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Logic in Computer Science

CHNG 4. PHP TNH V T

CHNG 4.
PHP TNH V T
4.1. V t v lng t
4.1.1. nh ngha v t v v d
V d: p(n) = n l mt s nguyn t
Nh vy hm p(n) ph thuc vo bin n c min xc nh l tp cc s
nguyn. Khi ta thay n bi 1 gi tr c th th p(n) s cho chn tr 1 hoc 0. Chng hn:
p(7) = 1, p(4) = 0, p(37) =1, p(1445) = 0
V t p(n) l n l s nguyn t l mt hm t tp t nhin vo {0, 1}
4.2. Cc lng t v cc v t c lng t
Lng t c dng chuyn mt v t sang mt mnh .
4.2.1. Lng t vi mi:
K hiu c dng ch vi mi, tc l tt c mi kh nng, mi gi
tr,...
V d 1: Ta ni v t p(x) ng vi mi x th ta c th vit: x : p(x)
V d 2: Ta ni vi mi x [-3, 5]; p(x) (x+3)(x-5) 0 th ta c th vit: x [3, 5] : p(x)
4.2.2. Lng t tn ti hay tn ti t nht:
K hiu ni tn ti hay tn ti t nht
V d 1: ni Tn ti t nht mt x v t p(x) c chn tr 1 ta c th vit nh
sau x : p(x)
4.3. Cc v d:
V d 1:
Cho v t p(n) n l s nguyn t th mnh : n N: p(n) cho chn tr 0
(sai).
Nhng mnh n N: p(n) cho chn tr 1 (ng)
n N: p(n) cho chn tr 0
! n N: p(n) cho chn tr 0
V d 2: p(x) x2 > 0 th mnh x R {0} : p(x) lun cho chn tr 1.
4.4. Quy tc ph nh mnh c lng t
(x : p(x)) x : p(x)
(x : p(x)) x : p(x)
V d 1: Cho p(x) x2 < 0. Tm ph nh ca mnh sau: x R : p(x)
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CHNG 4. PHP TNH V T

Ph nh ca n nh sau: x R : p(x) x R: p(x)


Ngha l x R x2 0.
V d 2: Cho x, y, z l cc bin trn cc min A, B, C tng ng, gi p(x, y, z) l mt
v t theo 3 bin . Hy tm ph nh ca mnh sau:
x A, y B, z C : p(x, y, z)
Ph nh ca n s l:
(x A, y B, z C: p(x, y, z)) x A, y B, z C: p(x, y, z)
4.5. Mt s quy tc dng trong suy lun
nh l 1: Cho p(x, y) l mt v t theo x v y. Cc mnh sau y l ng:
(a) (x, y : p(x, y)) (y, x : p(x, y))
(b)
(x, y : p(x, y)) (y, x : p(x, y))
(c)
(x, y : p(x, y)) (y, x : p(x, y))
(d)
(x, y : p(x, y)) (y, x : p(x, y))
Quy tc 1: Quy tc c bit ha
Cho v t p(x), trong x A, nu p(x) c lng t ha bi (x A) l
mt mnh ng. Khi p(a) | a A l mnh ng.
V d: A l tp cc tam gic c cc cnh tng ng bng nhau.
p(x, y) l 2 tam gic x v y bng nhau, vy x, y AA: p(x, y) mnh ng.
Ly a bt k A v b bt k A. Ta c p(a, b) l mnh ng.
Quy tc 2: Quy tc tng qut ha
Cho v t p(x), trong x A, nu thay x bi a tu thuc A m p(x) = 1 th
ta c mnh :
x A: p(x) l mt mnh ng.
Mnh 1: Cho cc v t p(x) v q(x) theo cc bin x xc nh trn min A. Gi a l
mt phn t c nh thuc A. Khi ta c m hnh suy din sau y:
x : p(x) q(x)
p(a)
---------------------q(a)
Mnh 2: Cho cc v t p(x), q(x), r(x) theo bin x xc nh trn min A. Ta c m
hnh suy din sau:
x : p(x) q(x)
x : q(x) r(x)
----------------------

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CHNG 4. PHP TNH V T

x : p(x) r(x)
4.7. Mt s v d
-

Khng phi tt c chim u bit bay: gi s B(x) k hiu x l mt con chim


v F(x) k hiu x c th bay; cu mnh c th vit nh sau:
(x(B(x)F(x)))
- Tt c n ng u phi cht. Socrates l n ng. Cho nn Socrates cng cht:
t H(x) : x l n ng , M(x) : x cht , v s k hiu l Socrates; cu mnh
c m t nh mt suy lun:
x(H(x) M(x)), H(s) M(s)
- Andy v Paul c cng b ngoi: K hiu a v p l Andy v Paul v M(x,y)
ngha l x l m ca y; Cu ni trn c th c m hnh ha nh sau:
xyuv(M(x,y) M(y, a) M(u,v) M(v,p) x = u)
Trong v d cui cng chng ta cn ng thc-v hnh thc, l ng thc logic cp
1.
- Trong mt s trng hp, cc cng thc c th c n gin ha khi s dng
cc hm. Nu m(x) k hiu l m ca x, th mnh trn c m hnh ha n
gin nh sau: m(m(a)) = m(m(p))
- Khi ni Ann ging anh ca Mary l mp m v c th dch ra nh sau:
K hiu B(x,m): x l anh ca m; L(a,x): a ging x
x(B(x,m)L(a,x)) Ngha l Ann ging mt trong nhng ngi anh ca
Mary. Hoc
x(B(x,m)L(a,x)) Ngha l Ann ging mi ngi anh ca Mary.
4.11. Cc cng thc
V d
Mi con trai ca b ti l anh em ca ti
Cu ny c nhiu dng dch sang m hnh nh sau:
-

(father l v t), ga s m biu din me (hoc l I), S(x,y) x l con trai


ca y, F(x,y) x l cha ca y, B(x,y) x l anh ca y; mnh trn c th
vit:
xy(F(x,m)S(y, x) B(y,m))

Hoc
-

(father l hm), tng t nh trn, nhng s dng f(x) th hin cha ca x th


mnh trn cng c th vit:
x(S(x , f(m)) B(x,m))

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CHNG 4. PHP TNH V T

Cc bin t do v b buc cc v d
V d ( thun li : Nghing l t do, m l b buc)
S(x, y)x (P(x)Q(x))
Bin x trong P v Q b buc bi ; cn x v y trong S l t do.
Ni mt cch ngn gn, chng ta khng c cc bin t do hoc b buc, nhng li
c cc s kin t do v / hoc b buc ca cc bin. Mt bin c th c cc s kin
va t do va b buc trong cng mt cng thc (ging nh v d cho), nhng mt
s xut hin ca mt bin th hoc t do hoc b buc m khng phi c hai.
Thay th
nh ngha : Cho trc bin x, term t v cng thc chng ta nh ngha [t/x] l
cng thc nhn c bng cch thay th bin t do x trong bi t.
V d
{S(x , y) x(P(x) Q(x))}[f(x,y) / x]
= S(f(x,y) , y) x(P(x) Q(x))
Tuy nhin:
{S(y,y)x(P(x)Q(x))}[f(x,y) / x]
= S(y,y),y)x(P(x)Q(x))
Kt lun sau ng khng?
{yS(x,y)x(P(x)Q(x))}[f(y) / x]
= yS(f(y),y)x(P(x)Q(x)) ??
Xung t bin v v d
Ly cc s t nhin, S(x,y) : x < y, P(x): x > 100, Q(x): x > 10. Cng
thc trong v d trn tr thnh :
(x) = yS(x , y)x((x > 100) (x > 10)) v (10) ng. Ly f(x) = 2x. Vi
thay th khng an ton (unsafe) [2y / x] chng ta c:
(2*y) = y(2y < y) x((x > 100) (x > 10 ))
th (10) = (2*5) l sai. Khi s dng vic sp xp c an ton chng ta c :

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Logic in Computer Science

CHNG 4. PHP TNH V T

(2*y) = z((2*y < z) x((x > 100) (x > 10 )) th (10) = (25) l ng, nh
trong cng thc gc.
i tn bin
Mt gii php i vi vn trn l :
-

Phi i cc bin b buc bng cc bin mi sao cho trnh c s xung t.

c bit v d trn chng ta thay y bi z nh sau


yS(x , y) x(P(x) Q(x))
= zS(x , z) x(P(x) Q(x))
sau p dng s thay th:
{zS(x,z) x(P(x) Q(x))}[f(y)/x]
= zS(f(y) , z) x(P(x) Q(x))
V d
= yS(x,y) x(P(x) Q(x)) ; th
f(z) t do i vi x trong (= term t)
g(z, y) khng t do i vi x trong (= term t)
Cc phng php chng minh
Cc phng php chng minh mnh
V d 1: Cho cc mnh s cp p, r, s, t, u v cc mnh ng sau:
(1) p r
(2) r s
(3) t s
(4) t u
(5)

L ng, th p sai (tc p l ng)


Tht vy: Do (1) v (2) v dng quy tc tam on lun ta c
(p r) (r s) (p s)

(6)

T (3) ta thy t s s t (giao hon) s t (ko theo) (7)


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CHNG 4. PHP TNH V T

T (6) v (7) dng quy tc tam on lun suy ra:


(p s) (s t) (p t)
T (4) suy ra t u t u

(8)
(9)

T (8) v (9) dng quy tc tam on lun ta nhn c:


(p t) (t u) (p u)

(10)

T (5) v (10) dng quy tc Modus Tollens ta c:


(p u) u p
Kt lun ny chng tp mi l ng, tc l p sai.
V d 2: Gi s p(x), q(x), r(x) l cc v t xc nh trn min A, a l mt phn t
thuc A v gi s:
(1)

x A : p(x) q(x)

(2)

x A : q(x) r(x)

(3)

p(a)

l cc mnh ng, th r(a) cng ng.


Tht vy: Khi lng t ha th (1) v (2) l cc mnh , nn ta c th dng
quy tc tam on lun cho chng (hoc dng mnh 2 mc 6.6), khi ta c:
x A : p(x) r(x)

(4)

T (3) v (4) ta c m hnh suy din sau:


x A : p(x) r(x)
p(a)
-----------------r(a)
Khi dng mnh 1 mc 6.6 ta s c r(a) l ng.
Kiu chng minh kiu phn chng
V d: Chng minh rng

2 l s v t.

iu lm ny c v rt kh v phc tp. Vy ta dng mnh phn chng sau


y: Chng minh rng

TS. Le Huy Thap

2 l s hu t, vi gi thit ny chng ta s i n mu thun.

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Logic in Computer Science

CHNG 4. PHP TNH V T

Nu biu din di dng mnh logic ta c nh sau:


p=

2 , q = s v t

Ngha l phi chng minh p q, l ra phi lm iu th ta chng minh p =


2 , q = s hu t, v vy (p q) 0.

Tht vy: nu q = s hu t th gi

m
m
= 2,
l ti gin, tc l:
n
n

1/ m, n nguyn dng, nguyn t cng nhau


2/ 2 =

m
m2 = 2n2 (m2 chn)
n

3/ m l chn, (tc m = 2k, t 2/ ta c 4k2 = 2n2 , vy n2 chn)


4/ n l s chn
5/ 2 l c chung ca m v n
6/ iu ny mu thun vi 1, nn

2 l s v t.

Chng minh kiu phn chia trng hp


V d: Chng minh rng (n3 + 2n ) chia ht cho 3.
Chng minh: (n3 + 2n ) = n(n 2 + 2 ) = n(n2 - 1 + 1+ 2 )= n[(n 2 - 1 ) + 3] = n(n 2 - 1 ) +
3n. n y ch cn chng minh n(n2 1) chia ht cho 3.
Nhng n(n2 1) = (n 1) n (n +1), y l tch ca 3 s nguyn lin tip, nn phi chia
ht cho 3 (v c 1 s chia ht cho 3). Nh vy chng minh (n 1) n (n +1) chia ht
cho 3 (k hiu (n 1) n (n +1) 3) th chng minh:
((n 1) 3) (n 3) ((n +1) 3) q (= ng)
Chng minh kiu phn v d
V d: Chng minh rng m hnh suy din:
pr
p
r q
-------q l sai
chng minh l m hnh suy din sai, ta ch cn cho p v r c chan tr 1, q c
chn tr 0.
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CHNG 4. PHP TNH V T

Nh vy: p r cho chn tr 1 (v 1 1)


p

cho chn tr 1 (ta cho trc)

r q cho chn tr 1 (v 0 0)
Vy (p r) p (r q) cho chn tr 1 1 1 l 1 trong khi q = 0.
8.3. Cc v d
V d 1: Chng minh rng vi n N v n 1
th 12 + 2 2 + .... + n 2 =

n.(n + 1).(2n + 1)

2
2
2
Gii: t p(n) = 1 + 2 + .... + n =

n.(n + 1).(2n + 1)

phi chng minh n N : p(n)


chng minh, chng ta dng phng php qui np yu:
Bc 1: Khi n = 1 p(1) = 12 =

1.(1 + 1).(2.1 + 1)

p(1) = 1 = 1 l mnh ng.


Bc 2: Vi n 1, n N ta gi thit p(n) ng, ta s chng minh p(n + 1) ng.
2
2
2
2
Tht vy: p(n + 1) = 1 + 2 + .... + n + (n + 1) =

v p(n) ng nn: 12 + 2 2 + .... + n 2 =

n.(n + 1).(2n + 1)

2
2
2
2
v p(n + 1) = 1 + 2 + .... + n + (n + 1) =

Mt khc

(n + 1).(n + 2).(2n + 3)

n.( n + 1).(2n + 1)
+ (n + 1) 2
6

n.(n + 1).(2n + 1)
( n + 1)
+ (n + 1) 2 =
[ n(2n + 1) + 6(n + 1)]
6
6

(n + 1)
[ n(2n + 1) + 6(n + 1)] = (n + 1) 2n 2 + 7n + 6 = (n + 1) 2n 2 + 4n + 3n + 6
6
6
6

(n + 1)
[ 2n(n + 2) + 3(n + 2)] = (n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 3)
6
6

2
2
2
2
Vy p(n + 1) = 1 + 2 + .... + n + (n + 1) =

(n + 1).(n + 2).(2n + 3)

Tc l p(n + 1) c chn tr 1. Theo nguyn l qui np ta c:


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CHNG 4. PHP TNH V T

12 + 2 2 + .... + n 2 =

n.(n + 1).(2n + 1)
6

V d 2: Cho a, b N, b 0. Chng minh rng ! q N v ! r N:


(1)

a = q.b + r

(2)

0r<b

Chng minh:
Tnh duy nht: Gi s:
a = q.b + r (*) v
a = q.b + r (**) vi 0 r ; r < b
(*) tr (**) (q q)b + (r r) = 0 (***)
Khi q q th q q ' b b trong khi r r ' < b
nn (***) khng xy ra. Nhng nu q = q th r cng phi bng r (***) mi
xy ra. Vy q v r l duy nht.
t p(a) Tn ti cc s t nhin q v r tha mn (1) v (2)
Ta s chng minh mnh : (a N : p(a)) l ng.
Ta s dng phng php qui np mnh:
+ Bc c s: Khi a = 0, q = 0 v r = 0 th cc iu kin (1) v (2) tha mn, vy p(0)
ng.
+ Bc qui np: Cho a l s t nhin tu v gi s p(0), p(1),p(a) u ng. Ta s
chng minh p(a + 1) cng ng.
-

Trng hp a +1 < b th ly q = 0, r = a + 1 p(a + 1) ng

Trng hp a +1 b
t a = a + 1 b nh vy 0 a a cho nn p(a) ng
tc l ! q v r : a = q.b + r v 0 r b
t q* = q + 1 q = q* -1; t r = r
th a = (q + 1)b + r a = qb + q + r a b = qb + r a + 1 = qb + r
tc l p(a + 1) ng

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CHNG 4. PHP TNH V T

Nh vy p(0)
a 1 : p(0) p(1) . p(a) p(a + 1)
suy ra p(a) a N.
Cc quy tc chng minh cho ng thc
=:

t =t

(= i)

t1 = t 2 [t1 / x]
( = e)
[t 2 / x]

V d, chng minh rng


x+1 = 1+x, (x+1 > 1) (x+1 > 0) (1+x > 1) (1+x > 0)
Chng minh:
1/ x + 1 = 1 + x (=i) gi thit
2/ (x + 1 > 1) (x + 1 > 0) gi thit
3/ T gi thit 2/ ta c (x + 1 > 1) (x + 1 > 0), nhng theo gi thit 1/ th x+1 =
1+x vy (1 + x > 1) (1 + x > 0) (=e) l iu cn chng minh.
Cng thc c s dng trong bc cui l (x > 1) (x > 0)
CC LUT CHNG MINH NH LNG VI MI
CC V D
V d 1, chng minh rng
P(t), x(P(x) Q(x))) Q(x)
1.

P(t)

gi thuyt

2.

x(P(x) Q(x))

gi thuyt

3.

P(t) Q(t)

(x e) v 2

4.

Q(t)

( e) v 3, 1

V d 2
x(P(x) Q(x)) , x(P(x) Q(x))
Chng minh
1/

x(P(x) Q(x))

TS. Le Huy Thap

Gi thuyt

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Logic in Computer Science

CHNG 4. PHP TNH V T

2/

xP(x)

3/

x0 P(x0) Q(x0)

(x e) v 1

4/

P(x0)

(x e) v 2

5/

Q(x0)

( e) v 3, 4

6/

xQ(x)

Gi thuyt

(x i) v 3-5

CC LUT CHNG MINH NH LNG TN TI


V d 1:x

Chng minh:
1/ x

Gi thuyt

2/ [x/x]

(xe) do 1

3/ x

(xi) do 2

V d 2:x(P(x) Q(x)), x P(x) xQ(x)


Chng minh:
1/ x(P(x) Q(x))

gi thuyt

2/ xP(x)

gi thuyt

3/ x P(x )
0
0
4/
P(x0) Q(x0)
5/
Q(x0)
6/
xQ(x)
7/
xQ(x)

TS. Le Huy Thap

(xe) do 1
(xe) do 1
(e) do 4 , 3
(xi) do 5
(xe) do 2. 3 - 6

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