1.

THUT TON
Thut ton l mt khi nim c s ca Ton hc v Tin hc. Hiu mt cch n gin, thut ton l mt tp cc hng dn nhm thc hin mt cng vic no . i vi vic gii quyt mt vn - bi ton th thut ton c th hiu l mt tp hu hn cc hng dn r rng ngi gii ton c th theo m gii quyt c vn . Nh vy, thut ton l mt phng php th hin li gii ca vn - bi ton. Ti sao li l "Thut ton" ?
T thut ton (Algorithm) xut pht t tn mt nh ton hc ngi Trung l Abu Abd - Allah ibn Musa alKhwarizmi, thng gi l alKhwarizmi. ng l tc gi mt cun sch v s hc, trong ng dng phng php m t rt r rng, mch lc cch gii nhng bi ton. Sau ny, phng php m t cch gii ton ca ng c xem l mt chun mc v c nhiu nh ton hc khc tun theo. T algorithm ra i da theo cch phin m tn ca ng.

Vic nghin cu v thut ton c vai tr rt quan trng trong khoa hc my tnh v my tnh ch gii quyt c vn khi c hng dn gii r rng v ng. Nu hng dn gii sai hoc khng r rng th my tnh khng th gii ng c bi ton. Trong khoa hc my tnh, thut ton c nh ngha l mt dy hu hn cc bc khng mp m v c th thc thi c, qu trnh hnh ng theo cc bc ny phi dng v cho c kt qu nh mong mun.

S bc hu hn ca thut ton v tnh cht dng ca n c gi chung l tnh hu hn. S bc hu hn ca thut ton l mt tnh cht kh hin nhin. Ta c th tm u mt li gii vn - bi ton c v s bc gii ? Tnh "khng mp m" v "c th thc thi c" gi chung l tnh xc nh.
Gi s khi nhn mt lp hc mi, Ban Gim hiu yu cu gio vin ch nhim chn lp trng mi theo cc bc sau :
1. Lp danh sch tt cc hc sinh trong lp. 2. Sp th t danh sch hc sinh. 3. Chn hc sinh ng u danh sch lm lp trng.

Khi nhn c thng bo ny, gio vin chc chn s rt bi ri v khng hiu l trong danh sch hc sinh cn c nhng thng tin g? Danh sch ch cn h tn, hay cn thm ngy thng nm sinh? C cn thm im trung bnh khng? Yu cu 2 li cng gy nhiu thc mc. Cn phi sp xp danh sch theo chiu tng dn hoc gim dn ? Sp theo ch tiu g ? Theo tn, theo ngy thng nm sinh hay theo im trung bnh chung, ...Gi s sp theo im trung bnh th nu c hai hc sinh cng im trung bnh th hc sinh no s sp trc, hc sinh no s sp sau ? ... Hng dn trn vi phm tnh cht "khng mp m" ca thut ton. Ngha l, c qu nhiu thng tin cn thiu lm cho cc bc 1,2 c hiu ng v hiu theo mt ngha duy nht. Nu sa li mt cht t th hng dn trn s tr nn r rng hn rt nhiu v c th gi l mt thut ton chn lp trng !
1. Lp danh sch tt cc hc sinh trong lp theo hai thng tin: H v Tn; im trung bnh cui nm. 2. Sp hng hc sinh theo im trung bnh theo th t gim dn (t im cao n im thp). Hai hc sinh c cng im trung bnh s c cng hng. 3. Nu ch c mt hc sinh c hng nht th chn hc sinh lm lp trng. Trng hp c nhiu hc sinh ng hng nht th chn hc sinh c im mn Ton cao nht lm lp trng.

Nu vn cn nhiu hn mt hc sinh ng hng nht v c cng im mn Ton cao nht th tin hnh bc thm.

y chng ta cn phn bit mp m v s chn la c quyt nh. Mp m l thiu thng tin hoc c nhiu chn la nhng khng iu kin quyt nh. Cn chn la c quyt nh l hon ton xc nh duy nht trong iu kin c th ca vn . Chng hn trong vn chn lp trng trn, bc 3 th hin mt s la chn c quyt nh. Tt nhin, khi cha lp danh sch, cha xp hng theo im trung bnh th gio vin khng th bit c s chn lp trng theo cch no. Nhng khi sp xong danh sch th ch c mt phng n chn duy nht. Tnh "thc thi c" cng l mt tnh cht kh hin nhin. R rng nu trong "thut ton" tn ti mt bc khng th thc thi c th lm sao ta c c kt qu ng nh mun? Tuy nhin, cn phi hiu l "thc thi c" xt trong iu kin hin ti ca bi ton. Chng hn, khi ni "ly cn bc hai ca mt s m" l khng th thc thi c nu min xc nh ca bi ton l s thc, nhng trong min s phc th thao tc "ly cn bc hai ca mt s m" l hon ton thc thi c. Tng t, nu ta ch ng cho mt ngi i xe my n mt bu in nhng con ng ta ch l ng ct, ng cm hoc ng ngc chiu th ngi i khng th i n bu in c. Tnh "dng" l tnh cht d b vi phm nht, thng l do sai st khi trnh by thut ton. D nhin, mi thut ton u nhm thc hin mt cng vic no nn sau mt thi gian thi hnh hu hn th thut ton phi cho chng ta kt qu mong mun. Khi khng tha tnh cht ny, ta ni rng "thut ton" b lp v tn hoc b qun. tnh tng cc s nguyn dng l trong khong t 1 n n ta c thut ton sau :

B1. Hi gi tr ca n. B2. S = 0 B3. i = 1 B4. Nu i = n+1 th sang bc B8, ngc li sang bc B5 B5. Cng thm i vo S B6. Cng thm 2 vo i B7. Quay li bc B4. B8. Tng cn tm chnh l S.
Ta ch n bc B4. y ta mun kt thc thut ton khi gi tr ca i vt qu n. Thay v vit l "nu i ln hn n" th ta thay bng iu kin "nu i bng n+1" v theo ton hc "i = n+1" th suy ra "i ln hn n". Nhng iu kin "i=n+1" khng phi lc no cng t c. V ban u i = 1 l s l, sau mi bc, i c tng thm 2 nn i lun l s l. Nu n l s chn th n+1 l mt s l nn sau mt s bc nht nh, i s bng n+1. Tuy nhin, nu n l mt s l th n+1 l mt s chn, do i l s l nn d c qua bao nhiu bc i chng na, i vn khc n+1. Trong trng hp , thut ton trn s b qun. Tnh "ng" l mt tnh cht kh hin nhin nhng l tnh cht kh t ti nht. Thc vy, khi gii quyt mt vn -bi ton, ta lun lun mong mun li gii ca mnh s cho kt qu ng nhng khng phi lc no cng t c. Mi hc sinh khi lm bi kim tra u mun bi lm ca mnh c p s ng nhng trn thc t, trong lp hc ch c mt s hc sinh nht nh l c kh nng a ra li gii ng!

Thut ton th cng nhc ! Cc tnh cht ca thut ton rt cht ch v cng nhc. Nhng iu cng c ngha l kh nng gii quyt vn theo kiu thut ton cng b gii hn. Sau ny, ngi ta "lm mm" i hai tnh cht quan trng ca thut ton l tnh xc nh v tnh ng gii quyt nhng vn phc tp hn m vi cc tnh cht cht ch ca thut ton th khng th gii quyt c. l cc thut ton quy v thut gii. Ta s tm hiu v iu ny ngay trong cc mc 4 v 5 ca chng ny.

Cc c trng khc ca thut ton

Bn cnh 3 c trng chnh l xc nh, hu hn v ng, thut ton cn c thm 3 c trng ph khc.

1. u vo v u ra (input/output) : mi thut ton, d c n gin n my cng phi

nhn d liu u vo, x l n v cho ra kt qu cui cng.

2. Tnh hiu qu (effectiveness) : tnh hiu qu ca thut ton c nh gi da trn

mt s tiu chun nh khi lng tnh ton, khng gian v thi gian khi thut ton c thi hnh. Tnh hiu qu ca thut ton l mt yu t quyt nh nh gi, chn la cch gii quyt vn -bi ton trn thc t. C rt nhiu phng php nh gi tnh hiu qu ca thut ton. Trong mc 3 ca chng , ta s tm hiu mt tiu chun c dng rng ri l phc tp ca thut ton.

3. Tnh tng qut (generalliness) : thut ton c tnh tng qut l thut ton phi p dng c cho mi trng hp ca bi ton ch khng phi ch p dng c cho mt s trng hp ring l no . Chng hn gii phng trnh bc hai sau y bng Delta m bo c tnh cht ny v n lun gii c vi mi gi tr s thc a,b,c bt k. Tuy nhin, khng phi thut ton no cng m bo c tnh tng qut. Trong thc t, c lc ngi ta ch xy dng thut ton cho mt dng c trng ca bi ton m thi.
Thut ton gii phng trnh bc hai ax2+bx+c=0 (a?0)

1. Yu cu cho bit gi tr ca 3 h s a, b, c 2. Nu a=0 th 2.1. Yu cu u vo khng m bo. 2.2. Kt thc thut ton. 3. Trng hp a khc 0 th 3.1. Tnh gi tr D = b2-4ac 3.2. Nu D > 0 th 3.2.1. Phng trnh c hai nghim phn bit x1 v x2 3.2.2. Gi tr ca hai nghim c tnh theo cng thc sau

3.2.3. Kt thc thut ton. 3.3. Nu D = 0 th 3.3.1. Phng trnh c nghim kp x0 3.3.2. Gi tr ca nghim kp l

3.3.3. Kt thc thut ton 3.4. Nu D < 0 th 3.4.1. Phng trnh v nghim. 3.4.2. Kt thc thut ton.
Thut ton tm hp c trng lng nng nht

Vn : C n hp c khi lng khc nhau v mt ci cn da. Hy ch ra cch cn tm c hp c trng lng nng nht. Vn ny l th hin ca mt bi ton tng qut : Cho mt tp hp A hu hn v mt th t ton phn trn A. Hy xy dng thut ton tm phn t ln nht ca A. Bi ton trong ton hc c v rt phc tp nhng mt th hin trn thc t li rt d hiu, v cch gii quyt cng n gin. T ta c th d dng suy ra cch gii bi ton tng qut. 1. Nu ch c 1 hp (n=1) th 1.1. Hp chnh l hp nng nht. 1.2. Kt thc thut ton. 2. Ngc li nu c t hai hp tr ln (n>1) 2.1. Chn hai hp bt k v t ln bn cn. 2.2. Gi li hp nng hn, ct hp nh hn sang ch khc. 3. Nu cn hp cha c cn thc hin cc bc sau, nu khng cn hp no na, sang bc 5. 3.1. Chn mt hp bt k v ln da cn cn trng. 3.2. Gi li hp nng hn, ct hp nh hn sang ch khc. 4. Tr li bc 3.

5. Hp cn li trn cn chnh l hp nng nht. Kt thc.

Thut ton Euclid tm c s chung ln nht

Bi ton : Cho hai s nguyn dng a v b. Tm c s chung ln nht ca a v b. 1. Yu cu cho bit gi tr ca a, b. 2. a0 = a 3. b0 = b 4. i = 0 5. Nu ai khc bi th thc hin cc thao tc sau, ngc li qua bc 7. 5.1 Tng i ln 1. 5.2. Nu ai-1 > bi-1 th ai = ai-1 - bi-1 bi = bi-1 5.3. Ngc li bi = bi-1 - ai-1 ai = ai-1 6. Tr li bc 5. 7. c s chung ln nht ca a, b l ai .