2, 4, 5, 40}. Khi 1 l chn

cng vi quan h "chia ht" th kt qu nh th no i

vi quan h "chia ht cho" v A = {1, 2, 4, 5, 40}. Khi 1 l chn

cng vi quan h "chia ht" th kt qu nh th no i

khng cn l chn trn na.

: (a, b) (c, d) ad = bc.

2 < 1." y l mnh sai v n l mnh sai

V d 7.15. Let us prove that, for n 4, we have the inequality

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