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CHNG 4.
PHP TNH V T
4.1. V t v lng t
4.1.1. nh ngha v t v v d
V d: p(n) = n l mt s nguyn t
Nh vy hm p(n) ph thuc vo bin n c min xc nh l tp cc s
nguyn. Khi ta thay n bi 1 gi tr c th th p(n) s cho chn tr 1 hoc 0. Chng hn:
p(7) = 1, p(4) = 0, p(37) =1, p(1445) = 0
V t p(n) l n l s nguyn t l mt hm t tp t nhin vo {0, 1}
4.2. Cc lng t v cc v t c lng t
Lng t c dng chuyn mt v t sang mt mnh .
4.2.1. Lng t vi mi:
K hiu c dng ch vi mi, tc l tt c mi kh nng, mi gi
tr,...
V d 1: Ta ni v t p(x) ng vi mi x th ta c th vit: x : p(x)
V d 2: Ta ni vi mi x [-3, 5]; p(x) (x+3)(x-5) 0 th ta c th vit: x [3, 5] : p(x)
4.2.2. Lng t tn ti hay tn ti t nht:
K hiu ni tn ti hay tn ti t nht
V d 1: ni Tn ti t nht mt x v t p(x) c chn tr 1 ta c th vit nh
sau x : p(x)
4.3. Cc v d:
V d 1:
Cho v t p(n) n l s nguyn t th mnh : n N: p(n) cho chn tr 0
(sai).
Nhng mnh n N: p(n) cho chn tr 1 (ng)
n N: p(n) cho chn tr 0
! n N: p(n) cho chn tr 0
V d 2: p(x) x2 > 0 th mnh x R {0} : p(x) lun cho chn tr 1.
4.4. Quy tc ph nh mnh c lng t
(x : p(x)) x : p(x)
(x : p(x)) x : p(x)
V d 1: Cho p(x) x2 < 0. Tm ph nh ca mnh sau: x R : p(x)
TS. Le Huy Thap
57
58
x : p(x) r(x)
4.7. Mt s v d
-
Hoc
-
59
Cc bin t do v b buc cc v d
V d ( thun li : Nghing l t do, m l b buc)
S(x, y)x (P(x)Q(x))
Bin x trong P v Q b buc bi ; cn x v y trong S l t do.
Ni mt cch ngn gn, chng ta khng c cc bin t do hoc b buc, nhng li
c cc s kin t do v / hoc b buc ca cc bin. Mt bin c th c cc s kin
va t do va b buc trong cng mt cng thc (ging nh v d cho), nhng mt
s xut hin ca mt bin th hoc t do hoc b buc m khng phi c hai.
Thay th
nh ngha : Cho trc bin x, term t v cng thc chng ta nh ngha [t/x] l
cng thc nhn c bng cch thay th bin t do x trong bi t.
V d
{S(x , y) x(P(x) Q(x))}[f(x,y) / x]
= S(f(x,y) , y) x(P(x) Q(x))
Tuy nhin:
{S(y,y)x(P(x)Q(x))}[f(x,y) / x]
= S(y,y),y)x(P(x)Q(x))
Kt lun sau ng khng?
{yS(x,y)x(P(x)Q(x))}[f(y) / x]
= yS(f(y),y)x(P(x)Q(x)) ??
Xung t bin v v d
Ly cc s t nhin, S(x,y) : x < y, P(x): x > 100, Q(x): x > 10. Cng
thc trong v d trn tr thnh :
(x) = yS(x , y)x((x > 100) (x > 10)) v (10) ng. Ly f(x) = 2x. Vi
thay th khng an ton (unsafe) [2y / x] chng ta c:
(2*y) = y(2y < y) x((x > 100) (x > 10 ))
th (10) = (2*5) l sai. Khi s dng vic sp xp c an ton chng ta c :
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(2*y) = z((2*y < z) x((x > 100) (x > 10 )) th (10) = (25) l ng, nh
trong cng thc gc.
i tn bin
Mt gii php i vi vn trn l :
-
(6)
61
(8)
(9)
(10)
x A : p(x) q(x)
(2)
x A : q(x) r(x)
(3)
p(a)
(4)
2 l s v t.
62
2 , q = s v t
Tht vy: nu q = s hu t th gi
m
m
= 2,
l ti gin, tc l:
n
n
m
m2 = 2n2 (m2 chn)
n
2 l s v t.
63
r q cho chn tr 1 (v 0 0)
Vy (p r) p (r q) cho chn tr 1 1 1 l 1 trong khi q = 0.
8.3. Cc v d
V d 1: Chng minh rng vi n N v n 1
th 12 + 2 2 + .... + n 2 =
n.(n + 1).(2n + 1)
2
2
2
Gii: t p(n) = 1 + 2 + .... + n =
n.(n + 1).(2n + 1)
1.(1 + 1).(2.1 + 1)
n.(n + 1).(2n + 1)
2
2
2
2
v p(n + 1) = 1 + 2 + .... + n + (n + 1) =
Mt khc
(n + 1).(n + 2).(2n + 3)
n.( n + 1).(2n + 1)
+ (n + 1) 2
6
n.(n + 1).(2n + 1)
( n + 1)
+ (n + 1) 2 =
[ n(2n + 1) + 6(n + 1)]
6
6
(n + 1)
[ n(2n + 1) + 6(n + 1)] = (n + 1) 2n 2 + 7n + 6 = (n + 1) 2n 2 + 4n + 3n + 6
6
6
6
(n + 1)
[ 2n(n + 2) + 3(n + 2)] = (n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 3)
6
6
2
2
2
2
Vy p(n + 1) = 1 + 2 + .... + n + (n + 1) =
(n + 1).(n + 2).(2n + 3)
64
12 + 2 2 + .... + n 2 =
n.(n + 1).(2n + 1)
6
a = q.b + r
(2)
0r<b
Chng minh:
Tnh duy nht: Gi s:
a = q.b + r (*) v
a = q.b + r (**) vi 0 r ; r < b
(*) tr (**) (q q)b + (r r) = 0 (***)
Khi q q th q q ' b b trong khi r r ' < b
nn (***) khng xy ra. Nhng nu q = q th r cng phi bng r (***) mi
xy ra. Vy q v r l duy nht.
t p(a) Tn ti cc s t nhin q v r tha mn (1) v (2)
Ta s chng minh mnh : (a N : p(a)) l ng.
Ta s dng phng php qui np mnh:
+ Bc c s: Khi a = 0, q = 0 v r = 0 th cc iu kin (1) v (2) tha mn, vy p(0)
ng.
+ Bc qui np: Cho a l s t nhin tu v gi s p(0), p(1),p(a) u ng. Ta s
chng minh p(a + 1) cng ng.
-
Trng hp a +1 b
t a = a + 1 b nh vy 0 a a cho nn p(a) ng
tc l ! q v r : a = q.b + r v 0 r b
t q* = q + 1 q = q* -1; t r = r
th a = (q + 1)b + r a = qb + q + r a b = qb + r a + 1 = qb + r
tc l p(a + 1) ng
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Nh vy p(0)
a 1 : p(0) p(1) . p(a) p(a + 1)
suy ra p(a) a N.
Cc quy tc chng minh cho ng thc
=:
t =t
(= i)
t1 = t 2 [t1 / x]
( = e)
[t 2 / x]
P(t)
gi thuyt
2.
x(P(x) Q(x))
gi thuyt
3.
P(t) Q(t)
(x e) v 2
4.
Q(t)
( e) v 3, 1
V d 2
x(P(x) Q(x)) , x(P(x) Q(x))
Chng minh
1/
x(P(x) Q(x))
Gi thuyt
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2/
xP(x)
3/
x0 P(x0) Q(x0)
(x e) v 1
4/
P(x0)
(x e) v 2
5/
Q(x0)
( e) v 3, 4
6/
xQ(x)
Gi thuyt
(x i) v 3-5
Chng minh:
1/ x
Gi thuyt
2/ [x/x]
(xe) do 1
3/ x
(xi) do 2
gi thuyt
2/ xP(x)
gi thuyt
3/ x P(x )
0
0
4/
P(x0) Q(x0)
5/
Q(x0)
6/
xQ(x)
7/
xQ(x)
(xe) do 1
(xe) do 1
(e) do 4 , 3
(xi) do 5
(xe) do 2. 3 - 6
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