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PrinterFriendlyVersion UserName:Juan Rodriguez emailId:jrod.engineer@yahoo.com Book:Welding: Principles and Applications 2007 Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this work may by reproduced or used in any form or by any means - graphic, electronic, or mechanical, or in any other manner - without the written permission of the copyright holder.

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Welding (pp. 3-22)

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Introduction to Welding: Chapter Objectives

Success Story
MynameisJaredCorleyandIhavetakentwoyearsofweldingtechnologyinSouthCarolinaattheLexington TechnologyCenter.Ihavemanyhobbies,suchashuntingandfishing,butweldingismypassion.Ifirstbecame interestedinweldingbyholdingstuffformygrandpawhenhewasweldingonmiscellaneousprojectssuchas trailers,deerstands,planthangers,andsoon.HeworkedasawelderatRecoUSAfor40yearsfabricatingtanks andpressurevessels.

OnmyfirstdayofclassIdidnotknowwhattoexpect.IhadneverbeeninarealweldingshopnordidIknow anythingaboutweldingotherthanwhatIhadseenmygrandpadoing.Afterpassingtheweldingsafetytest,we startedwelding.Iwasassignedaweldingboothandwasgiveninstructionsonhowtostrikeandmaintainanarc. NeedlesstosayIhadnoideawhatthatmeantorhowtodothat,butIwaswillingtogiveitatry.Soonmy instructor,Mr.AshleyBlack,noticedabigimprovementinmyweldingskills.Asheworkedwithmeone-onone,givingmeadviceandshowingmetechniquesonhowtodocertainthings,myweldinggotevenbetter.

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I'minmysecondyearofweldingwithMr.KevinGratton.IdecidedthatthisiswhatIwanttodoforaliving.I nowpayevenmoreattentioneverydayinclassandworkashardasIcanatwelding.Iknowthatwhattheyare sayingistherealdeal.Theyhavebeenthereanddonethat. IgotajobweldingandfabricatingeverydayafterschoolatD&Tsteel.Mydayconsistsofamath,English,and weldingclass,andthenIgotowork.Iamlearningsomuchmoretherejustlisteningandwatchingolderwelders dothesamethingIlove.WhenIwashired,theownersaid,Boy,weldinginaschoolweldingboothand weldingouthereintherealworldaretwototallydifferentthings.Heisright.Afterworkingthereforabout threemonths,Iknewexactlywhathewastellingme.AtschoolIweldonplatesthatarealwaysplacedjustright tomakeiteasiertoweld;nowIamhavingtostand,sit,squat,andleanovertomakeweldsthataresometimes hardtoreachorsee. Mr.LarryJeffuscametomyclassoneday,andIwillalwaysrememberoneofthethingshesaid,Youcannot beaverage,youhavetobegoodcockygood.Anyonecanpickupahelmetandburnsomerods,buttobegood youhavetoworkatitandreallyconcentrate.That'sexactlywhatIdo. Iamgoingtomakesomethingofmyself.IknowIcan,andIhavetherightpeoplethereifIneedhelp.Iam cockyenoughtosaythatIamthebestinmyclass,butonlybecauseIworkatit,andifyouwanttobebetter thanme,Iamgoingtomakeyouworkforit.

OBJECTIVES
Aftercompletingthischapter,thestudentshouldbeableto explainhoweachoneofthemajorweldingprocessesworks. listthefactorsthatmustbeconsideredbeforeaweldingprocessisselected. discussthehistoryofwelding. describebrieflytheresponsibilitiesanddutiesofthewelderinvariousweldingpositions. definethetermsweld, forge welding, resistance welding, fusion welding, coalescence, and certification.

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Introduction to Welding: Key Terms

American Welding Society (AWS) automated operation automatic operation certification coalescence flux cored arc welding (FCAW) forge welding fusion welding gas metal arc welding (GMAW) gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) machine operation manual operation oxyfuel gas cutting (OFC) oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) qualification resistance welding semiautomatic operation shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) torch or oxyfuel brazing (TB) weld welding

Introduction
Asmethodsofjoiningmaterialsimprovedthroughtheages,sodidtheenvironmentandmodeoflivingfor humans.Materials,tools,andmachineryimprovedascivilizationdeveloped. Fasteningtogetherthepartsofworkimplementsbeganwhensomeoneattachedasticktoastonetomakeaspear oraxe.Egyptiansusedstonetoolstocreatetemplesandpyramidsthatwerefastenedtogetherwithanadhesive ofgypsummortar.Somewallsthatstillexistdepictaspace-orientedfigurethatwasasappropriatethenas nowanibis-headedgodnamedThothwhoprotectedthemoonandwasbelievedtocruisespaceinavessel. Othertypesofadhesiveswereusedtojoinwoodandstoneinancienttimes.However,itwasalongtimebefore theancientsdiscoveredamethodforjoiningmetals.WorkersintheBronzeandIronAgesbegantosolvethe problemsofforming,

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FIGURE 1-1 Direct casting: (A) base plate to have a part cast on it, (B) sand molded into shape desired, (C) pouring hot metal into mold, and (D) part cast is now part of the base plate.CengageLearning2012 casting,andalloyingmetals.Weldingmetalsurfaceswasaproblemthatlongpuzzledmetalworkersofthattime period.Earlymetal-joiningmethodsincludedsuchprocessesasformingasandmoldontopofapieceofmetal andcastingthedesiredshapedirectlyonthebasemetalsothatbothpartsfusedtogether,formingasinglepiece ofmetal,Figure 1-1.Anothermetal-joiningmethodusedinearlyyearswastoplacetwopiecesofmetalclose togetherandpourmoltenmetalbetweenthem.Whentheedgesofthebasemetalmelted,theflowofmetalwas thendammedupandallowedtoharden,Figure 1-2. TheIndustrialRevolution,from1750to1850,introducedamethodofjoiningpiecesofirontogetherknownas forge weldingorhammerwelding.Thisprocessinvolvedtheuseofaforgetoheatthemetaltoasoft,plastic temperature.Theendsoftheironwerethenplacedtogetherandhammereduntilfusiontookplace. ForgeweldingremainedastheprimaryweldingmethoduntilElihuThomson,intheyear1886,developedthe resistance weldingtechnique.Thistechniqueprovidedamorereliableandfasterwayofjoiningmetalthandid previousmethods. Astechniqueswerefurtherdeveloped,rivetingwasreplacedintheUnitedStatesandEuropebyfusion welding. Atthattimetheweldingprocesswasconsideredtobevitaltomilitarysecurity.Weldingrepairstotheships damagedduringWorldWarIweredoneingreatsecrecy.Eventodaysomeaspectsofweldingareclosely guardedsecrets. SincetheendofWorldWarI,manyweldingmethodshavebeendevelopedforjoiningmetals.Thesevarious weldingmethodsareplayinganimportantroleintheexpansionandproductionoftheweldingindustry.Welding hasbecomeadependable,efficient,andeconomicalmethodforjoiningmetal.

Welding Defined
AweldisdefinedbytheAmericanWeldingSociety(AWS)asalocalizedcoalescence(thefusionorgrowing togetherofthegrainstructureofthematerialsbeingwelded)ofmetalsornonmetalsproducedeitherbyheating thematerialstotherequiredweldingtemperatures,withorwithouttheapplicationofpressure,orbythe applicationofpressurealone,andwithorwithouttheuseoffillermaterials.Weldingisdefinedasajoining processthatproducescoalescenceofmaterialsbyheatingthemtotheweldingtemperature,withorwithoutthe applicationofpressureorbytheapplicationofpressurealone,andwithorwithouttheuseoffillermetal.In

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lesstechnicallanguage,aweldismadewhenseparatepiecesofmaterialtobejoinedcombineandformone piecewhen enoughheatisappliedtoraisethetemperaturehighenoughtocausesofteningormeltingandthepieces flowtogether, enoughpressureisusedtoforcethepiecestogethersothatthesurfacescoalesce,or

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FIGURE 1-2 Flow welding: (A) two pieces of metal plate, (B) sand dams to hold molten metal in place, (C) molten metal poured between metal plates, and (D) finished welded plate.CengageLearning2012 enoughheatandpressureareusedtogethertoforcetheseparatepiecesofmaterialtocombineandform onepiece. Afillermaterialmayormaynotbeaddedtothejointtoformacompletedweldjoint.Itisalsoimportanttonote thatthewordmaterialisusedbecausetodayweldscanbemadefromagrowinglistofmaterialssuchasplastic, glass,andceramics.

Uses of Welding
Modernweldingtechniquesareemployedintheconstructionofnumerousproducts,Figure 1-3andFigure 1-4. Ships,buildings,bridges,andrecreationalridesarefabricatedbyweldingprocesses.Weldingisoftenusedto producethemachinesthatareusedtomanufacturenewproducts.

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FIGURE 1-3 Space shuttle being made ready for its launch into space. Notice the large welded support structure used to prepare the shuttle for launch. NASA Weldinghasmadeitpossibleforairplanemanufacturerstomeetthedesigndemandsofstrength-to-weightratios forbothcommercialandmilitaryaircraft. Theexplorationofspacewouldnotbepossiblewithoutmodernweldingtechniques.Fromtheverybeginningof earlyrocketstotoday'saerospaceindustry,weldinghasplayedanimportantrole.Thespaceshuttle's constructionrequiredtheimprovementofweldingprocesses.Manyoftheseimprovementshavehelpedimprove ourdailylives. Manyexperimentsaboardthespaceshuttlehaveinvolvedweldingandmetaljoining.Wearecurrentlybuilding apermanentspacestation.Somedaywelderswillberequiredtobuildsuchalargestructureinthevacuumof space.Figure 1-5isaweldingmachinedesignedtobeusedinspace.Figure 1-6showsacosmonautusingthe welderinopenspace.ThespecializedwelderwasdevelopedattheE.O.PatonElectricWeldingInstitutein Kiev,CommonwealthofIndependentStates,theformerSovietUnion.Astheweldingtechniquesaredeveloped forthismajorproject,wewillseethembeingusedhereonEarthtoimproveourworld. Weldingisusedextensivelyinthemanufactureofautomobiles,farmequipment,homeappliances,computer components,miningequipment,andconstructionequipment.Railwayequipment,furnaces,boilers,airconditioningunits,andhundredsofotherproductswe

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FIGURE 1-4 Welded joints are a critical component of structures.LarryJeffus

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FIGURE 1-5 Machine designed to be used to weld in space.E.O.PatonElectricWeldingInstitute,CommonwealthofIndependentStates,theformerSoviet Union

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FIGURE 1-6 A cosmonaut makes a weld outside a spaceship.E.O.PatonElectricWeldingInstitute,CommonwealthofIndependentStates,theformerSoviet Union useinourdailylivesarealsojoinedtogetherbysometypeofweldingprocess. Itemsrangingfromdentalbracestotelecommunicationsatellitesareassembledbywelding.Verylittleinour modernworldisnotproducedusingsometypeofthisversatileprocess.

Welding and Cutting Processes

Weldingprocessesdiffergreatlyinthemannerinwhichheat,pressure,orbothheatandpressureareappliedand inthetypeofequipmentused.Table 1-1listsvariousweldingandalliedprocesses.Some67weldingprocesses arelisted,requiringhammering,pressing,orrollingtoeffectthecoalescenceintheweldjoint.Othermethods bringthemetaltoafluidstate,andtheedgesflowtogether. Themostpopularweldingprocessesareoxyacetylenewelding(OAW);shieldedmetalarcwelding(SMAW), oftencalledstickwelding;gastungstenarcwelding(GTAW);gasmetalarcwelding(GMAW);fluxcoredarc welding(FCAW);andtorch or oxyfuel brazing(TB).Thetwomostpopularthermalcuttingprocessesareoxyacetylenecutting(OAC)andplasmaarccutting(PAC). Theuseofregionaltermsbyskilledworkersisacommonpracticeinalltradeareas,includingwelding.Asan example,oxyacetyleneweldingisonepartofthelargergroupofprocessesknownasoxyfuel gas welding (OFW).Someofthenamesusedtorefertooxyacetylenewelding(OAW)includegas weldingandtorch welding.Shieldedmetalarcwelding(SMAW)isoftencalledstick welding, rod welding,orjustwelding.Asyou beginyourworkcareeryouwilllearnthevariousnamesusedinyourarea,butyoushouldalwayskeepinmind andusethemoreformaltermswheneverpossible. Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)usesa14-in.(355.6-mm)-longconsumablestickelectrodethatconducts theweldingcurrentfromtheelectrodeholdertothework,andasthearcmeltstheendoftheelectrodeaway,it becomespartoftheweldmetal.Theweldingarcvaporizesthesolidfluxthatcoverstheelectrodesothatit formsanexpandinggaseouscloudtoprotectthemoltenweldmetal.Inadditiontofluxesprotectingmoltenweld metal,theyalsoperformanumberofbeneficialfunctionsfortheweld,dependingonthetypeofelectrodebeing used. SMAweldingequipmentcanbeverybasicascomparedtootherweldingprocesses.Itcanconsistofawelding transformerandtwoweldingcableswithaworkclampandelectrodeholder,Figure 1-7.Therearemoretypes andsizesofSMAweldingelectrodesthantherearefillermetaltypesandsizesforanyotherweldingprocess. Thiswideselectionoffillermetalallowswelderstoselectthebestelectrodetypeandsizetofittheirspecific weldingjobrequirements.Soawidevarietyofmetaltypesandmetalthicknessescanbejoinedwithone machine.

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Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)usesanonconsumableelectrodemadeoftungsten.InGTAweldingthearc betweentheelectrodeandthebasemetalmeltsthebasemetalandtheendofthefillermetalasitismanually dippedintothemoltenweldpool.Ashieldinggasflowingfromthegunnozzleprotectsthemoltenweldmetal fromatmosphericcontamination.AfootorthumbremotecontrolswitchmaybeaddedtothebasicGTA weldingsetuptoallowthewelderbettercontrol,Figure 1-8.Thisremotecontrolswitchisoftenusedtostartand stoptheweldingcurrentaswellasmakeadjustmentsinthepowerlevel. GTAweldingisthecleanestofallthemanualweldingprocesses.Butbecausethereisnofluxusedtocleanthe weldinGTAwelding,allsurfacecontaminationsuchasoxides,oil,dirt,andsoon,mustbecleanedfromthe part

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TABLE 1-1 Master Charts of Welding and Joining Processes and of Allied Processes.AmericanWeldingSociety beingweldedandthefillermetalsotheydonotcontaminatetheweld.EventhoughGTAweldingisslowerand requiresahigherskilllevelascomparedtoothermanualweldingprocesses,itisstillindemandbecauseitcan beusedtomakeextremelyhigh-qualityweldsinapplicationswhereweldintegrityiscritical.Andthereare metalalloysthatcanbejoinedonlywiththeGTAweldingprocess. Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)usesasolidelectrodewirethatiscontinuouslyfedfromaspool,throughthe weldingcableassembly,andoutthroughthegun.

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FIGURE 1-7 Shielded metal arc welding equipment.CengageLearning2012

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FIGURE 1-8 Gas tungsten arc welding equipment.CengageLearning2012 Ashieldinggasflowsthroughaseparatetubeinthecableassembly,outoftheweldinggunnozzle,andaround theelectrodewire.Theweldingpowerflowsthroughacableinthecableassemblyandistransferredtothe electrodewireattheweldinggun.TheGMAweldisproducedasthearcmeltstheendofthecontinuouslyfed fillerelectrodewireandthesurfaceofthebasemetal.Themoltenelectrodemetaltransfersacrossthearcand becomespartoftheweld.Thegasshieldflowsoutoftheweldinggunnozzletoprotectthemoltenweldfrom atmosphericcontamination. GMAweldingisextremelyfastandeconomicalbecauseitcanproducelongweldsrapidlythatrequireverylittle postweldcleanup.Thisprocesscanbeusedtoweldmetalranginginthicknessfromthin-gaugesheetmetalto heavyplatebymakingonlyafewchangesintheweldingsetup. Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)usesafluxcoreelectrodewirethatiscontinuouslyfedfromaspool,through theweldingcableassembly,andoutthroughthegun.Theweldingpoweralsoflowsthroughthecableassembly. Someweldingelectrodewiretypesmustbeusedwithashieldinggas,asinGMAwelding,butothershave enoughshieldingproducedasthefluxcorevaporizes.Theweldingcurrentmeltsboththefillerwireandthebase metal.Whensomeofthefluxvaporizes,itformsagaseouscloudthatprotectsthesurfaceoftheweld.Someof

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thefluxthatmeltstravelsacrossthearcwiththemoltenfillermetalwhereitentersthemoltenweldpool.Inside themoltenweldmetal,thefluxgathersupimpuritiesandfloatsthemtothesurfacewhereitformsaslag coveringontheweldasitcools. AlthoughslagmustbecleanedfromtheFCAweldsaftercompletion,theprocessadvantageofhighquality, versatility,andweldingspeedoffsetthisrequirement. Gasmetalarcweldingandfluxcoredarcweldingareverydifferentweldingprocesses,buttheyuseverysimilar weldingequipment,Figure 1-9.BothGMAandFCAweldingareclassifiedassemiautomaticprocessesbecause thefillermetalisautomaticallyfedintotheweldingarc,andtheweldermanuallymovestheweldinggunalong thejointbeingwelded.GMAandFCAweldingarethefirstchoiceformanyweldingfabricatorsbecausethese processesarecosteffective,producehigh-qualitywelds,andareflexibleandversatile.Inadditiontowelding, supplystores,manyothersstoressuchashardwarestores,buildingsupplystores,automotivesupplystores,and otherscarryGMA/FCAweldingequipmentandfillermetals.

Oxyacetylene Welding, Brazing, and Cutting

Oxyacetylenewelding(OAW)andtorchbrazing(TB)canbedonewiththesameequipment,andoxyfuel gas cutting (OFC)usesverysimilarequipment,Figure 1-10. InOFweldingandTBahigh-temperatureflameisproducedatthetorchtipbyburningoxygenandafuelgas. Themostcommonfuelgasisacetylene;however,othercombinationsofoxygenandfuelgases(OF)canbeused forwelding,suchashydrogen,MAPP,orpropane.InOFwelding,thebasemetalismeltedandafillermetal maybeaddedtoreinforcetheweld.NofluxisrequiredtomakeanOFweld. InTB,themetalisheatedtoasufficienttemperaturebutbelowitsmeltingpointsothatabrazingalloycanbe meltedandbondtothehotbasemetal.Afluxmaybeusedtohelpthebrazingalloybondtothebasemetal.Both OFweldingandTBareusedprimarilyonsmaller,thinner-gaugemetals.

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FIGURE 1-9 Gas metal arc welding equipment.CengageLearning2012

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FIGURE 1-10 Oxyfuel welding and cutting equipment.CengageLearning2012

Thermal Cutting Processes

Thereareanumberofthermalcuttingprocessessuchasoxyfuelcutting(OFC)andplasmaarccutting (PAC).Theyarethemostcommonlyusedinmostweldingshops.Aircarbonarc(AAC)cuttingisalsofrequently used,andmanylargerfabricationshopshavestartedusinglaserbeamcutting(LBC).

Oxyfuel Gas Cutting

Oxyfuelgascuttingusesthehigh-temperatureflametoheatthesurfaceofapieceofsteeltoapointwherea forcefulstreamofoxygenflowingoutacenterholeinthetipcausesthehotsteeltoburnaway,leavingagapor cut.BecauseOFcuttingreliesontherapidoxidationofthebasemetalatelevatedtemperaturestomakeacut, thetypesofmetalsandalloysitcanbeusedonarelimited.OFcuttingcanbeusedonsteelfromafractionofan inchthicktoseveralfeetdependingonthecapacityofthetorchandtipbeingused.

Plasma Arc Cutting

Plasmaarccutting(PAC)usesastiff,highlyionized,extremelyhotcolumnofgastoalmostinstantlyvaporize themetalbeingcut.Mostionizedplasmaisformedashigh-pressureairisforcedthroughaverysmallopening betweenatungstenelectrodeandthetorchtip,Figure 1-11.Astheairisionized,itheatsup,expands,andexits thetorchtipatsupersonicspeeds.PACdoesnotrelyonrapidoxidationofthemetalbeingcut,likeOFC,so almostanymetaloralloycanbecut.

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FIGURE 1-11 Plasm arc cutting equipment.CengageLearning2012 PAcuttingequipmentconsistsofatransformerpowersupply,plasmatorchandcable,workclampandcable, andanairsupply.SomePAcuttingequipmenthasself-containedaircompressors.BecausethePAcutting processcanbeperformedatsomeveryhightravelspeeds,itisoftenusedonautomatedcuttingmachines.The hightravelspeedsandverylowheatinputhelptoreduceoreliminatepartdistortion,acommonproblemwith someOFcutting.

Selection of the Joining Process

Theselectionofthejoiningprocessforaparticularjobdependsuponmanyfactors.Noonespecificrulecontrols theweldingprocesstobeselectedforacertainjob.Followingareafewofthefactorsthatmustbeconsidered whenchoosingajoiningprocess. AvailabilityofequipmentThetypes,capacity,andconditionofequipmentthatcanbeusedtomakethe welds. RepetitivenessoftheoperationHowmanyoftheweldswillberequiredtocompletethejob,andare theyallthesame? QualityrequirementsIsthisweldgoingtobeusedonapieceoffurniture,torepairapieceof equipment,ortojoinapipeline? LocationofworkWilltheweldbeinashoporonaremotejobsite? MaterialstobejoinedArethepartsmadeoutofastandardmetalorsomeexoticalloy? AppearanceofthefinishedproductWillthisbeaweldmentthatisneededonlytotestanidea,orwillit beapermanentstructure? SizeofthepartstobejoinedArethepartssmall,large,ordifferentsizes,andcantheybemovedor musttheybeweldedinplace? TimeavailableforworkIsthisarushjobneedingafastrepair,oristheretimetoallowforpre-and postweldcleanup? SkillorexperienceofworkersDotheweldershavetheabilitytodothejob? CostofmaterialsWilltheweldmentbeworththeexpenseofspecialequipmentmaterialsorfinishing time? CodeorspecificationrequirementsOftentheselectionoftheprocessisdictatedbythegoverning agency,codes,orstandards. Theweldingengineerand/ortheweldermustnotonlydecideontheweldingprocessbutmustalsoselectthe methodofapplyingit.Thefollowingmethodsareusedtoperformwelding,cutting,orbrazingoperations. ManualThewelderisrequiredtomanipulatetheentireprocess. SemiautomaticThefillermetalisaddedautomatically,andallothermanipulationisdonemanuallyby thewelder.

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MachineOperationsaredonemechanicallyundertheobservationandcorrectionofawelding operator. AutomaticOperationsareperformedrepeatedlybyamachinethathasbeenprogrammedtodoan entireoperationwithoutinteractionoftheoperator. AutomatedOperationsareperformedrepeatedlybyarobotorothermachinethatisprogrammed flexiblytodoavarietyofprocesses.

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Occupational Opportunities in Welding

TheAmericanweldingindustryhascontributedtothewidespreadgrowthoftheweldingandalliedprocesses. Withoutwelding,muchofwhatweuseonadailybasiscouldnotbemanufactured.Thelistoftheseproducts growseveryday,thusincreasingthenumberofjobsforpeoplewithweldingskills.Theneedtofillthesewellpayingjobsisnotconcentratedinmajormetropolitanareasbutisfoundthroughoutthecountryandtheworld. Becauseofthediversenatureoftheweldingindustry,theexactjobdutiesofeachskillareawillvary.The followingaregeneraldescriptionsofthejobclassificationsusedinourprofession;specifictasksmayvaryfrom onelocationtoanother. Weldersperformtheactualwelding.Theyaretheskilledcraftspeoplewho,throughtheirownlabor,producethe weldsonavarietyofcomplexproducts,Figure 1-12. Tack welders,alsoskilledworkers,oftenhelpthewelderbymakingsmallweldstoholdpartsinplace.Thetack weldmustbecorrectlyappliedsothatitisstrongenoughtoholdtheassemblyandstillnotinterferewiththe finishedwelding. Welding operators,oftenskilledwelders,operatemachinesorautomaticequipmentusedtomakewelds. Welders helpersareemployedinsomeweldingshopstocleanslagfromtheweldsandhelpmoveandposition weldmentsforthewelder. Welder assemblers,orwelder fitters,positionallthepartsintheirproperplacesandmakethemreadyforthe tackwelders.Theseskilledworkersmustbeabletointerpretblueprintsandweldingprocedures.Theymustalso haveknowledgeoftheeffectsofcontractionandexpansionofthevarioustypesofmetals. Welding inspectorsareoftenrequiredtoholdaspecialcertificationsuchastheonesupervisedbythe AmericanWeldingSocietyknownasCertifiedWeldingInspector(CWI).TobecomeaCWI,candidatesmust passatestcoveringtheweldingprocess,blueprintreading,weldsymbols,metallurgy,codesandstandards,and inspectiontechniques.Visionscreeningisalsorequiredonaregularbasis,oncethetechnicalskillshavebeen demonstrated. Welding shop supervisorsmayormaynotweldonaregularbasis,dependingonthesizeoftheshop.In additiontotheirweldingskills,theymustdemonstrategoodmanagementskillsbyeffectivelyplanningjobsand assigningworkers. Welding salespersonsmaybeemployedbysupplyhousesorequipmentmanufacturers.Thesejobsrequirea broadunderstandingoftheweldingprocessaswellasgoodmarketingskills.Goodsalespersonsareableto providetechnicalinformationabouttheirproductstoconvincecustomerstomakeapurchase. Welding shop ownersareoftenwelderswhohaveahighdegreeofskillandknowledgeofsmall-business managementandprefertooperatetheirownbusinesses.Theseindividualsmayspecializeinonefield,suchas hardfacing,repairandmaintenance,orspecialtyfabrications,ortheymayoperateassubcontractorsof manufactureditems.Aweldingbusinesscanbeassmallasoneindividual,onetruck,andoneportablewelderor aslargeasamultimillion-dollaroperationemployinghundredsofworkers.

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FIGURE 1-12 Amusement parks like Silver Dollar City in Branson, Missouri, require a lot of talented welders to produce such attractions as these. (a) Fabricating an antique train engine to be used in a parade. (b) Air-powered guns for launching toy balls. (c) The Branson Belle paddleboat.LarryJeffus Welding engineersdesign,specify,andoverseetheconstructionofcomplexweldments.Theweldingengineer

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mayworkwithotherengineersinareassuchasmechanics,electronics,chemicals,orcivilengineeringinthe processofbringinganewbuilding,ship,aircraft,orproductintoexistence.Theweldingengineerisrequiredto knowalloftheweldingprocessandmetallurgyaswellashavegoodmath,reading,communication,anddesign skills.Thispersonusuallyhasanadvancedcollegedegreeandpossessesaprofessionalcertification. Inmanyindustries,thewelder,weldingoperator,andtackweldermustbeabletopassaperformancetesttoa specificcodeorstandard. Thehighest-paidweldersarethosewhohavetheeducationandskillstoreadblueprintsanddotherequiredwork toproduceaweldmenttostrictspecifications. Largeindustrialfirmsemployworkerswhoserveassupportforthewelders.Theseengineersandtechnicians musthaveknowledgeofchemistry,physics,metallurgy,electricity,andmathematics.Engineersareresponsible forresearch,design,development,andfabricationofaproject.Techniciansworkaspartoftheengineeringstaff. Theseindividualsmayoverseetheactualworkfortheengineerbyprovidingtheengineerwithprogressreports aswellaschemical,physical,andmechanicaltestresults.Techniciansmayalsorequireengineerstobuildprototypesfortestingandevaluation. Anothergroupofworkersemployedbyindustrydoeslayoutsormakestemplates.Theseindividualshavehad draftingexperienceandhaveaknowledgeofsuchoperationsaspunching,cutting,shearing,twisting,and forming,amongothers.Thelayoutisgenerally

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FIGURE 1-13 Numerical control oxygen cutting machine.ESABWelding&CuttingProducts donedirectlyonthematerial.Atemplateisusedforrepetitivelayoutsandismadefromsheetmetalorother suitablematerials. Theflame-cuttingprocessiscloselyrelatedtowelding.Someoperatorsusehandheldtorches,andothersare skilledoperatorsofoxyfuelcuttingmachines.Thesemachinesrangefromsimplemechanicaldevicestohighly sophisticated,tape,controlled,multiple-headmachinesthatareoperatedbyspecialists,Figure 1-13.

Training for Welding Occupations

Generally,severalmonthsoftrainingarerequiredtolearntoweld.Tobecomeaskilledwelder,bothwelding schoolandon-the-jobexperiencearerequired.Becauseofthediversenatureoftheweldingindustry,nosingle listofskillscanbeusedtomeeteveryjob'srequirements.However,therearespecificskillsthatarerequiredof mostentry-levelwelders.Thistextcoversthoseskillrequirements. Inadditiontoweldingskills,anentry-levelweldermustpossessworkplaceskills.Workplaceskillsincludea proficiencyinreading,writing,math,communication,andscienceaswellasgoodworkhabitsandan acceptanceofclosesupervision.Someweldingjobsmayalsorequireatheoreticalknowledgeofwelding, blueprintreading,weldingsymbols,metalproperties,andelectricity.Afewofthejobsthatrequirelessskillcan belearnedafterafewmonthsofon-the-jobtraining.However,thefabrication

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ofcertainalloysrequiresknowledgeofmetallurgicalpropertiesaswellasthedevelopmentofagreaterskillin cuttingandweldingthem. Roboticsandcomputer-aidedmanufacturing(CAM)bothrequiremorethanabasicunderstandingofthe weldingprocess;theyrequirethatthestudentbecomputerliterate. Ayoungpersonplanningacareerasawelderneedsgoodeyesight,manualdexterity,hand-and-eye coordination,andunderstandingofweldingtechnology.Forentryintomanualweldingjobs,employerspreferto hireyoungpeoplewhohavehighschoolorvocationaltraininginweldingprocesses.Coursesindrafting, blueprintreading,mathematics,andphysicsarealsovaluable.processeshaveonourenvironment.Forexample,

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ifaspilloccurs,notifyyoursupervisorandcleanituppromptlyandproperly.Alwayslookforwaystobebetter stewardsofourenvironment. Beginnersinweldingwhohavenotrainingoftenstartinmanualweldingproductionjobsthatrequireminimum skill.Occasionally,theyfirstworkashelpersandarelatermovedintoweldingjobs.Generalhelpers,ifthey showpromise,maybegivenachancetobecomeweldersbyservingashelperstoexperiencedwelders. Aformalapprenticeshipisusuallynotrequiredforgeneralwelders.Anumberoflargecompanieshavewelding apprenticeshipprograms.Themilitary,atseveralofitsinstallations,hasprogramsinwelding. Skillandtechnicalknowledgerequirementsarehigherinsomeindustries.Inthefieldsofatomicenergy, aerospace,andpressurevesselconstruction,highstandardsforweldersmustbemettoensurethatweldments willwithstandthecriticalforcesthattheywillbesubjectedtoinuse. Aftertwoyearsoftrainingatavocationalschoolortechnicalinstitute,theskilledweldermayqualifyasa technician.Techniciansaregenerallyinvolvedintheinterpretationofengineersplansandinstructions. Employmentofweldersisexpectedtoincreaserapidlyasaresultofthewideruseofvariousweldingprocesses, includingtheuseofrobots. Manymoreskilledwelderswillbeneededformaintenanceandrepairworkintheexpandingmetalworking industries.Thenumberofweldersinproductionworkisexpectedtoincreaseinplantsmanufacturingsheet metalproducts,pressurevessels,boilers,railroads,storagetanks,air-conditioningequipment,andshipsandin thefieldofenergyexplorationandenergyresources.Theconstructionindustrywillneedanever-increasing numberofgoodweldersastheuseofweldedsteelbuildingsgrows. Employmentprospectsforweldingoperatorsareexpectedtocontinuetobefavorablebecauseoftheincreased useofmachine,automatic,andautomatedweldinginthemanufactureofaircraft,missiles,railroadcars, automobiles,andnumerousotherproducts. Beforebeingassignedajobwhereservicerequirementsoftheweldarecritical,weldersusuallymustpassa certificationtestgivenbyanemployer. Inaddition,somelocalitiesrequirewelderstoobtainalicenseforcertaintypesofoutsideconstruction.

THINK GREEN
Allweldingandcuttingprocessesconsumelargequantitiesofenergyandmaterials,andsomeproduce environmentalpollution.Itisimportantthatyoualwayslookatwaystominimizetheimpacttheseprocesses haveonourenvironment.Forexample,ifaspilloccurs,notifyyoursupervisorandcleanituppromptlyand properly.Alwayslookforwaystobebetterstewardsofourenvironment. Afterwelders,weldingoperators,ortackweldershavereceivedacertificationorqualificationbypassinga standardizedtest,theyareonlyallowedtomakeweldscoveredbythatspecifictest.Theweldingcertificationis veryrestrictive;itallowsaweldertoperformonlycodeweldscoveredbythattest.Certificationsareusually goodforamaximumofsixmonthsunlessawelderisdoingcode-qualityweldsroutinely.Asastudent,you shouldcheckintotheacceptanceofaweldingqualificationtestbeforeinvestingtimeandpossiblymoneyinthe test. TheAmerican Welding Society (AWS)hasdevelopedthreelevelsofcertificationforwelders.Thefirstlevel, EntryLevelWelder,isforthebeginningwelder,andLevelIIandLevelIIIareforthemoreskilledwelders. Thesecertificationsaregainingwidespreadacceptancebytheindustry.Certificationallowswelderstoprove theirskillsonastandardtest. Foradditionalinformationabouttheskillsrequiredforvariousweldingjobclassifications,refertoTable 1-2. EachyearSkillsUSAsponsorsaseriesofweldingskillcompetitionsforitsstudentmembers.Studentscanbegin byjoiningtheirlocalSkillsUSAchapter.Theycanthencompeteinlocal,regional,andstatecompetitions.Each time,thestudentswiththebestweldingskillsandknowledgecanadvancetothenextlevelofcompetition. Contestantsarechallengedwithawrittentestandmustshowtheirproficiencyinweldingandfabrication.There

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isanationalSkillsUSAOlympicscompetitionheldeachyearinKansasCity,Missouri.Thewinnersatthe nationalcompetitioncanthengoontotheInternationalSkillOlympics.Theinternationalcompetitionisheldin adifferentcountryeachyear.Likemostprofessionalorganizations,SkillsUSAemphasizescommunityservice andcitizenshipaskeycomponentstothephilosophyoftheorganization.

Experiments and Practices

Anumberofthechaptersinthisbookcontainbothexperimentsandpractices.Theseareintendedtohelpyou developyourweldingknowledgeandskills. Theexperimentsaredesignedtoallowyoutoseewhateffectchangesintheprocesssettings,operation,or techniqueshaveonthetypeofweldproduced.Whenyoudo

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TABLE 1-2 Recommended Skills for Various Welding Occupations

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anexperiment,youshouldobserveandpossiblytakenotesonhowthechangeaffectedtheweld.Oftenasyou makeawelditwillbenecessaryforyoutomakechangesinyourequipmentsettingsoryourtechniquetoensure youaremakinganacceptableweld.Bywatchingwhathappenswhenyoumakethechangesintheweldingshop, youwillbebetterpreparedtodecideonchangesrequiredtomakegoodweldsonthejob. Itisrecommendedthatyouworkinasmallgroupasyoutrytheexperiments.Whendoingtheexperimentsina smallgroup,onepersoncanbewelding,oneadjustingtheequipment,andtheothersrecordingthemachine settingsandweldeffects.Italsoallowsyoutowatchtheweldchangemorecloselyifsomeoneisweldingasyou lookon.Then,asagroupmember,changingplaceswillreinforceyourlearning. Thepracticesaredesignedtobuildyourweldingskills.Eachpracticetellsyouindetailwhatequipment, supplies,andtoolsyouwillneedasyoudevelopthespecificskill.Inmostchapters,thepracticesstartoffeasy

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andbecomeprogressivelyharder.Weldingisaskillthatrequiresthatyoudevelopinstagesfromthebasictothe morecomplex. Eachpracticegivestheevaluationoracceptablelimitsfortheweld.Allweldshavesomediscontinuities,butif theyarewithintheacceptablelimits,theyarenotdefectsbutarecalledflaws.Asyoupracticeyourwelding, keepinmindtheacceptablelimitssothatyoucanprogresstothenextlevelwhenyouhavemasteredtheprocess andweldyouareworkingon.

Welding Video Series

Delmar/CengageLearning,incooperationwiththeauthor,hasproducedaseriesofvideotapes.Eachofthefour tapesetscoversspecificequipmentsetupandoperationforwelding,cutting,soldering,orbrazing.Whenthere arespecificskillsshownbothinthistextbookandonavideotape,youwillseeaframedshotfrom

FIGURE 1-14 This GMA welding can be seen in the Gas Metal Arc Welding video series on tape 2.LarryJeffusSeeDVD2GasMetalArcWelding. thevideo,asshowninFigure 1-14.Readingthematerial,watchingthevideo,andpracticingshouldhelpyouto developyourweldingskillsmorerapidly.

Metric Units
Bothstandardandmetric(SI)unitsaregiveninthistext.TheSIunitsareinparentheses()followingthe standardunit.Whennonspecificvaluesareusedforexample,setthegaugeat2psigwhere2isan approximatevaluetheSIunitshavebeenroundedofftothenearestwholenumber.Roundoffoccursinthese casestoagreewiththestandardvalueandbecausewholenumbersareeasiertoworkwith.TheonlytimethatSI unitsarenotroundedoffiswhenthestandardunitisanexactmeasurement. Oftenstudentshavedifficultyunderstandingmetricunitsbecauseexactconversionsareusedevenwhenthe standardmeasurementwasanapproximation.Roundingoffthemetricunitsmakesunderstandingthemetric systemmucheasier,Table 1-3.Estimatingtheapproximateconversionfromoneunittypetoanothermakesit possibletoquicklyhaveanideaofhowlargeorheavyanobjectis.Whenestimatingaconversion,itisnot necessarytobeconcise. Byusingthisapproximationmethod,youcanmakemoststandard-to-metricconversionsinyourheadwithout needingtouseacalculator. Onceyouhavelearnedtouseapproximationsformetric,youwillfinditeasiertomakeexactconversions whenevernecessary.Conversionsmustbeexactintheshopwhenapartisdimensionedwithonesystem'sunits andtheothersystemmustbeusedtofabricatethepart.Forthatreasonyoumustbeabletomakethose conversions.Table 1-4andTable 1-5aresetuptobeusedwithorwithouttheaidofacalculator.Many calculatorstodayhavebuilt-instandardmetricconversions.Ofcourse,itisagoodideatoknowhowtomake theseconversionswithandwithouttheseaids.Practicemakingsuchconversionswhenevertheopportunity arises. TABLE 1-3ConversionApproximations 1/4inch=6mm

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TABLE 1-3ConversionApproximations 1/2inch=13mm 3/4inch=18mm 1inch=25mm 2inches=50mm 1/2gal=2L 1gal=4L 1lb=1/2K 2lb=1K 1psig=7kPa 1F=2C TABLE 1-3 Conversion Approximations

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TABLE 1-4 Table of Conversions: U.S. Customary (Standard) Units and Metric Units (SI)

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TABLE 1-5 Abbreviations and Symbols

Introduction to Welding: Summary

Weldingisaverydiversetrade.Almosteverymanufacturedproductutilizesaweldingorjoiningprocessinits production.Productsthatareproducedbyweldingrangefromsmallobjects,suchassunglassesanddental braces,tolargerstructures,suchasbuildings,ships,andspaceshuttles.Yourknowledgeandunderstandingof thevariousprocessesandtheirapplicationswillprovideyouwithemployableskillsthatcanresultinarichand rewardingcareerintheweldingfield.Theartandscienceofjoiningmetalshasbeenaroundforcenturies,and withchangesandimprovementsinmaterials,equipment,andsupplies,itwillbewithusthroughtheremainder ofthetwenty-firstcentury.

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Welding at the Bottom of the World

Antarctica,theSouthPolethewordssummonimagesofableak,barrenlandscape;unimaginablecold;and incrediblehumandrama. WelderWalterFischellivedandworkedattheNationalScienceFoundationAmundsen-ScottSouthPoleStation fromNovember3,1998untilOctober30,1999,makinghimoneofonlyabout1200peoplewhohavewintered attheSouthPole. Antarcticaisabeautiful,pristineenvironmentthatshouldbepreserved,Fischelsaid.Itisaharshplacethe highest,driest,windiest,darkestplaceonearth.Itislikenootherplaceonthisplanet.Ididenjoymytimethere. Theworkconsumesmuchofyourtimeandtherewasagoodgroupofpeoplethere. Thenow32-year-oldFischel,fromColumbia,Maryland,nearBaltimore,neverplannedonbecomingawelder ormakingithiscareer.Instead,helearnedthetradeinordertopayforhiseducation,studyingfirstata MarylandcommunitycollegeandthenatColoradoStateUniversitywiththegoalofbecomingageophysicist. Hefoundheenjoyedwelding,however,andeventuallybecamequalifiedinthe3Gpositiontodoflat,horizontal, andverticalweldingfrom1/8in.tounlimitedthicknessplates.

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HisjourneytotheSouthPolebeganwhenheansweredanadvertisementinthe Washington Postforconstruction workersinAntarctica.TheUnitedStatesmaintainsthreestationsonthecontinentMcMurdo,Palmer,and Amundsen-ScottSouthPole.TheSouthPolestationhasbeenincontinuousoperationsince1956;itissupplied entirelybyairfromMcMurdo.Housedinthedomesincetheearly1970s,SouthPolestationisinneedofrepair andmodernization.Ayear-roundconstructionprojectisunderway,withanexpectedcompletiondateof2005. Fischelwashiredby

An aurora over the garage arch during winter 1999.AmericanWeldingSociety AntarcticSupportAssociates(ASA)tohelpbuildanewheavyequipmentshop. Iwasselectedandoriginallyhiredasanironworkerforasummer-onlypositionattheSouthPole,Fischel explained.Theprojectinvolvedalotmoreweldingthananticipated,soIwasgiventhewinter-overcontractlate inthesummer. Approximately200peopleworkedattheSouthPolethatseason.Duringtheperpetuallightofsummer,they workedinthreeoverlappingnine-hourshifts,sixdaysaweek;inwinter,thehoursanddaysarethesame,but thereisonlyoneshift.Yougetonedayoffaweek,whichisenoughbecausethere'snotalotofactivitiesgoing on,Fischelrecalled.

At Work
FischelexplainedthereisnowaytoprepareyourselfforworkingundertheharshconditionsoftheSouthPole, buthefoundthat,onceweldingwasunderway,themetalrespondedasexpected.Becauseoftheequipment availabletohim,heprimarilyusedtheshieldedmetalarcweldingprocesswithlow-hydrogenelectrodes.Given achoice,Fischelsaidhewouldhaveselectedawirefeedprocess,suchasfluxcoredarcweldingorgasmetalarc welding,toachievehigherdepositionrates.Healsodidalargeamountofoxy-acetylenecutting,helpedraisethe structuralsteel,andsharedthehouseholddutiesinvolvedincommunityliving. Becauseofthelackofhumidity,preheatingthesteelwasnotneeded,hesaid.Postweldheattreatmentwas alsounnecessaryforthesamereason.Themetaldidreactdifferentlyatfirstcontactwiththeheat,whichtooka littlegettingusedto.Itseemedthemetalwasshockedatfirst

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A view of the heavy equipment garage Fischel helped build.AmericanWeldingSociety

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Fischel off duty during summer 1998. Notice there's nothing there, he said.AmericanWeldingSociety contactwiththeheat.Itwashardtogetaniceverticalflow,butoncethemetalwarmedupitwentsmoothly.My firstverticalpasstherewasamess. ThosewhoworkinAntarcticahavefoundittakesupto10timeslongertocompleteataskthanitdoesatnormal temperatures.First,workerssufferfromchronichypoxia(notenoughoxygenintheblood)becauseofthehigh altitude.TheSouthPolestationsitsatanelevationof9300feetabovesealevel.Second,themultilayered protectiveclothingworkersmustwearrestrictsmovement.Evenwithprotectiveclothing,iftheweatherturns tooseverenoonecanworkoutsidefortoolong. Myworkforthesummerwasentirelyoutsidethedomeattemperaturesfrom20Fto65F.Duringthe winter,itwasprimarilyinsidethestructurewehaderected.Some(winter)workwasoutside,butonlyforbrief periodsbecauseoftheextremecold,50Fto105Fwithnowindchillincluded.Atthosetemperatures, everythingfreezes,eventheweldingcable.Therewerealsoperiodsofnoworkoutsidebecauseofwhiteouts, wheretherewasnodistinctionbetweenlandandskyatthehorizon.(Duringawhiteout,peoplecaneasily becomedisorientedandbeunabletofindtheirwaytoshelter.) Fischel'smainprojectsduringthistimeweretohermeticallysealthenewgarage'sfloorandtoworkonthe catchmentpansthatwerepartofthedrainagesystem.Healsomaderepairstothestation'sequipmentwhenever necessary.

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Fischel changes the flag atop the dome in spring 1999 after a long winter. The temperature was 85F with a windchill factor of 120F. The South Pole's year includes only one day and one night, but with an extended dusk and dawn.AmericanWelding Society InAntarctica,allthebuildingshavetobe100%sealedtopreventanythingleakingintotheice,Fischel explained.AspartoftheAntarcticTreatyrequirements,hehadtoweldallthefloorjointstopreventoilorother fluidsfromtheheavyequipmentthatwillbestoredinthegaragefromcontaminatingtheenvironment.The garage'scatchmentpanswerelocatedbetweenthefloorbeams.Thebeamshadbeencambered,solighterweight beamscouldbeusedtohelpsaveshippingexpenses.However,thecatchmentpanswereoverlookedandnot camberedtomatchthebeams.Fischelhadtocutreliefholesinthepans,bendthemtomatchthebeams,then weldthemsotheywerecompletelysealed.

Back in the World

Asforthefuture,Fischelsaidhewantstofinishhisdegreeeventuallybutdoesnotknowifhewillswitch careers.Idoenjoywelding,hesaid.It'sprettymuchaninternationaltrade,andit'stakenmeafewplaces.I enjoythat.It'snotlikeyouneedtospeakthelanguage,[because]welding'saninternationallanguage.There'sa certainwaytodoitnomatterwhereyouare. Article courtesy of the American Welding Society.

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Introduction to Welding: Review

1.Explainhowtoforgeweld. 2.WhatweldingprocessisElihuThomsoncreditedwithdevelopingin1886? 3.DuringWorldWarI,whatprocessreplacedrivetingforshiprepair? 4.Weldinghasbecomea____,____,and____methodofjoiningmetal. 5.Whatdowecallthelocalizedgrowingtogetherofthegrainstructureduringaweld? 6.Weldingcanbeusedtojoinboth____and____. 7.Someweldingprocessesrequireboth____and____tomakeaweld. 8.Listsixitemsthatuseweldingintheirconstruction. 9.Whyhaveweldingexperimentsbeenperformedaboardthespaceshuttle? 10.Whatthreethingsdiffergreatlyfromoneweldingprocesstoanother?

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11.WhichgasesaremostcommonlyusedfortheOFWprocess? 12.Whatisthetechnicallycorrectnameforgas welding? 13.Whichweldingprocessisthemostcommonlyusedtojoinmetal? 14.Whatisthetechnicallycorrectnameforstick welding? 15.GTAWistheabbreviationforwhichprocess? 16.Whatistheidealprocessforhighweldingratesonthin-gaugemetal? 17.Fluxinsidetheweldingwiregiveswhichprocessitsname? 18.Listsixitemsthatmaybeconsideredinselectingaweldingprocess. 19.Whichmethodofweldingapplicationrequiresaweldertomanipulatetheentireprocess? 20.Whichmethodofweldingrequirestheweldertocontroleverythingexcepttheaddingoffillermetal? 21.Whichweldingprocessisrepeatedlyperformedbyamachinethathasbeenprogrammed? 22.A____workswithengineerstoproduceproto-typesfortesting. 23.A____placespartstogetherintheirproperpositionforthetackwelder. 24.A____isapieceofsheetmetalcuttotheshapeofapartsothatitmayberepetitivelylaidout. 25.WhataretheapproximatestandardunitsforthefollowingSIvalues? a.13mm b.4L c.100C d.4K 26.WhataretheexactstandardunitsforthefollowingSIvalues? a.13mm b.4L c.100C d.4K 27.Whataresomeadvantagesofaworkingenvironmentthatinvolvesgroups? 28.Givethreeexamplesofhowyoucanbenefitfromfollowingstrongleadershipinpreparingforyourcareer. 29.Aretherepositiveattitudesyoushowintheworkplacethatcouldalsobehelpfulinyourroleasacitizenin yourcommunity? 30.Whattechnicalskillswouldyouasanemployerlookforinapotentialnewemployee? 31.Whatpersonalqualitieswouldyouasanemployerlookforinapotentialnewemployee? 32.Howcouldgoodworkhabitscreateoccupationalopportunitiesforyou? 33.Howcanemployeesgoodworkhabitsaffecttheprofitabilityofthecompanytheyworkfor?

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34.Listthreeadvantagesofhavingagoodunderstandingofthecultureandcommonbusinesspracticesof customersinforeigncountries. 35.Whataresomeprofessionalbenefitsofworkingonaninterculturalproject?

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2007 Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this work may by reproduced or used in any form or by any means - graphic, electronic, or mechanical, or in any other manner - without the written permission of the copyright holder.

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