Phân TH C H U T Và Các Bài Toán Liên Quan

I HC THI NGUYN
TRNG I HC KHOA HC
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Cao Th Kim Anh
PHN THC HU T
V CC BI TON LIN QUAN
LUN VN THC S TON HC
Chuyn ngnh: PHNG PHP TON S CP
M s: 60.46.40
Ngi hng dn khoa hc
GS. TSKH. NGUYN VN MU
THI NGUYN - NM 2011
S ha bi Trung tm Hc liu i hc Thi Nguyn http://www.lrc-tnu.edu.vn
1
Mc lc
M u 2
1 Phn thc hu t v cc bi ton lin quan 4
1.1 Phn thc hu t v cc tnh cht lin quan . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.1 nh ngha v cc tnh cht c bn . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.2 Phn tch phn thc hu t thnh nhn t . . . . . . 7
1.1.3 Mt s tnh ton trn phn thc hu t . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.4 Mt s lp phng trnh vi hm phn thc hu t . . 13
1.1.5 Phng trnh hm trong lp hm phn thc hu t . . 21
1.2 Mt s thut ton tm nguyn hm ca hm phn thc hu t 24
1.2.1 Phng php Oxtrogradski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.2.2 p dng cng thc ni suy Lagrange . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2.3 p dng cng thc ni suy Hermite . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.2.4 Phng php Horowitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2 Phn thc hu t vi h s nguyn v phn thc nhn gi
tr hu t 42
2.1 Hm phn thc chnh quy hu t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.1.1 Hm phn thc chnh quy hu t mt bin . . . . . . 42
2.1.2 Hm phn thc chnh quy hu t nhiu bin . . . . . 43
2.2 Tnh cht ca hm phn thc nhn gi tr hu t . . . . . . . 46
2.3 Dy s sinh bi hm phn thc hu t . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3 Bt ng thc vi cc hm phn thc hu t 57
3.1 Phng php bt ng thc Cauchy i vi hm phn thc
hu t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2 K thut cng mu s Engel ca bt ng thc Chebyshev . 65
3.2.1 Bt ng thc Chebyshev v Chebyshev dng Engel . 65
3.2.2 Phng php cng mu s Engel . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3 Dng phn thc ca cc a thc i xng c bn . . . . . . . 76
Kt lun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Ti liu tham kho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2
M u
Phn thc hu t l mt trong nhng khi nim c bn ca chng trnh
Ton bc hc ph thng. c bit, cc trng THPT chuyn v cc lp
chuyn ton c rt nhiu dng ton lin quan n hm phn thc. Trong
cc k thi hc sinh gii Ton trong nc v cc k thi Olimpic Ton ca cc
nc trn th gii, c nhiu bi ton v dy s, bt ng thc, phng trnh,
bt phng trnh v h bt phng trnh ... sinh bi cc hm s dng phn
thc v v th cn bit cch gii vn dng tnh c th ca biu thc phn
thc cho. Hin nay cc ti liu c tnh h thng v vn ny cn cha
c cp nhiu.
p ng nhu cu hc tp v ging dy mn ton bc ph thng, lun
vn Phn thc hu t v cc bi ton lin quan nhm h thng v gii quyt
cc bi ton lin quan n phn thc hu t. Lun vn c chia ra lm ba
chng.
Chng 1 xt cc phn thc hu t v cc bi ton lin quan.
Chng ny nu ln mt s kin thc c bn v phn thc hu t v cc
tnh cht c bn ca n, tp trung ch yu vo vic phn tch phn thc hu
t thnh phn thc n gin v gii thiu mt s phng php c bit s
dng cng thc ni suy xy dng thut ton tm nguyn hm ca hm
hu t nh phng php Oxtrogradski, p dng cng thc ni suy Lagrange,
p dng cng thc ni suy Hermite, v phng php Horowitz. Ngoi vic
gii thiu cc thut ton, trong tng mc u c xy dng cc v d minh
ha v phn tch chi tit cc lc gii.
Trong chng ny cng xt mt s tnh ton trn cc phn thc hu t
v kho st mt s lp phng trnh vi hm phn thc hu t.
Chng 2 kho st cc phn thc hu t vi h s nguyn v phn thc
nhn gi tr hu t.
Xt lp cc hm phn thc hu t c bit, l lp hm phn thc
chnh quy hu t. Chng minh nh l c bn v gi tr nh nht ca hm
3
phn thc chnh quy hu t mt bin, hai bin v nhiu bin trn tp cc s
dng.
Tip theo, xt tnh cht ca hm phn thc nhn gi tr hu t. Tng
t nh i vi s hu t, ta cng chng minh c rng mi phn thc hu
t nhn gi tr hu t trn tp cc s t nhin u c dng phn thc hu
t vi h s nguyn.
Mc cui ca Chng 2 nhm kho st mt s lp bi ton v dy s sinh
bi mt s hm phn thc hu t.
Chng 3 nhm kho st mt s dng bt ng thc vi hm phn thc
hu t.
Trc ht xt cc k thut c bn v s dng bt ng thc Cauchy
chng minh cc bt ng thc dng phn thc.
Tip theo, da vo sp th t ca dy s vn dng k thut cng mu
s Engel ca bt ng thc Chebyshev chng minh mt s dng bt ng
thc c dng phn thc c bit.
Phn cui ca chng l xt mt s dng phn thc ca cc a thc i
xng c bn. y l nhng dng bt ng thc loi kh cn s phi kt hp
cch chng minh quy np vi cc biu din tng ng.
hon thnh lun vn ny, trc nht tc gi xin c gi li cm n
su sc ti GS.TSKH Nguyn Vn Mu dnh thi gian hng dn, ch
bo tn tnh gip trong sut qu trnh xy dng ti cng nh hon
thin lun vn.
Tip theo, tc gi cng xin gi li cm n chn thnh cc thy c
c, kim tra, nh gi v cho nhng kin qu bu lun vn c y
hn, phong ph hn. Qua y, tc gi cng xin c gi li cm n ti
Ban gim hiu, phng sau i hc, phng o to, khoa Ton - Tin Trng
HKH, i hc Thi Nguyn v cc bn ng nghip to iu kin thun
li trong sut qu trnh hc tp ti trng.
Tuy bn thn c nhiu c gng, song thi gian, trnh v iu kin
nghin cu cn hn ch nn lun vn kh trnh khi nhng thiu st. Rt
mong c s ng gp kin ca cc thy c v cc bn ng nghip
lun vn c hon thin hn.
Tc gi xin chn thnh cm n!
Thi nguyn, Thng 07 nm 2011
Cao Th Kim Anh
4
Chng 1
Phn thc hu t v cc bi ton
lin quan
1.1 Phn thc hu t v cc tnh cht lin quan
1.1.1 nh ngha v cc tnh cht c bn
nh ngha 1.1 (xem [4]). a thc bc n vi cc h s thc l hm s cho
bi cng thc
P(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n1
x
n1
+ + a
2
x
2
+ a
1
x + a
0
vi a
i
R, i = 0, 1, . . . , n v a
n
= 0.
nh ngha 1.2 (xem [4]). Hm s f : R R c gi l phn thc hu
t nu tn ti cc a thc P(x) v Q(x) sao cho
f(x) =
P(x)
Q(x)
. (1.1)
Khi P(x) v Q(x) l cc a thc nguyn t cng nhau (khng c c chung)
th (1.1) c gi l phn thc hu t chnh tc.
V sau, nhm mc tiu gii quyt cc bi ton bc THPT, ta ch xt a
thc v phn thc trn trng s thc (bin thc v vi h s thc). Nhng
trng hp c bit cn s dng s phc s c ch dn ring.
Nhng phn thc hu t dng
b
(x a)
n
hay
q(x)
[p(x)]
n
vi n 1 c gi
l nhng phn thc n gin.
By gi ta xt biu din mi phn thc hu t thng qua cc phn thc
hu t n gin (cc biu din km theo thut ton c th dng cho vic
5
tnh cc nguyn hm ca hm phn thc hu t s c trnh by trong cc
mc sau ca chng).
nh l 1.1 (xem [4]). Nu hai a thc g(x), h(x) nguyn t cng nhau vi
deg g(x) = m v deg h(x) = n th a thc bt k f(x) vi deg f(x) < m+n
u c th biu din c di dng f(x) = r(x)g(x) +s(x)h(x), deg r(x) <
n v deg s(x) < m.
Chng minh. V g(x) v h(x) nguyn t cng nhau, nn tn ti cc a
thc a(x), b(x) sao cho ng nht thc 1 = a(x)g(x) + b(x)h(x) c tha
mn.
Nhn hai v ca h thc ny vi f(x) ta nhn c
f(x) = f(x)a(x)g(x) + f(x)b(x)h(x).
Thc hin php chia f(x)a(x) cho q(x)h(x), ta thu c biu din f(x)a(x) =
q(x)h(x) + r(x) vi deg r(x) < n. Khi
f(x) = f(x)a(x)g(x)+f(x)b(x)h(x) = r(x)g(x)+[q(x)g(x)x+f(x)b(x)]h(x).
t s(x) = q(x)g(x) + f(x)b(x). Khi f(x) = r(x)g(x) + s(x)h(x). V
deg f(x) < m + n v deg r(x)g(x) < m + n nn deg s(x) < m (pcm).
B 1.1. Gi s hai a thc g(x), h(x) nguyn t cng nhau v a thc
f(x) vi deg f(x) < deg g(x) + deg h(x). Khi ta c biu din sau:
f(x)
g(x)h(x)
=
r(x)
h(x)
+
s(x)
g(x)
,
trong deg r(x) < deg h(x) v deg s(x) < deg g(x).
Chng minh. Theo nh l 1.1, th f(x) = r(x)g(x)+s(x)h(x) vi deg r(x) <
deg h(x) v deg s(x) < deg g(x). Chia hai v h thc ny cho g(x)h(x), ta
nhn c
f(x)
g(x)h(x)
=
r(x)
h(x)
+
s(x)
g(x)
.
nh l 1.2. Mi phn thc hu t
f(x)
g(x)
vi deg f(x) < deg g(x) u phn
tch c thnh tng cc phn thc hu t n gin.
6
Chng minh. Ta bt u bng vic xt cc phn thc n gin dng
r(x)
[p(x)]
m
vi deg r(x) < deg p(x). S dng php chia a thc, ta c biu din
r(x) = s
1
(x)[p(x)]
m1
+ r
1
(x),
r
1
(x) = s
2
(x)[p(x)]
m2
+ r
2
(x),
. . . . . . . . .
r
m2
(x) = s
m1
(x)p(x) + r
m1
(x).
Khi
r(x)
[p(x)]
m
=
s
1
(x)
p(x)
+
s
2
(x)
[p(x)]
2
+ +
s
m
(x)
[p(x)]
m
.
Trong trng hp c bit, khi p(x) = (x a), ta c biu din
r(x)
(x a)
m
=
b
1
(x a)
+
b
2
(x a)
2
+ +
b
m
(x a)
m
.
Tip theo, ta xt trng hp phn thc c dng
r(x)
(x a)
m
p(x)
vi p(a) = 0.
Biu din phn thc thnh dng
r(x)
(x a)
m
p(x)
=
b
(x a)
m
+
q(x)
(x a)
m1
p(x)
.
Quy ng cc phn thc, ta c ng nht thc
r(x) = bp(x) + (x a)q(x).
Cho x = a, ta c b =
r(a)
p(a)
v q(x) =
r(x) bp(x)
x a
.
Trong trng hp tng qut, gi s ta c phn tch
g(x) = (x a
1
)
n
1
. . . (x a
s
)
n
s
p
1
(x)
m
1
. . . p
r
(x)
m
r
,
trong cc p
i
(x) l nhng a thc bt kh quy vi bc ln hn 1.
Theo cc kt qu nhn c trn, ta c biu din
f(x)
g(x)
=
n
1
i=1
b
1i
(x a
1
)
i
+ +
n
s
i=1
b
si
(x a
s
)
i
+
m
1
i=1
s
1i
(x)
[p
1
(x)]
i
+ +
m
r
i=1
s
ri
(x)
[p
r
(x)]
i
.
Nh vy
f(x)
g(x)
phn tch c thnh tng cc phn thc n gin (pcm).
7
H qu 1.1. Mi phn thc hu t
f(x)
g(x)
u phn tch c thnh tng
ca mt a thc v cc phn thc hu t n gin.
Chng minh. Nu deg f(x) < deg g(x) th ta c ngay kt qu chng minh
(nh l 1.2).
Nu deg f(x) deg g(x) th ta biu din f(x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x) vi
deg r(x) < deg g(x).
Khi
f(x)
g(x)
= q(x) +
r(x)
g(x)
v kt qu cn chng minh c suy ra t
nh l 1.2.
Vi mi a thc g(x) bt kh quy trong R[x] (trn trng s thc) cha
biu thc dng x
2
+ bx + c vi = b
2
4c < 0, th g(x) vit c thnh
dng
g(x) =
s
i=1
(x a
i
)
n
i
r
i=1
(x
2
+ b
i
x + c
i
)
m
i
.
T ta c h qu sau
H qu 1.2. Mi phn thc hu t
f(x)
g(x)
u biu din c di dng
f(x)
g(x)
= q(x) +
s
i=1
n
1
j=1
b
ij
(x a
i
)
j
+
r
i=1
m
1
j=1
b
ij
x + c
ij
(x
2
+ b
j
x + c
j
)
j
,
trong Q(x) l a thc.
1.1.2 Phn tch phn thc hu t thnh nhn t
Ta bit rng i vi mi a thc i s P(x), khi x = x
0
l mt nghim
ca n th a thc P(x) chia ht cho x x
0
, tc l
P(x) = (x x
0
)P
1
(x), deg P
1
(x) = deg P(x) 1.
Tng t nh i vi a thc, ta cng c kt qu sau y i vi phn thc
hu t.
nh l 1.3 (nh l v phn tch thnh nhn t i vi hm phn thc).
Xt phn thc hu t f(x) =
p(x)
q(x)
vi (p(x), q(x)) = 1. Vi mi x
0
sao cho
8
f(x
0
) c ngha, ta lun c biu din
f(x) f(x
0
) = (x x
0
)
h(x)
q(x)
,
trong h(x) l a thc v deg h(x) deg p(x) 1.
Chng minh. Vi php chia a thc, ta c th biu din
p(x) = (x x
0
)p
1
(x) + r
v
q(x) = (x x
0
)q
1
(x) + s,
trong p
1
(x), q
1
(x) l cc a thc v r, s l cc hng s (nh l 1.1). Vy
nn
F(x) =
p(x)
q(x)

p(x
0
)
q(x
0
)
=
p(x)q(x
0
) p(x
0
)q(x)
q(x)q(x
0
)
=
_
(x x
0
)p
1
(x) + p(x
0
)]q
(
x
0
) p(x
0
)[(x x
0
)q
1
(x) + q(x
0
)
_
q(x)q(x
0
)
= (x x
0
)
_
p
1
(x)
q(x)

p(x
0
)
q(x
0
)
q
1
(x
0
)
q(x)
_
= (x x
0
)
p
1
(x) f(x
0
)q
1
(x)
q(x)
.
Do vy, ta c biu din f(x) f(x
0
) = (x x
0
)
h(x)
q(x)
.
Trng hp c bit khi q(x) = (x x
1
)(x x
2
) . . . (x x
n
) v c biu
din
f(x) =
p(x)
q(x)
=
n
k=1
a
k
x x
k
=
n
k=1
p(x
k
)
q
(x
k
)(x x
k
)
,
y x
i
= x
j
vi i = j v deg p(x) < n, th vi
h(x) = (x x
1
)f(x) = a
1
+
n
k=2
p(x
k
)
q
(x
k
)(x x
k
)
,
ta lun c
h(x) h() = (x )
n
k=2
p(x
k
)(x
1
x
k
)
q
(x
k
)( x
k
)(x x
k
)
, = x
k
.
9
1.1.3 Mt s tnh ton trn phn thc hu t
V d 1.1. Ta lun c
1
a x
=
n
k=0
x
k
a
k+1
+
x
n+1
a
n+1
(a x)
, a = 0, n N
.
Gii. Theo nh l 1.3 vi phn thc f(x) =
1
a x
, x
0
= 0, ta c
1
a x
1
a
=
x
a
1
a x
Lp li sau n ln ta thu c
1
a x
=
n
k=0
x
k
a
k+1
+
x
n+1
a
n+1
(a x)
V d 1.2. Gi s cho b s dng a

1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
. Khi
(i)
a
1
a
2
(a
1
+ a)(a
2
+ a)
+ +
a
n1
a
n
(a
n1
+ a)(a
n
+ a)
+
a
n
a
1
(a
n
+ a)(a
1
+ a)
= 0,
(ii) Vi hm phn thc f(x, u) =
1
u + a
x u
x + a
v coi a
n+1
= a
1
, ta lun
c ng nht thc
n
k=1
(f(x, a
k
) f(a
k+1
, a
k
)) =
n
k=1
f(x, a
k
).
Gii.
(i) D dng kim tra ng nht thc
x a
1
x + a

a
2
a
1
a
2
+ a
=
a
1
+ a
a
2
+ a
x a
2
x + a
Nh vy, ta lun c cc h thc di y:

1
a
1
+ a
x a
1
x + a

a
2
a
1
(a
1
+ a)(a
2
+ a)
=
1
a
2
+ a
x a
2
x + a
1
a
2
+ a
x a
2
x + a

a
3
a
2
(a
2
+ a)(a
3
+ a)
=
1
a
3
+ a
x a
3
x + a
. . . . . . . . .
1
a
n1
+ a
x a
n1
x + a

a
n
a
n1
(a
n1
+ a)(a
n
+ a)
=
1
a
n
+ a
x a
n
x + a
10
1
a
n
+ a
x a
n
x + a

a
1
a
n
(a
n
+ a)(a
1
+ a)
=
1
a
1
+ a
x a
1
x + a
Cng cc v theo ct dc, ta thu c ng nht thc cn chng minh.

(ii) Tng t, nhn cc v theo ct dc, ta c iu phi chng minh.
V d 1.3. Vi mi a thc p(x) c deg p(x) < n, ta lun c
p(x)
x
n
+ 1
=
1
2n
n
k=1
x +
k
x
k
p(
k
) +
1
2
p(0),
trong
k
= cos
(2k + 1)
n
+ i sin
(2k + 1)
n
, k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
T suy ra cc ng thc
n
k=1
cot
(2k + 1)
2n
cos
(2k + 1)
n
= 0
v
n
k=1
cot
(2k + 1)
2n
sin
(2k + 1)
n
= n.
Gii. Ta c
p(x)
x
n
+ 1
=
n
k=1
p(
k
)
n
n1
k
(x
k
)
=
1
n
n
k=1
k
p(
k
)
x
k
Cho x = 0, ta c p(0) =
1
n
n
k=1
p(
k
).
Khi ta c
p(x)
x
n
+ 1
1
2
p(0) =
1
2n
n
k=1
2
k
p(
k
)
x
k
1
2n
n
k=1
p(
k
)
=
1
2n
n
k=1
x +
k
x
k
p(
k
).
Do vy
p(x)
x
n
+ 1
=
1
2n
n
k=1
x +
k
x
k
p(
k
) +
1
2
p(0).
11
Khi chn p(x) = x v x = 1, ta c
1
2
=
1
2n
n
k=1
1 +
k
1
k
D dng bin i c
1 +
k
1
k
k
= i cot
(2k + 1)
2n
_
cos
(2k + 1)
n
+ i sin
(2k + 1)
n
Vy nn
n
k=1
cot
(2k + 1)
2n
cos
(2k + 1)
n
= 0
v
n
k=1
cot
(2k + 1)
2n
sin
(2k + 1)k
n
= n.
V d 1.4. . Vi mi a thc p(x) c deg p(x) < n, ta lun c
p(x)
x
n
1
=
1
2n
n
k=1
x +
k
x
k
p(
k
)
1
2
p(0)
trong
k
= cos
2k
n
+ i sin
2k
n
, k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
T y suy ra
2n
2
n
1
=
n
k=1
2 cos
4k
n
cos
2k
n
5 4 cos
2k
n
Gii. Ta c
p(x)
x
n
1
=
n
k=1
p(
k
)
n
n1
k
(x
k
)
=
1
n
n
k=1
k
p(
k
)
x
k
Cho x = 0, ta nhn c p(0) =

1
n
n
k=1
p(
k
).
Khi , ta c
p(x)
x
n
1
+
1
2
p(0) =
1
2n
n
k=1
2
k
p(
k
)
x
k
+
1
2n
n
k=1
p(
k
) =
1
2n
n
k=1
x +
k
x
k
p(
k
).
12
Do vy
p(x)
x
n
1
=
1
2n
n
k=1
x +
k
x
k
p(
k
)
1
2
p(0).
Chn p(x) = x ta thu c
x
x
n
1
=
1
n
n
k=1
2
k
x
k
.
Cho x = 2, ta nhn c
2
2
n
1
=
1
n
n
k=1
2
k
2
k
.
T y suy ra
2n
2
n
1
=
n
k=1
2 cos
4k
n
cos
2k
n
5 4 cos
2k
n
.
V d 1.5. Vi s nguyn dng n v s thc
x {2n, n, 2n + 2, n + 1, . . . , 2, 1, 0}, ta lun c:
(i)
n
k=0
C
k
n
(1)
k
x + k
=
n!
n
k=0
(x + k)
(ii)
n
k=0
C
k
n
(1)
k
x + 2k
=
n!2
n
n
k=0
(x + 2k)
Gii. T vic tch cc phn thc (theo cng thc ni suy Lagrange)
n!
n
k=0
(x + k)
=
n
k=0
x
k
x + k
v
n!2
n
n
k=0
(x + 2k)
=
n
k=0
x
k
x + 2k
,
ta suy ra kt qu cn chng minh.
13
1.1.4 Mt s lp phng trnh vi hm phn thc hu t
V d 1.6. Gi s cc s
1
,
2
. . .
n
i mt khc nhau v
i
+ j = 0 vi
mi i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Hy gii h phng trnh sau:
_
_
x
1
1 +
1
+
x
2
2 +
1
+ +
x
n
n +
1
= 1
x
1
1 +
2
+
x
2
2 +
2
+ +
x
n
n +
2
= 1
. . . . . . . . .
x
1
1 +
n
+
x
2
2 +
n
+ +
x
n
n +
n
= 1
.
Gii. Gi s x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
l nghim ca h phng trnh cho. Xt hm
s f(x) =
x
1
1 + x
+
x
2
2 + x
+ +
x
n
n + x
1 =
p(x)
n
i=1
(i + x)
vi a thc p(x)
bc n.
V f(
i
) = 0, i = 1, . . . n, nn p(
i
) = 0
Do
f(x) =
(x
1
)(x
2
) . . . (x
n
)
(x + 1)(x + 2) . . . (x + n)

T h thc
x
1
1 + x
+
x
2
2 + x
+ +
x
n
n + x
1 =
(x
1
)(x
2
) (x
n
)
(x + 1)(x + 2) (x + n)
,
ta suy ra
x
1
(x + 2)(x + 3) . . . (x + n) + x
2
(x + 1)(x + 3) . . . (x + n)
+x + 3(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 4) . . . (x + n) + x
4
(x + 1)(x + 2) . . . (x + n)
+ + x
n
(x + 1)(x + 2) . . . (x + n 1) (x + 1)(x + 2) . . . (x + n)
= (x
1
)(x
2
) . . . (x
n
).
14
Ta nhn c cc nghim
_
_
x
1
=
(1)
n1
n
i=1
(1 +
i
)
(n 1)!
vi x = 1
x
2
=
(1)
n2
n
i=1
(2 +
i
)
1!(n 2)!
ng vi x = 2
x
3
=
(1)
n3
n
i=1
(3 +
i
)
2!(n 3)!
ng vi x = 3
. . . . . .
x
n
=
(1)
nn
n
i=1
(n +
i
)
(n 1)!
ng vi x = n
v h c gii xong.
V d 1.7. Gi s (x) =
n
i=1
(x +
i
). Khi
(i)
n
i=0
(1)
i
C
i
n
(i) = (1)
n
n!.
(ii)
n
i=0
(1)
i
C
i
n
i
n
= (1)
n
n!.
(iii)
n
i=0
(1)
i
C
i
n
C
i
n+1
= (1)
n
.
Gii.
(i) T cch gii trn ta suy ra ng nht thc sau y:
n
i=1
(1)
ni
(i)
(x + i)(i 1)!(n i)!
1 =
(x
1
)(x
2
) . . . (x
n
)
(x + 1)(x + 2) . . . (x + n)

Vi x = 0 ta c
n
i=1
(1)
n1
(i)
i!(n i)!
1 =
(1)
n+1
(0)
n!
hay ta nhn c cng thc
n
i=1
(1)
i
C
i
n
(i) = (1)
n
n!.
15
(Ch rng cng thc ny cng ng cho c trng hp cc
i
c th bng
nhau).
(ii) Cng thc
n
i=0
(1)
i
C
i
n
i
n
= (1)
n
n!. ng cho mi
i
nn khi ly
1
=
2
= =
n
= 0, ta thu c
n
i=0
(1)
i
C
i
n
i
n
= (1)
n
n!
(iii) Khi ly
i
= i ng vi mi i, ta c
n
i=0
(1)
i
C
i
n
C
i
n+i
= (1)
n
.
V d 1.8. Gi s (x) =
n
i=1
(x +
i
). Khi
(i)
n
i=1
(1)
i
C
i
n
(i)
2i 1
=
4n!
c
+ (1)
n
(0).
(ii)
n
i=1
(1)
i1
2i 1C
i
n
i
n
2i 1
=
2
n
(n!)
2
2n
.
Gii. Xut pht t ng thc
f(x) :=
x
1
1 + x
+
x
1
2 + x
+ +
x
1
n + x
4
2x + 1
=
c(x
1
)(x
2
) . . . (x
n
)
(2x + 1)(x + 1)(x + 2) . . . (x + n)
,
ta suy ra (i) khi thay x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
v x bi x
0
; cn (ii) c suy ra t (i).
V d 1.9. Gi s cc s thc a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
tha mn h phng trnh sau
n
k=1
a
k
k + r
=
4
2r + 1
, r = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Chng minh rng
n
k=1
a
k
2k + 1
< 1.
Gii. Xt
f(x) =
n
k=1
(x + k)
_
x +
1
2
__
n
k=1
a
k
x + k

2
x +
1
2
_
16
l a thc bc n ca x. Bi v f(r) = 0 vi r = 1, 2, . . . , n, nn
f(x) = a
n
r=1
(x r).
Cho x =
1
2
, ta c
a = 2
n
r=1
r
1
2
r
1
2
Nh vy
n
k=1
(x + k)(x +
1
2
)
_
n
k=1
a
k
k + x
2
x +
1
2
_
= 2
n
r=1
r
1
2
r
1
2
n
r=1
(x r).
T y suy ra
n
k=1
a
k
k + x
2
x +
1
2
= 2
n
k=1
(x k)(k +
1
2
)
(x + k)(k +
1
2
)

Vi x =
1
2
, ta thu c
2
n
k=1
a
k
2k + 1
2 =
2
(2n + 1)
2
.
Do vy
n
k=1
a
k
2k + 1
< 1.
V d 1.10. Vi ba s a, b.c phn bit v a, b, c {0, 1, 2, 3}, gi s
cc s x, y, z tha mn h phng trnh
_
_
x
1 + a
+
y
1 + b
+
z
1 + c
= 1
x
2 + a
+
y
2 + b
+
z
2 + c
= 1
x
3 + a
+
y
3 + b
+
z
3 + c
= 1
Chng minh rng
x
a
+
y
b
+
z
c
= 1 +
6
abc
.
17
Gii. Xt f(t) =
x
a + t
+
y
b + t
+
z
c + t
1 =
p(t)
(a + t)(b + t)(c + t)
vi a
thc p(t) bc 3. V f(1) = f(2) = f(3) = 0 nn p(1) = p(2) = p(3) = 0 v
nh vy
x
a + t
+
y
b + t
+
z
c + t
1 =
(t 1)(t 2)(t 3)
(a + t)(b + t)(c + t)
.
Vi t = 0, ta c
x
a
+
y
b
+
z
c
= 1 +
6
abc
.
V d 1.11. Gi s x
1
, x
2
, x
3
l nghim ca phng trnh x
3
+ ax + b = 0
vi a + b = 1. Hy tnh cc gi tr
D
1
=
1
(1 x
1
)
2
+
1
(1 x
2
)
2
+
1
(1 x
3
)
2
v
D
2
= (x
1
x
2
)
2
(x
2
x
3
)
2
(x
3
x
1
)
2
.
Gii. V x
3
+ ax + b = (x x
1
)(x x
2
)(x x
3
) nn
3x
2
+ a = (x x
2
)(x x
3
) + (x x
3
)(x x
1
) + (x x
2
)(x x
1
).
T y suy ra
D
2
= (a + 3x
2
1
)(a + 3x
2
2
)(a + 3x
2
3
) = 4a
3
27b
2
.
Ta li c
1
(x x
1
)
+
1
(x x
2
)
+
1
(x x
3
)
=
3x
2
+ a
x
3
+ ax + b
.
Vy nn
1
(x x
1
)
2
+
1
(x x
2
)
2
+
1
(x x
3
)
2
=
3x
4
6b + a
2
(x + a + b)
2
.
Vi x = 1 c
D
1
=
1
(1 x
1
)
2
+
1
(1 x
2
)
2
+
1
(1 x
3
)
2
=
3 6b + a
2
(1 + a + b)
2
.
18
V d 1.12. Gi s x
1
, x
2
, x
3
l nghim ca phng trnh x
3
+ax +b = 0
vi b = a + 1.
Tnh T =
x
2
1
(x
2
+ 1)(x
3
+ 1)
+
x
2
2
(x
3
+ 1)(x
1
+ 1)
+
x
2
3
(x
1
+ 1)(x
2
+ 1)
.
Gii. V x
3
+ ax + b = (x x
1
)(x x
2
)(x x
3
) nn
x
2
1
(x
2
+ 1)(x
3
+ 1)
=
x
2
1
(1 + x
1
)
1 + a b
,
x
2
2
(x
1
+ 1)(x
3
+ 1)
=
x
2
2
(1 + x
2
)
1 + a b
,
v
x
2
3
(x
1
+ 1)(x
2
+ 1)
=
x
2
3
(1 + x
3
)
1 + a b
,
suy ra T =
x
3
1
+ x
3
2
+ x
3
3
+ x
2
1
+ x
2
2
+ x
2
3
1 + a b
=
2a 3b
1 + a b
.
V d 1.13. Chng minh rng phng trnh
1
x 1
+
1
x 2
+
1
x 3
= 2
c ba nghim thc phn bit
Gii. Xt tng cc phn thc
f(x) =
1
x 1
+
1
x 2
+
1
x 3
2 =
2x
3
15x
2
+ 34x 23
(x 1)(x 2)(x 3)
.
t g(x) = 2x
3
15x
2
+ 34x 23. V g(1) < 0, g(2) > 0, g(3) < 0 v
g(4) > 0 nn g(x) = 0 c ba nghim thc phn bit . Do vy f(x) = 0 c
ba nghim thc phn bit.
V d 1.14. Gi s f(x) l a thc bc n 2 c n nghim thc phn bit
x
1
, x
1
x
n
.. Khi a thc g(x) bc n 1, ta lun c
(i)
g(x)
f(x)
=
n
k=1
g(x
k
)
f
(x
k
)(x x
k
)
vi mi x = x
k
, k = 1, 2, . . . , n,
T hy tnh tng
T
s
=
n
k=1
x
s
k
f
(x
k
)
, 0 s n 2
19
v tng
T
n1
=
n
k=1
x
n1
k
f
(x
k
)
(ii) Tnh tng

S =
n1
k=0
k
x
k
vi
k
= cos
2k
n
+ i sin
2k
n
.
Gii. Theo nh l Lagrange, ta c
g(x)
f(x)
=
n
k=1
g(x
k
)
f
(x
k
)(x x
k
)
vi mi x = x
k
, k = 1, 2, . . . , n, v a thc g(x) c bc n 1.
Chn g(x) = x
s
, t x
s
=
n
k=1
x
s
k
f(x)
f
(x
k
)(x x
k
)
, suy ra
T
s
=
n
k=1
x
s
k
f
(x
k
)
= 0, 0 s n 2.
Vi s = n 1, c tng
T
n1
=
n
k=1
x
n1
k
f
(x
k
)
= 1.
(ii) T x
n
1 =
n1
k=0
(x
k
), suy ra
nx
n1
x
n
1
=
n1
k=0
1
x
k
.
Do
S =
n1
k=0
k
x
k
=
nx
n
x
n
1
n =
n
x
n
1
V d 1.15. Phn tch

f(x) =
1
x(x
2
+ 1)(x
2
+ 2
2
) . . . (x
2
+ n
2
)
20
(trn R) thnh tng cc phn thc n gin. T hy tnh tng di y
n
k=1
(1)
k
(n + k)!(n k)!(1 + k
2
)
Gii. Theo nh l 1.2, ta c f(x) =

a
x
+
n
k=1
a
k
x + b
k
x
2
+ k
2
.
T y suy ra
f(x) =
1
(n!)
2
x
+ 2
n
k=1
(1)
k
x
(n + k)!(n k)!(x
2
+ k
2
)
Cho x = 1, ta nhn c
n
k=1
(1)
k
(n + k)!(n k)!(1 + k
2
)
=
1
4(1 + 2
2
) . . . (1 + n
2
))
1
2(n!)
2
V d 1.16. Cho ba s thc phn bit a

1
, a
2
, a
3
= {0, 1, 2}. Khi c
det D = 0, vi D =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
a
1
1
a
2
1
a
3
1
a
1
+ 1
1
a
2
+ 1
1
a
3
+ 1
1
a
1
+ 2
1
a
2
+ 2
1
a
3
+ 2
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Gii. Nu nh thc det D = 0 th cc dng ca ma trn D l ph thuc
tuyn tnh. Khi c u
0
, u
1
, u
2
khng ng thi bng 0 sao cho
u
o
a
i
+
u
1
a
i
+ 1
+
u
2
a
i
+ 2
= 0, i = 1, 2, 3.
Xt hm
f(x) =
u
0
a
i
+
u
1
a
i
+ 1
+
u
2
a
i
+ 2
=
p(x)
x(x + 1)(x + 2)
vi a thc p(x) c bc 2. V f(a
i
) = 0 nn p(a
i
) = 0 vi i = 1, 2, 3.
Vy p(x) 0 hay f(x) 0 khi x = {0, 1, 2}.
Nu tn ti u
i
= 0 th khi x i ta c
u
i
x + i
.
Khi f(x) . Do , khi x gn i c |f(x)| qu ln, mu thun
vi f(x) 0. iu ny ch xy ra u
0
= u
1
= u
2
= 0, hay iu gi s l sai.
Vy det D = 0.
21
V d 1.17 (xem [4]). Chng minh rng
b + c + d
(b a)(c a)(d a)(x a)
+
c + d + a
(c b)(d b)(a b)(x b)
+
d + a + b
(d c)(a c)(b c)(x c)
+
a + b + c
(a d)(b d)(c d)(x d)
=
x a b c d
(x a)(x b)(x c)(x d).
Gii. Ta cn chng minh
(a + b + c + d) a
(a b)(a c)(a d)(a x)
+
(a + b + c + d) b
(b a)(b c)(b d)(b x)
+
a + b + c + d) c
(c a)(c b)(c d)(c x)
+
(a + b + c + d) d
(d a)(d b)(d c)(d x)
(a + b + c + d) x
(x a)(x b)(x c)(x d)
= 0.
p dng cng thc ni suy Lagrange vi f(y) = a + b + c + d y, y
1
= a,
y
2
= b, y
3
= c, y
4
= d, y
5
= x, ta thu c iu phi chng minh.
1.1.5 Phng trnh hm trong lp hm phn thc hu t
Trong mc ny ta xt mt s bi ton v phng trnh hm lin quan n
hm phn thc hu t.
Bi ton 1.1. Chng minh rng khng tn ti hai a thc thc f(x), g(x)
tha mn iu kin
x
2
+ 1 =
f(x)
g(x)
.
Gii. Gi s tn ti f(x), g(x) sao cho
x
2
+ 1 =
f(x)
g(x)
. Ta c th coi
(f(x), g(x)) = 1. Khi , g(x)
2
(x
2
+ 1) = f(x)
2
. V x
2
+ 1 l bt kh quy
nn f(x)
.
.
. x
2
+ 1 hay f(x) = (x
2
+ 1)h(x).
Vy g(x)
2
= (x
2
+1)
2
h(x)
2
v nh th g(x)
.
.
. x
2
+1, mu thun vi vic
chn (f(x), g(x)) = 1.
22
Bi ton 1.2 (xem [4]). Tm cc hm s f(x) tha mn iu kin:
f
_
x 3
x + 1
_
+ f
_
3 + x
1 x
_
= x, x = 1. (1.2)
Gii. t
x 3
x + 1
= t th x =
3 + t
1 t
. Khi 1.2) tr thnh
f(t) + f
_
t 3
t + 1
_
=
3 + t
1 t
, t = 1. (1.3)
t
3 + x
1 x
= t th x =
t 3
t + 1
. Khi
(1.2) f
_
3 + t
1 t
_
+ f(t) =
t 3
t + 1
, t = 1 (1.4)
Cng v vi v ca (1.3) v (1.4), ta thu c
3 + t
1 t
+
t 3
t + 1
= 2f(t) + f
_
t 3
t + 1
_
+ f
_
3 + t
1 t
_
, t = 1.
Suy ra
8t
1 t
2
= 2f(t) + t, t = 1, hay f(t) =
t
2
+
4t
1 t
2
. Th li, ta
thy hm s f(x) =
x
2
+
4x
1 x
2
tha mn iu kin bi ra.
Bi ton 1.3 (xem [4]). Cho hm s f(x) lin tc trn R v tha mn cc
iu kin
f(2010) = 2009 (1.5)
f(x).f
4
(x) = 1, x R, (1.6)
trong f
n
(x) = f(f . . . (f(x))), n ln f. Hy tnh f(2008).
Gii. t I
f
= f(R). Khi , ta c xf
3
(x) = 1, x I
f
. T (1.5))
cho ta 2009 I
f
. Trong (1.6) th x = 2010 th f
4
(2010) =
1
2009
hay
1
2009
I
f
. Mt khc, f lin tc trn R nn D :=
_
1
2009
; 2009
_
I
f
. Do
f
3
(x) =
1
x
, x D. Suy ra f l n nh trn D.
Hn na, f lin tc trn D nn f n iu gim trn D.
Gi s x
0
D sao cho f(x
0
) >
1
x
0
.
23
S dng tnh n iu gim ca f(x), ta c
f(x
0
) >
1
x
0
hay f
2
(x
0
) < f
_
1
x
0
_
. (1.7)
Suy ra
1
x
0
= f
3
(x
0
) > f
2
_
1
x
0
_
. Do
f
_
1
x
0
_
< f
3
_
1
x
0
_
= x
0
. (1.8)
T (1.7) v (1.8), ta thu c x
0
> f
2
(x
0
), hay f(x
0
) < f
3
(x
0
) =
1
x
0
iu
ny mu thun vi gi thit f(x
0
) >
1
x
0
.
Chng minh tng t, ta thu c kt qu khng tn ti x
0
D sao cho
f(x
0
) <
1
x
0
. Vy f(x) =
1
x
, x D.
Hin nhin, 2008 D nn f(2008) =
1
2008
.
Bi ton 1.4 (xem [4]). t S = (1; +), tm tt c cc hm s f : S
S tha mn cc iu kin
f[x + f(y) + xf(y)] = y + f(x) + yf(x), x, y S (1.9)
f(x)
x
tng trn (1; 0) v (0; +). (1.10)
Gii. Nu tn ti a S sao cho f(a) = 0 th ta c a = 0.
Tht vy, trong iu kin (1.9) cho x = y = a, ta c
f[a + f(a) + af(a)] = a + f(a) + af(a),
suy ra f(a
2
+ 2a) = a
2
+ 2a (v f(a) = a).
t b = a
2
+ 2a suy ra f(b) = b. Ta xt ba trng hp
- Nu b = a th a
2
+ 2a = a
_
a = 0
a = 1 (loi)
a = 0
- Nu b > a th a
2
+ 2a > a
_
a > 0
a < 1 (loi)
a > 0
V b > a > 0 th
f(b)
b
>
f(a)
a
(v
f(x)
x
tng trn (0; +)). Suy ra 1 > 1
(iu ny v l).
24
- Nu b < a th a
2
+ 2a < a 1 < a < 0 hay 1 < b < a < 0 suy ra
f(b)
b
>
f(a)
a
(v
f(x)
x
tng trn (0; +)). Do vy 1 < 1 (v l).
Vy nu
_
a S
f(a) = a
th a = 0.
Trong (1.9) cho y = x, ta c
f(x + f(x) + xf(x)) = x + f(x) + xf(x). Suy ra x + f(x) + xf(x) = 0
hay f(x) =
x
1 + x
. Th li ta thy f(x) =
x
1 + x
tha mn cc iu kin bi
ra.
Bi ton 1.5 (xem [4]). Tm tt c cc hm s f : R
+
R
+
tha mn iu
kin
xf(xf(y)) = f(f(y)), x, y R
+
(1.11)
Gii . t f(1) = a, thay x bi
1
f(y)
ta c
1
f(y)
f(1) = f(f(y)) hay
f(f(y)) =
a
f(y)
.
Thay x bi
1
f(x)
ta c
1
f(x)
f
_
f(y)
f(x)
_
= f(f(y)) =
a
f(y)
. Suy ra
f
_
f(y)
f(x)
_
= a
f(x)
f(y)
. (1.12)
Vit li iu kin bi ra di dng x =
f(f(y))
f(xf(y))
.
Theo cng thc (1.12) ta c f(x) = f
_
f(f(y))
f(xf(y))
_
= a
f(xf(y))
f(f(y))
=
a
x
.
D dng kim tra hm s ny tha mn cc iu kin bi ra.
Vy hm s cn tm l f(x) =
a
x
, x > 0 vi a l hng s dng.
1.2 Mt s thut ton tm nguyn hm ca hm phn
thc hu t
nh l Laplace khng nh rng mi hm hu t u c nguyn hm s
cp. Tuy nhin, vic i tm cc nguyn hm ny khng phi l mt cng
vic n gin. Ni dung ca chng ny s tm hiu mt s thut ton tm
nguyn hm ca mt hm s hu t cho trc, theo th t t n gin n
phc tp.
25
Ch 1.1. Gi s
p(x)
q(x)
l mt hm s hu t tha mn iu kin (p(x), q(x)) =
1 v h s ca s hng cha bc cao nht ca q(x) bng 1. p dng php
chia Euclide ta c hai a thc s(x), r(x) sao cho p(x) = q(x)s(x) + r(x)
vi r(x) = 0 hoc deg r < deg q. Khi , ta c
_
p(x)
q(x)
dx =
_
s(x)dx +
_
r(x)
q(x)
dx.
Vic tnh
_
s(x)dx l d dng, ta cn gii quyt bi ton tm
_
r(x)
q(x)
dx
vi deg r < deg q
Sau y l mt s thut ton gii bi ton trn.
1.2.1 Phng php Oxtrogradski
Phng php Oxtrogradski cho php ta tnh c tch phn hm hu t
_
P(x)
Q(x)
dx trong a thc mu Q(x) c nghim bi v phng php ny
i khi n gin hn phng php phn tch thnh cc phn t n gin.
Ta gi s
P(x)
Q(x)
l mt phn thc thc s, ngha l bc ca P(x) b hn
bc ca Q(x). Gi s mu s phn tch c di dng
Q(x) = C(x a
1
)
k
1
. . . (x a
r
)
k
r
(x
2
+ p
1
x + q
1
)
h
1
. . . (x
2
+ p
s
x + q
s
)
h
s
.
Ta bit khi ta c phn tch
P(x)
Q(x)
=
A
(1)
k
1
(x a
1
)
k
1
+ +
A
(1)
1
x a
1
+ . . .
+
B
(s)
h
s
x + C
(s)
h
s
(x
2
+ p
s
x + q
s
)
h
s
+ +
B
(s)
1
x + C
(s)
1
(x
2
+ p
s
x + q
s
)
.
Tch phn hai v ng thc va nu, nh ta thy trn, nhng tch phn
v phi dng
_
dx
(x a)
k
vi k > 1 cho ta nhng hm dng
A
(x a)
k1
, cn
nhng hng thc dng
_
Bx + C
(x
2
+ px + q)
m
dx
vi m > 1 cho ta tng ca mt
26
hm hu t dng
Dx + E
(x
2
+ px + q)
m1
v mt tch phn dng
_
B
x + C
(x
2
+ px + q)
m
dx
.
Tnh li dn ta c
_
Bx + c
(x
2
+ px + q)
m
dx =
F(x)
(x
2
+ px + q)
m1
+
B
x + C
(x
2
+ px + q)dx,
trong F(x) l a thc bc b hn m1.
Nh vy, tch phn hai v cui ny, ta c
_
P(x)
(x a
1
)
k
!
. . . (x
2
+ p
s
x + q
s
)
h
s
dx =
P
1
(x)
(x a
1
)
k
1
1
. . . (x
2
+ p
s
x + q
s
)
h
s
1
+
+ +
_
A
i
x a
i
dx + +
_
B
j
x + C
j
x
2
+ p
j
x + q
j
dx + . . .
Ngha l v phi ta ch cn tnh nhng tch phn vi mu s l cc ly
tha bc 1 ca (x a
i
) v ca (x
2
+ p
j
+ q
j
) m thi. Nu bng mt cch
no m ta bit c a thc P
1
(x) v cc hng s A
i
, B
j
, C
j
th vic tch
phn thc hin c mt cch d dng. Ta c th tnh c a thc P
1
(x)
bng cch vit n di dng h s bt nh m ta s ni r hn sau y.
Ta ch rng nu ta k hiu
Q(x) = (x a
1
)
k
1
. . . (x
1
+ p
s
x + q
s
)
h
,
Q
1
(x) = (xa
1
)
k
1
1
. . . (x
2
+p
s
x+q
s
)
h
s
1
, Q
2
(x) = (xa
1
) . . . (x
2
+p
s
x+q
s
),
th d thy Q(x) = Q
1
(x)Q
2
(x) v Q
1
(x) chnh l c chung ln nht ca
Q(x) v o hm Q
(x) ca n v do Q
1
(x) c th thu c bng thut
ton clt.
Ta vit
_
P(x)
Q(x)
dx =
P
1
(x)
Q
1
(x)
+
_
P
2
(x)
Q
2
(x)
dx.
P
1
(x), P
2
(x) (bc b hn bc ca mu tng ng ), c coi c cc h s bt
nh. o hm hai v, ta c
P(x)
Q(x)
=
_
P
1
(x)
Q
1
(x)
_
+
P
2
(x)
Q
2
(x)
.
Vic xc nh cc h s bt nh ca P
1
(x), P
2
(x) c thc hin theo phng
php bit, hoc l sau khi kh mu s, ta khai trin hai v v ng nht
27
h s cc s hng cng ly tha ca x, hoc l ta gn cho x nhng gi tr
c bit.
V d 1.18. Tnh
_
4x
4
+ 4x
3
+ 16x
2
+ 12x + 8
(x
3
+ x
2
+ x + 1)
2
dx.
D thy rng
(x
3
+ x
2
+ x + 1)
2
= (x + 1)
2
(x
2
+ 1)
2
.
Ta c Q
1
(x) = Q
2
(x) = (x
3
+ x
2
+ x + 1) = (x + 1)(x
2
+ 1). Ta vit
_
4x
4
+ 4x
3
+ 16x
2
+ 12x + 8
(x
3
+ x
2
+ x + 1)
2
dx
=
A
2
x + Bx + C
(x
3
+ x
2
+ x + 1)
+
_
D
x + 1
dx +
_
Ex + F
x
2
+ 1
dx.
T , ly o hm hai v
4x
4
+ 4x
3
+ 16x
2
+ 12x + 8
(x
3
+ x
2
+ x + 1)
2
=
_
Ax
2
+ Bx + C
x
3
+ x
2
+ x + 1
_
+
D
x + 1
+
Ex + F
x
2
+ 1
,
(1.13)
hay
4x
4
+ 4x
3
+ 16x
2
+ 12x + 8 = (2Ax + B)(x
3
+ x
2
+ x + 1)
(Ax
2
+ Bx + C)(3x
2
+ 2x + 1) + D(x
2
+ 1)(x
3
+ x
2
+ x + 1)
+(Ex + F)(x + 1)(x
3
+ x
2
+ x + 1). (1.14)
Ta c th khai trin hai v v cn bng h s, tuy nhin php tnh s phc
tp. Ta s cho hai v nhng gi tr c bit, tnh ton s n gin hn.
a thcx
3
+x
2
+x+1 trit tiu khi ti x = 1 v x = i. Ta cho x 1,
khi
A B + C = 6.
Cho x i, sau cn bng phn thc, phn o,ta c
A C = 3, B = 1.
Ba h thc trn cho ta
A = 1, B = 1, C = 4.
28
Nhn hai v (1.13) vi x, x , vi ch bc ca t s ca v tri v ca
hng thc u v phi u b km bc ca mu s tng ng hai n v, ta
c
D + E = 0.
Cho x 0 trong (1.14), ch B = 1, C = 4, ta c
D + F = 3.
Cho x 1, ch A = 1, B = 1, C = 4, ta c
D + E + F = 3.
Ba h thc cui cng cho ta
D = 0, E = 0, F = 3.
Tm li
A = 1, B = 1, C = 4, D = 0, E = 0, F = 3.
T
_
4x
4
+ 4x
3
+ 16x
2
+ 12x + 8
(x
3
+ x
2
+ x + 1)
2
dx =
x
2
x + 4
x
3
+ x
2
+ x + 1
+ 3
_
dx
x
2
+ 1
=
x
2
x + 4
x
3
+ x
2
+ x + 1
+ 3arctan x + C.
Phng php Otxtrogradski mang li s tnh ton n gin hn so vi
phng php phn tch hm di du tch phn thnh cc phn t n gin,
nht l trong trng hp khi mu s Q(x) c cha tha s (ax
2
+ bx + c)
m
vi m ln. Chng hn nu m = 3, th theo phng php phn tch hm
di du tch phn thnh cc phn t n gin, ta phi tnh I
3
qua I
2
, I
2
qua I
1
(theo cng thc truy hi), cn phng php Otxtrogradski trnh c
iu ny.
1.2.2 p dng cng thc ni suy Lagrange
Trong mc ny, s gii thiu mt thut ton tm nguyn hm ca hm
s hu t c dng f(x) =
P(x)
n
i=1
(x x
i
)
trong P(x) l mt a thc, x
i
= x
j
vi mi i = j.
29
Ta nhc li cng thc ni suy Lagrange: Cho n s x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
phn bit
v n s a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
ty . Khi tn ti duy nht mt a thc P(x) vi bc
khng vt qu n1, tha mn iu kin P(x
j
) = a
j
, vi mi j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
a thc ny c xc nh theo cng thc P(x) =
n
j=1
a
j
i=1,i=j
x x
i
x
j
x
i
.
T cng thc trn, chng ta c mt phng php tm nguyn hm hu
hiu ca hm s hu t m mu thc bc n c n nghim n phn bit.
tm nguyn hm ca hm s hu t c dng f(x) =
P(x)
n
i=1
(x x
i
)
, trong
P(x) l mt a thc v x
i
= x
j
vi mi i = j, ta tin hnh theo trnh t
nh sau.
Bc 1. p dng cng thc ni suy Lagrange, ta phn tch P(x) thnh
dng tng
n
j=1
a
j
i=1,i=j
x x
i
x
j
x
i
, a
j
= P(x
j
), j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Bc 2. Thc hin php chia P(x) cho
n
i=1
(x x
i
) ta s thu c tch
phn bt nh dng n gin.
V d 1.19 (xem [3]). Tm nguyn hm ca hm s
f(x) =
x
2
(x 1) (x 2) (x 3) (x 4)
.
Gii. Xt P(x) = x
2
vi bn nt ni suy l x
1
= 1; x
2
= 2; x
3
= 3; x
4
= 4.
Ta c a
1
= 1, a
2
= 4, a
3
= 9, a
4
= 16.
p dng cng thc ni suy Lagrange, ta c
P (x) =
1
6
(x 2) (x 3) (x 4) + 2 (x 1) (x 3) (x 4)
9
2
(x 1) (x 2) (x 4) +
8
3
(x 1) (x 2) (x 3) .
Rt gn f(x), ta thu c hm s sau
f(x) =
1
6 (x 1)
+
2
(x 2)
9
2 (x 3)
+
8
3 (x 4)
.
30
T y, ta suy ra nguyn hm ca hm s cn tm l
_
f (x) dx =
1
6
ln |x 1| + 2 ln |x 2|
9
2
ln |x 3| +
8
3
ln |x 4| + C,
trong C l mt hng s.
V d 1.20. [xem [3]] Tm nguyn hm ca hm s
f(x) =
3x
2
+ 4x + 1
x (x 1) (x 2) (x + 2)
.
Gii. t P(x) = 3x
2
+ 4x + 1 v xt bn nt ni suy l x
1
= 0; x
2
=
1; x
3
= 2; x
4
= 2. Ta c a
1
= 1, a
2
= 8, a
3
= 21, a
4
= 5.
p dng cng thc ni suy Lagrange, ta c
P (x) =
1
2
(x 1) (x 2) (x + 1)
8
3
x (x 2) (x + 2) +
+
21
8
x (x 1) (x + 2)
5
24
x (x 1) (x 2) .
Rt gn f(x), ta c hm s sau.
f(x) =
1
2x
8
3 (x 1)
+
21
8 (x 2)
5
24 (x + 2)
.
T y, ta suy ra nguyn hm ca hm s cn tm l
_
f (x) dx =
1
2
ln |x|
8
3
ln |x 1| +
21
8
ln |x 2|
5
24
ln |x + 2| + C,
trong C l mt hng s.
1.2.3 p dng cng thc ni suy Hermite
Trong mc ny, s gii thiu phng php tm nguyn hm ca hm
phn thc hu t c dng
_
r(x)
q(x)
dx, vi q(x) =
k
i=1
q
i
(x)
i
v mi q
i
(x) (i =
1, 2, . . . , k) l a thc c h s ca hng t cao nht bng 1, q
i
(x) khng
chnh phng, (q
i
(x), q
j
(x)) = 1 vi mi i = j v deg q
k
(x) > 0.
Ch 1.2.
1). Vi mi a thc q(x), ta u c biu din q(x) =
k
i=1
q
i
i
(x), trong
mi q
i
(x) (i = 1, 2, . . . , k) l a thc c h s ca hng t cao nht
31
bng 1, q
i
(x) khng chnh phng v (q
i
(x), q
j
(x)) = 1 vi mi i = j v
deg q
k
(x) > 0.
2) Nu p(x) v q(x) l hai a thc nguyn t cng nhau (tc (p(x), q(x)) =
1) th tn ti hai a thc s(x) v t(x) sao cho
p(x)s(x) + q(x)t(x) = 1.
3) Theo cng thc ni suy Hermite (xem [3]), nu (p(x), q(x)) = 1 v h
s ca hng t c bc cao nht ca q bng 1 v deg p(x) < deg q(x), th
i) Ta c
_
p(x)
q(x)
dx =
c(x)
d(x)
+
_
a(x)
b(x)
dx, (1.15)
trong a, b, c, d l cc a thc vi deg a(x) < deg b(x) v deg c(x) <
deg d(x).
ii) V q =
k
i=1
q
i
i
nn
_
p(x)
q(x)
dx =
k
i=1
i
j=1
_
p
ij(x)
q
j
i
(x)
dx, (1.16)
trong deg p
j
(x) < deg q
i
(x).
iii) Trong (1.15), ta c b(x) =
k
i=1
q
i
(x), d(x) =
k
i=2
q
i1
i
(x).
Ta c q(x) =
k
i=1
q
i
i
(x), vi mi q
i
(x) (i = 1, 2, . . . , k) l a thc c h s
ca hng t cao nht bng 1, khng chnh phng, (q
i
(x), q
j
(x)) = 1 vi mi
i = j v deg(q
k
) > 0. Ta biu din
r
q
di dng
r(x)
q(x)
=
k
i=1
i
j=1
r
ij
(x)
q
j
i
(x)
,
trong 1 i k, 1 j i, r
ij
(x) l cc a thc vi deg r
ij
(x) < deg q
i
(x)
khi deg q
i
(x) > 0 v r
ij
(x) = 0 khi q
i
(x) = 1. Khi , ta c
_
r(x)
q(x)
dx =
k
i=1
i
j=1
_
r
ij
(x)
q
j
i
(x)
dx.
32
Tip theo, ta s tnh
_
r
ij
(x)
q
j
i
(x)
dx.
Trng hp 1. Nu j = 1 th
_
r
ij
q
j
i
dx tnh c.
Trng hp 2. Nu j > 1, ta xem xt hm s di du tch phn
_
r
ij
(x)
q
j
i
(x)
dx.
V q
i
(x) khng chnh phng nn (q
i
, q
i
) = 1. Do lun tn ti cc a
thc s, t K[x] sao cho sq
i
+ tq
i
= r
ij
, trong deg(s) < deg(q
i
) 1 v
deg(t) < deg(q
i
). Khi
_
r
ij
q
j
i
dx =
_
s
q
j1
i
dx +
_
tq
i
q
j
i
dx.
S dng phng php tch phn tng phn (t u = t; dv =
q
i
q
j
i
dx), ta c
_
t.q
i
(x)
q
j
i
(x)
dx =
t
(j 1) q
j1
i
(x)
+
_
t
(j 1) q
j1
i
(x)
dx.
T y ta suy ra
_
r
ij
(x)
q
j
i
(x)
dx =
(t)
(j1)
(j 1) q
j1
i
(x)
+
_
s +
t
(j1)
q
j1
i
(x)
dx.
Tip tc qu trnh trn n khi j 1 = 1 th vic tm nguyn hm s hon
thnh v khi ta thu c trng hp 1.
Tip theo, xt mt s v d minh ha.
V d 1.21. Tm nguyn hm ca hm s
f(x) =
r
q
=
4x
9
+ 21x
6
+ 2x
3
3x
2
3
(x
7
x + 1)
2
.
Gii. Ta c q = x
7
x + 1 v q
= 7x
6
1 l hai a thc nguyn t
cng nhau. T suy ra tn ti hai a thc s, t sao cho qs + q
s = p. V
deg(q) = 7 v deg(q
) = 6 nn khng mt tnh tng qut ta c th chn a

thc s v t nh sau.
s = a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x, t = b
0
+ b
1
x + b
2
x
2
+ b
3
x
3
.
33
T ng thc qs+q
s = p, thc hin php ng nht ta thu c h phng

trnh
_
_
a
2
+ 7b
3
= 4
a
1
+ 7b
2
= 0
a
0
+ 7b
1
= 0
7b
0
= 21
a
2
b
3
= 2
a
0
+ a
1
b
1
= 0
a
0
b
0
= 3
a
1
+ a
2
b
2
= 3.
Gii h ny, ta c nghim l a
0
= 0, a
1
= 0, a
2
= 3, b
0
= 3, b
1
= 0, b
2
= 0
v b
3
= 1. T suy ra
_
f(x)dx =
_
3x
2
x
7
x + 1
dx +
_
(x
3
+ 3)
7x
6
1
(x
7
x + 1)
2
dx.
p dng phng php tch phn t phn bng cch t u(x) = x
3
+3, dv =
7x
6
1)
(x
7
x + 1)
2
dx, ta tnh c
_
(x
3
+ 3)
7x
6
1
(x
7
x + 1)
2
dx =
x
3
+ 3
x
7
x + 1
_
3x
2
x
7
x + 1
dx.
Do
_
f(x)dx =
x
3
+ 3
x
7
x + 1
+ C,
vi C l mt hng s.
f(x) =
r
q
=
2x + 3
(x + 1)
3
(x + 2)
.
Gii. Ta c q = (x + 1)
3
(x + 2) =
3
i=1
q
i
i
= q
1
q
2
2
q
3
3
, trong q
1
= x + 2;
q
2
= 1, v q
3
= x + 1. Theo thut ton Hermite, ta vit
r
q
di dng
r
q
=
a
x + 2
+
b
x + 1
+
c
(x + 1)
2
+
b
(x + 1)
3
,
trong a, b, c, d l cc hng s. ng nht thc, ta c h phng trnh
_
_
a + b = 0
3a + 4b + c = 0
3a + 5b + 3c + d = 2
a + 2b + 2c + 2d = 3.
34
Gii h ny, ta tm c nghim l a = 1, b = 1, c = 1 v d = 1. Do
r
q
=
1
x + 2
+
1
x + 1
+
1
(x + 1)
2
+
1
(x + 1)
3
.
T suy ra
_
r
q
dx =
_
1
x + 2
dx +
_
1
x + 1
dx +
_
1
(x + 1)
2
dx +
_
1
(x + 1)
3
dx.
Vy, nguyn hm ca hm s cn tm l
_
r
q
dx = ln
x + 2
x + 1
+
1
x + 1
+
1
2(x + 1)
2
= ln
x + 2
x + 1
+
2x 3
2(x + 1)
2
+ C,
trong C l mt hng s.
f(x) =
r
q
=
5x
3
3x
2
21x + 22
(x 1)
3
(2x 3)
2
.
Gii. Ta c q = (x 1)
3
(2x 3)
2
=
3
i=1
q
i
i
= q
1
q
2
2
q
3
3
, vi q
1
= 1; q
2
= 2x 3
v q
3
= x 1. Theo thut ton Hermite, ta vit
r
q
di dng
r
q
=
a
2x 3
+
b
(2x 3)
2
+
c
x + 1
+
d
(x 1)
2
+
e
(x 1)
3
,
trong a, b, c, d, e l cc hng s. ng nht thc, ta thu c h phng
trnh
_
_
2a + 4c = 0
9a + b 24c + 4d = 5
15a 3b + 33c 16d + 4e = 3
11a + 3b 30c + 21d 12e = 21
3a b + 9c 9d + 9e = 22.
Gii h phng trnh ny ta c a = 0, b = 5, c = 0; d = 0 v e = 3. Do
r
q
=
3
(x 1)
3
+
5
(2x 3)
2
.
Ta c
_
3
(x 1)
3
dx =
3
2(x 1)
2
+C
1
v
_
5
(2x 3)
2
dx =
5
2(2x 3)
+C
2
,
vi C
1
, C
2
l cc hng s. T suy ra
_
f(x)dx =
3
2(x 1)
2
+
5
2(2x 3)
=
5
2
x
2
+ 2x + 2
(x 1)
2
(2x 3)
+ C,
vi C l mt hng s.
35
f(x) =
x
5
x
4
+ 4x
3
+ x
2
x + 5
x
4
2x
3
+ 5x
2
4x + 4
.
Gii. Ta c f(x) =
x
5
x
4
+ 4x
3
+ x
2
x + 5
x
4
2x
3
+ 5x
2
4x + 4
= x + 1 +
x
3
x + 1
(x
2
x + 2)
2
.
t
r
q
=
x
3
x + 1
(x
2
x + 2)
2
. Ta c q =
2
i=1
q
i
i
= q
1
q
2
2
, trong q
1
= 1; q
2
=
x
2
x + 2.
Theo thut ton Hermite, ta vit
r
q
di dng
r
q
=
ax + b
x
2
x + 2
+
cx + d
(x
2
x + 2)
2
,
trong a, b, c, d l cc hng s. ng nht hai v, ta c h phng trnh
_
_
a = 1
a + b = 0
2a b + c = 1
2b + d = 1.
Gii h phng trnh ny ta c a = 1, b = 1, c = 2 v d = 1. T
suy ra
r
q
=
x + 1
x
2
x + 2
+
2x 1
(x
2
x + 2)
2
.
By gi, ta s tm
_
x + 1
x
2
x + 2
dx. Ta c
_
x + 1
x
2
x + 2
dx =
1
2
_
2x 1
x
2
x + 2
dx+
3
2
_
1
(x
1 i
7
2
)(x +
1 +
7
2
)
dx.
T suy ra
_
x + 1
x
2
x + 2
dx =
1
2
ln(x
2
x + 2) +
3
2
ln
x
1 i
7
2
x +
1 + i
7
2
+ C
1
,
vi C
1
l hng s.
36
Tip sau y chng ta s tm
_
2x 1
(x
2
x + 2)
2
dx. Theo thut ton Hermite
ta c
2x 1 = t(x
2
x + 2) + (ux + v)(2x 1),
vi t, u, v l cc hng s. ng nht hai v, ta c
t =
8
7
; u =
4
7
; v =
9
7
.
T suy ra
_
2x 1
(x
2
x + 2)
2
dx =
_

8
7
x
2
x + 2
dx +
_
(
4
7
x
9
7
)(2x 1)
(x
2
x + 2)
2
dx.
Ta d dng tm c nguyn hm
_

8
7
x
2
x + 2
dx =
8
7
ln
x
1 i
7
2
x +
1 + i
7
2
+ C
2
,
vi C
2
hng s.
p dng phng php tch phn tng phn, t u =
4
7
x
9
7
v
dv =
2x 1
(x
2
x + 2)
2
dx, ta c
_
(
4
7
x
9
7
)(2x 1)
(x
2
x + 2)
2
dx =
(
4
7
x
9
7
)
x
2
x + 2
+
_
4
7
x
2
x + 2
dx
=
(
4
7
x
9
7
)
x
2
x + 2
+
4
7
ln
x
1 i
7
2
x +
1 + i
7
2
+ C
3
,
vi C
3
l mt hng s.
Nh vy, ta c
_
f(x)dx =
1
2
x
2
+x +
1
2
ln
x
2
x + 2
4x 9
7 (x
2
x + 2)
+
13
14
ln
2x
_
1 i
7
_
2x +
_
1 i
7
_
+C,
37
vi C l mt hng s.
Cng vi mc ch gii quyt nhng bi ton trn, tnh tch phn
(1.15), Horowitz a ra mt cch khc xc nh cc a thc d(x), b(x).
T , ta c mt thut ton mi nh sau.
1.2.4 Phng php Horowitz
nh l 1.4. Cho
p(x)
q(x)
vi (p(x), q(x)) = 1 v h s ca hng t c bc cao
nht ca q(x) bng 1 v deg p(x) < deg q(x). Khi , cc a thc d(x) v
b(x) trong cng thc (1.15) c xc nh nh sau:
d(x) = CLN (q(x), q
(x)); b(x) =
q(x)
d(x)
Chng minh. V q(x) =

k
i=1
q
i
i
(x) nn theo (1.16), ta c
_
p(x)
q(x)
dx =
k
i=1
i
j=1
_
p
ij
(x)
q
j
i
(x)
dx.
Hn na, theo cng thc ni suy Hermite (xem [3]) th
_
p(x)
q(x)
dx =
c(x)
d(x)
+
_
a(x)
b(x)
dx, deg a(x) < deg b(x); deg c(x) < deg d(x)
v
b(x) =
k
i=1
q
i
(x), d(x) =
k
i=2
q
i1
i
(x).
T suy ra
(q(x), q
(x)) =
k
i=2
q
i1
i
(x) = d(x),
q(x)
(q(x), q
(x))
=
k
i=1
q
i
(x) = b(x).
T ni dung nh l trn, ta xy dng c thut ton tm nguyn hm
ca hm s hu t nh sau.
38
Gi s, ta cn tnh
_
p(x)
q(x)
dx, trong (p(x), q(x)) = 1, deg p(x) <
deg q(x) v h s ca hng t cha bc cao nht ca q(x) bng 1. Ta ta tin
hnh theo trnh t sau.
Bc 1. Xc nh hai a thc d(x) = CLN (q(x), q
(x)) v b(x) =
q(x)
d(x)
.
Bc 2. xc nh hai a thc a(x), c(x), ta gi m = deg b(x); n =
deg d(x). Khi a(x), c(x) l cc a thc c bc tng ng nh hn m, n.
Gi s
a(x) = a
m1
x
m1
+ + a
1
x + a
0
,
c(x) = c
n1
x
n1
+ + c
1
x + c
0
.
o hm hai v ca ng thc
_
p(x)
q(x)
dx =
c(x)
d(x)
+
_
a(x)
b(x)
dx, ta c
p(x)
q(x)
=
d(x)c
(x) c(x)d
(x)
d
2
(x)
+
a(x)
b(x)
.
V q(x) = b(x)d(x) nn p(x) = b(x)c
(x) c(x)
_
b(x)d
(x)
d(x)
_
+ a(x)d(x).
Thc hin php ng nht thc, ta tm c hai a thc a(x) v c(x).
Bc 3. Ta c
_
p(x)
q(x)
dx =
c(x)
d(x)
+
_
a(x)
b(x)
dx. Ta tm
_
a(x)
b(x)
dx t ta
tm c tch phn
_
p(x)
q(x)
dx.
Sau y, chng ti gii thiu vi v d minh ha.
V d 1.25. Tm nguyn hm ca hm s f(x) =
p(x)
q(x)
=
2x + 3
(x + 1)
3
(x + 2)
.
Gii. Ta c d = CLN (q(x), q
(x)) = x
2
+ 2x + 1 v b(x) =
q(x)
d(x)
=
x
2
+ 3x + 2.
T suy ra hai a thc a(x) v c(x) c dng
a(x) = a
1
x + a
0
,
c(x) = c
1
x + c
0
.
T ng thc p(x) = b(x)c
(x) c(x)
_
b(x).d
(x)
d(x)(x)
_
+ a(x)d(x), thc hin
39
php ng nht ta c h phng trnh
_
_
a
1
= 0
a
0
c
1
= 0
2a
0
c
1
2c
0
= 2
a
0
+ 2c
1
4c
0
= 3.
Gii h phng trnh ny ta tm c a
0
= 1, a
1
= 0, c
0
=
3
2
v c
1
= 1.
T suy ra
_
p(x)
q(x)
dx =
x
3
2
(x + 1)
2
+
_
1
(x + 1)(x + 2)
dx =
2x 3
2(x + 1)
2
+ ln
x + 2
x + 1
+ C,
vi C l mt hng s.
y chnh l kt qu ta bit trong V d 1.22 ca thut ton Hermite.
f(x) =
p(x)
q(x)
=
5x
3
3x
2
21x + 22
(x 1)
3
(2x 3)
2
.
Gii. Ta c d(x) = CLN (q(x), q
(x)) = 2x
3
7x
2
+ 8x 3 v b(x) =
q(x)
d(x)
= 2x
2
5x + 3. T suy ra hai a thc a(x) v c(x) c dng
a(x) = a
1
x + a
0
,
c(x) = c
2
x
2
+ c
1
x + c
0
.
(x)c(x)
_
b(x)d
(x)
d(x)
_
+a(x)d(x), thc hin php
ng nht ta c h phng trnh
_
_
a
1
= 0
2a
0
7a
1
2c
2
= 5
7a
0
+ 8a
1
4c
1
2c
2
= 3
8a
0
3a
1
6c
0
+ 3c
1
+ 6c
2
= 21
3a
0
+ 8c
0
+ 3c
1
= 22.
0
= 0, a
1
= 0, c
0
= 2, c
1
= 2 v
c
2
=
5
2
. T ta tnh c
_
p
q
dx =
5
2
x
2
+ 2x + 2
(x 1)
2
(2x 3)
+C, vi C l mt
hng s.
y chnh l kt qu ta bit trong V d 1.23 ca thut ton Hermite.
40
V d 1.27. Tm nguyn hm ca hm s f(x) =
p(x)
q(x)
=
x
3
x + 1
(x
2
x + 2)
2
.
(x)) = x
2
x + 2 v b(x) =
q(x)
d(x)
=
x
2
x + 2. T suy ra hai a thc a(x) v c(x) c dng
a(x) = a
1
x + a
0
,
c(x) = c
1
x + c
0
.
(x) c(x)
_
b(x).d
(x)
d(x)
_
+ a(x)d(x), thc hin
_
_
a
1
= 1
a
1
+ a
0
c
1
= 0
2a
1
a
0
2c
0
= 1
2a
0
+ 2c
1
+ c
0
= 1.
1
= 1, a
0
=
3
7
, c
1
=
4
7
v c
0
=
9
7
.
T suy ra
_
p(x)
q(x)
dx =
4
7
x +
9
7
x
2
x + 2
+
_
x +
3
7
x
2
x + 2
dx
=
4x 9
7 (x
2
x + 2)
+
1
2
_
(2x 1) +
13
7
x
2
x + 2
dx
=
4x 9
7 (x
2
x + 2)
+
1
2
ln
x
2
x + 2
+
13
14
ln
2x
_
1 i
7
_
2x +
_
1 i
7
_
+ C,
vi C l mt hng s.
y l mt kt qu ta bit trong V d 1.24 ca thut ton Hermite.
p(x)
q(x)
:=
x
7
24x
4
4x
2
+ 8x 8
x
8
+ 6x
6
+ 12x
4
+ 8x
2
.
(x)) = (x
4
+4x
2
+4)x v b(x) =
q(x)
d(x)
=
(x
2
+ 2)x. T suy ra hai a thc a(x) v c(x) c dng
a(x) = a
2
x
2
+ a
1
x + a
0
,
c(x) = c
3
x
3
+ c
2
x
2
+ c
1
x + c
0
.
41
(x) c(x)
_
b(x).d
(x)
d(x)
) + a(x)d(x), thc hin
_
_
a
2
= 1
a
1
= 0
4a
2
+ a
0
2c
3
= 0
4a
1
3c
2
= 24
4a
2
+ 4a
0
+ 4c
3
4c
1
= 0
4a
1
+ 2c
2
5c
0
= 4
4a
0
= 8
2c
0
= 8.
Gii h phng trnh ny ta tm c
a
2
= 1, a
1
= 0, a
0
= 2, c
3
= 3, c
2
= 8, c
1
= 6, c
0
= 4.
T suy ra
_
p(x)
q(x)
dx =
3x
3
+ 8x
2
+ 6x + 4
x (x
4
+ 4x
2
+ 4)
+
_
dx
x
=
3x
3
+ 8x
2
+ 6x + 4
x (x
4
+ 4x
2
+ 4)
+ ln |x| + C,
vi C l mt hng s.
42
Chng 2
Phn thc hu t vi h s nguyn
v phn thc nhn gi tr hu t
2.1 Hm phn thc chnh quy hu t
2.1.1 Hm phn thc chnh quy hu t mt bin
Trc ht, ta nhc li khi nim hm phn thc chnh quy mt bin (xem
[2]).
nh ngha 2.1 (Hm phn thc chnh quy mt bin). Hm s f(x)( 0)
xc nh trn tp R
+
c gi l phn thc chnh quy, nu
f(x) =
n
k=1
a
k
x
k
, (2.1)
trong
a
k
0, k = 1, 2, . . . , n;
n
k=1
a
k
x
= 0.
V d 2.1. D dng kim chng hm s sau y l phn thc chnh quy
f
2
(x) = 4x + +5
1
x
+
sin
x
sin
+
cos
x
cos
.
Trong phn ny, ta kho st lp cc hm phn thc chnh quy vi h s
nguyn. l lp hm s c s dng nhiu trong cc bi ton v cc tr
ca cc biu thc i s.
nh ngha 2.2 (Hm phn thc chnh quy hu t mt bin). Hm s
43
f(x)( 0) xc nh trn tp R
+
c gi l phn thc chnh quy, nu
f(x) =
n
k=1
a
k
x
k
, (2.2)
trong
a
k
N,
k
Z, k = 1, 2, . . . , n;
n
k=1
a
k
x
= 0.
V d 2.2. D dng kim chng hm s sau y l phn thc chnh quy hu
t
f
1
(x) = 1 + 2x + 3x
2
+ 5
1
x
+
1
x
3
.
T nh ngha, ta d dng kim tra cc tnh cht sau y.
Tnh cht 2.1. Nu f(x) l cc hm phn thc chnh quy hu t, th
f(x) > 0 ng vi mi x > 0.
Nu f(x) v g(x) l cc hm phn thc chnh quy hu t, th vi mi cp
s nguyn dng , , hm s
h(x) := f(x) + g(x)
cng l hm phn thc chnh quy hu t.
Nu f(x) l cc hm phn thc chnh quy hu t, th h(x) := [f(x)]
m
, m
N
. cng l hm phn thc chnh quy hu t.

2.1.2 Hm phn thc chnh quy hu t nhiu bin
nh ngha 2.3 (xem [2]). [Hm phn thc chnh quy hu t nhiu bin]
Hm s f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
m
) 0 c gi l hm phn thc chnh quy hu t
m bin, nu
f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
m
) =
n
k=1
a
k
x
k1
1
x
k2
2
. . . x
km
m
,
44
trong
_
_
a
k
N,
kj
Z, k = 1, 2, . . . , n; j = 1, 2, . . . , m,
a
1
11
+ a
2
21
+ + a
n
n1
= 0
a
1
12
+ a
2
22
+ + a
n
n2
= 0
. . . . . . . . .
a
1
1n
+ a
2
2n
+ + a
n
nm
= 0
T nh ngha trn, ta d dng kim tra tnh cht sau:
Tnh cht 2.2. Hm s f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . x
m
) l hm phn thc chnh quy hu
t khi v ch khi cc hm phn thc thnh phn ca f(1, 1, . . . , x
k
, 1, . . . , 1)
cng l cc hm phn thc chnh quy hu t.
Tip theo, ta chng minh nh l c bn sau y.
nh l 2.1. Vi mi hm phn thc chnh quy f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . x
m
) trn tp
x
1
> 0, x
2
> 0, . . . x
n
> 0 dng
f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
m
) =
n
k=1
a
k
x
k1
1
x
k2
2
. . . x
km
m
,
trong
_
_
a
k
N,
kj
Z, k = 1, 2, . . . , n; j = 1, 2, . . . , m,
a
1
11
+ a
2
21
+ + a
n
n1
= 0
a
1
12
+ a
2
22
+ + a
n
n2
= 0
. . . . . . . . .
a
1
1n
+ a
2
2n
+ + a
n
nm
= 0
ta u c
f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . x
m
)
n
k=1
a
k
.
Chng minh. chng minh nh l, ta nhc li bt ng thc gia trung
bnh cng v trung bnh nhn AM-GM: Vi mi b s khng m u
1
, u
2
, . . . u
n
,
ta u c
u
1
+ u
2
+ + u
n
n

n
u
1
u
2
. . . u
n
.
Du ng thc xy ra khi v ch khi
u
1
= u
2
= = u
n
= 1.
45
S dng kt qu ny, ta thu c
f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
m
)
a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
n
=
n
k=1
a
k
x
k1
1
x
k2
2
. . . x
km
n
a
1
+ a
2
+ . . . a
n
Du ng thc xy ra khi x
1
= x
2
= = x
n
= 1.
Nhn xt 2.1. Vi mi hm s dng
g(x) =
m
k=1
a
k
x
k
; a
k
0,
t
a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
m
= p,
a
1
1
+ a
2
2
+ + a
m
m
= q,
th hm s
f(x) := x
q
p
g(x)
l mt hm phn thc chnh quy.
Chng minh. Tht vy, ta c
f(x) = x
q
p
m
k=1
a
k
x
k
=
m
k=1
a
k
x
q
p
v v vy
m
k=1
a
k
_
q
p
_
=
m
k=1
a
k
k=1
a
k
q
p
= q p
q
p
= q p = 0,
iu phi chng minh.
T y, ta thu c mt kt qu quan trng sau y.
nh l 2.2. Mi hm dng
g(x) =
m
k=1
a
k
x
k
; a
k
0;
u c tnh cht
g(x) g(1)x
q
p
, vi mi x > 0
46
trong
p = a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
m
,
q = a
1
1
+ a
2
2
+ + a
m
m
.
Chng minh. Tht vy, theo nhn xt trn, ta c
f(x) = x
q
p
m
k=1
a
k
x
k
l mt phn thc chnh quy, nn theo nh l 1.2, th
f(x) f(1).
M f(1) = g(1), nn ta c ngay iu phi chng minh.
V d 2.3. Tm gi tr nh nht ca
f(x) = x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 3x
3
+ + 9x
9
; x > 0
Gii. Xt
f(x)
45
=
1
45
x
1
+
2
45
x
2
+
3
45
x
3
+ +
9
45
x
9
x
1
45
.x
2
2
45
. . . . .x
9
9
45
= 1.
Suy ra
f(x)
45
1 f(x) 45. Do min f(x) = 45 khi v ch khi x = 1.
2.2 Tnh cht ca hm phn thc nhn gi tr hu
t
Trong phn ny ta xt mt s tnh cht ca phn thc hu t tng t
nh i vi s hu t trong s hc.
Trc tin, ta xt mt s dng ton lin quan n a thc nhn gi tr
hu t v a thc nhn gi tr nguyn.
Bi ton 2.1. Xc nh cc h s ca tam thc bc hai f(x) = ax
2
+bx+c
f(x) Q khi x N
.
Gii. Vit a thc f(x) di dng
f(x) =
(x 1)(x 2)
2
+ (x 1) + , (2.3)
47
trong
_
_
a =

2
b =
3
2
+
c = = +
T (2.3), ta thu c f(x) Q khi x N
khi v ch khi , , Q. T
suy ra iu kin cn v tam thc bc hai f(x) = ax
2
+bx +c Q
khi x N
l cc h s a, b, c hu t.
By gi ta chuyn sang chng minh kt qu ca bi ton tng qut.
nh l 2.3. a thc
P(x) = a
0
x
n
+ a
1
x
n1
+ + a
n
tha mn iu kin P(x) Q khi x N
, iu kin cn v l cc h s
ca a thc cho u l s hu t.
Chng minh. Vit a thc P(x) di dng
P(x) = p
0
(x 1)(x 2) (x n)
n!
+p
1
(x 1)(x 2) (x n + 1)
(n 1)!
+ +p
n
,
(2.4)
trong
_
_
a
0
=
p
0
n!
a
1
=
1 + 2 + + n
n!
p
0
+
1
(n 1)!
p
1

a
n
= p
0
p
1
+ p
n1
+ p
n
T (2.4), ta thu c P(x) Q khi x N
khi v ch khi p
0
, p
1
, . . . , p
n
Q.
T suy ra iu kin cn v a thc P(x) Q khi x N
l tt c
cc h s ca n l cc s hu t.
Bi ton 2.2. Xc nh cc h s ca tam thc bc hai f(x) = ax
2
+bx+c
f(x) Z khi x N
.
Gii. Vit tam thc bc hai f(x) di dng
f(x) =
(x 1)(x 2)
2
+ (x 1) + , (2.5)
48
trong
_
_
a =

2
b =
3
2
+
c = = +
T (2.5), s dng tnh cht ca s hc l tch ca 2 s nguyn lin tip
lun chia ht cho 2 ta thu c kt lun f(x) Z vi x N
khi v ch
khi , , Z. T suy ra iu kin cn v tam thc bc hai
f(x) = ax
2
+ bx + c Z khi x N
l cc h s a, b, c c dng
_
_
a =

2
b =
3
2
+
c = = +
trong , , Z.
Da vo kt qu v phng php chng minh ca bi ton ny, ta c th
gii bi ton tng qut.
Bi ton 2.3. Cho 1 < n N. Xc nh cc h s ca a thc
P(x) = a
0
x
n
+ a
1
x
n1
+ + a
n
P(x) Z khi x N
.
Gii. Vit a thc P(x) di dng
P(x) = p
0
(x 1)(x 2) (x n)
n!
+p
1
(x 1)(x 2) (x n + 1)
(n 1)!
+ +p
n
,
(2.6)
trong
_
_
a
0
=
p
0
n!
a
1
=
1 + 2 + + n
n!
p
0
+
1
(n 1)!
p
1

a
n
= p
0
p
1
+ p
n1
+ p
n
T (2.6) v s dng tnh cht ca s hc l tch ca n s nguyn lin tip
lun chia ht cho n!, ta thu c kt lun: P(x) Z vi x N
khi v ch
49
khi
_
_
a
0
=
p
0
n!
a
1
=
1 + 2 + + n
n!
p
0
+
1
(n 1)!
p
1

a
n
= p
0
p
1
+ p
n1
+ p
n
trong p
0
, p
1
, . . . , p
n
Z.
By gi ta chuyn sang xt tnh cht ca hm phn thc hu t.
Bi ton 2.4. Chng minh rng nu hm phn thc
Q(x) :=
1
cx + d
Q, x N
, (2.7)
th Q(x) c dng
Q(x) =
A
Cx + D
, (2.8)
trong A, C, D Z.
Gii. Theo gi thit th H(x) = cx +d Q, do theo bi ton ?? th cc
h s c, d l cc s hu t. Vy c =
M
1
N
1
v d =
M
2
N
2
, trong M
1
, M
2
, N
1
, N
2
l cc s nguyn. T y ta c
Q(x) :=
1
cx + d
=
1
M
1
N
1
x +
M
2
N
2
=
N
1
N
2
M
1
N
2
x + M
2
N
1
, (2.9)
pcm.
Q(x) :=
ax + b
cx + d
Q, x N
, (2.10)
th Q(x) c dng
Q(x) =
Ax + B
Cx + D
, (2.11)
trong A, B, C, D Z.
Gii. Xt Q(x) Q(1). Theo nh l phn tch phn thc hu t thnh
nhn t (xem nh l 1.3), ta thu c
Q(x) Q(1)
x 1
=
e
cx + d
Q, x N
, n > 1.
50
Theo kt qu ca Bi ton 2.4 th
Q(x)
M
3
N
3
x 1
=
M
Cx + D
,
trong M
3
, N
3
, M, C, D l cc s nguyn. T y, chuyn v ta thu c
biu din (2.11).
Q(x) :=
ax
2
+ bx + c
dx + e
Q, x N, (2.12)
th Q(x) c dng
Q(x) =
Ax
2
+ Bx + C
Dx + E
, (2.13)
trong A, B, C, D, E Z.
Gii. Xt Q(x) Q(1). Theo nh l phn tch phn thc hu t thnh
nhn t (xem nh l 1.3), ta thu c
Q(x) Q(1)
x 1
=
px + q
cx + d
Q, x N
, n > 1.
Theo kt qu ca Bi ton 2.5 th
Q(x)
M
3
N
3
x 1
=
M
1
x + N
1
M
2
x + N
2
,
trong M
3
, N
3
, M
2
, N
2
, M
1
, N
1
l cc s nguyn. T y, chuyn v ta thu
c biu din (2.13).
Q(x) :=
ax
2
+ bx + c
dx + e
Z, x N, (2.14)
th Q(x) c dng
Q(x) = Cx + D hoc Q(x) = Ax
2
+ Bx + C Z, x N, (2.15)
trong C, D Z.
Gii. Nhn xt rng nu d = 0 th ta c ngay kt lun
Q(x) = Ax
2
+ Bx + C Z, x N.
51
Xt trng hp d = 0. Khi ta vit (2.14) di dng
Q(x) Q(0)
x
=
a
1
x + b
1
dx + e
Z, x N
.
Theo Bi ton 2.5 th
Q(x) M
x
=
A
1
x + B
1
Dx + E
,
vi A
1
, B
1
, D.E, M l cc s nguyn. Vy nn
Q(x) M
x
=
A
1
D
+
A
2
Dx + E
Z, x N
(2.16)
vi A
1
, A
2
, D.E, M l cc s nguyn.
T y suy ra A
2
= 0 v v vy A
1
chia ht cho D, ta thu c pcm.
Bi ton 2.8. Cho hm phn thc hu t
f(x) =
P(x)
Q(x)
Q x Z, (P(x)Q(x)) = 1.
Chng minh rng f(x) c th biu din c di dng phn thc ca hai
a thc vi h s nguyn.
Gii. Gi s
P(x) = a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
+ + a
m
x
m
,
Q(x) = b
0
+ b
1
x + b
2
x
2
+ + b
n
x
n
.
Ti x = j (j = 0, 1, 2, . . . m + n) hm f(x) nhn cc gi tr hu t tng
ng l c
j
. Khi ta c h phng trnh tuyn tnh vi m + n + 2 n
a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
m
, b
0
, b
1
, b
2
, . . . , b
n
c dng
a
0
+a
1
k + +a
m
k
m
b
0
c
k
b
1
c
k
b
n
c
k
k
n
= 0, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . m+n.
Hai nghim ca h ny cho ta hai cp a thc tng ng P(x), Q(x) v
P
1
(x), Q
1
(x) c tnh cht
P(k) c
k
Q(k) = 0, P
1
(k) c
k
Q
1
(k) = 0, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . m + n.
52
Hai cp nghim ny cho ta a thc
g(x) = P(x)Q
1
(x) P
1
(x)Q(x), deg g(x) m + n
nhn gi tr 0 ti m + n + 1 im nn g(x) 0. Do P(x), Q(x) nguyn t
cng nhau nn P(x) = cP
1
(x), Q(x) = cQ
1
(x). Vy h cho ch c mt
nghim vi s sai khc mt t l v nh vy tn ti ma trn cp m + n + 1
trong ma trn h s ca h phng trnh nh thc ca n khc 0 v
nghim nhn c l cc s hu t, iu phi chng minh.
Nhn xt 2.2. Ta cng c th gii bi ton ny bng phng php quy np
ton hc da trn kt qu ca cc bi ton gii mc ny (Bi ton 2.4).
2.3 Dy s sinh bi hm phn thc hu t
Bi ton 2.9. Cho dy s thc (a
n
) c xc nh bi :
a
0
= 1, a
n+1
=
1
2
(a
n
+
1
3a
n
) vi mi n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn n, s A
n
=
3
3a
2
n
1
l mt s chnh
phng.
Gii. Trc ht, ta s chng minh rng 3A
n+1
= 4A
n
(A
n
+ 3) vi mi n
nguyn dng.
Tht vy, ta c
A
n
+ 3 =
3
3a
2
n
1
+ 3 =
9a
2
n
3a
2
n
1
nn
4A
n
(A
n
+ 3) = 36A
n
9a
2
n
3a
2
n
1
=
108a
2
n
(3a
2
n
1)
2
Mt khc, th
3A
n+1
=
9
3a
2
n
1
=
9
3.
1
2
2
(a
n
+
1
3a
2
n
)
2
1
,
iu phi chng minh.
53
Hn na, ta tnh c A
n
= 9 nn d dng thy rng A
n
lun chia ht
cho 3 vi mi n.
Tip theo, ta s chng minh bng quy np
A
n
3
+1 l s chnh phng vi
mi n.
Vi n = 1, th
A
1
3
+ 1 = 4 l mt s chnh phng.
Gi s vi n = k, mnh trn cng ng, tc l tn ti s t nhin p
sao cho
A
k
3
+ 1 = p
2
.
Ta c
A
k+1
3
+ 1 =
4A
k
(A
k
+ 3)
9
+ 1 = 4.
A
k
3
.(1 +
A
k
3
) + 1 = 4p
2
(p
2
1) + 1 =
(2p
2
1)
2
cng l mt s chnh phng.
Suy ra
A
n
3
+ 1 cng ng vi n = k + 1, iu phi chng minh.
T 3A
n+1
= 4A
n
(A
n
+ 3) suy ra A
n+1
= 4A
n
.
_
A
n
3
+ 1
_
ta cng d dng
chng minh c bng quy np rng A
n
l s chnh phng vi mi n.
Bi ton 2.10 (VMO 1982). Gi s a v z l nhng s thc, n l s nguyn
dng. Nu 0 a 1 v a
n+1
z 1 th ta c
n
k=1
z a
k
z + a
k
k=1
1 a
k
1 + a
k
.
Gii Nu a = 1 th z = 1 v bt ng thc ng v hai v u bng khng.
Nu a = 0 th c hai v u bng 1 v bt ng thc cng ng .
Xt 0 < a < 1. V 1 > a > a
2
> > a
n
> 0 v a
n+1
z 1
nn c s n nguyn dng r a
r+1
< z a
r
.
Vy
z a
k
z + a
k
=
z a
k
z + a
k
khi k > r
v
z a
k
z + a
k
=
z a
k
z + a
k
khi k r
ta c
z a
k
z + a
k
1 a
k
1 + a
k
=
z a
k
z + a
k

1 a
k
1 + a
k
=
2a
k
(z 1)
(1 + a
k
)(z + a
k
)
0, k > r
z a
i
z + a
i
1 a
k
1 + a
k
=
a
i
z
z + a
i

1 a
k
1 + a
k
=
2a
r+1z
(1 + a
k
)(z + a
i
)
0, k, i r
54
v chn i + k = r + 1. T cc bt ng thc trn suy ra hai bt ng thc
sau:
n
k=1
z a
k
z + a
k
k=1
1 a
k
1 + a
k
. v
n
k=r+1
z a
k
z + a
k
k=r+1
1 a
k
1 + a
k
.
Do nhn c
n
k=1
z a
k
z + a
k
k=1
1 a
k
1 + a
k
.
Ta nhc li nh ngha v dy tun hon.
nh ngha 2.4. Dy s (u
n
) c gi l dy s tun hon (cng tnh) nu
tn ti s s N
sao cho u
n+s
= u
n
vi mi n N. S s nh vy c gi l
chu k ca dy. Chu k (nguyn dng) nh nht ca mt dy s tun hon
cn c gi l chu k c s ca dy s . Trong thc hnh, chng minh
mt dy s l tun hon khng nht thit phi xc nh chu k c s ca n.
T nh ngha trn ta thy ngay mt dy s l tun hon chu k 1 khi
v ch khi dy s l dy s hng. Bi vy, ni n chu k ca mt dy s
tun hon, khc dy hng, hin nhin ta phi coi chu k ln hn 1.
Bi ton 2.11. Cho dy s u
n
xc nh bi u
1
= 2; u
n
+ 1 =
2 + u
n
1 2u
n
vi
mi n 1.
Chng minh rng
a) u
n
= 0 vi mi n nguyn dng.
b) Dy khng tun hon.
Gii. Chn l gc sao cho tan = 2, khi
u
1
= tan ; u
2
=
2 tan
1 tan
2
= tan 2
Bng phng php quy np ta c u
n
= tan n.
Mt khc u
n+1
=
2 + u
n
1 2u
n
=
2 + tan(n)
1 2 tan(n)
=
tan + tan(n)
1 tan . tan(n)
.
Vy
u
n+1
= tan(n + 1)
a) T cng thc u
n
= tan(n) ta suy ra u
2n
=
2u
n
1 U
2
n
. T suy ra nu
tn ti n sao cho u
n
= 0 th s tn ti n l u
n
= 0.
55
Gi s u
2
s + 1 = 0 tc l
2 + u
2
s
1 2u
2
s
= 0 khi u
2
s = 2 v ta c
2 = u
2s
=
2u
s
1 u
2
s
Do U
2
s
+ u
s
1 = 0, suy ra u
k
v t.
iu ny v l v theo cng thc truy hi cho trong gi thit th u
k
l
hu t. Vy u
n
= o vi mi n nguyn dng.
b) Gi s dy s cho l dy s tun hon.
Khi tn ti hai s nguyn dng n v k, (n > k) sao cho u
n
= u
k
hay tan n = tan k (n k) = m u
nk
= 0. Mu thun vi kt
qu phn a) iu ny chng t dy u
n
cho khng tun hon
Bi ton 2.12. Cho hm s f(x) =
x tan

4
1
x + tan

4
Chng minh rng hm s cho l hm tun hon vi chu k bng 3.

Gii. Ta c
f(x) =
x sin

4
cos

4
x cos

4
+ sin

4
.
Suy ra
f(f(x)) =
x cos

2
+ sin

2
cos

2
x sin

2
=
1
x
Bin i tng t nh trn, ta c f(f(f(x))) = x.

Vy hm s cho l hm tun hon vi chu k 3.
Bi ton 2.13. Cho hm s f(x) =
x tan

3
1
x + tan

3
. Chng minh rng hm s
cho l hm tun hon vi chu k bng 6.
Gii. Ta c f(x) =
x sin

3
cos

3
x cos

3
+ sin

3
. Suy ra
f(f(x)) =
x cos
2
3
+ sin
2
3
cos
2
3
x sin
2
3
,
f(f(f(x))) =
x sin 0 cos
x cos + sin
=
1
x
,
f(f(f(f(x)))) =
x cos

3
+ sin

3
x sin

3
cos

3
,
56
f(f(f(f(f(x))))) =
x sin
2
3
cos
2
3
x cos
2
3
+ x sin
2
3
,
f(f(f(f(f(f(x)))))) =
x cos + sin
cos x sin
= x.
Bi ton 2.14. Gi s f(x) =
3x 1
x +
3
. Xc nh g(x) = f(f . . . (f(x)) . . . ).
(n ln f).
Gii.Ta vit
f(x) =
3
2
x
1
2
1
2
x +
3
2
=
x cos

6
sin

6
x sin

6
+ cos

6
Bng phng php quy np, ta d dng chng minh c

g(x) =
x cos
n
6
sin
n
6
x sin
n
6
+ cos
n
6

57
Chng 3
Bt ng thc vi cc hm phn
thc hu t
3.1 Phng php bt ng thc Cauchy i vi hm
phn thc hu t
Trong mc ny chng ta thng s dng bt ng thc trung gian sau
y.
Bi ton 3.1 (xem [2]). Vi a, b, c l nhng s thc dng, chng minh rng
a
m+n
+ b
m+n
+ c
m+n
a
m
b
n
+ b
m
c
n
+ c
m
a
n
.
Gii. Ta c
m a
m+n
+ nb
m+n
m + n
a
m
b
n
(bt ng thc Cauchy vi m + n
s),
mb
m+n
+ nc
m+n
m + n
b
m
c
n
,
mc
m+n
+ na
m+n
m + n
c
m
a
n
.
Cng cc v tng ng ca ba bt ng thc trn, ta thu c bt ng
thc cn chng minh.
c c phng php gii i vi cc bt ng thc dng phn thc
n gin ny chng ta rt ra nhng nhn xt t nhng bi ton c th.
Bi ton 3.2 (xem [2]). Vi a, b, c l cc s thc dng, chng minh rng
a
5
b
2
+
b
5
c
2
+
c
5
a
2
a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
58
Gii. Ta c :
a
5
b
2
+ ab
2
2a
3
b
5
c
2
+ bc
2
2b
3
c
5
a
2
+ ca
2
2c
3
a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
ab
2
+ bc
2
+ ca
2
Cng bn bt ng thc trn, ta thu c bt ng thc cn chng minh.
Nhn xt 3.1. m t cc s hng ca v phi ta phi s dng cc s
hng c cha mu s ca cc s hng v tri nh ab
2
, bc
2
, ca
2
.
a
5
bc
+
b
5
ca
+
c
5
ab
a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
Gii. Ta c:
a
5
bc
+ abc 2a
3
b
5
ca
+ abc 2b
3
c
5
ab
+ abc 2c
3
a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
3abc
Cng bn bt ng thc trn, ta thu c bt ng thc cn chng minh.
a
5
b
3
+
b
5
c
3
+
c
5
a
3

a
3
b
+
b
3
c
+
c
3
a
.
Gii. Ta c
a
5
b
3
+ ab 2
a
3
b
.
Suy ra
a
5
b
3
+ 2ab
a
3
b
+
a
3
b
+ ab
a
3
b
+ 2a
2
.
59
Tng t, cng c
b
5
c
3
+ 2bc
b
3
c
+ 2b
2
c
5
a
3
+ 2ca
c
3
a
+ 2c
2
S dng bt ng thc 2(a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
) 2(ab + bc + ca).
Cng cc bt ng thc trn ta thu c bt ng thc cn chng minh.
Bi ton 3.5 (xem [2]). Vi a, b, c l cc s thc dng phn bit tha mn
iu kin
a
102
b
100
+
b
102
c
100
+
c
102
a
100
< 1.
Chng minh rng lun tn ti cc s thc t nhin k (0 k 99) sao cho
bt ng thc sau y ng
a
k+3
b
k+1
+
b
k+3
c
k+1
+
c
k+3
a
k+1

1
100
+
a
k+2
b
k
+
b
k+2
c
k
+
c
k+2
a
k
.
Gii. V a, b, c l cc s dng phn bit nn ta c dy bt ng thc sau:
0 < a
2
+b
2
+c
2
<
a
3
b
+
b
3
c
+
c
3
a
<
a
4
b
2
+
b
4
c
2
+
c
4
a
2
< <
a
102
b
100
+
b
102
c
100
+
c
102
a
100
< 1.
Chia on [0, 1] thnh 100 on nh bng nhau c di
1
100
. Suy ra t
101 biu thc phi c hai biu thc cng thuc mt on. T kt lun ta
thu c bt ng thc cn chng minh.
Nhn xt 3.2. s dng bt ng thc Cauchy ta cn ch
1. Thm cc h s du bng ca bt ng thc xy ra.
2. C th thm nhiu s hng khi s dng bt ng thc Cauchy kh
mu s.
a
3
a + 2b
+
b
3
b + 2c
+
c
3
c + 2a

1
3
(a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
).
60
Gii. Ta c
9a
3
a + 2b
+ a(a + 2b) 6a
2
9b
3
b + 2c
+ b(b + 2c) 6b
2
9c
3
c + 2a
+ c(c + 2a) 6c
2
v kt hp vi 2(a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
) 2(ab + bc + ca).
Cng cc bt ng thc trn, ta thu c bt ng thc cn chng minh.
a
3
(b + c)
2
+
b
3
(c + a)
2
+
c
3
(a + b)
2

1
4
(a + b + c).
Gii. Ta c
8a
3
(b + c)
2
+ (b + c) + (b + c) 6a,
8b
3
(c + a)
2
+ (c + a) + (c + a) 6b,
8c
3
(a + b)
2
+ (a + b) + (a + b) 6c.
a
3
b(c + a)
+
b
3
c(a + b)
+
c
3
a(b + c)

1
2
(a + b + c).
Gii. Ta c
4a
3
b(c + a)
+ 2b + (c + a) 6a,
4b
3
c(a + b)
+ 2c + (a + b) 6b,
4c
3
a(b + c)
+ 2a + (b + c) 6c.
61
a
4
bc
2
+
b
4
ca
2
+
c
4
ab
2
a + b + c.
Gii. Ta c
a
4
bc
2
+ b + c + c 4a,
b
4
ca
2
+ c + a + a 4b,
c
4
ab
2
+ a + b + b 4c.
a
3
(a + b)(b + c)
+
b
3
(b + c)(c + a)
+
c
3
(c + a)(a + b)

1
4
(a + b + c).
Gii. Ta c:
8a
3
(a + b)(b + c)
+ (a + b) + (b + c) 6a
8b
3
(b + c)(c + a)
+ (b + c) + (c + a) 6b
8c
3
(c + a)(a + b)
+ (c + a) + (a + b) 6c
a
2
b
3
+
b
2
c
3
+
c
2
a
3

9
a + b + c
Gii. Ta c bt ng thc
b
3
a
2
+
c
3
b
2
+
a
3
c
2
a + b + c
62
Suy ra:
a
2
b
3
+
b
2
c
3
+
c
2
a
3
=
(
1
b
)
3
(
1
a
)
2
+
(
1
c
)
3
(
1
b
)
2
+
(
1
a
)
3
(
1
c
)
2
+
1
a
+
1
b
+
1
c

9
a + b + c
, (pcm).
Bi ton 3.12 (xem [2]). Vi a, b, c l cc s thc dng phn bit tha
mn iu kin a + b + c = 3abc. Chng minh rng
P =
bc
a
3
(c + 2b)
+
ca
b
3
(a + 2c)
+
ab
c
3
(b + 2a)
1.
Gii. Ta c bt ng thc
a
3
b + 2c
+
b
3
c + 2a
+
c
3
a + 2b

1
3
(a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
). (3.1)
Tht vy,
9a
3
b + 2c
+ a(b + 2c) 6a
2
9b
3
c + 2a
+ b(c + 2a) 6b
2
9c
3
a + 2b
+ c(a + 2b) 6c
2
3(a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
) 3(ab + bc + ca)
Cng cc bt ng thc trn, ta thu c bt ng thc (3.1). p dng (3.1),
ta thu c
P =
1
a
3
1
b
+
2
c
+
1
b
3
1
c
+
2
a
+
1
c
3
1
a
+
2
b
1
3
_
1
a
2
+
1
b
2
+
1
c
2
_
1
3
_
1
ab
+
1
bc
+
1
ca
_
=
1
3
_
a + b + c
abc
_
= 1, (pcm).
63
a
5
b
2
+
b
5
c
2
+
c
5
a
2
ab
2
+ bc
2
+ ca
2
.
Gii. Ta c
a
5
b
2
+
b
5
c
2
+
c
5
a
2
a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
ab
2
+ bc
2
+ ca
2
, (pcm).
Tip theo, xt mt s v d lin quan n c lng mt s dng phn
thc hu t c th.
Bi ton 3.14 (xem [2]). Cho p l mt s nguyn dng, q (0, 1). Gi s
x [q
p+1
, 1] v
f(x) =
p
k=1
x p
k
x + q
k
Chng minh rng

f|(x)|
p
k=1
1 q
k
1 + q
k
Chng minh. Ta c
0 < q
p+1
< q
p
< < q < 1.
Vi q
j+1
x q
j
th khi i j + 1, ta c x q
i
.
Vy nn
x q
i
x + q
i
=
x q
i
x + q
i
Xt hiu
x q
i
x + q
i

1 q
i
1 + q
i
=
2q
i
(x 1)
(x + q
i
)(1 + q
i
)
0.
Do
p
k=j+1
x p
k
x + q
k
k=j+1
1 q
k
1 + q
k
(3.2)
Vi k = 1, 2, . . . , j, th ta c
x q
j(k1)
x + q
j(k1)
=
q
j(k1)
x
q
j(k1)
+ x

64
Ta c
q
j(k1)
x
q
j(k1)
+ x

1 q
k
1 + q
k
=
2(q
j+1
x)
(1 + q
k
)[x + q
j(k1)
]
0.
Vy nn
j
k=1
x q
k
x + q
k
k=1
1 q
k
1 + q
k
(3.3)
T (3.2) v (3.3), ta thu c
p
k=1
x q
k
x + q
k
k=1
1 q
k
1 + q
k
hay
|f(x)|
p
k=1
1 q
k
1 + q
k
Bi ton 3.15 (xem [2]). Gi s a

1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
(0, 1) v
n
k=1
a
k
= 1. Vi
a (0, 1) v a > a
k
vi mi k, ta lun c bt ng thc
n
k=1
a a
k
a + a
k
<
n
k=1
(1 a
k
)
(n + 1)
n
n
k=1
a
k
.
Gii. Theo nh l 1.3, th
a
a +

1
1 +
=
2(a 1)
(a + )(1 + )
< 0
ng vi mi (0, a).
Nh vy
n
k=1
a a
k
a + a
k
<
n
k=1
(1 a
k
)
n
k=1
(1 + a
k
)
.
Bi v bt ng thc
1 + a
k
=
n
i=1
a
i
+ a
k
(n + 1)
n+1
_
a
k
n
i=1
a
i
65
ng cho mi k, nn ta c
n
k=1
(1 + a
k
) (n + 1)
n
n
k=1
a
k
.
Vy nn
n
k=1
a a
k
a + a
k
<
n
k=1
(1 a
k
)
(n + 1)
n
n
k=1
(a
k
)
.
3.2 K thut cng mu s Engel ca bt ng thc
Chebyshev
Nh cc bn bit Bt ng thc Chebyshev l mt cng c mnh
gii quyt mt lp cc bt ng thc. Trc khi n vi bi vit ny ti xin
nhc li mt cht v bt ng thc ny.
3.2.1 Bt ng thc Chebyshev v Chebyshev dng Engel
1a. Bt ng thc Chebyshev trn 2 dy n iu cng chiu.
Cho 2 dy hu hn cc s thc a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
v b
1
, b
2
, . . . , b
n
, khi , nu
c
_
a
1
a
2
a
n
b
1
b
2
b
n
hoc
_
a
1
a
2
a
n
b
1
b
2
b
n
th ta c
n(a
1
b
1
+ a
2
b
2
+ + a
n
b
n
) (a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
n
) (b
1
+ b
2
. . . + b
n
)
Du ng thc xy ra khi
_
a
1
= a
2
= = a
n
b
1
= b
2
= = b
n
66
Bt ng thc Chebyshev suy rng:
Nu
_
_
a
1

a
1
+ a
2
2

a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
n
n
b
1

b
1
+ b
2
2

b
1
+ b
2
+ + b
n
n
hoc
_
_
a
1

a
1
+ a
2
2

a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
n
n
b
1

b
1
+ b
2
2

b
1
+ b
2
+ + b
n
n
th n(a
1
b
1
+ a
2
b
2
+ + a
n
b
n
) (a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
n
) (b
1
+ b
2
. . . + b
n
).
1b. Bt ng thc Chebyshev trn 2 dy n iu ngc chiu
Cho 2 dy hu hn cc s thc a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
v b
1
, b
2
, . . . , b
n
, khi , nu
c
_
a
1
a
2
a
n
b
1
b
2
b
n
hoc
_
a
1
a
2
a
n
b
1
b
2
b
n
th ta c
n(a
1
b
1
+ a
2
b
2
+ + a
n
b
n
) (a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
n
) (b
1
+ b
2
. . . + b
n
)
Du ng thc xy ra khi
_
a
1
= a
2
= = a
n
b
1
= b
2
= = b
n
Bt ng thc Chebyshev suy rng.
Nu
_
_
a
1

a
1
+ a
2
2

a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
n
n
b
1

b
1
+ b
2
2

b
1
+ b
2
+ + b
n
n
hoc
_
_
a
1

a
1
+ a
2
2

a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
n
n
b
1

b
1
+ b
2
2

b
1
+ b
2
+ + b
n
n
67
th n(a
1
b
1
+ a
2
b
2
+ + a
n
b
n
) (a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
n
) (b
1
+ b
2
. . . + b
n
).
By gi tr li vi bi ton. Nu ta thay dy b
1
, b
2
, . . . , b
n
bi dy
1
x
1
,
1
x
2
, . . . ,
1
x
n
th khi
2a. Nu c
_
a
1
a
2
a
n
x
1
x
2
x
n
hoc
_
a
1
a
2
a
n
x
1
x
2
x
n
th ta c:
n
_
a
1
x
1
+
a
2
x
2
+ . . . +
a
n
x
n
_
(a
1
+ a
2
+ . . . + a
n
)
_
1
x
1
+
1
x
2
+ . . . +
1
x
n
_
2b. Nu c
_
a
1
a
2
a
n
x
1
x
2
x
n
hoc
_
a
1
a
2
a
n
x
1
x
2
x
n
th ta c
n
_
a
1
x
1
+
a
2
x
2
+ . . . +
a
n
x
n
_
(a
1
+ a
2
+ . . . + a
n
)
_
1
x
1
+
1
x
2
+ . . . +
1
x
n
_
.
Tuy nhin trong mt s trng hp, ta khng th nh gi theo 2 dy
ny. Khi ta c mt cch khc phc, l
3a. Nu c
_
a
1
x
1
a
2
x
2

a
n
x
n
x
1
x
2
x
n
hoc
_
a
1
x
1
a
2
x
2

a
n
x
n
x
1
x
2
x
n
th ta
c
a
1
x
1
+
a
2
x
2
+ . . . +
a
n
x
n
n(a
1
+ a
2
+ . . . + a
n
)
x
1
+ x
2
+ . . . + x
n
Chng minh. theo 1a, ta c
_
a
1
x
1
+
a
2
x
2
+ . . . +
a
n
x
n
_
(x
1
+ x
2
+ . . . + x
n
)
n
_
a
1
x
1
x
1
+
a
2
x
2
x
2
+ . . . +
a
n
x
n
x
n
_
= n(a
1
+ a
2
+ . . . + a
n
).
68
Do
a
1
x
1
+
a
2
x
2
+ . . . +
a
n
x
n
n(a
1
+ a
2
+ . . . + a
n
)
x
1
+ x
2
+ . . . + x
n
.
3b. Nu c
_
a
1
x
1
a
2
x
2

a
n
x
n
x
1
x
2
x
n
hoc
_
a
1
x
1
a
2
x
2

a
n
x
n
x
1
x
2
x
n
th ta c
a
1
x
1
+
a
2
x
2
+ . . . +
a
n
x
n
n(a
1
+ a
2
+ . . . + a
n
)
x
1
+ x
2
+ . . . + x
n
Chng minh. theo 1b, ta c
_
a
1
x
1
+
a
2
x
2
+ . . . +
a
n
x
n
_
(x
1
+ x
2
+ . . . + x
n
)
n
_
a
1
x
1
x
1
+
a
2
x
2
x
2
+ . . . +
a
n
x
n
x
n
_
= n(a
1
+ a
2
+ . . . + a
n
)
Do
a
1
x
1
+
a
2
x
2
+ . . . +
a
n
x
n
n(a
1
+ a
2
+ . . . + a
n
)
x
1
+ x
2
+ . . . + x
n
Mc d hai bt ng thc ny c pht biu n gin v c suy ra t
bt ng thc Chebyshev c in, trong mt s trng hp, vic nh gi
theo 2a v 2b nhiu khi khng hiu qu. V th, 3a v 3b kt hp vi vic
thm bin thch hp li tr nn hiu qu i vi cc bt ng thc i xng
ba bin c cha hm phn thc hu t.
Ngoi ra ta cn c mt dng bt ng thc Chebyshev khc na l:
Vi a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
; b
1
, b
2
, . . . , b
n
; x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
> 0. Nu
a
1
x
1
a
2
x
2
. . .
a
n
x
n
,
b
1
x
1
b
2
x
2
. . .
b
n
x
n
,
th ta s c
a
1
b
1
x
1
+
a
2
b
2
x
2
+ . . . +
a
n
b
n
x
n
1
n
(a
1
+ a
2
+ . . . + a
n
) (b
1
+ b
2
+ . . . + b
n
)
x
1
+ x
2
+ . . . + x
n
.
Bt ng thc ny ng v hon ton c th chng minh bng quy np.
69
3.2.2 Phng php cng mu s Engel
Bi ton 3.16 (Italia - 2007). Cho cc s thc dng a, b, c sao cho
1
1+a+b
+
1
1+b+c
+
1
1+c+a
1.
Chng minh rng a + b + c ab + bc + ca.
Gii. Ta c
1
1 + a + b
+
1
1 + b + c
+
1
1 + c + a
=
a
a + ab + ac
+
b
b + bc + ba
+
c
c + ca + cb
.
Khng mt tnh tng qut, gi s a b c th a +ab +ac b +bc +ca
c + ca + cb v
a
a + ab + ac

b
b + bc + ba

c
c + ca + cb

1
1 + a + b

1
1 + b + c

1
1 + c + a
b + c c + a a + b.
Bt ng thc trn lun ng.
T theo 3a, th
1
1 + a + b
+
1
1 + b + c
+
1
1 + c + a
=
a
a + ab + ac
+
b
b + bc + ba
+
c
c + ca + cb
3(a + b + c)
a + b + c + 2 (ab + bc + ca)
.
Kt hp vi gi thit ta suy ra
3(a + b + c)
a + b + c + 2 (ab + bc + ca)
1 a + b + c ab + bc + ca.
Vy ta c iu phi chng minh.
ng thc xy ra khi v ch khi a = b = c = 1.
Bi ton 3.17. Cho tam gic nhn ABC. Chng minh rng
1
1 + tan A + tan B
+
1
1 + tan B + tan C
+
1
1 + tan C + tan A

3
1 + 2
3
Gii. Ta c
1
1 + tan A + tan B
+
1
1 + tan B + tan C
+
1
1 + tan C + tan A
3 (tan A + tan B + tan C)

tan A + tan B + tan C + 2 (tan Atan B + tan Btan C + tan C tan A)
70
T bt ng thc ab+bc+ca
_
3abc(a + b + c) v ng thc
tan A =
tan A, ta c
3 (tan A + tan B + tan C)
tan A + tan B + tan C + 2 (tan Atan B + tan Btan C + tan C tan A)
=
3
1 +
2(tan Atan B+tan B tan C+tan C tan A)
tan A+tan B+tan C
3
1 + 2
tan A(
tan A)
tan A
=
3
1 + 2
_
3
tan A
tan A
=
3
1 + 2
3
.
Vy, ta c iu phi chng minh. ng thc xy ra khi v ch khi tam gic
ABC u.
Bi ton 3.18. Cho cc s thc dng a, b, c sao cho a +b +c = 3. Chng
minh rng
ab +
9
4
ab + a + b
+
bc +
9
4
bc + b + c
+
ca +
9
4
ca + c + a

13
4
.
Gii. Khng mt tnh tng qut, gi s a b c. Ta c (a + 1) (b c) 0
nn ab + a + b ac + a + c,
tng t ta suy ra ab + a + b ac + a + c bc + b + c.
Li c
ab +
9
4
ab + a + b

ca +
9
4
ca + c + a
(b c) (3 a)
_
a +
3
4
_
0 (lun
ng).
Tng t, ta suy ra
ab +
9
4
ab + a + b

ca +
9
4
ca + c + a

bc +
9
4
bc + b + c
T theo 3b, th
ab +
9
4
ab + a + b
+
bc +
9
4
bc + b + c
+
ca +
9
4
ca + c + a

3
_
ab + bc + ca +
27
4
_
ab + bc + ca + 2 (a + b + c)
=
3 (ab + bc + ca + 9)
ab + bc + ca + 6
.
Ta cn chng minh
3 (
ab + 9)
ab + bc + ca + 6

13
4
ab + bc + ca 3.
Bt ng thc trn ng do ab + bc + ca
(a + b + c)
2
3
= 3.
71
Vy, ta c iu phi chng minh. ng thc xy ra khi v ch khi a = b =
c = 1.
Bi ton 3.19. Cho cc s thc dng a, b, c sao cho a
2
+b
2
+c
2
= 1. Chng
minh rng
a + b
1 + ab
+
c + a
1 + ca
+
b + c
1 + bc

9
2 (a + b + c)
.
Gii. Khng mt tnh tng qut, gi s a b c.
Khi 1 + ab 1 + ac 1 + bc.
Ta ch cn thit lp thm
a + b
1 + ab

c + a
1 + ca

b + c
1 + bc
.
Tht vy, ta c
a + b
1 + ab

c + a
1 + ca
(b c)
_
1 a
2
_
0 (b c)
_
b
2
+ c
2
_
0.
Tng t ta cng c
c + a
1 + ca

b + c
1 + bc
(a b)
_
a
2
+ b
2
_
0.
Do theo 3a, ta c
a + b
1 + ab
+
c + a
1 + ca
+
b + c
1 + bc

6 (a + b + c)
3 + ab + bc + ca
.
V ta ch cn chng minh
6 (a + b + c)
3 + ab + bc + ca

9
2 (a + b + c)
4(a + b + c)
2
3 (3 + ab + bc + ca)
4
_
a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
_
+ 8 (ab + bc + ca) 9
_
a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
_
+ 3 (ab + bc + ca)
a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
ab + bc + ca.
Bt ng thc trn hin nhin ng, pcm.
Bi ton 3.20 (Poland - 1992). Cho cc s thc x, y, z sao cho x+y+z = 1.
Chng minh rng
x
x
2
+ 1
+
y
y
2
+ 1
+
z
z
2
+ 1

9
10
.
72
Gii. Ta c
x
x
2
+ 1
+
y
y
2
+ 1
+
z
z
2
+ 1

|x|
x
2
+ 1
+
|y|
y
2
+ 1
+
|z|
z
2
+ 1
.
Vy nn ta ch cn chng minh bt ng thc vi x, y, z > 0.
Khng mt tnh tng qut, gi s x y z th x
2
+1 y
2
+1 z
2
+1.
Tip tc ta c
x
x
2
+ 1

y
y
2
+ 1
(x y) (1 xy) 0.
Do 1 = x + y + z x + y 2
xy nn xy < 1 v bt ng thc trn hin

nhin ng.
Tng t ta suy ra
x
x
2
+ 1

y
y
2
+ 1

z
z
2
+ 1
.
T theo 3a, ta c
x
x
2
+ 1
+
y
y
2
+ 1
+
z
z
2
+ 1

3 (x + y + z)
x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
+ 3

3
1
3
(x + y + z)
2
+ 3
=
9
10
.
Vy, ta c iu phi chng minh.
ng thc xy ra khi v ch khi x = y = z =
1
3
.
Bi ton 3.21. Cho cc s thc dng a, b, c sao cho
1
1 + 2ab
+
1
1 + 2bc
+
1
1 + 2ca
1. Chng minh rng a + b + c 3abc.
Gii. Ta c
1
1 + 2ab
+
1
1 + 2bc
+
1
1 + 2ca
=
a
a + 2abc
+
b
b + 2abc
+
c
c + 2abc
.
Khng mt tnh tng qut, gi s a b c th a+2abc b+2abc c+2abc
v
a
a + 2abc

b
b + 2abc

c
c + 2abc
1
1 + 2ab

1
1 + 2ca

1
1 + 2bc
ab ac bc.
Bt ng thc trn lun ng vi a b c.
73
T theo 3a, ta c
1
1 + 2ab
+
1
1 + 2bc
+
1
1 + 2ca
=
a
a + 2abc
+
b
b + 2abc
+
c
c + 2abc

3 (a + b + c)
a + b + c + 6abc
.
Kt hp vi gi thit suy ra
3 (a + b + c)
a + b + c + 6abc
1 a + b + c 3abc.
Vy ta c iu phi chng minh.
ng thc xy ra khi v ch khi a = b = c = 1.
Bi ton 3.22 (Mathlinks Contest). Cho cc s thc dng a, b, c sao cho.
Chng minh
1
1 + a
2
(b + c)
+
1
1 + b
2
(c + a)
+
1
1 + c
2
(a + b)

3
1 + 2abc
.
Gii. Bt ng thc trn tng ng vi
1
1 + 2abc
1
1 + a
2
(b + c)
+
1
1 + 2abc
1
1 + b
2
(c + a)
+
1
1 + 2abc
1
1 + c
2
(a + b)
0
a(1 bc)
1 + a(3 bc)
+
b(1 ac)
1 + b(3 ac)
+
c(1 ab)
1 + c(3 ab)
0
1 bc
1 + abc(3 bc)
+
1 ac
1 + abc(3 ac)
+
1 ab
1 + abc(3 ab)
0.
Khng mt tnh tng qut, gi s a b c, th
1 + abc(3 ab) 1 + abc(3 ac) 1 + abc(3 bc),
v
1 bc
1 + abc(3 bc)

1 ac
1 + abc(3 ac)

1 ab
1 + abc(3 ab)
(do 3 = ab + bc + ca 3
3
a
2
b
2
c
2
nn abc 1).
Do theo 3b, ta c
1 bc
1 + abc(3 bc)
+
1 ac
1 + abc(3 ac)
+
1 ab
1 + abc(3 ab)
74
3 (1 bc + 1 ac + 1 ab)
1 + abc(3 bc) + 1 + abc(3 ac) + 1 + abc(3 ab)
= 0.
Php chng minh hon tt. ng thc xy ra khi v ch khi a = b = c = 1.
Bi ton 3.23 (Serbian National Olympiad 2008). Cho cc s thc dng
x, y, z sao cho x + y + z = 1. Chng minh rng
1
yz + x +
1
x
+
1
zx + y +
1
y
+
1
xy + z +
1
z
27
31
.
Gii. Bt ng thc cho tng ng vi
x
xyz + x
2
+ 1
+
y
xyz + y
2
+ 1
+
z
xyz + z
2
+ 1

27
31
.
Khng mt tnh tng qut, gi s x y z. Khi xyz + x
2
+ 1
xyz + y
2
+ 1 xyz + z
2
+ 1.
T gi thit ny ta cng c
x
xyz + x
2
+ 1

y
xyz + y
2
+ 1
.
Tht vy, bt ng thc ny tng ng vi
1
yz + x +
1
x
1
zx + y +
1
y
yz + x +
1
x
zx + y +
1
y
(x y)
_
1
xy
1 + z
_
0.
Ch rng t iu kin 1 = x + y + z x + y 2
xy suy ra xy < 1 nn
1
xy
1 + z > 0 v theo gi thit trn x y. Do bt ng thc trn l
ng.
Tng t ta cng suy ra c
y
xyz + y
2
+ 1

z
xyz + z
2
+ 1

x
xyz + x
2
+ 1

y
xyz + y
2
+ 1

z
xyz + z
2
+ 1
.
Do theo 3a, ta c
_
x
xyz + x
2
+ 1
+
y
xyz + y
2
+ 1
+
z
xyz + z
2
+ 1
_
_
xyz + x
2
+ 1 + xyz + y
2
+ 1 + xyz + z
2
+ 1
_
3 (x + y + z) = 3.
75
Suy ra
x
xyz + x
2
+ 1
+
y
xyz + y
2
+ 1
+
z
xyz + z
2
+ 1

3
3xyz + x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
+ 3
.
Mt khc, t bt ng thc Schur, ta c
9xyz
x + y + z
2 (xy + yz + zx)
_
x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
_
,
suy ra
3xyz
1
3
(x + y + z)
2
2
3
_
x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
_
.
Vy nn
3xyz+x
2
+y
2
+z
2
+3
1
3
+
1
3
_
x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
_
+3
10
3
+
1
9
(x + y + z)
2
=
31
9
.
Do
x
xyz + x
2
+ 1
+
y
xyz + y
2
+ 1
+
z
xyz + z
2
+ 1

3
3xyz + x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
+ 3

27
31
.
Php chng minh c hon tt.
Bi ton 3.24. Cho cc s thc dng a, b, c sao cho ab +bc +ca+abc = 4.
Chng minh rng
3
_
1
a
+
1
b
+
1
c
_
2
(a + 2) (b + 2) (c + 2)
Gii. T iu kin bi ton ta c th t a =
2x
y + z
, b =
2y
z + x
, c =
2z
x + y
.
V bt ng thc cn chng minh c vit li thnh
3
2
_
_
x + y
z
+
_
y + z
x
+
_
z + x
y
_
2
8(x + y + z)
2
(x + y) (y + z) (z + x)
.
T bt ng thc (x + y) (y + z) (z + x)
8
9
(x + y + z) (xy + yz + zx)
ta ch cn chng minh
3
2
_
_
x + y
z
+
_
y + z
x
+
_
z + x
y
_
2
9(x + y + z)
2
xy + yz + zx
,
hay
_
x + y
z
+
_
y + z
x
+
_
z + x
y

6 (x + y + z)
xy + yz + zx
.
76
Ta c
_
x + y
z
+
_
y + z
x
+
_
z + x
y
=
x + y
xz + yz
+
x + z
xy + yz
+
y + z
xy + zx
.
Khng mt tnh tng qut, gi s x y z. Khi xz +yz xy +yz
xy + zx, v
_
x + y
z

_
y + z
x

_
z + x
y
.
Suy ra
x + y
xz + yz

x + z
xy + yz

y + z
xy + zx
.
Do theo 3b v t bt ng thc Cauchy, th
_
x + y
z
+
_
y + z
x
+
_
z + x
y
=
x + y
xz + yz
+
x + z
xy + yz
+
y + z
xy + zx
3 (x + y + z + x + y + z)
xz + yz +
xy + yz +
xy + zx
.
Php chng minh hon tt. ng thc xy ra khi v ch khi a = b = c = 1.
3.3 Dng phn thc ca cc a thc i xng c bn
Bi ton 3.25 (xem [4]). .Cho s t nhin n (n 2) v x
1
, x
2
, . . . x
n
[0, 1].
Chng minh bt ng thc
x
1
+ x
2
+ . . . x
n
n

1
1 + n(1 x
1
)(1 x
2
) . . . (1 x
n
)
.
Gii. t 1x
i
= a
i
(i = 1, 2 . . . n). Nhn xt rng 0 a
i
1 v bt ng
thc cho tr thnh
(1 a
1
) + (1 a
2
) + + (1 a
n
)
n

1
1 + na
1
a 2 . . . a
n
hay
(a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
n
)(1 + na
1
a
2
. . . a
n
) n
2
a
1
a
2
. . . a
n
.
Theo bt ng thc AM-GM th
a
1
+ a
2
+ + a
n
n
n
a
1
a
2
. . . a
n
,
1 + na
1
a
2
. . . a
n
1 + (n 1)a
1
a
2
. . . a
n
n
n
a
1
a
2
. . . a
n
.
77
T hai bt ng thc cui ny ta thu c iu phi chng minh.
Nhn xt rng ng thc xy ra khi v ch khi
a 1 = a
2
= = a
n
= 0
hay
x
1
= x
2
= = x
n
= 1.
Bi ton 3.26 (xem [4]). Cho (a
1
. . . a
n
) l cc s thc dng. t P
0
=
1, P
k
= P
k
(a
1
, . . . , a
n
); E
r
= E
r
(a
1
, . . . , a
n
). Chng minh rng
P
k1
P
k+1
P
2
k
(k = 1, 2, . . . n 1).
Chng minh. Gi s
f(x, y) = (x +a
1
y)(x +a
2
y) . . . (x +a
n
y) = E
0
x
n
+E
2
x
n1
y + +E
n
y
n
,
E
i
l tng tt c cc tch s khc nhau,
P
k
=
k!(n k)!
n!
E
k
.
V tt c cc a
i
> 0 v
x
y
= 0 khng phi l nghim ca phng trnh
f(x, y) = 0 nn
x
y
= 0 khng phi l nghim bi trong cc phng trnh
nhn t o hm ca n.
T ta c th kt lun rng cc s P
i
dng, tc l phng trnh
P
k1
x
2
+ 2P
k
xy + P
k+1
y
2
= 0
nhn c t f(x, y) = 0 bng cch ly vi phn lin tip theo x v y. Do
phng trnh ny c nghim thc nn P
k1
P
k+1
P
2
k
.
Nhn xt rng, nu cc a
i
u dng v khng ng thi bng nhau th
ta c du bt ng thc thc s.
Bi ton 3.27 (xem [4]). Chng minh bt ng thc
E
r1
E
r+1
E
2
r
.
78
Chng minh. T bt ng thc Markuc-Lopes, ta c
P
k1
P
k+1
P
2
k
.
Suy ra
(k 1)!(n k + 1)!
n!
E
k1
(k + 1)!(n k + 1)!
n!
E
k+1
<
_
k!(n k)!
n!
_
E
2
k
hay
(k 1)(n k + 1)
k(n k)
E
k1
E
k+1
< E
2
k
E
k1
E
k+1
< E
2
k
.
Bi ton 3.28 (xem [4]). Cho cc s a
i
> 0 (i {1, . . . , n}) phn bit.
Chng minh bt ng thc
P
1
> P
1
2
2
> P
1
3
3
> > P
1
n
n
.
Chng minh. Ta c
P
0
P
2
< P
2
1
,
(P
1
P
3
)
2
< P
4
2
(P
r1
P
r+1
)
r
< P
2r
r
suy ra
(P
0
P
2
)(P
1
P
3
)
2
. . . (P
r1
P
r+1
)
r
< P
2
1
P
4
2
. . . P
2r
r
P
r
r+1
< P
r+1
r
P
1
rr
< P
1
r + 1
r+1
.
Nhn xt 3.3. Ta c th chng minh P
r1
P
r+1
< P
2
r
bng phng php
quy np.
Gi s bt ng thc ng vi n1 s dng a
1
, a
2
, . . . a
n1
v t E
r
, P
r
l cc E
r
, P
r
to bi n 1 s y v gi s tt c cc s khng ng thi
bng nhau.
Khi
E
r
= a
n
E
r1
P
r
=
r
n
P
r
+
r
n
a
n
P
r1
.
T suy ra
n
2
(P
r1
P
r+1
P
2
r
) = A + Ba
n
+ Ca
2
n
,
79
trong
A = {(n r)
2
1}P
r1
P
r+1
(n r)
2
P
r
B = (n r + 1)(r + 1).P
r1
P
r+1
+ (n r 1)(r 1)P
r2
P
r+1
2(r 1)P
r2
P
r+1
C = (r
2
1)P
r2
P
r
r
2
P
2
r1
.
V cc a
i
khng ng thi bng nhau nn theo gi thit, ta c
P
r1
P
r+1
< P
r
P
r2
P
r
< P
r1
,
P
r2
P
r+1
< P
r1
P
r
A < P
r
B < 2P
r1
P
r
C
< P
r1
n
2
(P
r1
P
r+1
P
r
) < (P
r
) a
n
P
r1
0.
Nhn xt rng bt ng thc vn ng khi a
1
= a
2
= = a
n1
. Khi
a
n
= a
1
.
Bi ton 3.29 (xem [4]). Cho a
1
, . . . , a
n

_
0;
1
2
_
v cc s thc dng
1
, . . . ,
n
tha mn iu kin
n
k=1
k
= 1. Chng minh rng
n
k=1
k
a
k
1
n
k=1
k
a
k
k=1
_
a
k
1 a
k
_
k
.
Gii. Xt hm s y(x) = ln
_
x
1 x
_
vi x
_
0;
1
2
_
. Hm s y(x) n iu
tng v lm trn
_
0;
1
2
_
nn theo bt ng thc Jensen ta c
ln
_
n
k=1
k
a
k
1
n
k=1
k
a
k
_
k=1
k
ln
_
a
k
1 a
k
_
= ln
n
k=1
_
a
k
1 a
k
_
k
v nh vy ta c bt ng thc
n
k=1
k
a
k
1
n
k=1
k
a
k
k=1
_
a
k
1 a
k
_
k
.
80
Bi ton 3.30 (xem [4]). Cho a
1
, . . . , a
n

_
0;
1
2
_
ta lun c bt ng thc
di y
n
k=1
a
k
_
n
k=1
a
k
_
n

n
k=1
(1 a
k
)
_
n
k=1
(1 a
k
)
_
n
.
Gii. Bt ng thc cn chng minh c suy ra t v d trn vi
1
=
=
n
=
1
n
.
Bi ton 3.31 (xem [5]). Cho ABC vi di cc cnh l a, b, c v bn
knh ng trn l r. Chng minh rng
(a b)
2
ab
+
(b c)
2
bc
+
(c a)
2
ca

p
2
4r
2

27
4
.
Gii. V a, b, c, l nghim ca phng trnh (xem [2],[5])
x
3
2px
2
+ (p
2
+ r
2
+ 4Rr)x 4Rrp = 0,
nn d dng kim tra h thc
(a b)
2
ab
+
(b c)
2
bc
+
(c a)
2
ca
=
2(p
2
+ r
2
+ 4Rr)
4Rr
9.
Nh vy
(a b)
2
ab
+
(b c)
2
bc
+
(c a)
2
ca
=
2(p
2
+ r
2
)
4Rr
7.
Bi v R 2r, nn
(a b)
2
ab
+
(b c)
2
bc
+
(c a)
2
ca

2(p
2
+ r
2
)
8r
2
7 =
p
2
4r
2

27
4
.
Bi ton 3.32 (xem [5]). Cho ABC vi bn knh ng trn ni tip l
r vi di ba cnh l a, b, c. Chng minh rng bt ng thc
1
a
2
+
1
b
2
+
1
c
2

1
4r
2
.
Gii. V a, b, c, l nghim ca x
3
2px
2
+ (p
2
+ r
2
+ 4Rr)x 4Rrp = 0
(xem [2],[5]) nn
f(x) = x
3
2px
2
+ (p
2
+ r
2
+ 4Rr)x 4Rrp = (x a)(x b)(x c).
81
Ly hai ln o hm ta thu c 3x 2p = (x a) + (x b) + (x c).
Khi
3x 2p
f(x)
=
1
(x a)(x b)
+
1
(x b)(x c)
+
1
(x c)(x a)
.
Cho x = p, ta thu c
1
(p a)(p b)
+
1
(p b)(p c)
+
1
(p c)(p a)
=
1
r
2
.
Vy
1
4r
2
=
1
4(p a)(p b)
+
1
4(p b)(p c)
+
1
4(p c)(p a)

1
a
2
+
1
b
2
+
1
c
2
.
Bi ton 3.33. Cho a, b, c l di ba cnh ca mt tam gic khng cn.
Chng minh bt ng thc
1
(a
2
b
2
)(a
2
c
2
)(1 + a
2
)
+
1
(b
2
c
2
)(b
2
a
2
)(1 + b
2
)
+
1
(c
2
a
2
)(c
2
b
2
)(1 + c
2
)

1
8abc
Gii. Biu din

T(x) :=
1
(x
2
+ a
2
)(x
2
+ b
2
)(x
2
+ c
2
)
=
Ax + A
x
2
+ a
2
+
Bx + B
x
2
+ b
2
+
Cx + C
x
2
+ c
2
.
Tnh A, A
, B, B
, C, C
v cho x = 1, ta nhn c biu thc

T =
1
(1 + a
2
)(1 + b
2
)(1 + c
2
)

1
8abc

82
Kt lun
Lun vn "Phn thc hu t v cc bi ton lin quan" t c mt
s kt qu sau:
- H thng ha mt s kin thc c bn v phn thc hu t v v cc
tnh cht c bn ca n, chng minh nh l phn tch phn thc hu t
thnh nhn t (nh l 1.3).
- Phn tch phn thc hu t thnh phn thc n gin v gii thiu mt
s phng php c bit s dng cng thc ni suy xy dng thut ton
tm nguyn hm ca hm hu t nh phng php Oxtrogradski, p dng
cng thc ni suy Lagrange, p dng cng thc ni suy Hermite, v phng
php Horowitz.
Ngoi vic gii thiu cc thut ton, trong tng mc u c xy dng cc
v d minh ha v phn tch chi tit cc lc gii.
- Xt mt s tnh ton trn cc phn thc hu t.
- Kho st mt s lp phng trnh vi hm phn thc hu t.
- Kho st lp cc hm phn thc hu t c bit, l lp hm phn
thc chnh quy hu t. Chng minh nh l c bn v gi tr nh nht ca
hm phn thc chnh quy hu t mt bin, hai bin v nhiu bin.
- Kho st cc tnh cht ca hm phn thc nhn gi tr hu t. Tng
t nh i vi s hu t, ta cng chng minh c rng mi phn thc hu
t nhn gi tr hu t trn tp cc s t nhin u c dng phn thc hu
t vi h s nguyn.
- Kho st mt s lp bi ton v dy s sinh bi mt s hm phn thc
hu t.
- Kho st mt s dng bt ng thc vi hm phn thc hu t. Trc
ht xt cc k thut c bn v s dng bt ng thc Cauchy chng minh
cc bt ng thc dng phn thc.
Tip theo, da vo sp th t ca dy s vn dng k thut cng mu
83
s Engel ca bt ng thc Chebyshev chng minh mt s dng bt ng
thc c dng phn thc c bit.
Phn cui ca chng l xt mt s dng phn thc ca cc a thc i
xng c bn. y l nhng dng bt ng thc loi kh cn phi kt hp
cch chng minh quy np vi cc biu din tng ng.
84
Ti liu tham kho
[1] Phan c Chnh, Bt ng thc, NXB Gio Dc Vit Nam, 1993.
[2] Nguyn Vn Mu, Bt ng thc - nh l v p dng, NXB Gio Dc,
2006.
[3] Nguyn Vn Mu, Cc bi ton ni suy v p dng, NXB Gio Dc,
2008.
[4] Nguyn Vn Mu, a thc i s v phn thc hu t, NXB Gio Dc,
2004.
[5] T Duy Phng, Phng trnh bc ba v cc bi ton trong tam giac,
NXB Gio Dc, 2006.
[6] Tp ch ton hc v tui tr, Tuyn tp 5 nm, NXB Gio Dc, 2003.
[7] Ti liu t Internet.

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I HC THI NGUYN

V d 1.2. Gi s cho b s dng a

Nh vy, ta lun c cc h thc di y:

Cng cc v theo ct dc, ta thu c ng nht thc cn chng minh.

Cho x = 0, ta nhn c p(0) =

(ii) Tnh tng

V d 1.15. Phn tch

Gii. Theo nh l 1.2, ta c f(x) =

V d 1.16. Cho ba s thc phn bit a

) = 6 nn khng mt tnh tng qut ta c th chn a

s = p, thc hin php ng nht ta thu c h phng

Chng minh. V q(x) =

. cng l hm phn thc chnh quy hu t.

Chng minh rng hm s cho l hm tun hon vi chu k bng 3.

Bin i tng t nh trn, ta c f(f(f(x))) = x.

Bng phng php quy np, ta d dng chng minh c

S ha bi Trung tm Hc liu i hc Thi Nguyn http://www.lrc-tnu.edu.vn

Chng minh rng

S ha bi Trung tm Hc liu i hc Thi Nguyn http://www.lrc-tnu.edu.vn

Bi ton 3.15 (xem [2]). Gi s a

3 (tan A + tan B + tan C)

xy nn xy < 1 v bt ng thc trn hin

Gii. Biu din

v cho x = 1, ta nhn c biu thc

S ha bi Trung tm Hc liu i hc Thi Nguyn http://www.lrc-tnu.edu.vn

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