Chng I.

Logic v mt s khi nim m u

Logic in computer science

CHNG I

LOGIC V MT S KHI NIM M U

1.3. Mnh logic (Propositional Logic)
V d:
1. 12 l s chn l mnh ng
2. 12 l s nguyn t l mnh sai
3. Ra i khng phi mnh
4. x + ay = z khng phi mnh
C php ca mnh
V d:
p = 15 MOD 3 = 0, l mnh s cp.
r = 15 MOD 3 = 0 v 3 l s nguyn t, l mnh phcs hp
Tng ng ca hai biu thc logic
V d:
Kim tra xem biu thc logic E = p q c tng ng vi
F = p q ta nn lp bng chn tr sau:
p
q
E
F
p
0

0
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
Biu thc hng ng. Biu thc logic E c gi l hng ng nu chn tr ca E lun
lun l True.
V d:
E = p p th E 1.
Biu thc hng sai. Biu thc logic E c gi l hng sai nu chn tr ca E lun lun
l False.
V d:
E = p p th E 0.
Cc quy tc thay th
Quy tc 1: (Quy tc thay th tng ng).
V d: E = p q
V q q, do ta c th thay th q bi q vo E v c
E = p q. Dng bng chn tr cho E v E ta s thy E E.
Quy tc 2: (Tnh bt bin i vi biu thc logic hng ng)
TS. L Huy Thp

30 6 - 2011

Chng I. Logic v mt s khi nim m u

Logic in computer science

Cho E l biu thc hng ng, nu thay th mt mnh p no trong E bi

mt biu thc logic bt k ta s nhn c biu thc logic E mi cng l hng ng.
V du:
E = (p q) ( p q) th E 1. By gi ta thay th q trong E bi q r ta s
c: E = (p (q r)) ( p (q r)) theo quy tc 2 ta cng c E 1 (hng
ng).
V d.
Chng minh rng: ((p q) p) q l hng ng
Cch 1: Dng bng chn tr
p
q
pq
(p q) p
(p q) p q
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
Cch 2: Bin i biu thc (p q) p q ((p q) p) q ( (p q)
p) q (p q) ( p q) (p q) (p q) 1. Vy theo tnh cht bc
cu ta c (p q) p q 1
Kim tra mt s php suy lun c th
V d:
Nu mt tp hp c th t l khc rng, th ta c th chn c phn t u
tin ca n - do , nu khng th tch ra c phn t u tin ca tp hp ny th t
l tp hp rng.
Nh vy ta c cc mnh s cp sau:
p = Tp c th t khc rng
q = Ly ra c phn t u tin
q = Khng ly ra c phn t u tin
p = Tp c th t l rng
Nh vy vi cc bin logic cho, mnh phc hp trn c tru tng
ha thnh mt suy din nh sau:
hay (p q) q p chnh l quy tc Modus Tollens.
1.4.3. Phng php chng minh bng quy np
nh ngha quy np ton hc
V d:
Chng minh rng P(n) = 0 + 1 + + n =

n( n +1)
2

1/ Basic case: Vi n0 = 0 P(n0) = P(0) = 0, vy P ng vi n = 0

2/ Inductive case: Ga s P ng vi n = k, ngha l P(k) = 0 + 1 + + k =
TS. L Huy Thp

k ( k +1)
2

30 6 - 2011

Chng I. Logic v mt s khi nim m u

Logic in computer science

Ta phi chng minh P ng vi k+1

Tht vy:
P(k+1) = 0 + 1 + + k + (k+1) =

k (k +1)
( k +1)(k + 2)
+ (k+1) =
.
2
2

Vy P ng vi k+1
3/ Conclusion: P(n) ng n
V d 2:
Chng minh rng vi n N v n 1 ta u c 12 + 2 2 + .... + n 2 =

n.(n + 1).(2n + 1)

(t chng minh)
V d 3:
Cho a, b N, b 0. Chng minh rng tn ti duy nht q N v tn ti duy nht r N
sao cho:
(1)
a = q.b + r
(2)
0r<b
Tht vy:
Tnh duy nht: Gi s:
a = q.b + r (*) v
a = q.b + r (**) vi 0 r ; r < b
(*) tr (**) (q q)b + (r r) = 0 (***)
Khi q q th q q ' b b trong khi r r ' < b
nn (***) khng xy ra. Nhng nu q = q th r cng phi bng r (***) mi
xy ra. Vy q v r l duy nht.
t p(a) Tn ti cc s t nhin q v r tha mn (1) v (2)
Ta s chng minh mnh : (a N : p(a)) l ng.
Ta s dng phng php qui np mnh:
+ Bc c s: Khi a = 0, q = 0 v r = 0 th cc iu kin (1) v (2) tha mn, vy p(0)
ng.
+ Bc qui np: Cho a l s t nhin tu v gi s p(0), p(1),p(a) u ng. Ta s
chng minh p(a + 1) cng ng.
- Trng hp a +1 < b th ly q = 0, r = a + 1 p(a + 1) ng
- Trng hp a +1 b
t a = a + 1 b nh vy 0 a a cho nn p(a) ng
tc l ! q v r : a = q.b + r v 0 r b
t q* = q + 1 q = q* -1; t r = r
th a = (q + 1)b + r a = qb + q + r a b = qb + r a + 1 = qb + r
tc l p(a + 1) ng
TS. L Huy Thp

30 6 - 2011

Chng I. Logic v mt s khi nim m u

Logic in computer science

Nh vy p(0)
a 1 : p(0) p(1) . p(a) p(a + 1)
suy ra p(a) a N.
Phng php chng minh quy np tng qut
Cho U l tp v tr, gi s rng chng ta cn nh ngha mt tp con C U bng
quy np.
Cch lm nh sau:
Ly B U l tp con khi u.
F l h cc hm trn U
Mt cch hnh thc: B chnh l Basic Case nh ngha quy np. N bao gm cc
phn t m chng ta mun bt u t quy np.
Tp F cho cch nhn c cc phn t mi ca tp t cc phn t c ca tp con
C. C l tp bao gm cc phn t hoc thuc B hoc cc phn t c sinh ra t B
qua cc hm trong F.
V d
Tp cc s t nhin N c th c nh ngha nh sau:
Gi s U la tp s thc, U = R
B ={0},
F = {succ}, trong succ(x) = x + 1, x U
1.6. quy (recursion)
Cc v d quy
Chng ta bit nh ngha quy np ca tp s t nhin N nh sau:
U=R
B ={0},
F = {succ} trn U vi succ(x) = x + 1
By gi chng ta nh ngha hm giai tha (factorial function) k hiu l fact. Chng ta
lm nh sau:
fact(0) = 1
fact(succ(n)) = (n+1)fact(n)
Tuy nhin, ni chung, nh ngha quy khng nht thit phi l hm nh hm giai
tha trnh by.
Hy xt nh ngha quy np khc sau y ca N:
U = R l tp ss thc
B = {0}
F ={succ, mult} vi succ(x) = x + 1, mult(x,y) = x y.
Da vo nh ngha quy np trn, chng ta xy dng hm hin h nh sau:
i. h(0) = 0
TS. L Huy Thp

30 6 - 2011

Chng I. Logic v mt s khi nim m u

Logic in computer science

ii. h(succ(n)) = h(n) +2

iii. h(mult(m,n)) = h(m) h(n)
Hy tnh h(1)
Gii:
T ii. h(succ(0)) = h(0) +2
T i. h(0) = 0 nn h(succ(0)) = 2
M h(succ(0)) = h(0+1) = h(1)
Vy h(1) = 2
1.7. Mnh logic: ng ngha (propositional logic: semantics)
Cho trc wff v cc gi tr hoc ng hoc sai cho tng k hiu mnh trong
. Chng ta cn phi xc nh chn tr cho .
Gi s v l hm t B vo tp {0,1}. Trong 0 th hin sai, 1 th hin ng. Nh
li rng, trong nh ngha quy np ca wffs, B ch cha cc k hiu mnh .

Vi mi k hiu mnh Ai th (Ai) = v(Ai)

TS. L Huy Thp

30 6 - 2011