Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PHAM TIEN SN
TOAN RI RAC 1
(Bai Giang Tom Tat)
Mu.c lu.c
. D
U
-`
MO
A
iv
.
` ANH
. P HO
XA
1 TA
.
. P VA
1.1
1.2
Ta.p ho..p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
Khai nie.m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
1.1.3
Tch Descartes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anh
xa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1
1.2.2
Anh
xa. ha.n che . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.2.3
11
1.2.4
Anh
xa. ngu.o..c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.2.5
12
` CAC
PHU.O.NG PHAP
CHU
.NG MINH
2 LOGIC VA
17
2.1
`e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Me.nh d
17
2.2
`e co di
`eu kie.n v`a cac me.nh d
`e tu.o.ng du.o.ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Me.nh d
20
2.3
Lu.o..ng hoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
2.4
u.ng minh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phu.o.ng phap ch
26
2.5
T TOAN
3 THUA
.
31
33
Mo. d`au . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
3.1.1
33
3.1.2
33
35
3.2.1
37
39
3.3.1
39
3.3.2
40
3.3.3
41
3.4
- o. ph
D
u.c ta.p cua thua.t toan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
3.5
48
3.1
3.2
3.3
D
M
-E
4 PHEP
51
Cac nguyen l
y co. ban cua phep dem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
4.1.1
Nguyen l
y tong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
4.1.2
Nguyen l
y tch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
4.1.3
Nguyen l
y bao h`am-loa.i tr`
u. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
4.2
57
4.3
62
4.4
66
4.5
`ong nhat th
He. so cua nhi. th
u.c v`a cac d
u.c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
4.6
`ong chim b
`o cau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nguyen l
y chu
77
`ong chim b
`o cau (da.ng th
Nguyen l
y chu
u. nhat) . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
4.1
4.6.1
ii
4.6.2
`ong chim b
`o cau (da.ng th
Nguyen l
y chu
u. hai) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
4.6.3
`ong chim b
`o cau (da.ng th
Nguyen l
y chu
u. ba) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
5 QUAN HE
.
85
5.1
85
5.2
90
5.3
Quan he. th
u. tu.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
5.4
5.5
5.6
Thua.t toan xac d.inh ho.i cua hai phan hoa.ch . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.6.2
Thua.t toan xac d.inh tuyen cua hai phan hoa.ch . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
BOOLE
-A
6 D
. I SO
123
6.1
Lattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.2
6.3
6.4
H`am Boole
6.5
Bieu dien cac h`am Boole qua he. tuyen, ho.i v`a phu di.nh . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.6.1
6.6.2
`o Karnaugh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Phu.o.ng phap ban d
TUYE
N TINH
7 MA
7.1
159
7.1.2
7.1.3
7.2
7.3
7.4
Ho.i ch
u.ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.4.1
Giai ma d`
ung bang chuan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.5
7.6
Ma Hamming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
T`
ai li
e.u tham khao
189
iv
. D
U
-`
A
MO
Toan ho.c r`o.i ra.c l`a mo.t bo. pha.n cua Toan ho.c nha` m nghien c
u.u cac doi tu.o..ng r`o.i ra.c:
.
.
.
.
`e co lien quan
uc r`o i ra.c khac nhau v`a cac phu o ng phap giai cac van d
nghien c
u u cac cau tr
den cac cau tr
uc n`ay.
u. v`a va.n h`anh trong may tnh du.o.i da.ng cac tn hie.u r`o.i ra.c (cac may
Thong tin lu.u tr
tnh lien tu.c ch l`a cac may tnh tu.o.ng tu.., chuyen du.ng). V` va.y cong cu. d`
ung de bieu dien
.
.
y cac thong tin n`ay l`a Toan ho.c r`o i ra.c.
thong tin trong may v`a xu l
ung de giai quyet tru..c
Ngo`ai ra, cac phu.o.ng phap v`a ket qua cua Toan ho.c r`o.i ra.c co the d`
`eu van d
`e da.t ra cua Tin ho.c nhu. logic, h`am da.i so logic, to ho..p tren t`
u.... Toan
tiep nhi
`eu
ho.c r`o.i ra.c chuan bi. san v`a cung cap cac cong cu., phu.o.ng phap lua.n de giai quyet nhi
`e cua Tin ho.c. Co the noi Toan ho.c r`o.i ra.c l`a ng`anh Toan ho.c co. so. cho Tin ho.c.
van d
Mu.c dch cua giao tr`nh nh`a m cung cap mo.t so cong cu. Toan ho.c de bu.o.c d`au di v`ao
`e cu. the.
Tin ho.c. Giao tr`nh du.o..c tr`nh b`ay mo.t cach d`an trai ho.n l`a di sau v`ao mo.t van d
.
.
`an co cac b`ai ta.p nha` m cung co nh
u c da ho.c. Hy vo.ng r`a ng giao
Cuoi moi ph
u ng kien th
.
.
.
`an n`ao yeu c
`au ho.c ta.p cua cac ba.n sinh vien.
tr`nh n`ay dap u
ng du o. c ph
- `a La.t, ng`ay 11 thang 2 nam 2008
D
Pha.m Tien So.n
vi
Chu.o.ng 1
.
` ANH
XA
TA
. P VA
.
. P HO
1.1
1.1.1
T
a.p ho..p
Kh
ai ni
e.m
Mo.t khai nie.m co. ban cua toan ho.c hie.n da.i l`a khai nie.m t
a.p ho..p.
C
ung giong nhu. diem, doa.n thang, ma.t phang, ... trong h`nh ho.c Euclid, khai nie.m ta.p
.
u.ng v du.. Chang ha.n, ta.p ho..p cac
ho. p khong du.o..c d.inh ngha m`a ch du.o..c mo ta ba` ng nh
u.c ba.c hai, v.v...
sach trong thu. vie.n, ta.p ho..p cac so thu..c, ta.p ho..p cac da th
`an tu. cua ta.p ho..p ay. Co hai cach xac di.nh
Cac va.t ta.o nen mo.t ta.p ho..p go.i l`a cac ph
.
mo.t ta.p ho. p:
`an tu. cu a n
`om cac ph
`an tu. a, b, c, d
o. Chang ha.n, ta.p ho..p g
(a) Lie.t ke danh s
ach c
ac ph
.
.
.
.
thu `o ng du o. c viet
{a, b, c, d}.
`an tu. cu a t
ac ph
a.p ho..p. Chang ha.n, ta.p ho..p {1, 3}
(b) Neu len tnh ch
at d
a.c tru.ng cu a c
.
.
co the mo ta l`a ta.p ho. p hai so tu. nhien le nho nhat hay ta.p ho..p cac nghie.m cua
phu.o.ng tr`nh ba.c hai x2 4x + 3 = 0.
`an tu. cua ta.p ho..p A. Khi x khong
K
y hie.u x A (v`a do.c l`a x thuo.c A) co ngha x l`a ph
`an tu. cua ta.p ho..p A ta viet x 6 A (v`a do.c l`a x khong thuo.c A). Chang ha.n, neu
phai l`a ph
go.i N l`a ta.p cac so tu.. nhien th` 7 N nhu.ng 12
6 N.
5
- e do.n gian, doi khi ta ch d`
ung t`
u. ta.p thay cho cu.m t`
u. ta.p ho..p.
Ch
uy
1. (a) D
(b) K
y hie.u := thu.`o.ng d`
ung de du.a v`ao d.inh ngha, no thay cho cu.m t`
u. d.inh ngha bo.i.
Chang ha.n, N := {0, 1, 2, . . .}.
1
(c) Ta thu.`o.ng d`
ung k
y hie.u | de dien da.t y
sao cho (hoa.c trong do). Chang ha.n, ta.p
.
.
ho. p tat ca cac so tu. nhien chan co the mo ta nhu. sau:
{n N | n chia het cho 2}.
V du. 1.1.1. Mo.t v`ai ta.p ho..p so thu.`o.ng ga.p:
(a) Ta.p ho..p cac so tu.. nhien N := {0, 1, 2, . . .}.
(b) Ta.p ho..p cac so nguyen du.o.ng P := {1, 2, . . .}.
(c) Ta.p ho..p cac so nguyen Z := {0, 1, 1, 2, 2, . . .}.
(d) Ta.p ho..p cac so h
u.u t Q := { pq | p, q Z, q 6= 0}.
(e) Ta.p ho..p cac so thu..c R.
u a, de thua.n tie.n, ta thu `o ng coi ta.p ho..p trong l`a mo.t ta.p ho..p con cua ta.p
A A. Ho n n
.
`
a ng nhau neu B A
bat k`
y, t
u c l`a A vo.i mo.i ta.p ho..p A. Hai ta.p ho..p A v`a B go.i l`a b
.
a.p ho..p con thu..c
v`a A B; khi do ta viet A = B. Neu B A nhu ng A 6= B ta noi B l`a t
su.. cua ta.p ho..p A v`a viet B A.
V du. 1.1.2. (a) Neu
A := {x R | x2 + x 6 = 0},
B := {2, 3}
th` A = B.
(b) Ta co cac bao h`am th
u.c thu..c su.. sau
P
R.
A du.o..c danh
danh dau cac
ung de
dau bo.i hai ch so khac nhau. Neu I l`a ta.p ho..p tat ca cac ch so da d`
.
ta.p ho. p cua ho. A th` ta co the viet
A := {Ai | i I},
hay
A := {Ai}iI .
`an tu. cua mo.t ta.p ho..p
C
ung co the su. du.ng phu.o.ng phap n`ay de danh dau tat ca cac ph
A t`
uy y
.
1.1.2
C
ac ph
ep to
an tr
en t
a.p ho..p
Cho tru.o.c cac ta.p A v`a B ta co the th`anh la.p cac ta.p mo.i ba` ng cac phep toan sau:
- i.nh ngha 1.1.1. Ho..p cua hai ta.p A v`a B l`a mo.t ta.p ho..p, k
`om tat ca cac
y hie.u A B, g
D
.
`an tu hoa.c thuo.c A hoa.c thuo.c B (hoa.c thuo.c ca hai).
ph
`om tat ca cac ph
`an tu. v`
Giao cua hai ta.p A v`a B l`a mo.t ta.p ho..p, k
y hie.u A B, g
u.a
thuo.c A v`
u.a thuo.c B.
`om tat ca cac ph
`an
y hie.u A \ B, g
Hie.u cua ta.p ho..p A vo.i ta.p ho..p B l`a mo.t ta.p ho..p, k
.
tu thuo.c A nhu.ng khong thuo.c B.
Hie.u d
oi x
u.ng cua hai ta.p ho..p A v`a B l`a ta.p ho..p
A B := (A \ B) (B \ A).
Nh
a.n x
et 1. (a) Mo.t cach tu.o.ng tu.., co the di.nh ngha ho..p iI Ai v`a giao iI Ai cua
mo.t ho. ta.p ho..p A := {Ai | i I}.
(b) Ta luon co A B = B A. Nhu.ng nhu. v du. du.o.i day ch ra, noi chung A \ B 6= B \ A.
V du. 1.1.3. Gia su. A := {a, b, c, d} v`a B := {c, d, e}. Khi do
AB
AB
A\B
B\A
AB
=
=
=
=
=
{a, b, c, d, e},
{c, d},
{a, b},
{e},
{a, b, e}.
(tu.o.ng u
.ng, x2 4x + 3 = 0). Ta co A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 3} v`a
AB
AB
A\B
B\A
AB
=
=
=
=
=
{1, 2, 3},
{1},
{2},
{3},
{2, 3}.
Ai = N v`a
iN
i N.
Ai = .
iN
Cac phep toan ho..p v`a giao tren cac ta.p ho..p co nh
u.ng tnh chat sau:
Tnh ch
at 1.1.2. Tnh giao hoan
A B = B A,
A B = B A.
Tnh ket ho..p
(A B) C = A (B C),
(A B) C = A (B C).
Tnh phan phoi
A (B C) = (A B) (A C),
A (B C) = (A B) (A C).
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
4
b`
u cua ta.p A v`a k
y hie.u l`a A . Hien nhien A v`a A l`a r`o i nhau, A \ B = A B . Ho n n
u.a
Tnh ch
at 1.1.3. (Cong th
u.c De Morgan) Gia su. {Ai}iI l`
a ho. c
ac t
a.p ho..p con cu a kh
ong
gian X. Khi d
o
!c
[
\
Ai
=
(Ai)c ,
iI
Ai
iI
!c
iI
(Ai)c .
iI
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
- i.nh ngha 1.1.4. Ho. cac ta.p ho..p A := {Ai | i I} go.i l`a phu cua ta.p X neu X = iI Ai.
D
Neu ngo`ai ra Ai 6= vo.i mo.i i I v`a Ai Aj = vo.i mo.i i, j I, i 6= j, th` ta noi A l`a mo.t
ph
an hoa.ch cua ta.p X.
- a.t A1 (tu.o.ng u
V du. 1.1.6. D
.ng, A2) l`a ta.p cac so nguyen chan (tu.o.ng u
.ng, le). Khi do
{A1, A2} l`a mo.t phan hoa.ch cua ta.p cac so nguyen Z.
1.1.3
Tch Descartes
Tch Descartes, hay van tat tch, cua cac ta.p ho..p Ai , i I, l`a mo.t ta.p ho..p, k
y hie.u l`a
Y
Ai ,
iI
Ai
hoa.c
A1 A2 An .
i=1
`an tu. cua tch n`ay l`a mo.t vector (x1, x2, . . . , xn ) vo.i xi Ai , i = 1, 2, . . . , n. Noi cach
Moi ph
khac
n
Y
Ai = {(x1 , x2, . . . , xn ) | xi Ai, i = 1, 2, . . . , n}.
i=1
B`
ai t
a.p
- a.t A := {1, 4, 7, 10}, B := {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} v`a C := {2, 4, 6, 8}.
1. Gia su. X := {1, 2, . . . , 10}. D
`an tu. cua moi ta.p ho..p sau:
Lie.t ke cac ph
(a) A B.
(b) B C.
(c) A B.
(d) B C.
(e) A \ B.
(f) Ac .
(g) (B c (C \ A)).
(h) (A B)c C.
(i) B \ A.
(j) A (B C).
(k) ((A B) \ C).
(l) (A B) \ (C \ B).
`an tu. cua moi ta.p ho..p sau:
2. Gia su. X := {1, 2, 3} v`a Y := {x, y}. Lie.t ke cac ph
(a) X 2 .
(b) X Y.
(c) Y X.
(d) Y 3.
3. Lie.t ke tat ca cac phan hoa.ch cua cac ta.p ho..p sau:
(a) {1}.
(b) {1, 2}.
6
12. K
y hie.u P l`a ta.p ho..p tat ca cac so nguyen lo.n ho.n 1. Vo.i moi so tu.. nhien i 2, da.t
Ai := {ik | k 2, k P}.
S
Mo ta ta.p ho..p P \
i=2 Ai .
`eu l`a ta.p con cua ta.p X
u.c sau (gia su. cac ta.p du o..c xet d
13. Ch
u.ng minh cac dang th
n`ao do):
A (A1 A2 An ) = (A A1) (A A2) (A An ).
(A1 A2 An )c = Ac1 Ac2 Acn .
1.2
1.2.1
Anh
xa.
- i.nh ngha v`
D
a tnh ch
at
Mo.t khai nie.m co. ban khac cua toan ho.c hie.n da.i l`a khai nie.m
anh xa., mo. ro.ng khai nie.m
h`am so.
- i.nh ngha 1.2.1. Cho X v`a Y l`a hai ta.p ho..p bat k`
y. Mo.t
anh xa. (hay h`am so) t`
u. ta.p
D
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
`an tu cua X mo.t ph
`an tu xac d.inh cua Y.
ng moi ph
ho. p X v`ao ta.p ho. p Y l`a mo.t tu o ng u
u. ta.p ho..p X v`ao ta.p ho..p Y. Khi do ta viet f : X Y ; neu
Gia su. f l`a mo.t anh xa. t`
`an tu. cua Y tu.o.ng u
`an tu. x do v`a ta viet x 7 f (x); ph
`an
.ng vo.i ph
x X th` f (x) ch ph
.
.
.
`
tu f (x) go.i l`a a nh cua phan tu x qua anh xa. f, hay l`a gia tri. cua h`am f ta.i x. Ta.p ho. p
{(x, y) X Y | y = f (x)}
nh xa. f v`a k
y hie.u l`a graph(f ).
go.i l`a d`
o thi. cu a a
V du. 1.2.1. Tu.o.ng u
.ng moi so thu..c x vo.i mo.t so thu..c x3 cho ta mo.t anh xa. f : R
R, x 7 x3.
Cho tru.o.c mo.t ta.p ho..p A X th` ta.p ho..p
f (A) := {f (x) | x A}
- a.c bie.t, ta.p ho..p f (X) go.i l`a mi
`en gi
go.i l`a a nh cua ta.p ho..p A qua anh xa. f. D
a tri. cua f.
De d`ang ch
u.ng minh r`a ng:
a.p ho..p X v`
ao t
a.p ho..p Y. Khi d
o
a m
o.t
anh xa. t`
u. t
Tnh ch
at 1.2.2. Gia su. f : X Y l`
(a) Neu A B X th` f (A) f (B).
8
Ai
iI
iI
f (Ai) .
iI
- e y
D
r`a ng, noi chung dang th
u.c sau
f
Ai
iI
f (Ai)
iI
khong du
ng.
- i.nh ngha 1.2.3. Gia su. f : X Y l`a mo.t anh xa. t`
D
u. ta.p ho..p X v`ao ta.p ho..p Y.
(a) Anh
xa. f go.i l`a m
o.t-m
o.t (hoa.c do.n
anh) neu vo.i mo.i x, x0 X m`a x 6= x0 th`
0
f (x) 6= f (x ).
(b) f go.i l`a
anh xa. len (hoa.c to`
an
anh) neu f (X) = Y.
(c) f go.i l`a m
o.t-m
o.t len (hoa.c song
anh) neu f d`ong th`o.i l`a mo.t-mo.t v`a l`a len; noi cach
`an tu. y Y co duy nhat mo.t ph
`an tu. x X sao cho f (x) = y.
khac, vo.i moi ph
x 7 sin x,
(b) Anh
xa.1
g : R N,
x 7 [x],
(c) Anh
xa.
h : R R,
x 7 x3,
`om co mo.t ph
`an tu. y, t
Neu ta.p ho..p B Y ch g
u.c l`a B = {y}, th` thay cho k
y hie.u
y hie.u van tat l`a f 1 (y).
f 1 ({y}) ta thu.`o.ng k
De d`ang ch
u.ng minh r`a ng:
Tnh ch
at 1.2.4. Gia su. f : X Y l`
a m
o.t
anh xa. t`
u. t
a.p ho..p X v`
ao t
a.p ho..p Y. Khi d
o
(a) Neu B C Y th` f 1 (B) f 1 (C).
a.p ho..p Y th`
(b) Neu Bi , i I, l`
a m
o.t ho. c
ac t
a.p ho..p con cu a t
!
[
[
=
Bi
f 1 (Bi ) ,
f 1
iI
f 1
Bi
iI
iI
f 1 (Bi ) .
iI
(c) Neu B, C l`
a hai t
a.p ho..p con cu a t
a.p ho..p Y th`
f 1 (B \ C) = f 1 (B) \ f 1 (C).
-
D
a.c bie.t
f 1 (Y \ B) = X \ f 1 (B).
1.2.2
Anh
xa. ha.n ch
e
xa.
con cua X. Anh
f |Z : Z Y
.
xac d.inh bo i
f |Z (x) = f (x), x Z,
du.o..c go.i l`a ha.n che cu a f len Z, c`on anh xa. f du.o..c go.i l`a thac trien cua f |Z len X. Hien
nhien
10
1.2.3
ac
anh xa.
Ho..p cu a c
Gia su. X, Y v`a Z l`a ba ta.p ho..p v`a ta co cac anh xa.
f : X Y,
g : Y Z.
x 7 g[f (x)].
Anh
xa. g f du.o..c go.i l`a ho..p cu a c
ac
anh xa. f v`
a g.
V du. 1.2.3. Cho hai anh xa.
x 7 x2,
y 7 y 1.
f : R R,
g : R R,
Ta co anh xa. ho..p
g f : R R,
x 7 x2 1.
T`
u. di.nh ngha de d`ang suy ra
Tnh ch
at 1.2.5. Cho hai
anh xa.
f : X Y,
g : Y Z.
(a) Neu f v`
a g l`
a m
o.t-m
o.t (tu.o.ng u
.ng, len, m
o.t-m
o.t len) th`
anh xa. ho..p g f c
ung l`
a
.
.
.
ng, len, m
o.t-m
o.t len).
m
o.t-m
o.t (tu o ng u
a.p ho..p con A cu a X ta d`eu c
o
(b) V
o.i mo.i t
(g f )(A) = g[f (A)].
a.p ho..p con C cu a Z ta d`eu c
o
(c) V
o.i mo.i t
(g f )1 (C) = f 1 [g 1 (C)].
11
1.2.4
Anh
xa. ngu.o..c
Gia su.
f: X Y
`an tu. y Y t
`on ta.i duy nhat mo.t ph
`an tu. x X
l`a anh xa. mo.t-mo.t len. Khi do vo.i moi ph
sao cho f (x) = y, v`a bo.i va.y f 1 (y) = {x}. Do do ta co the thiet la.p mo.t anh xa.
g: Y X
xac d.inh bo.i cong th
u.c: vo.i mo.i y Y,
g(y) = x neu f (x) = y.
Anh
xa. g go.i l`a
anh xa. ngu.o..c cua f v`a k
y hie.u l`a f 1 . Hien nhien f 1 : Y X l`a anh xa.
1 1
mo.t-mo.t len v`a (f ) = f.
x 7 x,
(b) Anh
xa. mo.t-mo.t v`a len
f : R R,
co anh xa. ngu.o..c l`a
f 1 : R R,
x 7 x3,
1
y 7 y 3 .
T`
u. di.nh ngha de d`ang suy ra
Tnh ch
at 1.2.6. (a) Gia su. f : X Y l`
a
anh xa. m
o.t-m
o.t len. Khi d
o
f 1 f = idX ,
f f 1 = idY .
anh xa. m
o.t-m
o.t len, th`
anh xa. ho..p (g f ) : X Z
(b) Neu f : X Y, g : Y Z l`
a nh
u.ng
c
ung m
o.t-m
o.t len v`
a
(g f )1 = f 1 g 1 .
1.2.5
o.t t
a.p ho..p
Lu..c lu.o..ng cu a m
- i.nh ngha 1.2.7. (a) Hai ta.p ho..p A v`a B go.i l`a c
`on ta.i anh xa.
D
o c`
ung lu..c lu.o..ng neu t
mo.t-mo.t v`a len f : A B.
(b) Ta.p ho..p trong, ta.p ho..p {x1 , x2, . . . , xn } v`a cac ta.p ho..p c`
ung lu..c lu.o..ng vo.i no go.i l`a
.
.
u u ha.n.
t
a.p ho. p h
12
(c) Ta.p ho..p cac so tu.. nhien N v`a cac ta.p ho..p c`
ung lu..c lu.o..ng vo.i no go.i l`a t
a.p ho..p dem
du.o..c.
ung lu..c lu.o..ng vo.i no go.i l`a t
a.p ho..p kh
ong dem
(d) Ta.p ho..p cac so thu..c R v`a cac ta.p ho..p c`
.
.
du o. c.
ong qu
a dem du.o..c, neu A l`a mo.t ta.p ho..p h
u.u ha.n (v`a co the l`a
(e) Ta.p ho..p A go.i l`a kh
.
.
.
trong), hoa.c neu A l`a mo.t ta.p ho. p dem du o. c.
u.u ha.n khac trong sao cho xi 6= xj vo.i mo.i
Gia su. A := {x1 , x2, . . . , xn } l`a mo.t ta.p ho..p h
`an tu. v`a k
i 6= j. Khi do ta noi ta.p ho..p A co n ph
y hie.u #A := n. Ta.p ho..p trong khong
.
`an tu n`ao ca, v` va.y da.t # := 0. Neu A l`a ta.p ho..p khac trong v`a khong phai ta.p ho..p
co ph
h
u.u ha.n, da.t #A := +.
B`
ai t
a.p
1. Gia su. X := {1, 2, 3}, Y := {a, b, c, d}, Z := {w, x, y, z}. Xet cac anh xa. f : X Y v`a
g : Y Z cho bo.i
f (1) = b, f (2) = c, f (3) = a,
g(a) = x, g(b) = x, g(c) = z, g(d) = w.
Xac di.nh anh xa. ho..p f g.
2. Gia su. f : X N, x 7 x2, vo.i X := {5, 4, . . . , 4, 5}. f l`a anh xa. mo.t-mo.t? f l`a
anh xa. len?
u.ng anh xa. n`ao l`a mo.t-mo.t?
3. Co bao nhieu anh xa. t`
u. ta.p {a, b} v`ao ta.p {1, 2}. Nh
Nh
u.ng anh xa. n`ao l`a len?
4. Gia su. X := {a, b, c} v`a f : X X cho bo.i
f (a) = b, f (b) = a, f(c) = b.
- i.nh ngha day cac anh xa. f n : X X, n = 1, 2, . . . , bo.i f 1 := f v`a f n := f n1 f
D
vo.i mo.i n 2. Hay xac di.nh cac anh xa. f 2 , f 3 , f 9 , f 789.
5. Gia su. X := {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} v`a anh xa. f : X X xac d.inh bo.i
f (x) := 4x mod 5.
f l`a anh xa. mo.t-mo.t? f l`a anh xa. len?
6. Gia su. m, n l`a cac so nguyen du.o.ng. Gia su. X := {0, 1, 2, . . . , m 1}. Xet anh xa.
f : X X cho bo.i
f (x) := nx mod m.
`eu kie.n cua m v`a n de f l`a anh xa. mo.t-mo.t v`a len?
T`m nh
u.ng di
13
=
=
=
=
A (x)B (x),
A (x) + B (x) AB (x),
1 A (x),
A (x)[1 B (x)].
14
(b) Ch
u.ng minh neu A B th` A (x) B (x) vo.i mo.i x X.
(c) Ch
u.ng minh AB (x) = A (x) + B (x) vo.i mo.i x X neu v`a ch neu A B = .
(d) T`m cong th
u.c lien quan den anh xa. A B .
14. Xet anh xa. f t`
u. P(X) v`ao ta.p ho..p cac h`am da.c tru.ng trong X di.nh ngha bo.i
f (A) := A .
Ch
u.ng minh f l`a mo.t-mo.t v`a len.
ung lu..c
15. Ch
u.ng minh ta.p ho..p cac so tu.. nhien N v`a ta.p cac so tu.. nhien chan 2N l`a c`
.
.
lu o. ng.
ung lu..c lu.o..ng vo.i P(X).
16. Ch
u.ng minh ta.p ho..p khac trong X khong c`
17. Gia su. X := {0, 1}. Lie.t ke tat ca cac chuoi do. d`ai 2 tren X. Lie.t ke tat ca cac chuoi
do. d`ai 2 tren X.
`on ta.i cac chuoi u, v sao cho t = usv. Lie.t
18. Chuoi s go.i l`a chu
oi con cua chuoi t neu t
`
` ng x.
a.c b
a ng x; bxc l`
a s
o nguyen l
o.n nh
at nho ho.n ho
a.c b
a
dxe l`
a s
o nguyen nho nh
at l
o.n ho.n ho
15
16
Chu.o.ng 2
. .
`
`e
M
e.nh d
- e
`e. D
Ta thu.`o.ng d`
ung cac k
y tu.. in thu.`o.ng, chang ha.n p, q v`a r de bieu dien mo.t me.nh d
.
ung ta c
ung k
y hie.u
do n gian, ch
p: 1 + 1 = 3
`e 1 + 1 = 3.
de di.nh ngha p l`a me.nh d
- i.nh ngha 2.1.1. Gia su. p v`a q l`a cac me.nh d
`e. H
D
o.i cua p v`a q, k
y hie.u l`a p q, l`a me.nh
d`e
p v`a q.
`e
Tuyen cua p v`a q, k
y hie.u l`a p q, l`a me.nh d
p hoa.c q.
V du. 2.1.3. Gia su.
p:
q:
1 + 1 = 3,
mo.t tha.p ky l`a 10 nam.
`e
Khi do ho.i cua p v`a q l`a me.nh d
p q : 1 + 1 = 3 v`a mo.t tha.p ky l`a 10 nam,
`e
v`a tuyen cua p v`a q l`a me.nh d
p q : 1 + 1 = 3 hoa.c mo.t tha.p ky l`a 10 nam.
- i.nh ngha 2.1.2. Gia tri. cua me.nh d
`e p q du.o..c cho bo.i ba ng ch
D
an tri.
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
pq
T
F
F
F
trong do k
y hie.u T l`a du
ng v`a F l`a sai.
V du. 2.1.4. Gia su.
p:
q:
1 + 1 = 3,
Mo.t tha.p ky l`a 10 nam.
`e sai.
Ta co p l`a sai v`a q l`a du
ng. V` va.y ho.i cua p v`a q l`a me.nh d
- .inh ngha 2.1.3. Gia tri. cua me.nh d
`e p q du.o..c cho bo.i ba ng ch
D
an tri.
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
18
pq
T
T
T
F
1 + 1 = 3,
Mo.t tha.p ky l`a 10 nam.
`e du
ng.
Ta co p l`a sai v`a q l`a du
ng. V` va.y tuyen cua p v`a q l`a me.nh d
- i.nh ngha 2.1.4. Phu d.inh cua me.nh d
`e p, k
`e
D
y hie.u p hay p0 , l`a me.nh d
khong phai p.
`e p du.o..c cho bo.i ba ng ch
Gia tri. cua me.nh d
an tri.
p
T
F
p
F
T
l`a so h
u.u t.
B`
ai t
a.p
`e p, q v`a R tuo.ng u
1. Gia tri. cua cac me.nh d
.ng l`a F, T v`a F. Xac d.inh gia tri. cua cac
`e sau:
me.nh d
(a) (p q) p.
(b) (p q) p.
(c) (p q) p.
(d) (p q) (p q).
(e) (p q) (r p).
(f) (p q) (p q) (p q) (p q).
(g) (p q) (q r).
`e sau
2. Cho cac me.nh d
p : 5 < 9,
`e sau
Xac di.nh tnh du
ng sai cua cac me.nh d
(a) 5 < 9 v`a 9 < 7.
`e (5 < 9 v`a 9 < 7).
(b) Phu di.nh cua me.nh d
`e (9 < 7 v`a 5 < 7).
(c) 5 < 9 hoa.c phu di.nh cua me.nh d
19
2.2
`e c
`eu ki
`e tu.o.ng d
M
e.nh d
od
i
e.n v`
a c
ac m
e.nh d
u.o.ng
q
T
F
T
F
pq
T
F
T
T
1 > 2,
3 < 7.
q
T
F
T
F
pq
T
F
F
T
1 < 5,
q:
2 < 8.
Ta co p v`a q l`a du
ng. Do do p q l`a du
ng.
- i.nh ngha 2.2.4. Gia su. P v`a Q l`a hai me.nh d`e du.o..c xay du..ng t`
D
u. cac me.nh d`e
p1 , p2 , . . . , pn . Ta noi P tu.o.ng du.o.ng Q v`a viet
P Q
ung, hoa.c d`ong th`o.i sai.
neu vo.i mo.i gia tri. cua p1 , p2 , . . . , pn ta co P v`a Q hoa.c d`ong th`o.i d
V du. 2.2.3. Ta co cong th
u.c De Morgan:
p q p q,
p q p q.
V du. 2.2.4. Ta co
p q p q,
p q (p q) (q p).
- i.nh ngha 2.2.5. Me.nh d
`e p q.
`e q p go.i l`a pha n da o cua me.nh d
D
V du. 2.2.5. Gia su.
p : 1 < 4,
q : 5 > 8.
Khi do
p q:
q p:
q p:
B`
ai t
a.p
`e sau neu gia tri. cua cac me.nh d
`e p, q, r, s tu.o.ng u
1. Xac di.nh gia tri. cua cac me.nh d
.ng
l`a F, T, F, T :
(a) p q.
(b) p q.
(c) p q.
(d) (p q) (q r).
(e) (p q) r.
(f) p (q r).
(g) (s (p r)) ((p (r q)) s).
(h) ((p q) (q r)) (s q).
`e
2. Cho cac me.nh d
p : 4 < 2,
q : 7 < 10,
r : 6 < 6.
(h) P = (p q) (q r), Q = p r.
(i) P = (p q) r, Q = p (q r).
(k) P = (s (p r)) ((p (r q)) s), Q = p t.
`e p 1 q cho bo.i bang gia tri.
5. Xet me.nh d
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
p 1 q
T
F
F
T
Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
p 1 q = q 1 p.
`e p 2 q cho bo.i bang gia tri.
6. Xet me.nh d
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
p 2 q
T
F
T
F
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
(p 2 q) (q 2 p) 6 p q.
(b) Ch
u.ng minh
(p 2 q) (q 2 p) p q
ung th` p 2 q l`a sai.
neu ta thay 2 sao cho neu p l`a sai v`a q l`a d
7. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
(p q) (p q).
2.3
oa
Lu.o..ng h
- i.nh ngha 2.3.1. Cho X l`a mo.t ta.p ho..p. P (x) l`a mo.t phat bieu lien quan den bien
D
`e.
x X. Ta noi P l`a h`
am me.nh d`e neu vo.i moi x X th` P (x) l`a mo.t me.nh d
23
V du. 2.3.1. Gia su. P l`a ta.p cac so nguyen du.o.ng v`a vo.i moi n P da.t
P (n) : n l`a mo.t so nguyen le.
`e tren P.
Khi do P l`a h`am me.nh d
- i.nh ngha 2.3.2. Gia su. P l`a h`am me.nh d
`e tren ta.p X. Phat bieu
D
vo.i mo.i x, P (x)
oa ph
o c
a.p. K
y hie.u ngha l`a vo.i mo.i. V` va.y phat bieu
go.i l`a lu.o..ng h
vo.i mo.i x, P (x)
co the viet la.i
x, P (x).
K
y hie.u go.i l`a lu.o..ng h
a.p.
oa ph
o c
Phat bieu
vo.i mo.i x, P (x)
l`a du
ng neu P (x) du
ng vo.i mo.i x X. Phat bieu n`ay l`a sai neu co t nhat mo.t x X sao
cho P (x) sai.
Phat bieu
`on ta.i x, P (x)
t
`on ta.i. K
`on ta.i. V` va.y phat bieu
go.i l`a lu.o..ng h
oa t
y hie.u ngha l`a t
`on ta.i x, P (x)
t
co the viet la.i
x, P (x).
`on ta.i.
K
y hie.u go.i l`a lu.o..ng h
oa t
Phat bieu
`on ta.i x, P (x)
t
l`a du
ng neu P (x) du
ng vo.i t nhat mo.t x X. Phat bieu n`ay l`a sai neu vo.i mo.i x X d`eu
co P (x) sai.
V du. 2.3.2. Phat bieu
vo.i mo.i so thu..c x th` x2 0
l`a lu.o..ng hoa pho ca.p v`a l`a mo.t khang di.nh d
ung.
24
B`
ai t
a.p
`e n l`a u.o.c so cua 77. Kiem tra tnh du
1. Gia su. P (n) l`a h`am me.nh d
ng sai cua
(a) P (11).
(b) P (1).
(c) P (3).
(d) P (n) vo.i mo.i so tu.. nhien n.
`on ta.i so tu.. nhien n sao cho P (n).
(e) T
2. Xac di.nh gia tri. cua cac phat bieu du.o.i day (xet tren ta.p ho..p cac so thu..c R):
(a) x2 > x vo.i mo.i x.
`on ta.i x sao cho x2 > x.
(b) T
(c) Vo.i mo.i x vo.i x > 1 th` x2 > x.
`on ta.i x vo.i x > 1 sao cho x2 > x.
(d) T
(e) Vo.i mo.i x vo.i x > 1 th` x2x+1 < 13 .
`on ta.i x vo.i x > 1 th` x2x+1 < 13 .
(f) T
(g) Vo.i mo.i x v`a vo.i mo.i y m`a x < y ta co x2 < y 2.
`on ta.i y vo.i x < y ta co x2 < y 2 .
(h) Vo.i mo.i x, t
`on ta.i x sao cho vo.i mo.i y m`a x < y th` x2 < y 2 .
(i) T
`on ta.i x, t
`on ta.i y vo.i x < y sao cho x2 < y 2 .
(j) T
3. Viet phu di.nh cua cac phat bieu trong b`ai ta.p tren.
2.4
Phu.o.ng ph
ap ch
u.ng minh
B
o d`e l`a mo.t di.nh l
y khong quan tro.ng lam v`a du.o..c su. du.ng de ch
u.ng minh mo.t
di.nh l
y khac.
u. mo.t d.inh l
y khac.
He. qua l`a mo.t d.inh l
y du.o..c suy ra de d`ang t`
Ch
u.ng minh l`a mo.t l
y lua.n ch ra tnh d
ung cua mo.t d.inh l
y.
Logic l`a mo.t cong cu. de phan tch cac ch
u.ng minh.
`e:
V du. 2.4.1. H`nh ho.c Euclid l`a mo.t he. toan ho.c. Mo.t so tien d
`on ta.i mo.t v`a ch mo.t du.`o.ng thang di qua hai diem phan bie.t cho tru.o.c.
T
`on ta.i mo.t v`a ch mo.t du.`o.ng thang di qua mo.t diem v`a song song vo.i mo.t du.`o.ng
T
thang (khong ch
u.a diem) cho tru.o.c.
- iem v`a du.`
`an khong xac di.nh v`a du.o..c di.nh ngha an trong
o.ng th
a ng l`a cac th`anh ph
D
cac tien d`e.
Mo.t so di.nh ngha:
`
Hai tam giac l`a b
a ng nhau neu co the sap xep cac dnh th`anh nh
u.ng ca.p sao cho cac
.ng l`a ba` ng nhau.
ca.nh v`a cac goc tu.o.ng u
ung ba` ng 1800 .
Hai goc l`a b`
u nhau neu tong cua ch
Mo.t so di.nh l
y:
Neu hai ca.nh cua mo.t tam giac b`a ng nhau th` cac goc doi die.n ba` ng nhau.
u. giac cat nhau ta.i cac trung diem cua ch
ung th` t
u. giac l`a
Neu hai du.`o.ng cheo cua t
h`nh b`nh h`anh.
y th
u. nhat suy ra he. qua sau:
T`
u. di.nh l
Tam giac co ba ca.nh ba` ng nhau th` co cac goc b`a ng nhau.
`e:
V du. 2.4.2. Ta.p cac so thu..c R l`a mo.t he. toan ho.c. Mo.t so tien d
Vo.i mo.i x, y R ta co xy = yx.
`on ta.i mo.t ta.p con P R sao cho
T
(a) Neu x, y thuo.c P th` x + y v`a xy thuo.c P.
27
`eu sau du
ng:
(b) Vo.i mo.i x R th` mo.t v`a ch mo.t trong cac di
x P,
x = 0,
x P.
`e th
Phep toan nhan du.o..c di.nh ngha an trong tien d
u. nhat.
Mo.t so di.nh ngha:
`an tu. thuo.c P go.i l`a c
Cac ph
ac s
o thu..c du.o.ng.
Gi
a tri. tuye.t do
i |x| cua so thu..c x du.o..c di.nh ngha l`a x neu x du.o.ng hoa.c b`a ng 0 v`a
ba` ng x neu ngu.o..c la.i.
Mo.t so di.nh l
y:
x 0 = 0 vo.i mo.i x R.
vo.i mo.i x, y, z R neu x y v`a y z th` x z.
`e bo d`e:
Mo.t v du. v
neu n l`a so nguyen du.o.ng th` hoa.c n 1 l`a so nguyen du.o.ng hoa.c n 1 = 0.
- i.nh l
D
y thu.`o.ng co da.ng:
(2.1)
Vo.i mo.i x1 , x2, . . . , xn , neu p(x1 , x2, . . . , xn ) th` q(x1, x2, . . . , xn ).
- i.nh ngha 2.4.1. Ch
y (2.1) co da.ng: Gia su. p(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
D
u.ng minh tru..c tiep cua di.nh l
`e, cac di.nh ngha, cac di.nh l
ung nhu. cac tien d
y da co de
du
ng; su. du.ng p(x1 , x2, . . . , xn ) c
ng.
suy ra q(x1, x2, . . . , xn ) l`a du
a x ta c
o:
o.i mo.i s
o thu..c d, d1 , d2 v`
V du. 2.4.3. Ch
u.ng minh tru..c tiep khang di.nh sau: v
neu d = min{d1 , d2 } v`
a x d th` x d1 v`
a x d2 .
- i.nh ngha 2.4.2. Ch
u.ng (hay ch
u.ng minh gi
an tiep) cua di.nh l
y (2.1)
D
u.ng minh pha n ch
.
.
B`
ai t
a.p
`e tien d
`e, di.nh ngha v`a di.nh l
1. Cho mo.t v du. v
y cua h`nh ho.c Euclid.
`e tien d
`e, di.nh ngha v`a di.nh l
2. Cho mo.t v du. v
y cua he. cac so thu..c.
3. Gia su. ta da co cac di.nh l
y sau: vo.i mo.i a, b, c R th` b + 0 = b; a(b + c) = ab + ac; v`a
u.ng minh tru..c tiep cua khang
neu a + b = a + c th` b = c. Hay kiem tra cac bu.o.c ch
di.nh: x 0 = 0 vo.i mo.i so thu..c x.
Ch
u.ng minh. (x 0) + 0 = x 0 = x (0 + 0) = x 0 + x 0; do do x 0 = 0. 2
4. Gia su. da co di.nh l
y sau: vo.i mo.i a, b, c R, neu ab = ac v`a a 6= 0 th` b = c. Hay
u.ng cua khang di.nh: neu x y = 0 th`
u.ng minh b`a ng phan ch
kiem tra cac bu.o.c ch
hoa.c x = 0 hoa.c y = 0.
u. xy = 0 = x 0 v`a n 6= 0 ta co y = 0
Ch
u.ng minh. Gia su. x 0 = 0 v`a x 6= 0, y 6= 0. T`
m`a l`a mo.t mau thuan. 2
29
u.ng khang di.nh sau: neu da.t 100 qua bong v`ao trong 9
5. Ch
u.ng minh b`a ng phan ch
ho.p th` co t nhat mo.t ho.p ch
u.a t nhat 12 qua bong.
6. Viet cac l
y lua.n sau du.o.i da.ng k
y hie.u v`a xac di.nh tnh d
ung-sai:
(a)
Neu toi ho.c ta.p cham ch th` toi se da.t diem tot.
Toi ho.c ta.p cham ch.
Toi se da.t diem tot.
(b)
Neu toi ho.c ta.p cham ch th` toi se da.t diem tot.
Neu toi khong gi`au co th` toi se khong da.t diem tot.
Toi gi`au co
Toi ho.c ta.p cham ch neu v`a ch neu toi gi`au co.
(c) Toi gi`au co.
Toi ho.c ta.p cham ch.
(d)
Neu toi ho.c ta.p cham ch hoa.c toi gi`au co th` toi se da.t diem tot.
Toi se da.t diem tot.
Neu toi khong ho.c ta.p cham ch th` toi se gi`au co.
(e)
Neu toi ho.c ta.p cham ch th` hoa.c toi gi`au co hoa.c toi se da.t diem tot.
Toi khong da.t diem tot v`a toi khong gi`au co.
Toi khong ho.c ta.p cham ch.
7. Gia su.
8. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu
p1 , p2 / p
v`a
p, p3 , . . . , pn / c
l`a nh
u.ng l
y lua.n ho..p le. th` l
y lua.n sau c
ung ho..p le.:
p1 , p2 , . . . , pn / c
30
`e l
9. B`nh lua.n v
y lua.n sau
`em th` tot ho.n khong co g`.
Co da m
u.ng.
Khong co g` th` tot ho.n co mo.t da c
.
`em th` tot ho n co mo.t da c
Co da m
u.ng.
2.5
Quy na.p to
an ho.c
- i.nh ngha 2.5.1. Gia su. vo.i moi so nguyen du.o.ng n ta co mo.t phat bieu S(n) sao cho
D
o.c co. ba n: S(1) du
ng;
Bu.
o.c quy na.p: neu S(i) du
ng vo.i mo.i i = 1, 2, . . . , n, th` S(n + 1) du
ng.
Bu.
Khi do S(n) du
ng vo.i mo.i n nguyen du.o.ng.
V du. 2.5.1. Ta co
n! 2n1
vo.i n = 1, 2, . . . .
vo.i i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Khi do
(n + 1)! = (n + 1)(n!)
(n + 1)2n1
2 2n1 = 2(n+1)1 .
Theo nguyen l
y quy na.p, n! 2n1 vo.i mo.i n nguyen du.o.ng.
Cho X l`a mo.t ta.p ho..p. K
y hie.u P(X) (hoa.c 2X ) l`a ho. cac ta.p ho..p con (thu..c su.. hoa.c
khong) cua X. Ta co
- i.nh l
`om n ph
`an tu. th`
u.u ha.n X g
D
y 2.5.2. Neu t
a.p ho..p h
#P(X) = 2n .
Ch
u.ng minh. Su. du.ng quy na.p toan ho.c. 2
31
B`
ai t
a.p
1. D`
ung quy na.p toan ho.c, ch
u.ng minh cac dang th
u.c sau vo.i mo.i n nguyen du.o.ng:
(a) 1 + 3 + 5 + + (2n 1) = n2 .
n(n+1)(n+2)
.
3
(b) 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 4 + + n(n + 1) =
n(n+1)(2n+1)
.
6
n+1 n(n+1)
1
13
(h)
1
22 1
1
35
1
57
1
32 1
+ +
+ +
1
(2n1)(2n+1)
1
(n+1)2 1
3
4
n
.
2n+1
1
2(n+1)
1
.
2(n+2)
cos[(x/2)(n+1)] sin(nx/2)
sin(x/2)
sin[(n+1)x]
4 sin2 (x/2)
neu sin(x/2) 6= 0.
neu sin(x/2) 6= 0.
u.c sau
2. D`
ung quy na.p toan ho.c, ch
u.ng minh cac bat dang th
(a) 1 135(2n1) , vo.i n = 1, 2, .
2n
(b)
1
n+1
246(2n)
135(2n1)
,
246(2n)
vo.i n = 1, 2, .
(c) 2n + 1 2n vo.i n = 3, 4, . . . .
(d) 2n n2 vo.i n = 4, 5, . . . .
n
a1 +a2 ++a2n
2n
32
Chu.o.ng 3
. T TOAN
THUA
3.1
`au
Mo. d
3.1.1
at trong ba s
o
T`m s
o l
o.n nh
a, b v`a c.
x l`a so lo.n nhat trong ba so a, b, c.
3.1.2
at trong d
ay h
u.u ha.n c
ac s
o thu..c
T`m s
o l
o.n nh
V`ao:
Ra:
day h
u.u ha.n cac so thu..c s1, s2 , . . . , sn .
x = max{si | i = 1, 2, . . . , n}.
- a.t x := s1 .
Bu.
o.c 1. D
Bu.
o.c 2. Vo.i i := 2 den n thu..c hie.n Bu.o.c 3.
Bu.
o.c 3. Neu si > x th` gan x := si .
Tren day ta da ghi mo.t thua.t toan b`a ng ngon ng
u. thong thu.`o.ng. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p thua.t
.
.
.
u cua may tnh, ta co mo.t chu.o.ng tr`nh.
toan du o. c viet ba` ng ngon ng
- e ket th
D
uc, ch
ung ta hay thao lua.n them mo.t v`ai tnh chat cua cac thua.t toan.
u.ng da.c tru.ng sau:
Mo.t thu
a.t to
an l`a mo.t ta.p ho..p cac ch thi. co nh
Tnh chnh xac. Cac bu.o.c du.o..c phat bieu mo.t cach chnh xac.
Tnh duy nhat. Cac ket qua trung gian trong moi bu.o.c thu..c hie.n du.o..c xac di.nh mo.t
cach duy nhat v`a ch phu. thuo.c v`ao d
u. lie.u du.a v`ao v`a cac ket qua cua bu.o.c tru.o.c.
Tnh h
u.u ha.n. Thua.t toan d`
u.ng sau h
u.u ha.n bu.o.c.
- `au v`ao. Thua.t toan co d
D
u. lie.u v`ao.
- `au ra. Thua.t toan co d
D
u. lie.u ra.
Tnh tong quat. Thua.t toan thu..c hie.n tren mo.t ta.p cac d
u. lie.u v`ao.
Ngo`ai nh
u.ng yeu to ke tren, ta c`on phai xet den tnh hie.u qua cua thua.t toan. Co rat
`eu thua.t toan, v
`e ma.t l
nhi
y thuyet l`a ket th
uc sau h
u.u ha.n bu.o.c, tuy nhien th`o.i gian h
u.u
ung ta. Nh
u.ng thua.t toan do se khong du.o..c xet
ha.n do vu.o..t qua kha nang l`am vie.c cua ch
.
.
o day, v` ch
ung ta ch quan tam nh
u ng thua.t toan co the su. du.ng thu..c su.. tren may tnh.
- o.
C
ung do mu.c tieu noi tren, ta c`on phai ch
uy
den do. ph
u.c ta.p cua cac thua.t toan. D
.
.
.
.
.
u c l`a dung lu o. ng b
o. nh
o cua may
ph
u c ta.p cua mo.t thua.t toan co the do ba` ng khong gian, t
.
.
.
.
`an thiet de thu. c hie.n thua.t toan, v`a b`a ng th`o i gian, t
u c l`a th`
o i gian m
ay tnh l`
am
tnh c
vie.c.
B`
ai t
a.p
1. Viet thua.t toan t`m gia tri. nho nhat cua day
s1, s2 , . . . , sn .
34
3.2
Thu
a.t to
an Euclid
.
`an n`ay tr`nh b`ay thua.t toan Euclid t`m u.o.c so chung lo.n nhat cua hai so nguyen. U o.c
Ph
`ong th`o.i b`a ng khong) l`a so nguyen
so chung lo.n nhat cua hai so nguyen n v`a m (khong d
.
.
.
.
.
du o ng lo n nhat v`a l`a u o c so cua m v`a n. Chang ha.n, u.o.c so chung lo.n nhat cua 4 v`a 6 l`a
2 v`a u.o.c so chung lo.n nhat cua 3 v`a 8 l`a 1.
Neu a, b, q Z, b 6= 0, sao cho a = bq, ta noi a chia het cho b v`a k
y hie.u b | a; trong tru.`o.ng
.
.
.
.
.
o c s
o cua a. Neu a khong chia het cho b, ta viet b - a.
ho. p n`ay, ta noi q l`a thu o ng v`a b l`a u
V du. 3.2.1. V` 21 = 3 7 nen 3 | 21. Thu.o.ng l`a 7.
- i.nh ngha 3.2.1. Gia su. n v`a m l`a hai so nguyen khong d
`ong th`o.i ba` ng khong. So nguyen
D
o.c s
o chung cua m v`a n neu x l`a u.o.c so cua m v`a n. So nguyen
x go.i l`a u.
USCLN(m, n) := max{x | x l`a u.o.c so chung cua m v`a n}
o.c s
o chung l
o.n nh
go.i l`a u.
at.
35
0 r < b,
q 0.
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
V du. 3.2.3. Ta co
22
24
103
0
=
=
=
=
7 3 + 1,
8 3 + 0,
21 4 + 19,
47 0 + 0.
- i.nh l
D
y 3.2.4. Cho a, b N, b > 0. Gia su. q v`
a r l`
a c
ac s
o nguyen sao cho
a = bq + r,
0 r < b,
q 0.
Khi d
o
USCLN(a, b) = USCLN(b, r).
36
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
V du. 3.2.4. Ta co
105 = 30 3 + 15.
Suy ra
USCLN(105, 30) = USCLN(30, 15).
La.i co
30 = 15 2 + 0.
Nen
USCLN(105, 30) = USCLN(30, 15) = USCLN(15, 0) = 15.
3.2.1
Thu
a.t to
an Euclid
Thua.t toan n`ay t`m u.o.c so chung lo.n nhat cua hai so tu.. nhien a v`a b, trong do a, b khong
d`ong th`o.i ba` ng 0.
V`ao:
Ra:
Bu.
o.c 1. Neu a < b th` hoan doi a v`a b.
o.c 2. Neu b = 0 th` thu..c hie.n USCLN := a v`a d`
u.ng.
Bu.
Bu.
o.c 3. Chia a cho b v`a nha.n du.o..c a = bq + r vo.i 0 r < b.
Bu.
o.c 4. Thu..c hie.n a := b, b := r v`a chuyen den Bu.o.c 2.
V du. 3.2.5. Ta se ap du.ng thua.t toan Euclid de tnh USCLN(504, 396).
- a.t a := 504, b := 396. V` a > b nen ta chuyen den Bu.o.c 2. V` b 6= 0 nen chuyen den
D
Bu.o.c 3. Thu..c hie.n Bu.o.c 3 ta co
504 = 396 1 + 108.
Ke tiep ta thu..c hie.n Bu.o.c 4: da.t a := 396, b := 108 v`a chuyen den Bu.o.c 2.
V` b 6= 0 nen thu..c hie.n Bu.o.c 3:
396 = 108 3 + 72.
Thu..c hie.n Bu.o.c 4: da.t a := 108, b := 72 v`a chuyen den Bu.o.c 2.
37
Va.y
B`
ai t
a.p
1. T`m cac so nguyen q v`a r sao cho a = bq + r vo.i 0 r < b v`a
(a) a := 45, b := 6.
(b) a := 106, b := 12.
(c) a := 66, b := 11.
(d) a := 221, b := 17.
(e) a := 0, b := 31.
2. D`
ung thua.t toan Euclid de t`m u.o.c so chung lo.n nhat cua ca.p cac so nguyen:
(60, 90), (110, 273), (220, 1400), (315, 825), (20, 40).
3. Gia su. a, b, c l`a cac so nguyen du.o.ng. Ch
u.ng minh neu a | b v`a b | c th` a | c.
4. Gia su. a, b l`a cac so nguyen du.o.ng. Ch
u.ng minh USCLN(a, b) = USCLN(a, a + b).
5. Gia su. a, b l`a cac so nguyen du.o.ng v`a p l`a so nguyen to. Ch
u.ng minh neu p | ab th`
hoa.c p | a hoa.c p | b.
6. T`m cac so nguyen du.o.ng a, b, c sao cho a | bc, a - b v`a a - c.
7. Gia su. a > b 0. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
USCLN(a, b) = USCLN(a b, b).
`ong
8. Hay viet mo.t thua.t toan t`m u.o.c so chung lo.n nhat cua hai so nguyen khong d
.
.
.
th`o i ba` ng khong su du.ng phep toan tr`
u thay cho phep toan chia.
38
3.3
Thu
a.t to
an d
e. quy
3.3.1
Bu.
o.c 1. Neu n = 0 th` xuat 1 v`a d`
u.ng.
o.c 2. Su. du.ng thua.t toan n`ay de tnh (n 1)!. Xuat (n 1)!n.
Bu.
- i.nh l
D
y 3.3.1. Thu
a.t to
an 3.3.1 tnh gi
a tri. cu a n! v
o.i mo.i n N.
39
Ch
u.ng minh. Ch
u.ng minh su. du.ng quy na.p toan ho.c. 2
Ke tiep ta tr`nh b`ay thua.t toan de. quy t`m u.o.c so chung lo.n nhat cua hai so tu.. nhien
khong d`ong th`o.i ba` ng khong.
Ta biet ra` ng neu a l`a so nguyen khong am, b l`a so nguyen du.o.ng v`a
a = bq + r,
0 r < b,
th`
USCLN(a, b) = USCLN(b, r).
- i
`eu n`ay de d`ang suy ra thua.t toan de. quy t`m u.o.c so chung lo.n nhat cua hai so tu.. nhien
D
khong d`ong th`o.i ba` ng khong.
3.3.2
o.c s
o chung l
o.n nh
at
T`m u.
Thua.t toan n`ay t`m u.o.c so chung lo.n nhat cua hai so tu.. nhien a v`a b, trong do a, b khong
d`ong th`o.i ba` ng 0.
V`ao:
Ra:
Bu.
o.c 1. Neu a < b th` hoan doi a v`a b.
u.ng.
o.c 2. Neu b = 0 th` thu..c hie.n x := a v`a d`
Bu.
Bu.
o.c 3. Chia a cho b v`a nha.n du.o..c a = bq + r vo.i 0 r < b.
u. gia tri. n`ay
Bu.
o.c 4. Go.i thua.t toan n`ay de tnh u.o.c so chung lo.n nhat cua b v`a r. Lu.u tr
trong x.
V du. cuoi c`
ung l`a thua.t toan de. quy xac di.nh bu.o.c di cua ngu.`o.i may.
V du. 3.3.2. Mo.t ngu.`o.i may co the bu.o.c 1 hoa.c 2 meter. Hay tnh so cach de ngu.`o.i may
co the bu.o.c n meter. Chang ha.n:
Khoang cach
1
2
3
4
1,
1,
1,
2,
hoa.c 2
1, hoa.c 1, 2 hoa.c 2, 1
1, 1, hoa.c 1, 1, 2 hoa.c
1, hoa.c 2, 1, 1 hoa.c 2, 2
40
So cach de bu.o.c
1
2
3
5
f2 = 2.
`oi sau:
u.a, co the ch
u.ng minh cong th
u.c truy h
Ho.n n
fn = fn1 + fn2 ,
3.3.3
n 3.
Thu
a.t to
an x
ac d
i.nh d
ay Fibonacci
neu n = 1
1,
fn := 2,
neu n = 2
Bu.
o.c 1. Neu n = 1 hoa.c n = 2 th` xuat n v`a d`
u.ng.
o.c 2. Tnh fn1 v`a fn2 v`a xuat fn1 + fn2 .
Bu.
Day
f1 , f2, f3 , . . . ,
co cac gia tri. d`au tien
1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, . . . ,
go.i l`a d
ay Fibonacci.
B`
ai t
a.p
1. (a) Su. du.ng cong th
u.c
s1 = 1,
sn = sn1 + n,
n 2,
n 2,
n 2.
2
2
(c) fn+2
fn+1
= fn fn+3 , n 1.
Pn
(d) k=1 fk2 = fn fn+1 1, n 1.
(e) fn chan neu v`a ch neu n + 1 chia het cho 3.
(f) vo.i mo.i n 5 co
n
3
.
fn >
2
(g) vo.i mo.i n 1 co
fn < 2n .
f2k1 = f2n 1,
k=1
n
X
f2k = f2n+1 1.
k=1
42
(i) Mo.i so nguyen du.o.ng co the viet da.ng tong cua cac so Fibonacci phan bie.t v`a
khong co hai so n`ao l`a lien tiep. Ch
u.ng minh cach viet n`ay l`a duy nhat.
9. Gia su. co cong th
u.c da.o h`am cua tch
dg
df
d(fg)
=f
+g .
dx
dx
dx
u.c
D`
ung quy na.p toan ho.c, ch
u.ng minh cong th
dxn
= nxn1 ,
dx
3.4
n 1.
-
D
o. ph
u.c ta.p cua thu
a.t to
an
Mo.t chu.o.ng tr`nh may tnh, tha.m ch du..a v`ao mo.t thua.t toan du
ng, co the khong h
u.u du.ng
`an thiet cha.y chu.o.ng tr`nh hoa.c khong gian
u. lie.u v`ao do th`o.i gian c
doi vo.i mo.t lo.p cac d
.
.
.
.
u d
u lie.u, cac bien... qua lo n. Ph
an tch thu
a.t to
an d`e ca.p den qua tr`nh u.o.c lu.o..ng
lu u tr
-
`an thiet de thu..c hie.n thua.t toan. D
o. ph
u.c ta.p cu a thu
a.t to
an am
th`o.i gian v`a khong gian c
.
.
.
.
ch den so lu o. ng th`o i gian v`a khong gian d`oi hoi de thu. c hie.n thua.t toan.
`an thiet de thu..c hie.n mo.t thua.t toan l`a mo.t h`am phu. thuo.c d
`au v`ao.
u. lie.u d
Th`o.i gian c
.
.
.
Thu `o ng th` kho co the xac d.inh chnh xac h`am n`ay. V` va.y, ch
ung ta se su du.ng cac tham
.
.
.
.
.
o c cua d
u lie.u du a v`ao. Co ba khai nie.m:
so da.c tru ng kch thu
(a) Th`
o.i gian tru.`
o.ng ho..p t
ot nh
at l`a th`o.i gian t nhat de thu..c hie.n thua.t toan.
`eu nhat de thu..c hie.n thua.t toan.
(b) Th`
o.i gian tru.`
o.ng ho..p x
au nh
at l`a th`o.i gian nhi
o.ng ho..p trung b`nh l`a th`o.i gian trung b`nh de thu..c hie.n thua.t toan.
(c) Th`
o.i gian tru.`
- i.nh ngha 3.4.1. Gia su. f, g : N R l`a hai h`am so. Ta viet
D
f (n) = O(g(n))
`eu nh
`on ta.i ha` ng so du.o.ng C sao cho ngo`ai mo.t ta.p h
u.u
v`a noi f (n) co b
a.c nhi
at g(n) neu t
ha.n cac so tu.. nhien ta luon co
|f (n)| C|g(n)|.
Khi do ta noi f (n) l`a O-l
o.n cua g(n).
V du. 3.4.1. Ta co cac quan he. sau
70n2 + 5n + 1 = O(n2 ),
2n + 3 ln n = O(n),
1 + 2 + + n = O(n2 ).
43
- .inh l
D
y 3.4.2. Gia su.
f (n) := ak nk + ak1 nk1 + + a1 n + a0
l`
a da th
u.c b
a.c k theo bien n. Khi d
o
f (n) = O(nk ).
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
u.c ba.c 4 theo bien n nen
V du. 3.4.2. V` 3n4 7n2 + 4n l`a da th
3n4 7n2 + 4n = O(n4 ).
- i.nh ngha 3.4.3. Neu mo.t thua.t toan d`oi hoi t(n) do.n vi. th`o.i gian trong tru.`o.ng ho..p tot
D
.ng, xau nhat hoa.c trung b`nh) vo.i d
u. lie.u v`ao co kch thu.o.c n v`a
nhat (tu.o.ng u
t(n) = O(g(n))
th` ta noi th`
o.i gian tru.`
o.ng ho..p t
.ng, x
au nh
at ho
a.c trung b`nh) thu..c hie.n
ot nh
at (tu.o.ng u
thu
a.t to
an l`
a O(g(n)).
u.c hoa.c c
o th`
o.i gian da
Gia su. t(n) = O(g(n)). Ta noi thua.t toan c
o d
o. ph
u.c ta.p da th
.
.
u c theo bien n.
th
u c neu g(n) l`a da th
`an cau le.nh x := x + 1 du.o..c thu..c hie.n trong thua.t toan
V du. 3.4.3. K
y hie.u t(n) l`a so l
sau:
Bu.
o.c 1. Vo.i i := 1 den n thu..c hie.n Bu.o.c 2.
o.c 2. Vo.i j := 1 den i thu..c hie.n Bu.o.c 3.
Bu.
Bu.
o.c 3. x := x + 1.
De thay
t(n) = 1 + 2 + + n =
n(n + 1)
.
2
Suy ra
t(n) = O(n2 ).
`an cau le.nh x := x + 1 du.o..c thu..c hie.n trong thua.t toan
V du. 3.4.4. K
y hie.u t(n) l`a so l
sau:
- a.t j := n.
o.c 1. D
Bu.
Bu.
o.c 2. Neu j < 1 th` d`
u.ng thua.t toan.
44
s, s1 , s2, . . . , sn .
j = 0 neu s 6= si vo.i mo.i i; ngu.o..c la.i, j l`a ch so nho nhat sao cho s = sj .
Bu.
o.c 1. Vo.i i := 1 den n thu..c hie.n Bu.o.c 2.
u.ng thua.t toan.
o.c 2. Neu s = si th` da.t j := i v`a d`
Bu.
- a.t j := 0.
o.c 3. D
Bu.
Co the ch
u.ng minh th`o.i gian tru.`o.ng ho..p tot nhat b`a ng O(1), th`o.i gian tru.`o.ng ho..p xau
nhat b`a ng th`o.i gian tru.`o.ng ho..p trung b`nh v`a ba` ng O(n).
B`
ai t
a.p
1. Xac di.nh k
y hie.u O lo.n doi vo.i f (n) + g(n) neu
(a) f (n) := O(1), g(n) := O(n2 ).
(b) f (n) := 6n3 2n2 + 4, g(n) := O(n ln n).
(c) f (n) := O(n3/2), g(n) := O(n5/2).
`an thu..c hie.n cau le.nh
2. Xac di.nh do. ph
u.c ta.p tnh toan vo.i cac thua.t toan sau (xet so l
x := x + 1):
Bu.
o.c 1. Vo.i i := 1 den 2n thu..c hie.n x := x + 1.
`an thu..c hie.n cau le.nh
3. Xac di.nh do. ph
u.c ta.p tnh toan vo.i cac thua.t toan sau (xet so l
x := x + 1):
o.c 1. i := 1.
Bu.
o.c 2. Neu i > 2n th` d`
u.ng.
Bu.
o.c 3. x := x + 1.
Bu.
45
o.c 4. i := i + 2.
Bu.
Bu.
o.c 5. Chuyen den Bu.o.c 2.
`an thu..c hie.n cau le.nh
4. Xac di.nh do. ph
u.c ta.p tnh toan vo.i cac thua.t toan sau (xet so l
x := x + 1):
Bu.
o.c 1. Vo.i i := 1 den n v`a vo.i j := 1 den n thu..c hie.n x := x + 1.
`an thu..c hie.n cau le.nh
5. Xac di.nh do. ph
u.c ta.p tnh toan vo.i cac thua.t toan sau (xet so l
x := x + 1):
Bu.
o.c 1. Vo.i i := 1 den 2n v`a vo.i j := 1 den n thu..c hie.n x := x + 1.
`an thu..c hie.n cau le.nh
6. Xac di.nh do. ph
u.c ta.p tnh toan vo.i cac thua.t toan sau (xet so l
x := x + 1):
o.c 1. Vo.i i := 1 den 2n thu..c hie.n Bu.o.c 2.
Bu.
o.c 2. Vo.i j := 1 den bi/2c thu..c hie.n x := x + 1.
Bu.
7. Xac di.nh so phep toan so sanh v`a k
y hie.u O lo.n trong thua.t toan sau
V`ao: s1, s2 , . . . , sn .
Ra: M := maxi si v`a m := mini si .
Bu.
o.c 1. t := 2bn/2c.
o.c 2. i := 1.
Bu.
o.c 3. Neu i > t 1 th` chuyen den Bu.o.c 7.
Bu.
o.c 4. Neu si > si+1 th` hoan doi si v`a si+1 .
Bu.
o.c 5. i := i + 2.
Bu.
Bu.
o.c 6. Chuyen den Bu.o.c 3.
Bu.
o.c 7. Neu n t th` chuyen den Bu.o.c 10.
Bu.
o.c 8. Neu sm1 > sn th` hoan doi sm1 v`a sn .
Bu.
o.c 9. Neu s > s th` hoan doi s v`a s .
n
Bu.
o.c 10. m := s1 .
Bu.
o.c 11. M := s2 .
Bu.
o.c 12. i := 3.
o.c 13. Neu i > t 1 th` d`
u.ng.
Bu.
Bu.
o.c 14. Neu si < m th` gan m := si .
o.c 15. Neu si+1 > M th` gan M := si+1 .
Bu.
o.c 16. i := i + 1.
Bu.
o.c 17. Chuyen den Bu.o.c 13.
Bu.
46
vo.i mo.i c R.
11. Ch
u.ng minh n! = O(nn ).
12. Ch
u.ng minh 2n = O(n!).
13. Ch
u.ng minh n ln n = O(ln(n!)).
14. Ch
u.ng minh ln(n!) = O(n ln n).
15. T`m cac h`am f v`a g sao cho
f (n) 6= O(g(n)) v`a g(n) 6= O(f (n)).
16. T`m cac h`am f, g, h v`a k sao cho
f (n) = O(g(n)), h(n) = O(k(n)), f(n) h(n) 6= O(g(n) k(n)).
`on ta.i cac h`a ng so du.o.ng C1 , C2 sao cho
17. Ta viet f (n) = (g(n)) neu t
C1 |g(n)| |f (n)| C2 |g(n)|
ngo`ai mo.t ta.p ho..p con h
u.u ha.n cua ta.p cac so tu.. nhien N. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
(a) 2n 1 = (n).
(b) 3n2 1 = (n2).
(c) (4n 1)2 = (n2 ).
(d) (2n 1)(7n + 1)/(n 1) = (n).
(e) Quan he. f (n) = (g(n)) l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng?
18. Ta viet f g neu f (n) = O(g(n)). Quan he. l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren ta.p cac
so tu.. nhien N?
47
1m + 2m + + nm <
(n + 1)m+1
,
m+1
f (n)
g(n)
f (n)
=1
g(n)
3.5
Ph
an tch thu
a.t to
an Euclid
`an n`ay phan tch tru.`o.ng ho..p xau nhat cua thua.t toan Euclid t`m u.o.c so chung lo.n nhat
Ph
`ong th`o.i ba` ng 0. Tru.o.c het ta nhac la.i
cua hai so tu.. nhien a v`a b, trong do a, b khong d
thua.t toan n`ay:
V`ao:
Ra:
f2 := 2;
fn := fn1 + fn2 , n 3.
Ta co
- i.nh l
`an n
a.p c
ac s
o tu.. nhien a, b v
o.i a > b c
D
y 3.5.1. Gia su. thu
a.t to
an Euclid d
oi v
o.i c
a b > fn trong do
{fn } l`
a d
ay Fibonacci.
phep to
an chia. Khi d
o a fn+1 v`
Ch
u.ng minh. Su. du.ng quy na.p toan ho.c. 2
- i.nh l
D
y n`ay de d`ang suy ra
- .inh l
`
D
y 3.5.2. Gia su. thu
a.p c
ac s
o tu.. nhien kh
ong d`
ong th`
o.i b
a ng
a.t to
an Euclid d
oi v
o.i c
`an thiet trong thu
s
o phep chia c
a.t to
an Euclid
kh
ong v`
a thu
o.c khoa ng [0, m], m 8. Khi do
kh
ong vu.o..t qu
a
2m
.
log3/2
3
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
V` h`am logarithm co cap tang cha.m, ket qua tren ch
u.ng to thua.t toan Euclid rat hie.u qua
tha.m ch doi vo.i cac gia tri. d`au v`ao rat lo.n.
B`
ai t
a.p
`eu nhat bao nhieu phep toan chia trong thua.t toan Euclid doi vo.i ca.p cac so
1. Co nhi
thay doi trong khoang t`
u. 0 den 1000000?
2. Ch
u.ng minh co chnh xac n phep toan chia trong thua.t toan Euclid doi vo.i ca.p so
(fn , fn+1 ), n 1.
3. Ch
u.ng minh vo.i mo.i so nguyen k > 1 ta co so phep toan chia trong thua.t toan Euclid
doi vo.i hai ca.p so (a, b) v`a (ka, kb) l`a b`a ng nhau.
4. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng USCLN(fn , fn+1 ) = 1, n 1.
49
50
Chu.o.ng 4
M
D
-E
PHEP
- ay l`a mo.t bo. pha.n quan
`e cach sap xep cac doi tu.o..ng. D
Toan to ho..p nghien c
u.u chu yeu v
.
.
.
.
.
`
tro.ng cua toan ho.c r`o i ra.c. Nh
u ng va n de cua to ho. p du o. c nghien c
u.u t`
u. The ky 17, lien
.
.
.
.
.
.
ung ro.ng rai trong
quan tru o c tien den cac tr`o cho i may rui. Ng`ay nay toan to ho. p du o. c d`
tin ho.c.
`om h
u.u
Mu.c dch cua chu.o.ng n`ay l`a thiet la.p mo.t so phu.o.ng phap dem cac ta.p ho..p g
`an tu. m`a khong phai lie.t ke cac ph
`an tu. cua ch
ha.n cac ph
ung.
4.1
C
ac nguy
en l
y co. ban cua ph
ep d
em
cac phan tu . Ch
uy
ra ng
# = 0,
#{1, 2, . . . , n} = n vo.i n N.
4.1.1
Nguy
en l
y t
ong
Gia su. A1, A2, . . . , Am l`a cac su.. kie.n doi mo.t loa.i tr`
u. nhau. Gia su. cac su.. kie.n A1 , A2, . . . , Am
co tu.o.ng u
.ng n1 , n2 , . . . , nm cach xay ra. Khi do su.. kie.n (hoa.c A1, hoa.c A2, . . . , hoa.c Am )
co n1 + n2 + + nm cach xay ra.
u. sinh, hoa.c l`a mo.t nam sinh. Co bao nhieu cach
V du. 4.1.1. Lo.p tru.o.ng hoa.c l`a mo.t n
.
.
.
u. l`a 36 v`a so ho.c sinh nam l`a 20?
cho.n lo p tru o ng khac nhau neu so ho.c sinh n
51
Go.i A1 (tu.o.ng u
.ng, A2) l`a su.. kie.n lo.p tru.o.ng l`a n
u. sinh (tu.o.ng u
.ng, nam sinh). Ta co
36 cach cho.n lo.p tru.o.ng l`a n
u. sinh v`a 20 cach cho.n lo.p tru.o.ng l`a nam sinh. Theo nguyen
l
y tong, su.. kie.n (A1 hoa.c A2) co (36 + 20) = 56 cach cho.n.
V du. 4.1.2. Mo.t sinh vien co the cho.n d
ung mo.t chuyen d`e tu.. cho.n thuo.c mo.t trong ba
`om 3, 5 v`a 9 chuyen d
`e. Hoi sinh vien do co bao nhieu cach
danh sach. Ba danh sach n`ay g
lu..a cho.n?
Theo nguyen l
y tong, co 3 + 5 + 9 = 17 cach.
y thuyet ta.p ho..p nhu.
Nh
a.n x
et 3. Co the phat bieu nguyen l
y tong theo thua.t ng
u. cua l
`an tu. cua ta.p T1 T2 Tm
sau: Neu cac ta.p T1, T2 , . . . , Tm doi mo.t r`o.i nhau th` so cac ph
`an tu. cua cac ta.p n`ay; t
ba` ng tong so cac ph
u.c l`a
#(T1 T2 . . . Tm ) =
m
X
#Ti.
i=1
4.1.2
Nguy
en l
y tch
Gia su. A1, A2, . . . , Am l`a cac su.. kie.n doi mo.t loa.i tr`
u. nhau. Gia su. cac su.. kie.n A1 , A2, . . . , Am
co tu.o.ng u
.ng n1 , n2 , . . . , nm cach xay ra. Khi do su.. kie.n (A1 v`a A2 v`a . . . v`a Am ) co
n1 n2 nm cach xay ra.
V du. 4.1.3. Gia su. co hai ma.t na., ba m
u. Hoi co may cach hoa trang?
D`
ung nguyen l
y tch, co 3 2 = 6 cach hoa trang khac nhau. C
ung co the d`
ung l
y thuyet
.
.
ta.p ho. p nhu sau: Moi cach hoa trang l`a mo.t cach cho.n x X v`a mo.t cach cho.n y Y. Do
do so cach hoa trang l`a so cac ca.p (x, y) thuo.c X Y v`a do do b`a ng #X #Y = 2 3 = 6.
Nh
a.n x
et 4. Nguyen l
y n`ay c
ung thu.`o.ng du.o..c phat bieu du.o.i da.ng ta.p ho..p nhu. sau: Gia
`an tu. v`a doi mo.t r`o.i nhau. Khi do so ph
`an tu. cua
su. cac ta.p T1, T2 , . . . , Tm co h
u.u ha.n ph
ta.p tch Descartes T1 T2 Tm ba` ng
#T1 #T2 #Tm .
V du. 4.1.4. Co bao nhieu chuoi bit khac nhau co do. d`ai 8? Moi bit co hai cach cho.n, hoa.c
0 hoa.c 1. Do do theo nguyen l
y tch, co 28 = 256 chuoi bit co do. d`ai 8.
`om ba ch
V du. 4.1.5. Co bao nhieu bang so xe khac nhau, neu moi bang g
u. cai v`a theo
`om 26 k
y tu..)?
sau l`a ba con so (gia thiet bang ch
u. cai g
u. cai co 26 cach cho.n; moi so co 10 cach cho.n. Do do theo nguyen l
Moi ch
y tch, so cac
bang so xe khac nhau l`a:
26 26 26 10 10 10 = 17.576.000.
52
`an tu.
V du. 4.1.7. Co bao nhieu anh xa. mo.t-mo.t (do.n anh) khac nhau t`
u. ta.p X co m ph
`an tu.?
v`ao ta.p Y co n ph
Neu m > n : khong co anh xa. mo.t-mo.t t`
u. X v`ao Y.
Gia su. m n v`a X := {a1, a2, . . . , am}.
`an tu. tu.o.ng u
`an tu. a1 co n cach cho.n ph
.ng trong Y.
+ Vo.i ph
+ V` anh xa. l`a mo.t-mo.t, nen doi vo.i a2 ch c`on (n 1) cach cho.n.
..
.
+ Tu.o.ng tu.., am ch c`on (n m + 1) cach cho.n.
Theo nguyen l
y tch, so anh xa. mo.t-mo.t khac nhau ba` ng
n(n 1)(n 2) (n m + 1).
- em so ta.p con cua mo.t ta.p h
V du. 4.1.8. D
u.u ha.n S.
.ng mo.t-mo.t gi
u.a ta.p con P
Gia su. S := {a1, a2 , . . . , an }. De d`ang thiet la.p mo.t tu.o.ng u
.
.
u i ba` ng 1 neu v`a ch neu ai P. Ma.t khac, so cac
cua S vo i cac chuoi bit do. d`ai n : bit th
n
chuoi bit do. d`ai n l`a 2 nen so cac ta.p con cua S l`a 2n .
V du. 4.1.9. Cho hai doa.n chu.o.ng tr`nh sau:
Chu.o.ng tr`nh 1:
Chu.o.ng tr`nh 2:
k := 0;
for i1 := 1 to n1 do k := k + 1;
for i2 := 1 to n2 do k := k + 1;
...
for im := 1 to nm do k := k + 1;
k := 0;
for i1 := 1 to n1 do
for i2 := 1 to n2 do
...
for im := 1 to nm do k := k + 1;
Hoi k se lay gia tri. bao nhieu sau khi moi doa.n chu.o.ng tr`nh tren du.o..c thu..c hie.n?
+ Chu.o.ng tr`nh 1: C
u. moi v`ong la.p di.a phu.o.ng, k tang len mo.t do.n vi..
`an la.p cua v`ong la.p th
Go.i Ai l`a so l
u. i. Ai co ni kha nang. Ho.n n
u.a Ai v`a Aj , i 6= j, loa.i
.
y tong, so v`ong la.p l`a n1 + n2 + + nm .
tr`
u nhau. Do do theo nguyen l
53
+ Chu.o.ng tr`nh 2: C
u. moi v`ong la.p to`an cu.c, k tang len mo.t do.n vi.. Moi v`ong la.p to`an
y tch so v`ong la.p to`an cu.c ba` ng
cu.c do m v`ong la.p di.a phu.o.ng ghep la.i. Theo nguyen l
n1 n2 nm .
`eu tru.`o.ng ho..p ta c
`an phai phoi ho..p ca hai nguyen l
y tong v`a tch; chang ha.n,
Trong nhi
xet v du. sau:
`om t`
V du. 4.1.10. Gia su. moi ngu.`o.i su. du.ng may tnh co mo.t ma.t ma, g
u. 6 den 8 k
y tu..;
.
.
.
u cai hoa hoa.c l`a mo.t con so. Moi ma.t ma nhat thiet phai ch
u a t nhat
moi k
y tu. l`a mo.t ch
`an tr`
`
u. di so
Tru `o ng ho. p n`ay ch xay ra khi no dong th`o i co the xay ra A1 v`a A2. V` va.y c
.
.
.
.
u a n`ay.
tru `o ng ho. p doi th`
4.1.3
Nguy
en l
y bao h`
am-loa.i tr`
u.
B`a ng thua.t ng
u. ta.p ho..p, nguyen l
y bao h`am-loa.i tr`
u. tro. th`anh:
#(A1 A2) = #A1 + #A2 #(A1 A2).
V du. 4.1.11. Co bao nhieu chuoi bit do. d`ai 8 hoa.c bat d`au ba` ng 1, hoa.c ket th
uc ba` ng
.
.
`au ba` ng 1, v`
u a ket th
uc b`a ng 00).
00? (Co the co chuoi v`
u a bat d
`an tu. th
u. nhat da du.o..c
Go.i P1 l`a so cac chuoi bit do. d`ai 8 bat d`au ba` ng 1. Nhu. va.y, ph
y tch,
cho.n, ch c`on la.i 7 bit. Theo nguyen l
P1 = 27 = 128.
Go.i P2 l`a so cac chuoi bit do. d`ai 8 ket th
uc b`a ng 00. Theo nguyen l
y tch
P2 = 26 = 64.
uc ba` ng 00. Theo nguyen l
y
Go.i P3 l`a so cac chuoi bit do. d`ai 8 bat d`au ba` ng 1 v`a ket th
tch
P3 = 25 = 32.
du.ng nguyen l
Ap
y bao h`am-loa.i tr`
u. ta co
P = P1 + P2 P3 = 160.
Nguyen l
y bao h`am-loa.i tr`
u. co the mo. ro.ng cho tru.`o.ng ho..p m su.. kie.n, nhu.ng ph
u.c ta.p
`an sau.
ho.n, ta se d`e ca.p o. ph
y du.o..c d`e ca.p tren day nhu. l`a xuat phat diem cua l
y thuyet
Su.. cong nha.n ba nguyen l
.
to ho. p:
+ Tnh d
ung dan cua ba nguyen l
y tren l`a d
ung hien nhien. Quan diem cua ch
ung ta
.
y thuyet to ho..p. Cac ket qua
l`a cong nha.n 3 nguyen l
y tren, coi nhu xuat phat diem cua l
`an lu.o..t du.o..c suy ra tru..c tiep hoa.c gian tiep t`
khac se l
u. ba nguyen l
y n`ay.
y n`ay, nhu. va.y ta
+ Neu khong thoa man, c
ung co the t`m cach ch
u.ng minh ba nguyen l
`an den cac cong cu. khac, thu..c chat ta la.i cong nha.n mo.t di
`eu g` khac l`a du
ng
la.i phai c
B`
ai t
a.p
1. Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit bat d`au ba` ng 1100?
2. Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit bat d`au v`a ket th
uc b`a ng 1?
-u
3. Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit co du
ng mo.t bit ba` ng 1? D
ng hai bit ba` ng 1? Co t nhat
`
mo.t bit ba ng 1?
55
4. Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit do.c xuoi v`a do.c ngu.o..c d`eu giong nhu. nhau?
5. Cac k
y tu.. ABCDE du.o..c su. du.ng de ta.o th`anh cac chuoi do. d`ai 3.
(a) Co bao nhieu chuoi du.o..c ta.o ra neu cho phep la.p?
(b) Co bao nhieu chuoi du.o..c ta.o ra neu khong cho phep la.p?
(c) Co bao nhieu chuoi bat d`au ba` ng A du.o..c ta.o ra neu cho phep la.p?
`au ba` ng A du.o..c ta.o ra neu khong cho phep la.p?
(d) Co bao nhieu chuoi bat d
y tu.. A du.o..c ta.o ra neu cho phep la.p?
(e) Co bao nhieu chuoi khong ch
u.a k
y tu.. A du.o..c ta.o ra neu khong cho phep la.p?
(f) Co bao nhieu chuoi khong ch
u.a k
6. Tren ta.p X := {5, 6, . . . , 200} :
.ng, le)?
(a) Co bao nhieu so chan, (tu.o.ng u
(b) Co bao nhieu so chia het cho 5?
`om nh
u. so phan bie.t?
(c) Co bao nhieu so g
u.ng ch
u. so 0?
(d) Co bao nhieu so khong ch
u.a ch
(e) Co bao nhieu so lo.n ho.n 101 v`a khong ch
u.a ch
u. so 6?
u. tu.. tang thu..c su..?
(f) Co bao nhieu so co cac ch
u. so du.o..c sap theo th
(g) Co bao nhieu so co da.ng xyz vo.i 0 6= x < y v`a y > z?
y.
7. Gia su. co 5 sach tin ho.c, 3 sach may tnh, 2 sach va.t l
(a) Co bao nhieu cach sap xep ch
ung len gia sach?
(b) Co bao nhieu cach sap xep sao cho 5 sach tin ho.c o. pha trai, c`on 2 sach va.t l
y o.
ben phai?
(c) Co bao nhieu cach sap ch
ung len gia sao cho tat ca cac sach theo c`
ung nhom du.o..c
`e nhau?
sap k
`e nhau?
(d) Co bao nhieu cach sap ch
ung len gia sao cho hai sach va.t l
y khong k
8. Co 10 ban ban sao (copy) cua mo.t cuon sach v`a co mo.t ban sao cua 10 cuon sach khac.
Co bao nhieu cach co the cho.n 10 cuon sach?
`eu nhat n ph
`an tu. cua ta.p g
`om (2n + 1) ph
`an tu.?
9. Co bao nhieu ta.p con co nhi
du.ng nguyen l
10. Ap
y bao h`am-loa.i tr`
u. de giai:
(a) Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit hoa.c bat d`au ba` ng 100 hoa.c co bit th
u. tu. ba` ng 1?
(b) Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit hoa.c bat d`au ba` ng 1 hoa.c ket th
uc ba` ng 1?
u. tu. ba` ng 1?
(c) Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit trong do hoa.c bit th
u. hai, hoa.c bit th
56
4.2
Ho
an vi. v`
a t
o ho..p
`
`
`
tu cuoi c`
ung. Phan tu dau tien co the cho.n n cach. Ngay khi phan tu dau tien du o. c cho.n,
`an tu. th
`an tu.
`an tu. th
u. hai co the du.o..c cho.n n 1 cach. Khi ph
u. hai da du.o..c cho.n, ph
ph
y quy na.p v`a sau do nguyen
th
u. ba co the du.o..c cho.n n 2 cach, v`a van van. Theo nguyen l
`
l
y tch, ton ta.i
n(n 1)(n 2) 2 1 = n!
`an tu.. 2
hoan vi. cua n ph
V du. 4.2.2. Co
10! = 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 = 3.628.800
`an tu..
hoan vi. cua 10 ph
u.a chuoi con DEF ?
V du. 4.2.3. Co bao nhieu hoan vi. cua cac k
y tu.. ABCDEF ch
- i.nh l
y 4.2.2 co 4! = 24 hoan vi. cua
y tu... Theo D
Co the xem chuoi con DEF nhu. mo.t k
.
.
cac k
y tu. ABCDEF ch
u a chuoi con DEF.
u.a cac k
y tu.. DEF theo
V du. 4.2.4. Co bao nhieu hoan vi. cua cac k
y tu.. ABCDEF ch
y?
th
u. tu.. bat k`
u. tu.. cua cac k
y tu.. DEF ; v`a xay du..ng
Ta co the giai b`ai toan qua hai bu.o.c: Cho.n mo.t th
- i.nh l
y tu.. DEF. Theo D
u.a th
u. tu.. da cho cua cac k
y 4.2.2, bu.o.c
mo.t hoan vi. cua ABC ch
.
.
.
u hai co 4! = 24 cach. Theo nguyen l
y
d`au tien co 3! = 6 cach; theo V du. 4.2.3 bu o c th
.
.
.
.
tch, so cac hoan vi. cua ABCDEF ch
u a cac k
y tu. DEF theo th
u tu. bat k`
y l`a 6 24 = 144.
`an tu. du.o..c cho.n t`
Trong mo.t so tru.`o.ng ho..p ta muon khao sat mo.t th
u. tu.. cua r ph
u. n
`an tu.. Mo.t th
ph
u. tu.. nhu. the go.i l`a r-hoan vi..
- i.nh ngha 4.2.3. r-hoan vi. cua n ph
`an tu. (phan bie.t) x1 , x2, . . . , xn l`a mo.t sap xep r-ph
`an
D
.
.
.
.
.
.
`an tu n`ay. K
`an tu phan
u tu. t`
u n ph
y hie.u P (n, r) l`a so cac r-hoan vi. cua ta.p n ph
tu co th
bie.t.
57
r n.
Ta co the viet
P (n, r) = n(n 1)(n 2) (n r + 1)
n(n 1)(n 2) (n r + 1)(n r) 2 1
=
(n r) 2 1
n!
=
.
(n r)!
- i.nh ngha 4.2.5. Xet ta.p X ch
`an tu. phan bie.t. Mo.t r-to ho..p cua ta.p X l`a mo.t
D
u.a n ph
. ay t`
.
.
`an tu., khong phan bie.t th
`om n ph
`an
bo. r ph
u. tu
. , l
u ta.p n`ay. So cac r-to ho. p cua ta.p g
n
`an tu..
tu. phan bie.t k
v`a go.i C(n, r) l`a to ho..p cha.p r cua n ph
y hie.u l`a C(n, r) hay
r
`om
Ch
ung ta se xac di.nh cong th
u.c cho C(n, r) b`a ng cach dem so cac r-hoan vi. cua ta.p g
.
.
.
.
.
`an tu theo hai cach. Th
u hai l`a dem so cac
n ph
u nhat, su du.ng cong th
u c P (n, r). Cach th
`om n ph
`an tu. co lien quan vo.i C(n, r). T`
u. do se suy ra ket qua.
r-hoan vi. cua ta.p g
- `au
`an tu. phan bie.t qua hai bu.o.c lien tiep: D
Ta co the xay du..ng r-hoan vi. cua ta.p n ph
.
.
.
.
`an tu khong phan bie.t th
u tu. ) v`a sau do sap
tien, cho.n mo.t r-to ho. p cua X (ta.p con r ph
.
.
.
th
u tu. no. Chang ha.n, de xay du. ng mo.t 2-hoan vi. cua {a, b, c, d} ta co the cho.n 2-to ho..p
y tch, so cac r-hoan vi. ba` ng tch cua so cac r-to
v`a sau do sap th
u. tu.. no. Theo nguyen l
.
.
.
`an tu.. T
u tu. cua r ph
u.c l`a
ho. p v`a so cac cach sap th
P (n, r) = C(n, r)r!.
Va.y
C(n, r) =
P (n, r)
.
r!
- i.nh l
Do do theo D
y 4.2.4 ta co
- i.nh l
`an tu. ph
D
y 4.2.6. S
o c
ac r-ho
an vi. cu a t
a.p n ph
an bie.t l`
a
n!
, r n.
(n r)!r!
u. 10 ngu.`o.i de la.p th`anh mo.t do.i bong
V du. 4.2.9. Co bao nhieu cach cho.n 5 ngu.`o.i t`
(khong phan bie.t th
u. tu..)?
C(n, r) =
`an tu.
Cau tra l`o.i l`a ba` ng so to ho..p cha.p 5 cua 10 ph
10!
= 252.
C(10, 5) =
5!5!
`ong g
`om hai ngu.`o.i n
V du. 4.2.10. Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t ho.i d
u. v`a ba ngu.`o.i nam
u. v`a sau ngu.`o.i nam?
t`
u. mo.t nhom nam ngu.`o.i n
So cach cho.n hai ngu.`o.i n
u. v`a ba ngu.`o.i nam tu.o.ng u
.ng l`a C(5, 2) = 10 v`a C(6, 3) = 20.
`ong du.o..c xay du..ng qua hai bu.o.c lien tiep: Cho.n ngu.`o.i n
Ho.i d
u.; cho.n ngu.`o.i nam. Theo
`ong l`a 10 20 = 200.
nguyen l
y tch, tong so cac ho.i d
59
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...
...
...
....
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....
..
....
....
..
.
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....
..
.....
..
...
....
..
...
....
..
...
....
.
.....................................
H`nh 4.1:
V du. 4.2.11. Co bao nhieu chuoi tam bit ch
u.a chnh xac bon bit 1?
ung ta biet cac bit
Mo.t chuoi tam bit ch
u.a bon bit 1 du.o..c xac di.nh duy nhat ngay khi ch
.
.
.
`eu n`ay co the thu. c hie.n bo i C(8, 4) cach.
n`ao b`a ng 1. Nhu ng di
V du. 4.2.12. Co bao nhieu h`anh tr`nh t`
u. goc du.o.i ben trai cua mo.t b`an c`o. vuong kch
ung ta ch di theo cach sang phai v`a len tren? Mo.t
thu.o.c n n den goc tren ben phai neu ch
.
.
.
h`anh tr`nh nhu va.y tren b`an c`o 4 4 du o..c cho trong H`nh 4.1.
y tu.. R v`a n k
y tu.. U.
Moi h`anh tr`nh co the du.o..c mo ta bo.i mo.t chuoi do. d`ai 2n cua n k
.ng chuoi RU URRU RU. Mo.t chuoi nhu. va.y
Chang ha.n, h`anh tr`nh trong H`nh 4.1 tu.o.ng u
.
.
u. tu..) trong so 2n
co the nha.n du o. c b`a ng cach cho.n n vi. tr doi vo.i R (khong phan bie.t th
u.ng vi. tr c`on la.i. Do do so h`anh
vi. tr cho phep cua chuoi v`a sau do ch`en n k
y tu.. U v`ao nh
tr`nh l`a C(2n, n).
B`
ai t
a.p
1. Co bao nhieu hoan vi. cua a, b, c, d? Lie.t ke cac hoan vi. n`ay.
2. Co bao nhieu 3-hoan vi. cua a, b, c, d? Lie.t ke cac hoan vi. n`ay.
3. Co bao nhieu hoan vi., 5-hoan vi. cua 11 doi tu.o..ng khac nhau?
y t`
u. mo.t nhom
4. Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t chu ti.ch, mo.t pho chu ti.ch v`a mo.t thu. k
.
.
11 ngu `o i?
y
5. Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t chu ti.ch, mo.t pho chu ti.ch, mo.t ke toan v`a mo.t thu. k
t`
u. mo.t nhom 12 ngu.`o.i?
6. Co bao nhieu chuoi do. d`ai 5 co phan bie.t th
u. tu.. du.o..c ta.o ra t`
u. cac k
y tu.. A, B, C, D, E
neu:
(a) Ch
u.a chuoi con ACE.
(b) Ch
u.a cac k
y tu.. ACE theo th
u. tu.. t`
uy y
.
60
(c) Ch
u.a cac chuoi con DB v`a AE.
(d) Ch
u.a hoa.c chuoi con AE hoa.c EA.
(e) K
y tu.. A xuat hie.n tru.o.c k
y tu.. D. Chang ha.n BCAED, BCADE.
(f) Khong ch
u.a cac chuoi con AB, CD.
y tu.. C v`a C xuat hie.n tru.o.c E.
(g) K
y tu.. A xuat hie.n tru.o.c k
- a. t X := {a, b, c, d}.
7. D
(a) T`m so cac 3-to ho..p cua X. Lie.t ke cac to ho..p n`ay.
(b) T`m moi quan he. gi
u.a cac 3-to ho..p v`a 3-hoan vi. cua X.
`ong g
`om ba ngu.`o.i t`
8. Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t ho.i d
u. nhom 11 ngu.`o.i?
`ong g
`om bon ngu.`o.i t`
u. nhom 12 ngu.`o.i?
9. Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t ho.i d
`om sau ngu.`o.i nam v`a bay ngu.`o.i n
10. Mo.t cau la.c bo. g
u..
`ong g
`om nam ngu.`o.i?
(a) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t ho.i d
`ong g
`om ba nam v`a bon n
(b) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t ho.i d
u.?
`ong g
`om bon ngu.`o.i v`a t nhat mo.t n
u.?
(c) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t ho.i d
`eu nhat mo.t nam?
`ong g
`om bon ngu.`o.i vo.i nhi
(d) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t ho.i d
`ong g
`om bon ngu.`o.i co ca nam v`a n
u.?
(e) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t ho.i d
11. (a) Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit ch
u.a chnh xac ba bit 0?
(b) Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit ch
u.a ba bit 0 v`a 5 bit 1?
(c) Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit ch
u.a t nhat hai bit 0?
12. Mo.t cu.a h`ang co 50 may tnh trong do co bon bi. hong.
(a) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n bon may tnh?
(b) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n bon may tnh khong hong?
(c) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n bon may tnh trong do co hai chiec bi. hong?
(d) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n bon may tnh trong do co t nhat mo.t chiec bi. hong?
u. goc trai ben du.o.i den goc tren
13. Xet mo.t h`anh tr`nh tren b`an c`o. kch thu.o.c m n t`
.
.
ben phai v`a theo hu o ng hoa.c sang phai hoa.c len tren.
(a) So h`anh tr`nh co the l`a bao nhieu?
du.ng de ch
u.ng minh dang th
(b) Ap
u.c
n
X
k=0
i
bit
10
l`
a
C(n
+
1,
5).
chuo
61
15. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng so cac chuoi bit do. d`ai n ch
u.a chnh xac k bit 0 sao cho hai bit 0
khong xuat hie.n lien tiep l`a C(n k + 1, k).
16. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng tch cua k so nguyen lien tiep chia het cho k!.
`an tu. phan
17. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng co (2n 1)(2n 3) . . . 3 1 cach cho.n n ca.p t`
u. 2n ph
bie.t.
u.ng
18. Gia su. co n doi tu.o..ng trong do co r doi tu.o..ng phan bie.t v`a n r l`a d`ong nhat. Ch
minh cong th
u.c
P (n, r) = r!C(n, r)
ba` ng cach dem so co phan bie.t th
u. tu.. cua n doi tu.o..ng theo hai cach:
- `au tien dem so co phan bie.t th
+D
u. tu.. cac vi. tr cua r doi tu.o..ng phan bie.t.
- `au tien dem so co phan bie.t th
`ong nhat.
+D
u. tu.. cac vi. tr cua n r doi tu.o..ng d
4.3
C
ac thu
a.t to
an sinh ra ho
an vi. v`
a t
o ho..p
- a.i ho.c D
- a` La.t co n b`ai hat c
`an ghi len mo.t da CD. Cac b`ai
Nhom nha.c rock cua tru.`o.ng D
.
.ng l`a
hat chiem th`o i gian (tnh ba` ng giay) tu.o.ng u
t1, t2, . . . , tn .
- a CD co the lu.u tr
`eu nhat l`a C giay. V` day l`a da CD d`au tien cua nhom, nen ho.
u. nhi
D
.
`eu c`ang tot. Do do b`ai toan l`a cho.n mo.t ta.p
muon ghi cac b`ai hat vo i th`o.i lu.o..ng c`ang nhi
t ij
(4.1)
j=1
khong vu.o..t qua C v`a lo.n nhat co the. Cach tiep ca.n l`a kiem tra tat ca cac ta.p con cua
- e thu..c hie.n ch
{1, 2, . . . , n} v`a cho.n mo.t ta.p con sao cho tong (4.1) lo.n nhat co the. D
ung
.
.
`om n ph
`an tu . Ph
`an n`ay tr`nh b`ay
`an mo.t thua.t toan ta.o ra tat ca cac to ho. p cua ta.p g
ta c
.
ha.n, nha du
ng tru o c nhanh trong t`
u dien.
- e do.n gian ta se di.nh ngha th
u. tu.. t`
u. dien tren ta.p cac k
y hie.u l`a cac so tu.. nhien.
D
- i.nh ngha 4.3.1. Gia su. = s1 s2 . . . sp v`a = t1t2 . . . tq l`a cac chuoi tren ta.p {1, 2, . . . , n}.
D
u. dien nho ho.n , k
y hie.u < , neu hoa.c
Ta noi co th
u. tu.. t`
(a) p < q v`a si = ti vo.i i = 1, 2, . . . , p; hoa.c
`on ta.i i sao cho si 6= ti , v`a vo.i ch so i nho nhat nhu. va.y, ta co si < ti .
(b) T
V du. 4.3.1. Tren ta.p {1, 2, 3, 4} ta co = 132 < = 1324. Tren ta.p {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ta co
= 13246 < = 1342.
- `au tien ta xet b`ai toan lie.t ke tat ca cac r-to ho..p cua ta.p {1, 2, . . . , n}. Trong thua.t
D
toan, ch
ung ta se lie.t ke r-to ho..p {x1 , x2, . . . , xr } tu.o.ng u
.ng chuoi s1 s2 . . . sr trong do
s1 < s2 < < sr v`a {x1 , x2, . . . , xr } = {s1 , s2 , . . . , sr }. Chang ha.n, 3-to ho..p {6, 2, 4} se
.ng chuoi 246.
tu.o.ng u
u. tu.. t`
u. dien. Do do, cac chuoi du.o..c
Ta se lie.t ke cac r-to ho..p cua ta.p {1, 2, . . . , n} theo th
.ng l`a 12 . . . r v`a (n r + 1) . . . n.
lie.t ke d`au tien v`a cuoi c`
ung tu.o.ng u
V du. 4.3.2. Lie.t ke tat ca 5-to ho..p cua {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.
`au tien l`a 12345, theo sau l`a 12346 v`a 12347. Chuoi ke tiep l`a 12356 v`a sau do
Chuoi d
12357. Chuoi cuoi c`
ung l`a 34567.
V du. 4.3.3. T`m chuoi tiep theo 13467 khi ch
ung ta lie.t ke 5-to ho..p cua ta.p ho..p X :=
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.
`an tu. cua X
Khong co chuoi n`ao bat d`au vo.i 134 v`a cac bieu dien cua mo.t to ho..p 5 ph
phai lo.n ho.n 13467. Do do chuoi tiep theo 13467 phai bat d`au l`a 135. V` 13567 l`a chuoi
`an tu. cua X nen 13567 l`a to ho..p phai
nho nhat bat d`au ba` ng 135 v`a l`a mo.t to ho..p cua 5 ph
t`m.
V du. 4.3.4. T`m chuoi tiep theo 2367 khi ch
ung ta lie.t ke 4-to ho..p cua ta.p ho..p X :=
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.
`an tu. cua X
Khong co chuoi n`ao bat d`au vo.i 23 v`a cac bieu dien cua mo.t to ho..p 4 ph
phai lo.n ho.n 2367. Do do chuoi tiep theo 2367 phai bat d`au l`a 24. V` 2456 l`a chuoi nho
`au ba` ng 24 v`a l`a mo.t to ho..p cua 5 ph
`an tu. cua X nen 2456 l`a to ho..p phai t`m.
nhat bat d
63
vo.i i = 1, 2, . . . , m 1.
tm+2 = sm + 3, . . . .
Thu
a.t to
an sinh c
ac t
o ho..p
- a.t si = i, i = 1, 2 . . . , r.
Bu.o.c 1. [Kho.i ta.o chuoi] D
`au tien] Xuat chuoi s = s1s2 . . . sr .
Bu.o.c 2. [Xuat to ho..p d
Bu.o.c 3. [La.p] Vo.i moi i = 2, 3, . . . , C(n, r) thu..c hie.n cac bu.o.c sau:
`an tu. ben phai nhat khong phai l`a gia tri. cu..c da.i cua no.
3.1. T`m ph
3.2. (Gia tri. cu..c da.i cua sk du.o..c di.nh ngha l`a n r + k).
- a.t sm = sm + 1.
3.3. D
3.4. Vo.i moi j = m + 1, . . . , r, da.t sj = sj1 + 1.
3.5. Xuat s.
V du. 4.3.5. Xet ta.p {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. Gia su.
s1 = 2, s2 = 3, s3 = 4, s4 = 6, s5 = 7.
du.ng
`an tu. ben phai nhat khong phai l`a gia tri. cu..c da.i cua no ta.i do. Ap
Ta co s3 l`a ph
thua.t toan tren, ta co chuoi tiep theo 23467 l`a 23567.
V du. 4.3.6. Thua.t toan ta.o 4-to ho..p cua {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} cho ta
1234, 1235, 1236, 1246, 1256, 1345, 1346,
1356, 1456, 2345, 2346, 2356, 3456.
Tu.o.ng tu.. thua.t toan sinh cac to ho..p, thua.t toan sinh cac hoan vi. se lie.t ke theo th
u. tu..
t`
u. dien.
- e xay du..ng hoan vi. cua ta.p {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} sau hoan vi. 163542, ch
`an
ung ta c
V du. 4.3.7. D
.
`eu nhat co the.
co di.nh cac ch
u so ben trai nhi
`on ta.i hoan vi. tiep theo hoan vi. 1635 ? V` hoan vi. co da.ng 1635 khac hoan vi. da cho
T
l`a 163524 v`a 163524 nho ho.n 163542 nen hoan vi. sau 163542 khong the co da.ng 1635 .
64
ta can t`m ch
u so dau tien d m`a lan ca.n ben phai cua no l`a r thoa man d < r. Trong tru `o.ng
u. so th
u. ba: 3 co tnh chat n`ay. Va.y hoan vi. tiep theo hoan vi. da cho se bat
ho..p tren, ch
d`au l`a 16. Ch
u. so tiep theo khong the nho ho.n 3. V` ta muon hoan vi. tiep theo nho nhat,
.
u. so c`on la.i: 235
nen ch
u so ke tiep l`a 4. Do do hoan vi. tiep theo bat d`au vo.i 164. Cac ch
`an tang vo.i gia tri. nho nhat. Va.y hoan vi. tiep theo hoan vi. da cho l`a 164235.
c
Nha.n xet r`a ng de ta.o tat ca cac hoan vi. cua ta.p {1, 2, . . . , n} ch
ung ta co the bat d`au vo.i
hoan vi. 12 . . . n v`a la.p la.i phu.o.ng phap cua V du. 4.3.7 de ta.o hoan vi. ke tiep. Thua.t toan
ket th
uc khi ta.o ra hoan vi. n(n 1) . . . 21.
du.ng phu.o.ng phap cua V du. 4.3.7, ta co the lie.t ke tat ca cac hoan vi.
V du. 4.3.8. Ap
u. tu.. t`
u. dien nhu. sau:
cua {1, 2, 3, 4} theo th
1234,
2314,
3412,
1243,
2341,
3421,
1324,
2413,
4123,
1342,
2431,
4132,
1423,
3124,
4213,
1432,
3142,
4231,
2134,
3214,
4312,
2143,
3241,
4321.
Thu
a.t to
an sinh c
ac ho
an vi.
- a.t si = i, i = 1, 2 . . . , n.
Bu.o.c 1. [Kho.i ta.o chuoi] D
Bu.o.c 2. [Xuat hoan vi. d`au tien] Xuat chuoi s = s1 s2 . . . sn .
Bu.o.c 3. [La.p] Vo.i moi i = 2, 3, . . . , n! thu..c hie.n cac bu.o.c sau:
3.1. T`m ch so lo.n nhat m thoa man s < s
.
m
m+1
B`
ai t
a.p
1. T`m r-to ho..p sinh ra bo.i thua.t toan sinh to ho..p vo.i n = 7 sau khi r-to ho..p du.o..c cho:
1356, 12367, 14567.
2. T`m hoan vi. sinh ra bo.i thua.t toan sinh hoan vi. sau hoan vi. du.o..c cho: 12354, 625431,
12876543.
`an tu. neu
u. ta.p n ph
3. T`m tat ca r-to ho..p t`
(a) n = 6, r = 3.
(b) n = 6, r = 2.
(c) n = 7, r = 5.
`an tu..
4. T`m cac hoan vi. cua ta.p hai, ba ph
5. Viet thua.t toan de. quy sinh ra tat ca cac r-to ho..p cua ta.p {s1, s2 , . . . , sn }. Chia b`ai
toan th`anh hai b`ai toan con:
+ Lie.t ke cac r-to ho..p ch
u.a s1 .
u.a s1 .
+ Lie.t ke cac r-to ho..p khong ch
6. Viet thua.t toan de. quy sinh ra tat ca cac hoan vi. cua ta.p {s1, s2 , . . . , sn }. Chia b`ai
toan th`anh n b`ai toan con:
`au vo.i s1 .
+ Lie.t ke cac hoan vi. bat d
+ Lie.t ke cac hoan vi. bat d`au vo.i s2 .
..
.
+ Lie.t ke cac hoan vi. bat d`au vo.i sn .
4.4
o.ng
Ho
an vi. v`
a t
o ho..p suy r
ung ta da nghien c
u.u cac hoan vi. v`a to ho..p khong cho phep la.p la.i
Trong cac mu.c tru.o.c, ch
`an n`ay t`m hieu cac hoan vi. cua cac day ch
`an tu. la.p la.i v`a cac
`an tu.. Ph
u.a nh
u.ng ph
cac ph
.
.
.
.
phep cho.n khong phan bie.t th
u tu. co la.p la.i. Tru o c het ta xet v du. sau.
`eu van d
`e dem, cac ph
`an tu. co the la.p la.i; chang ha.n co bao nhieu
V du. 4.4.1. Trong nhi
u. cai?
xau khac nhau co do. d`ai n t`
u. bang 26 ch
`om
ut ra co ho`an la.i. Mo.t xau do. d`ai n g
Hien nhien o. day, co the coi cac ch
u. cai du.o..c r
.
.
u cai co 26 cach cho.n lu..a. Theo nguyen l
y tch, so xau co the l`a
n ch
u cai. Moi ch
n
26
| 26
{z 26} = 26 .
`an
n l
66
- .inh l
`
`an tu. b
a.p n ph
D
y 4.4.1. S
o c
ac r-ho
an vi. c
o l
a.p la.i cu a t
a ng nr .
du.ng
Ch
u.ng minh. Co n cach cho.n cho moi vi. tr trong r-hoan vi. (v` co la.p la.i). Ap
r
nguyen l
y tch, so cac r-hoan vi. co la.p la.i ba` ng n . 2
V du. 4.4.2. Xet chuoi SU CCESS. Co bao nhieu chuoi khac nhau co the co khi sap xep
la.i cac k
y tu.. cua chuoi n`ay?
Tru.o.c het ch
uy
ra` ng trong chuoi SU CCESS do. d`ai 7 co ba k
y tu.. S, hai k
y tu.. C, mo.t
y tu.. E. Ba k
y tu.. S (tu.o.ng u
.ng, hai k
y tu.. C) l`a khong phan bie.t, nen
k
y tu.. U v`a mo.t k
.
hoan vi. ch
ung khong ta.o ra chuoi mo i.
Co tat ca 7! chuoi l`a hoan vi. cua chuoi SU CCESS. Ba k
y tu.. S hoan vi. ta.o ra 3! chuoi;
hai k
y tu.. C hoan vi. ta.o ra 2! chuoi; mo.t k
y tu.. U hoan vi. ta.o ra 1! chuoi; v`a mo.t k
y tu.. E
.
hoan vi. ta.o ra 1! chuoi. Va.y so chuoi tha.t su. khac nhau l`a
7!
.
3!2!1!1!
V du. 4.4.3. Xet chuoi M ISSISSIP P I. Co bao nhieu chuoi khac nhau co the co khi sap
xep la.i cac k
y tu.. cua chuoi n`ay?
`en v`ao 11 cho trong
Xet b`ai toan di
,
vo.i cac k
y tu.. da cho. Co C(11, 2) cach cho.n cac vi. tr doi vo.i P. Khi da cho.n xong P, ta co
C(9, 4) cach cho.n cac vi. tr doi vo.i S. Khi da cho.n S, co C(5, 4) cach cho.n cac vi. tr doi vo.i
`en cac k
I. Cuoi c`
ung ch c`on mo.t cach cho.n M. Theo nguyen l
y tch, so cac cach de di
y tu..
l`a
11! 9! 5!
2!9! 4!5! 4!1!
11!
=
2!4!4!1!
= 34.650.
Tong quat ta co
- i.nh l
`an tu. S c
D
y 4.4.2. Gia su. d
oi tu.o..ng loa.i 1, n2 d
oi tu.o..ng loa.i 2, ...,
ay n ph
o n1 d
oi tu.o..ng loa.i t. Khi d
o s
o c
ac c
ach cho.n d
ay S l`
a
v`
a nt d
n!
.
n1 !n2! . . . nt !
Ch
u.ng minh. Ta gan cac vi. tr doi vo.i moi day do. d`ai n cac doi tu.o..ng de ta.o ra mo.t th
u.
.
.
.
.
tu. trong S. Co C(n, n1) cach cho.n cac vi. tr doi vo i cac doi tu o. ng loa.i 1. Khi da cho.n xong
67
cac doi tu.o..ng n`ay, ta co C(n n1, n2 ) cach cho.n cac vi. tr doi vo.i cac doi tu.o..ng loa.i 2, v`a
van van. Theo nguyen l
y tch, so cac cach de thu..c hie.n l`a
C(n, n1)C(n n1 , n2 ) C(n n1 n2 nt1 , nt )
`eu c
`an ch
v`a do do co di
u.ng minh. 2
u. tu.. co la.p la.i.
Ke tiep ch
ung ta khao sat b`ai toan dem cac phep cho.n khong phan bie.t th
V du. 4.4.4. Xet ba loa.i sach: sach may tnh, sach va.t l
y v`a sach li.ch su.. Gia su. thu. vie.n
co t nhat sau cuon sach moi loa.i. Co bao nhieu cach co the cho.n sau cuon sach?
`an tu. khong phan bie.t th
B`ai toan l`a lay sau ph
u. ta.p {may tnh, va.t l
y, li.ch su.} cho
u. tu.. t`
.
.
.
y
phep la.p la.i. Mo.t phep cho.n du o. c xac di.nh duy nhat bo i so moi kieu sach du.o..c cho.n. K
hie.u
May tnh
Va.t l
y
Li.ch su.
| |
co ngha l`a phep cho.n ba cuon sach may tnh, hai sach va.t l
y v`a mo.t sach li.ch su.. Nha.n xet
y hie.u v`a hai k
y hie.u | tu.o.ng u
.ng mo.t phep cho.n. Do do b`ai
ra` ng moi th
u. tu.. cua sau k
.
.
.
toan l`a dem so cac th
u tu. . Va.y co the thu. c hie.n ba` ng C(8, 2) = 28 cach.
- i.nh l
`om t ph
`an tu. th` s
`an tu. kh
D
y 4.4.3. Neu X l`
a t
a.p g
o phep cho.n k ph
ong ph
an bie.t
.
.
.
u X cho phep l
a.p l`
a
th
u tu. t`
C(k + t 1, t 1) = C(k + t 1, k).
- a. t X := {a1, a2, . . . , at}. Xet k + t 1 khoang trang
Ch
u.ng minh. D
...
`om k k
g
y hie.u v`a t 1 k
y hie.u |. Moi vi. tr cua k
y hie.u n`ay tren cac khoang trang xac
`an tu.
y hie.u den k
y hie.u | d`au tien tu.o.ng u
.ng phep cho.n n1 ph
di.nh mo.t phep cho.n. n1 k
.
.
.
.
.
`an tu a2; v`a van van. Ta
y hie.u den k
y hie.u | th
u hai tu o ng u
ng phep cho.n n2 ph
a1; n2 k
co C(k + t 1, t 1) cach cho.n cac vi. tr cho | nen co C(k + t 1, t 1) cach cho.n. Gia tri.
n`ay b`a ng C(k + t 1, k), so cach cho.n cac vi. tr cua ; do do co
C(k + t 1, t 1) = C(k + t 1, k)
`an tu. khong phan bie.t th
u. ta.p X cho phep la.p la.i. 2
cach cho.n k ph
u. tu.. t`
V du. 4.4.5. Co cac ho.p ch
u.a cac qua bong m`au do, xanh v`a v`ang. Moi ho.p ch
u.a t nhat
tam qua bong. Co bao nhieu cach cho.n tam qua bong? Co bao nhieu cach cho.n tam qua
bong, moi m`au t nhat mo.t qua bong?
- i.nh l
(a) Theo D
y 4.4.3, so cach cho.n tam qua bong l`a
C(8 + 3 1, 3 1) = C(10, 2) = 45.
68
- i.nh l
- `au tien cho.n mo.t qua bong moi m`au; sau do cho.n them nam qua bong. Theo D
y
(b) D
4.4.3 ta co
C(5 + 3 1, 3 1) = C(7, 2) = 21
cach.
V du. 4.4.6. (a) Co bao nhieu nghie.m nguyen khong am cua phu.o.ng tr`nh
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 29?
(4.2)
x2 > 1,
x3 > 2,
x4 0?
.........................................
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(b)
(a)
(c)
H`nh 4.2:
- i.nh l
o
o m su.. kie.n A1, A2, . . . Am. Khi d
D
y 4.4.4. Gia su. c
#(A1 A2 Am ) =
m
X
#Ai
i=1
#(Ai Aj ) +
1i<jm
#(Ai Aj Ak )
1i<j<km
+ + (1)m+1 #(A1 A2 Am ).
`an tu. a bat k`
u.ng minh ra` ng lay mo.t ph
Ch
u.ng minh. Ta se ch
y thuo.c ta.p A1 A2 Am
.
.
.
`an o ve phai.
th` a c
ung du o. c ke den d
ung mo.t l
`an tu. n`ay da
ng r ta.p, chang ha.n trong A1 A2 Ar , r m. Ph
Gia su. a thuo.c du
du.o..c tnh
P
`an trong m
+ C(r, 1) l
i=1 #Ai ;
P
`an trong m
+ C(r, 2) l
i=1 #(Ai Aj );
...
`an trong
+ C(r, m) l
Pm
i=1
`an l`a
Va.y no da du.o..c tnh tong co.ng so l
C(r, 1) C(r, 2) + C(r, 3) + (1)m+1 C(r, r).
Nhu.ng
C(r, 0) C(r, 1) + C(r, 2) + (1)r C(r, r) = 0
`an tu. a da du.o..c tnh
v`a C(r, 0) = 1. Va.y ph
C(r, 1) C(r, 2) + C(r, 3) + (1)r+1 C(r, r) = 1
70
`an. 2
l
V du. 4.4.7. Co bao nhieu nghie.m nguyen khong am cua phu.o.ng tr`nh
x1 + x2 + x3 = 11
`eu kie.n x1 3, x2 4 v`a x3 6?
vo.i di
(4.3)
ac nhau t`
u. t
a.p m ph
a.p c
o n ph
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
V du. 4.4.8. Gia su. co nam cong vie.c v`a bon ngu.`o.i xin vie.c. Co bao nhieu cach phan cong
vie.c khac nhau neu moi ngu.`o.i phai du.o..c phan cong t nhat mo.t cong vie.c?
.ng mo.t anh xa. len t`
u. ta.p cac cong vie.c den ta.p
Moi phu.o.ng phap phan cong tu.o.ng u
`eu du.o..c phan cong t nhat mo.t cong vie.c, cac anh xa. l`a
ngu.`o.i. Theo gia thiet, moi ngu.`o.i d
.
- i.nh l
len. Ap du.ng D
y 4.4.5 vo i m = 5, n = 4 ta co so cach phan cong cong vie.c b`a ng so cac
anh xa. len khac nhau v`a b`a ng
45 C(4, 1)35 + C(4, 2)25 C(4, 3)15 = 1024 972 + 192 4 = 240.
71
B`
ai t
a.p
1. Co bao nhieu chuoi khac nhau co the co khi sap xep la.i cac k
y tu.. cua cac chuoi sau:
(a) GU IDE.
(b) SCHOOL.
(c) SALEP ERSONS.
2. Co bao nhieu cach chia 10 cuon sach cho ba sinh vien sao cho sinh vien th
u. nhat co
.
.
u ba co hai cuon?
nam cuon, sinh vien th
u hai co ba cuon v`a sinh vien th
u.a t nhat
u.a cac qua bong m`au xanh, do v`a v`ang. Moi ho.p ch
3. Gia su. co cac ho.p ch
10 qua.
(a) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n 10 qua bong?
(b) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n 10 qua bong vo.i t nhat mo.t qua m`au do?
(c) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n 10 qua bong vo.i t nhat mo.t qua m`au do, t nhat hai qua
m`au xanh v`a t nhat ba qua m`au v`ang?
(d) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n 10 qua bong vo.i d
ung mo.t qua m`au do?
(e) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n 10 qua bong vo.i d
ung mo.t qua m`au do v`a t nhat mo.t
qua m`au xanh?
4. T`m so nghie.m nguyen cua phu.o.ng tr`nh
x1 + x2 + x3 = 15
neu
(a) x1 0, x2 0, x3 0.
(b) x1 = 1, x2 0, x3 0.
(c) 6 x1 0, x2 0, x3 0.
(d) x1 1, x2 1, x3 1.
(e) x1 0, x2 > 0, x3 = 1.
(f) 6 > x1 0, 9 > x2 1, x3 0.
5. T`m so nghie.m nguyen cua phu.o.ng tr`nh
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 15
neu 0 x1 4, 0 x2 5, 0 x3 9.
6. Co bao nhieu so nguyen trong ta.p {1, 2, . . . , 1000000} co tong cac ch
u. so ba` ng 15?
7. Co bao nhieu so nguyen trong ta.p {1, 2, . . . , 1000000} co tong cac ch
u. so ba` ng 20?
72
8. Co bao nhieu cach cho.n ba do.i: mo.t do.i bon ngu.`o.i, hai do.i hai ngu.`o.i t`
u. mo.t nhom
tam ngu.`o.i?
9. Mo.t t
ui sach ch
u.a 20 qua bong: sau do, sau xanh v`a tam tm.
(a) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n nam qua bong neu cac qua bong du.o..c xem l`a phan bie.t?
(b) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n nam qua bong neu cac qua bong c`
ung m`au du.o..c xem l`a
d`ong nhat?
10. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng (n!)k chia het (kn)!.
11. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
n+k2
X
i=k1
12. Viet thua.t toan t`m tat ca cac nghie.m nguyen khong am cua phu.o.ng tr`nh
x1 + x2 + x3 = n
4.5
(n N).
`ong nh
H
e. s
o cua nhi. th
u.c v`
a c
ac d
at th
u.c
- i.nh l
- i.nh l
D
y 4.5.1. (D
y nhi. th
u.c) Neu a v`
a b l`
a c
ac s
o thu..c v`
a n l`
a s
o tu.. nhien th`
n
(a + b) =
n
X
C(n, k)ank bk .
k=0
- e co mo.t th`anh
u. co da.ng ank bk , k = 0, 1, . . . , n. D
Ch
u.ng minh. Khi khai trien (a + b)n cac t`
nk
k
.
`an a b c
`an co d
ph
ung n k ch
u a trong tong so n vi. tr (v`a keo theo co d
ung k ch
u. b).
- i
`an. Suy ra
`eu n`ay co the thu..c hie.n ba` ng C(n, k) cach. Do do ank bk xuat hie.n C(n, k) l
D
(a + b)n = C(n, 0)an b0 + C(n, 1)an1 b1 + + C(n, n)a0bn .
2
Chnh v` l
y do tren m`a C(n, r) du.o..c go.i l`a he. so nhi. th
u.c.
V du. 4.5.1. T`m he. so cua a5b4 trong khai trien cua (a + b)9 .
- i.nh l
y nhi. th
u.c, he. so cua a5b4 trong khai trien (a + b)9 l`a
Theo D
C(9, 4) =
9!
= 126.
4!5!
73
V du. 4.5.2. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
n
X
(1)k C(n, k) = 0.
k=0
Ta co
n
0 = [1 + (1)] =
n
X
C(n, k)1
nk
(1) =
k=0
n
X
k=0
- i.nh l
V du. 4.5.3. Su. du.ng D
y nhi. th
u.c ta co
n
2 = (1 + 1) =
n
X
C(n, k).
k=0
- i.nh l
- ang th
D
y 4.5.2. (D
u.c Pascal)
C(n + 1, k) = C(n, k 1) + C(n, k)
v
o.i 1 k n.
`om n ph
`an tu.. Cho.n a
Ch
u.ng minh. Gia su. X l`a ta.p g
/ X. Ta co C(n + 1, k) l`a so cac
.
`an tu. cua Y co the chia th`anh
`an tu cua ta.p Y := X {a}. Moi ta.p con k ph
ta.p con k ph
hai lo.p:
+ Cac ta.p con cua Y khong ch
u.a a.
+ Cac ta.p con cua Y ch
u.a a.
`om k ph
`an tu. v`a do do co C(n, k)
Cac ta.p con thuo.c nhom th
u. nhat l`a cac ta.p con cua X g
.
ta.p con nhu va.y.
`an tu. cua X vo.i
Cac ta.p con thuo.c nhom th
u. hai l`a cac ta.p l`a ho..p cua ta.p con (k 1) ph
.
.
`om mo.t ph
`an tu a v`a do do co C(n, k 1) ta.p con nhu va.y. Suy ra
ta.p g
C(n + 1, k) = C(n, k 1) + C(n, k).
2
u.c
V du. 4.5.4. Ch
u.ng minh dang th
n
X
i=k
- i.nh l
Theo D
y 4.5.2
C(i, k) = C(i + 1, k + 1) C(i, k + 1),
74
i k.
Va.y
n
X
C(i, k) =
i=k
n
X
C(i + 1, k + 1)
i=k
n
X
C(i, k + 1)
i=k
= C(n + 1, k + 1).
V du. 4.5.5. T`
u. dang th
u.c (4.5.4) ta co
1 + 2 + + n = C(1, 1) + C(2, 1) + + C(n, 1)
= C(n + 1, 2)
(n + 1)n
.
=
2
- i.nh l
- ang th
D
y 4.5.3. (D
u.c Vandermonde)
C(m + n, r) =
r
X
C(m, k)C(n, r k)
k=0
v
o.i r min(m, n).
`om m, n ph
`an tu. phan bie.t. Lay ta.p S g
`om
.ng g
Ch
u.ng minh. Gia su. cac ta.p T1, T2 tu.o.ng u
.
.
.
`
`an tu t`
u hai ta.p n`ay. So cac ta.p S nhu va.y ba ng C(m + n, r).
r ph
`om
Ma.t khac, ta.p S co the g
`an tu. thuo.c ta.p T1. So cac ta.p con nhu. va.y ba` ng C(m, k);
+ k ph
`an tu. thuo.c ta.p T2. So cac ta.p con nhu. va.y ba` ng C(n, r k);
+ (r k) ph
vo.i 0 k r.
`eu c
`an ch
Theo nguyen l
y tch, sau do nguyen l
y tong ta co di
u.ng minh. 2
B`
ai t
a.p
- i.nh l
u.c
1. Su. du.ng D
y nhi. th
u.c khai trien cac bieu th
(a) (x + y)4.
(b) (2c 3d)5 .
u.c du.o..c khai trien:
2. T`m he. so cua so ha.ng khi bieu th
(a) x4y 7 ; (x + y)11.
(b) x2y 3z 5 ; (x + y + z)10.
(c) a2 x3; (a + x + c)2 (a + x + d)3 .
75
(d) a3x4; (a +
ax + x)2(a + x)5.
k(k + 1).
k=1
8. Tnh tong
n
X
k2.
k=1
- i.nh l
u.ng minh
9. D`
ung D
y nhi. th
u.c ch
n
X
2k C(n, k) = 3n .
k=0
C(n, 2k) = 2
n1
k=0
n/2
X
C(n, 2k 1).
k=1
11. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
(a + b + c)n =
X
0i+jn
12. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
3n =
X
0i+jn
76
n!
aibj cnij .
i!j!(n i j)!
n!
.
i!j!(n i j)!
13. D`
ung l
y lua.n to ho..p ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
n
X
k=0
14. (a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
n(1 + x)
n1
n
X
C(n, k)kxk1.
k=1
(b) T`
u. do suy ra
n1
n2
n
X
kC(n, k).
k=1
4.6
`ong chim b
`o c
Nguy
en l
y chu
au
`ong chim b
`o cau (c`on go.i l`a nguyen l
Nguyen l
y chu
y Dirichlet) thu.`o.ng d`
ung nha` m tra l`o.i
`on ta.i mo.t ph
`an tu. thoa tnh chat cho tru.o.c? Khi ap du.ng th`anh cong, nguyen
cau hoi: Co t
`on ta.i; tuy nhien khong ch ra cach t`m no nhu. the n`ao v`a co
l
y n`ay ch ra r`a ng doi tu.o..ng t
.
`on ta.i.
`an tu t
bao nhieu ph
`ong chim b
`o cau khang di.nh r`a ng neu co n va.t c
`an xep
Da.ng d`au tien cua nguyen l
y chu
.
.
`
y do
v`ao k ho.p v`a n > k th` co t nha t co mo.t ho.p ch
u a hai hoa.c nhieu ho n hai va.t. L
u.ng: Neu ket lua.n l`a sai, moi ho.p
khang di.nh n`ay du
ng co the ch
u.ng minh b`a ng phan ch
`eu nhat mo.t va.t v`a do do trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay co nhi
`eu nhat k va.t. Nhu.ng co n
ch
u.a nhi
va.t nen n k vo l
y.
4.6.1
`ong chim b
`o c
at)
Nguy
en l
y chu
au (da.ng th
u. nh
V du. 4.6.2. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng vo.i n + 1 so nguyen du.o.ng khac nhau khong vu.o..t qua 2n
th` phai co hai so chia het cho nhau.
Gia su. n + 1 so nguyen du.o.ng l`a a1, a2, . . . , an+1 , vo.i 0 < ai 2n. Ta co the viet
ai = 2ki qi ,
i = 1, 2, . . . , n + 1,
trong do ki l`a so nguyen khong am v`a qi l`a so nguyen le khong am v`a khong vu.o..t qua 2n.
V du. 1 = 20 , 14 = 21 7, 40 = 23 5, . . . .
V` ch co n so le khong vu.o..t qua 2n nen trong n + 1 so le q1, q2 , . . . , qn+1 phai co t nhat
hai so ba` ng nhau, chang ha.n qi = qj = q vo.i i 6= j.
Khi do
ai = 2ki qi = 2ki q,
aj = 2kj qj = 2kj q,
4.6.2
`ong chim b
`o c
Nguy
en l
y chu
au (da.ng th
u. hai)
Tha.t va.y, da.t X l`a ta.p cac va.t v`a Y l`a ta.p cac ho.p. Gan moi va.t x vo.i mo.t ho.p f (x).
`ong chim b
`o cau da.ng th
Theo nguyen l
y chu
u. nhat, co t nhat hai va.t khac nhau x1, x2 X
ung mo.t ho.p; t
u.c l`a f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).
du.o..c gan c`
V du. 4.6.4. Neu 20 bo. vi xu. l
y du.o..c noi vo.i nhau th` co t nhat hai bo. vi xu. l
y du.o..c noi
ung so cac bo. vi xu. l
tru..c tiep to.i c`
y.
- a.t ai l`a so cac bo. vi xu. l
y l`a 1, 2, . . . , 20. D
y du.o..c noi tru..c tiep vo.i
K
y hie.u cac bo. vi xu. l
`an ch
`en xac di.nh v`a
y i. Ch
ung ta c
u.ng minh ra` ng ai = aj vo.i i 6= j n`ao do. Mi
bo. vi xu. l
.
.
`en gia tri. cua b`ai toan tu o ng u
.ng l`a X := {1, 2, . . . , 20} v`a {0, 1, . . . , 19}. Tuy nhien so
mi
`ong
`an tu. cua hai ta.p ho..p n`ay ba` ng nhau, nen khong the ap du.ng tru..c tiep nguyen l
y chu
ph
`
chim bo cau da.ng hai.
Ch
uy
r`a ng ta khong the co ai = 0 v`a aj = 19 vo.i i, j n`ao do, v` neu ngu.o..c la.i ta co mo.t
u. bo. vi xu. l
bo. vi xu. l
y (th
u. i) khong du.o..c noi vo.i bat c
y n`ao trong khi la.i co mo.t bo. vi
.
.
.
.
.
y (th
u j) du o. c noi vo i tat ca cac bo. vi xu. l
y khac (ke cac bo. vi xu. l
y th
u. i). Do do Y
xu l
y
l`a ta.p con cua ta.p {0, 1, . . . , 18} hoa.c {1, 2, . . . , 19}. Va.y #Y < 20 = #X. Theo nguyen l
.
`
`
chuong chim bo cau da.ng hai ta co ai = aj vo i i 6= j n`ao do.
V du. 4.6.5. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu cho.n 151 giao tr`nh may tnh phan bie.t du.o..c danh so
.
.
.
u 1 den 300 th` co t nhat hai giao tr`nh co so th
u. tu.. lien tiep.
th
u tu. t`
Gia su. cac giao tr`nh du.o..c danh so l`a
c1 , c2, . . . , c151.
(4.4)
Cac so n`ay c`
ung vo.i
c1 + 1, c2 + 1, . . . , c151 + 1
(4.5)
`ong chim b
`o cau da.ng th
y chu
u. hai
ta.o th`anh 302 so thay doi t`
u. 1 den 301. Theo nguyen l
co t nhat hai gia tri. ba` ng nhau. Cac so trong (4.4) l`a phan bie.t v`a do do cac so trong (4.5)
c
ung khac nhau. V` va.y phai co mo.t so trong day (4.4) ba` ng mo.t so trong day (4.5). Do do
ci = cj + 1
(hien nhien i 6= j) v`a ta co hai giao tr`nh ci v`a cj du.o..c danh so lien tiep.
`om 80 khoan mu.c, moi khoan mu.c du.o..c danh dau ho..p
V du. 4.6.6. Ban ke t`ai khoan g
.
le. hoa.c khong ho. p le.. Co 45 khoan mu.c ho..p le.. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng co t nhat hai khoan
mu.c ho..p le. trong danh sach cach nhau chnh xac chn khoan mu.c. (Chang ha.n cac khoan
mu.c ta.i cac vi. tr 13 v`a 22 hoa.c ta.i vi. tr 69 v`a 78 cach nhau d
ung 9 khoan mu.c).
`an ch ra ai aj = 9 vo.i i, j n`ao do.
u. i. Ta c
K
y hie.u ai l`a vi. tr cua khoan mu.c ho..p le. th
Xet cac so
(4.6)
a1, a2, . . . , a45
v`a
a1 + 9, a2 + 9, . . . , a45 + 9.
79
(4.7)
`ong chim b
`o
90 so trong (4.6) v`a (4.7) lay cac gia tri. t`
u. 1 den 89. Do do theo nguyen l
y chu
.
ung nhau. Hien nhien khong the co hai so trong day
cau da.ng th
u hai, co t nhat hai so tr`
`
`
(4.6) hoa.c (4.7) ba ng nhau; nen ton ta.i mo.t so trong day (4.6) ba` ng mo.t so trong day (4.7).
Va.y ai aj = 9 vo.i i, j n`ao do.
4.6.3
`ong chim b
`o c
u. ba)
Nguy
en l
y chu
au (da.ng th
n
= n,
m
(4.8)
V du. 4.6.8. So ho.c vien toi thieu l`a bao nhieu de dam bao t nhat co 6 ngu.o`.i c`
ung thang
diem, neu giao vien cho diem theo thang diem A, B, C, D, F ?
Ta co N l`a so nho nhat thoa dN/5e = 6. Suy ra N = 5 5 + 1 = 26 ho.c vien.
V du. 4.6.9. Gia su. nhom co sau ngu.`o.i; c
u. lay mo.t ca.p bat k`
y, th` hai ngu.`o.i n`ay hoa.c l`a
ba.n, hoa.c l`a th`
u. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng se co cac bo. ba hoa.c d`eu l`a ba.n cua nhau, hoa.c d`eu l`a
th`
u cua nhau.
y trong nhom; nam ngu.`o.i c`on la.i la.p th`anh nhom rieng. Ta ta.o hai
Lay x l`a ngu.`o.i bat k`
ho.p B v`a T. Nam ngu.`o.i n`ay se du.o..c phan loa.i (theo quan he. vo.i x) :
.ng ngu.`o.i trong ho.p B;
(a) hoa.c l`a ba.n cua x : tu.o.ng u
.ng ngu.`o.i trong ho.p T.
(b) hoa.c l`a th`
u cua x : tu.o.ng u
`ong chim b
`o cau da.ng th
Theo nguyen l
y chu
u. ba, se co mo.t ho.p co t nhat d5/2e = 3
ngu.`o.i. Gia su. do l`a ho.p B vo.i ba ngu.`o.i y, z, u.
`on ta.i ca.p trong nhom ba ngu.`o.i n`ay l`a ba.n cua nhau, chang ha.n y v`a z, khi do
Neu t
`an t`m. Ngu.o..c la.i, t
{x, y, z} l`a bo. ba c
u.c l`a y, z, u moi ca.p doi mo.t l`a th`
u cua nhau, khi do
`an t`m.
{y, z, u} l`a bo. ba c
u.ng minh tu.o.ng tu...
Cac tru.`o.ng ho..p c`on la.i ch
B`
ai t
a.p
1. Co the noi nam may tnh vo.i nhau sao cho co chnh xac hai may tnh du.o..c noi tru..c
tiep den c`
ung mo.t so may? Giai thch.
`om 115 khoan mu.c, moi khoan mu.c du.o..c danh dau ho..p le. hoa.c
2. Ban ke t`ai khoan g
.
u.ng minh r`a ng co t nhat hai khoan mu.c
khong ho. p le.. Co 60 khoan mu.c ho..p le.. Ch
ho..p le. trong danh sach cach nhau chnh xac bon khoan mu.c.
`om 100 khoan mu.c, moi khoan mu.c du.o..c danh dau ho..p le. hoa.c
3. Ban ke t`ai khoan g
.
u.ng minh r`a ng co t nhat hai khoan mu.c
khong ho. p le.. Co 55 khoan mu.c ho..p le.. Ch
ho..p le. trong danh sach cach nhau chnh xac chn khoan mu.c.
`om 80 khoan mu.c, moi khoan mu.c du.o..c danh dau ho..p le. hoa.c
4. Ban ke t`ai khoan g
u.ng minh r`a ng co t nhat hai khoan mu.c
khong ho..p le.. Co 50 khoan mu.c ho..p le.. Ch
trong danh sach cach nhau chnh xac hoa.c ba hoa.c sau khoan mu.c.
5. Ho`an chnh V du. 4.6.7 b`a ng cach ch ra r`a ng neu cac ca.p (P1 , Pi ), (P1 , Pj ), (P1 , Pk ) l`a
`on ta.i ba anh doi mo.t tu.o.ng tu.. hoa.c doi mo.t khong tu.o.ng tu...
khong tu.o.ng tu.. th` t
6. Ket lua.n cua V du. 4.6.7 nhu. the n`ao neu:
81
217/660 = 0.32878787 . . . .
`on ta.i cac so nguyen phan bie.t i 6= j sao cho f i (x) 6= f j (x) vo.i mo.i
Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng t
`on ta.i so nguyen k sao cho f k (x) = x vo.i mo.i x X.
x X. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng t
12. Mo.t h`nh ch
u. nha.t kch thu.o.c 3 7 du.o..c chia th`anh 21 h`nh vuong; moi h`nh vuong
.
.
u.ng minh ra` ng b`an c`o. ch
u.a mo.t h`nh ch
u. nha.t khong
du o. c to m`au den hoa.c trang. Ch
`am thu.`o.ng (khong co kch thu.o.c 1 k hoa.c k 1) sao cho bon h`nh vuong o. moi goc
t
hoa.c tat ca to m`au den hoa.c tat ca to m`au trang.
82
13. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu p bit 1 v`a q bit 0 du.o..c da.t xung quanh mo.t v`ong tr`on theo th
u.
`on ta.i k bit 1 du
yy
, trong do p, q, k l`a cac so nguyen thoa p kq th` t
.ng lien
tu.. tu`
tiep.
14. Viet thua.t toan t`m do. d`ai cua day con do.n die.u tang d`ai nhat cua mo.t day so cho
tru.o.c.
83
84
Chu.o.ng 5
.
QUAN HE
Nhu. da biet, tat ca cac doi tu.o..ng trong the gio.i xung quanh ta d`eu co nh
u.ng moi quan he.
.
.
.
`on ta.i tach r`o.i (khong
nhat di.nh vo i nhau. Ro r`ang khong co mo.t doi tu o. ng n`ao co the t
`eu moi
u.a du..ng rat nhi
lien quan) vo.i the gio.i ben ngo`ai. Ma.t khac, moi doi tu.o..ng la.i ch
.
ung mo.t lo p, ta co the noi
quan he. no.i ta.i cua ban than no. Xet mo.t nhom sinh vien trong c`
.
ra` ng hai sinh vien co quan he. vo i nhau neu ho. co c`
ung que. Xet mo.t ta.p ho..p cac so nguyen
`an tu. n`ao do cua ta.p ho..p n`ay co quan he. vo.i nhau
{1, 2, . . . , 15}, ta co the noi r`a ng ba ph
`an tu. hay cac doi tu.o..ng co
ung chia het cho 4. Noi mo.t cach khac, cac ph
neu tong cua ch
.
.
.
.
quan he. cha.t che vo i nhau, nhu ng moi quan he. du o. c hieu nhu. the n`ao l`a phu. thuo.c v`ao
di.nh ngha cua ch
ung ta. Mo h`nh co. so. d
u. lie.u quan he., du.o..c du.a ra bo.i E. F. Codd v`ao
.
.ng du.ng cua quan
u.ng u
nam 1970, du. a tren khai nie.m cua quan he. n ngoi l`a mo.t trong nh
he. trong Tin ho.c.
Trong chu.o.ng n`ay, ch
ung ta se nghien c
u.u cac moi quan he. tren co. so. l
y thuyet ta.p ho..p.
.
.
.
.
u u cac quan he. hai ngoi tren hai ta.p ho. p v`a tren c`
ung mo.t ta.p ho..p,
Tru o c het ta nghien c
ung ta se xet den quan he. th
u. tu..,
c`
ung vo.i cac tnh chat cua cac quan he. do. Tiep theo, ch
.
.
.
.
quan he. tu o ng du o ng v`a cac moi lien quan.
5.1
Quan h
e. hai ng
oi
b1
..
...
....
....
...
.
.
.
...
...
....
....
......................................................................................................................
....
...
....
....
...........
..
....
....
....
....
.
.
.
...
....
....
....
....
.
.
.
....
....
.
.....
.....
.....
....
.
.
.
.
..
.....
.....
.....
.....
.
.
.
..........
.
.
.
......
...........
.......... ...........
...........
... ....................
...........
.....
.
.
.
.
..........
...........
.....
..........
.....
..........
.....
....
.....
a1
b2
b3
a2
b4
a3
b5
a4
b6
H`nh 5.1:
ch
u.ng ch b.
V du. 5.1.2. Gia su. P l`a ta.p cac chu.o.ng tr`nh du.o..c thu..c hie.n tren may tnh v`a mo.t do.n
vi. C cac chu.o.ng tr`nh co san cho phep de su. du.ng. Ta da.t mo.t quan he. R t`
u. C len P nhu.
sau: (c, p) R neu chu.o.ng tr`nh p su. du.ng thu tu.c c.
V du. 5.1.3. Cho
S := {a1, a2, a3, a4}
l`a ta.p cac sinh vien tot nghie.p c`on
T := {b1 , b2, b3, b4 , b5, b6}
`an nha.n sinh vien tot nghie.p. Quan he.
l`a ta.p cac co. quan c
R := {(a1, b2), (a2, b1), (a3 , b6), (a4, b4)}
t`
u. S len T mo ta cac ca.p sap xep no.i cong tac cho moi sinh vien.
u. nh
u.ng tru.`o.ng ho..p ngoa. i le. m`a se noi ro, ta se luon luon gia
Trong chu.o.ng n`ay, ngoa.i tr`
.
.
thiet ra` ng cac quan he. du o. c xet tren cac ta.p h
u.u ha.n. Khi do co the mo ta quan he. R t`
u.
`an tu. cua S
S len T ba` ng phu.o.ng phap d`o thi. nhu. sau: cac dnh cua d`o thi. bieu thi. cac ph
.
.
.
.
.
.
v`a T, c`on cac cung l`a cac du `o ng co hu o ng noi cac ca.p (a, b) R (co khi ngu `o i ta viet tat
`o thi. trong H`nh 5.1.
du.o.i da.ng aRb); chang ha.n quan he. trong V du. 5.1.3 co d
ung thu.`o.ng d`
ung ma tra.n cap m n de bieu thi. moi quan he. R t`
u.
Ngo`ai ra, ngu.`o.i ta c
.
`an tu mij cua
S = {a1, a2, . . . , am } len T = {b1, b2, . . . , bn }, trong do m := #S, n := #T. Ph
.
.
.
ma tra.n du o. c xac di.nh nhu sau
(
1 neu (ai , bj ) R,
mij :=
0 neu ngu.o..c la.i.
86
V du. 5.1.4. Ma tra.n bieu dien quan he. R trong V du. 5.1.3 l`a
b1
a1 0
a2
1
a3 0
a4 0
b2
1
0
0
0
b3
0
0
0
0
b4
0
0
0
1
b5
0
0
0
0
b6
0
0
.
1
0
Ban than cac quan he. la.i lien quan vo.i nhau ta.o nen cac quan he. mo.i. Chang ha.n, ho..p
u.c ta.o nen cac quan he. mo.i.
gi
u.a cac quan he. l`a mo.t h`nh th
- i.nh ngha 5.1.2. Gia su. R1 l`a quan he. t`
u. S1 len S2 ; R2 l`a quan he. t`
u. S2 len S3. Ho..p cua
D
u. S1 len S3 xac di.nh bo.i
hai quan he. R1 v`a R2 l`a mo.t quan he. t`
`on ta.i y S2 de (x, y) R1 , (y, z) R2 }.
R2 R1 := {(x, z) S1 S3 | t
V du. 5.1.5. Gia su. T l`a ta.p cac ch
u.ng ch, U l`a ta.p cac khoa. Xet quan he. R nhu. trong
0
`om cac ca.p (b, c) sao cho ch
V du. 5.1.1. Quan he. R S U g
u.ng ch b T l`a bat buo.c
`on ta.i ch
u.ng ch bat buo.c
ghi danh ho.c khoa U. The th` R0 R l`a ta.p cac ca.p (a, c) sao cho t
m`a sinh vien a phai ho.c khi ghi danh v`ao khoa c. Ch
uy
r`a ng trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay R R0
l`a khong co ngha!
Tnh ch
at 5.1.3. Ho..p c
ac quan he. c
o c
ac tnh ch
at sau:
(a) Tnh ket ho..p
R3 (R2 R1) = (R3 R2 ) R1 .
(b) Tnh ph
an b
o
R3 (R1 R2 ) = (R3 R1 ) (R3 R2 ),
(R2 R3 ) R1 = (R2 R1 ) (R3 R1 ).
a R3 R4 th`
(c) Neu R1 R2 v`
R1 R3 R2 R4 ,
R1 R3 R2 R4 .
a R3 R4 th`
(d) Neu R1 R2 v`
R3 R1 R4 R2 .
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
87
- a.t S1 := {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, S2 := {a, b, c} v`a S3 := [e, f, g, h}. Xet cac quan he. t`
V du. 5.1.6. D
u.
u. S2 len S3 xac d.inh tu.o.ng u
.ng bo.i
S1 len S2 v`a t`
R1 := {(1, a), (2, a), (2, c), (3, a), (3, b), (4, a), (4, b), (4, c), (5, b)},
R2 := {(a, e), (a, g), (b, f ), (b, g), (b, h), (c, e), (c, g), (c, h)}.
Khi do
R2 R1 = {(1, e), (1, g), (2, e), (2, g), (2, h), (3, e), (3, f), (3, g), (3, h),
(4, e), (4, f), (4, g), (4, h), (5, f), (5, g), (5, h)},
v`a cac ma tra.n A1 , A2 v`a A tu.o.ng u
.ng cac quan he. R1 , R2 v`a R2 R1 l`a
1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 0 1 0
A1 =
1 1 0 , A2 = 0 1 1 1 , A = 1 1 1 1 .
1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1
0 1 0
0 1 1 1
So sanh A v`a ma tra.n tch cua A1 v`a A2
1
2
A1 A2 =
1
2
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
2
2
3
1
0
1
1
,
2
1
- i
`eu n`ay
`an tu. khac 0 trong ma tra.n A1A2 ! D
ta thay so 1 trong ma tra.n A tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i ph
.
.
`an sau.
se du o. c giai thch trong ph
- i.nh ngha 5.1.4. Gia su. R l`a quan he. t`
y hie.u R1 ,
D
u. S len T. Quan he. ngu.o..c cua R, k
l`a mo.t quan he. t`
u. T len S xac d.inh bo.i
R1 := {(x, y) T S | (y, x) R}.
Tnh ch
at 5.1.5. Gia su. R l`
a quan he. tren S. Khi d
o
u.c l`
a
a ch neu R d
oi x
u.ng, t
(a) R = R1 neu v`
R = R1 xRy suy ra yRx.
u.c l`
a
a ch neu R pha n d
oi x
u.ng, t
(b) R R1 E := {(x, x) | x S} neu v`
R R1 E xRy v`
a yRx th` x = y.
Ch
u.ng minh. (a) Hien nhien theo di.nh ngha.
(b) Gia su. R phan doi x
u.ng, v`a (x, y) R R1 . Khi do xRy v`a yRx. Suy ra xRx. Hay
(x, x) E.
Ngu.o..c la.i gia su. R R1 E, xRy v`a yRx. Th` (x, y) R R1 E. Do do (x, y) E.
2
88
B`
ai t
a.p
- a. t S := {0, 1, 2}. Moi phat bieu sau xac d.inh mo.t quan he. R tren S bo.i mRn neu
1. D
u.
khang di.nh l`a du
ng doi vo.i m, n S. Viet moi quan he. nhu. mo.t ta.p cac ca.p co th
tu...
(a) m n.
(d) mn = 0.
(g) m2 + n2 = 2.
(h) m2 + n2 = 3.
(b) m < n.
(e) mn = m.
(i) m = max{n, 1}.
(c) m = n.
(f) m + n S.
`o thi. tu.o.ng
u.ng? Viet ma tra.n v`a ve cac d
Cac quan he. n`ao l`a doi x
u.ng? phan doi x
u
.ng.
2. Cac quan he. hai ngoi sau xac di.nh tren N.
(a) Viet quan he. hai ngoi R1 xac di.nh bo.i m + n = 5 da.ng cac ca.p th
u. tu...
(b) Nhu. tren vo.i R2 xac d.inh bo.i max{m, n} = 2.
`om vo ha.n cac ca.p th
u. tu... Hay
(c) Quan he. hai ngoi R3 xac di.nh bo.i min{m, n} = 2 g
viet nam ca.p trong do.
u.u ha.n).
3. Neu A l`a ma tra.n cua quan he. R t`
u. S len T (gia thiet S v`a T l`a cac ta.p h
.
.
1
T`m ma tra.n cua quan he. ngu o. c R .
4. Gia su. R l`a quan he. hai ngoi tren ta.p S. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng R l`a doi x
u.ng neu v`a ch
1
neu R = R .
5. Gia su. R1 , R2 l`a cac quan he. t`
u. S len T.
1
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng (R1 R2 )1 = R1
1 R2 .
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng (R1 R2 )1 = R1 R1 .
1
1
(c) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu R1 R2 th` R1
1 R2 .
6. Gia su. G l`a d`o thi. cua quan he. R tren ta.p h
u.u ha.n S. Mo ta d`o thi. cua quan he. R1 .
7. Tren ta.p S := {1, 2, 3, 4} xet cac quan he. hai ngoi sau:
R1 := {(1, 1), (1, 2), (3, 4), (4, 2)},
R2 := {(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 4), (2, 2)}.
`an tu. cua R1 R2 v`a R2 R1 .
Lie.t ke cac ph
8. Khao sat cac quan he. R1 v`a R2 t`
u. S len T v`a cac quan he. R3 v`a R4 t`
u. T len U.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng (R3 R4 ) R1 = R3 R1 R4 R1 .
u.c khong nhat
(b) Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng R3 (R1 R2 ) R3 R1 R3 R2 v`a dang th
thiet du
ng.
(c) Cac quan he. (R3 R4 ) R1 v`a R3 R1 R4 R1 co lien he. nhu. the n`ao?
89
5.2
Quan h
e. v`
a ma tr
a.n
Nhu. V du. 5.1.6 ch ra, ma tra.n cua quan he. R2 R1 khong phai l`a tch A1A2 cua cac ma
`an tu. ba` ng 1 trong A tu.o.ng u
tra.n R1 v`a R2 . Tuy nhien ch
ung co moi lien he.: ph
.ng mo.t-mo.t
.
.
`an tu khac khong trong A1A2 .
vo i ph
Xet B := {0, 1} v`a hai phep toan Boole , di.nh ngha nhu. sau:
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
Ta co
Tnh ch
at 5.2.1. V
o.i mo.i x, y B ta c
o
x y = max{x, y},
x y = min{x, y}.
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
- i.nh ngha 5.2.2. (a) A du.o..c go.i l`a ma tra.n Boole neu cac ph
`an tu. cua no thuo.c B.
D
(b) Tch hai ma tra.n Boole A1 v`a A2 cap m n v`a n p tu.o.ng u
.ng l`a ma tra.n Boole cap
m p, k hie.u A1 A2 , xac d.inh bo.i
(A1 A2)[i, j] := nk=1 (A1[i, k] A2[k, j]),
i = 1, 2, . . . , m, j = 1, 2, . . . , p.
(c) Ho.i hai ma tra.n Boole A1 v`a A2 cap m n l`a ma tra.n Boole cap m n, k hie.u A1 A2,
`an tu. l`a
co cac ph
(A1 A2)[i, j] := A1[i, j] A2 [i, j],
i = 1, 2, . . . , m, j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
(d) Tuyen hai ma tra.n Boole A1 v`a A2 cap m n l`a ma tra.n Boole cap m n, k hie.u
`an tu. l`a
A1 A2, co cac ph
(A1 A2)[i, j] := A1[i, j] A2 [i, j],
i = 1, 2, . . . , m, j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
1 0
A= 1 0
1 1
Quan he. R2 := R R co ma tra.n
vo.i ma tra.n
0
1 .
0
1 0 0
A A = 1 1 0 .
1 0 1
1 0 0
A A A = 1 0 1 = A.
1 1 0
Suy ra R = R3 . Ho.n n
u.a vo.i mo.i n 1 ta co
Rn+2 = R(n1)+3 = Rn1 R3 = Rn1 R = Rn !
.ng
V du. 5.2.3. Gia su. R1 v`a R2 l`a cac quan he. tren {1, 2} co cac ma tra.n Boole tu.o.ng u
1 1
1 1
,
A2 =
.
A1 =
1 0
0 1
Do
1 1
1 1
6=
= A2 A1,
A1 A2 =
1 1
1 0
/ R1 R2. Suy ra R1 R2 6= R2 R1 .
nen (2, 2) R2 R1 nhu.ng (2, 2)
- i.nh l
an ho..p l`
a nu.a nh
D
y 5.2.4. T
a.p P(S S), t
at ca c
ac quan he. tren S, v
o.i phep to
om,
.
.
.
.
.
`an tu do.n
a c
o c
ac tnh ch
at sau: phep to
an ho. p c
o tnh ket ho. p v`
a P(S S) ch
u a ph
t
u c l`
vi..
Ch
u.ng minh. Tha.t va.y, phep ho..p co tnh chat ket ho..p do Tnh chat 5.1.3(a); v`a do.n vi. l`a
`ong nhat:
quan he. d
E := {(x, x) S | x S}.
2
- i.nh l
`e nghien c
u.u cac ma tra.n cua ch
ung.
D
y sau ch ra vie.c nghien c
u.u quan he. chuyen v
- .inh l
`an tu.. Khi d
`on ta.i
D
y 5.2.5. Gia su. S l`
a t
a.p n ph
o t
anh xa. m
o.t-m
o.t len gi
u.a t
a.p
an c
ac
P(S S) c
ac quan he. tren S v`
a t
a.p c
ac ma tr
a.n Boole c
ap n n. Anh xa. n`
ay ba o to`
.
.
phep to
an nu a nh
a R l`
a c
ac quan he. v
o i c
aA
ac ma tr
a.n Boole A1 , A2 v`
om: neu R1 , R2 v`
.ng, th`
tu.o.ng u
R2 R1 = R A1 A2 = A.
91
Ch
u.ng minh. Hien nhien theo cac ket qua tren. 2
- i.nh ngha 5.2.6. Quan he. hai ngoi R tren S du.o..c go.i l`a
D
(a) Phan xa. neu xRx vo.i mo.i x S;
`au neu xRy v`a yRz th` xRz.
(b) Bac c
V du. 5.2.4. Xet cac quan he. R1 , R2 , R3 v`a E tren S := {1, 2, 3, 4} tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i cac ma
tra.n
0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1
, A2 := 1 1 1 0 ,
A1 :=
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0
A3 :=
0 0 1 0 , I4 := 0 0 1 0 .
1 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
(a) R1 l`a quan he. du.o..c xac d.inh bo.i mR1n neu m n. Quan he. R1 l`a phan xa. v`a bac
`au.
c
(b) R2 l`a quan he. du.o..c xac di.nh bo.i mR2n neu |m n| 1. Quan he. R2 l`a phan xa., doi
`au.
x
u.ng nhu.ng khong bac c
(c) R3 l`a quan he. du.o..c xac d.inh bo.i mR3n neu v`a ch neu m = n (mod 3). Ta co R3 l`a
`au.
quan he. phan xa., doi x
u.ng v`a bac c
`au.
(d) Quan he. E := {(m, n) S S | m = n} tren S l`a phan xa., doi x
u.ng v`a bac c
V du. 5.2.5. (a) Quan he. R tren Z di.nh ngha bo.i
mRn
m + n = 0 (mod 3)
Ch
u.ng minh. (a) Hien nhien.
`on ta.i y A sao cho (x, y), (y, z) R. V`
`au v`a (x, z) R2 . Khi do t
(b) Gia su. R l`a bac c
.
.
.
2
`
R bac cau nen (x, z) R. Ngu o. c la.i, gia su R R. Xet (x, y), (y, z) R. Th` (x, z) R2 .
Va.y (x, z) R. 2
Gia su. A1 , A2 l`a hai ma tra.n Boole c`
ung cap m n. K
y hie.u A1 A2 ngha l`a
A1[i, j] A2[i, j]
vo.i mo.i i = 1, 2, . . . , m, j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Tnh ch
at 5.2.8. Gia su. R1 , R2 l`
a hai quan he. t`
u. S len T tu.o.ng u
.ng c
ac ma tr
a.n A1, A2.
Ta c
o
(a) R1 R2 neu v`
a ch neu A1 A2.
o ma tr
a.n Boole A1 A2.
(b) R1 R2 c
(c) R1 R2 c
o ma tr
a.n Boole A1 A2.
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
H
e. qua 5.2.9. Gia su. R l`
a quan he. tren t
a.p S tu.o.ng u
.ng ma tr
a.n Boole A := (aij )nn , n =
#S. Khi d
o
(a) R2 R neu v`
a ch neu A A A.
(b) R pha n xa. neu v`
a ch neu aii = 1, i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
(c) R d
oi x
u.ng neu v`
a ch neu A = At.
a ch neu A At In .
(d) R pha n d
oi x
u.ng neu v`
`au neu v`
(e) R b
ac c
a ch neu A A A.
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
B`
ai t
a.p
1. Vo.i moi ma tra.n Boole sau, xet quan he. tu.o.ng u
.ng R tren {1, 2, 3}. T`m ma tra.n
`au.
Boole cua R2 v`a xac d.inh quan he. n`ao l`a bac c
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 0 1
0 1 1 ,
0 1 0 ,
0 1 0 .
1 0 1
1 0 1
1 0 0
Ve d`o thi. cua cac quan he. tren.
93
2. Gia su. S := {1, 2, 3}, T := {a, b, c, d} v`a R1 , R2 l`a cac quan he. t`
u. S len T vo.i cac ma
tra.n Boole
1 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
A1 := 0 1 0 0 ,
A2 := 1 0 0 1 .
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1
(a) T`m cac ma tra.n Boole cua R1
1 , R2 .
1
1
(b) T`m cac ma tra.n Boole cua R1
1 (R1 R2 ), (R1 R1 ) (R1 R2 ).
1
1
1
(c) T`m cac ma tra.n Boole cua (R1
1 R2 ) R2 , (R1 R2 ) (R2 R2 ).
`an (b) v`a (c) vo.i cac khang di.nh trong B`ai ta.p
(d) So sanh cac cau tra l`o.i trong ph
10.
3. Gia su. S := {1, 2, 3} v`a R := {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 2)}.
(a) T`m cac ma tra.n cua R, R R1 v`a R1 R.
`an (a).
(b) Ve cac d`o thi. cua cac quan he. trong ph
`au (t
u.c l`a R2 R), nhu.ng R2 6= R.
(c) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng R l`a bac c
`au? Giai thch.
(d) R R1 l`a quan he. bac c
(e) T`m Rn vo.i n = 2, 3, . . . .
4. Gia su. S := {1, 2, 3} v`a R := {(2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2)}.
(a) T`m cac ma tra.n cua R, R1 v`a R R2 .
`an (a).
(b) Ve cac d`o thi. cua cac quan he. trong ph
`au?
(c) R l`a bac c
`au?
(d) R2 l`a bac c
`au?
(e) R R2 l`a bac c
5. Gia su. R l`a quan he. tren S := {1, 2, 3} vo.i
A := 1
0
ma tra.n Boole
1 0
1 1 .
1 0
1 0 0
A := 0 1 1 .
1 0 1
7. Gia su. P l`a ta.p tat ca cac ngu.`o.i v`a khao sat quan he. R, trong do pRq neu p thch
q.
94
95
b
0
0
0
1
1
1
.
0
0
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng R1 R l`a quan he. doi x
u.ng tren S.
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng R R1 l`a quan he. doi x
u.ng tren S.
`au?
(c) Cac quan he. R R1 , R1 R l`a phan xa.? Bac c
14. Gia su. R l`a quan he. t`
u. S len T.
u.ng tren S. (Khong su. du.ng ma tra.n
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng R1 R l`a quan he. doi x
Boole do S hoa.c T co the khong h
u.u ha.n).
(b) Suy ra R R1 l`a doi x
u.ng tren T.
(c) Khi n`ao th` R1 R l`a phan xa.?
u. S len T, R2 l`a quan he. t`
u. T len U, trong do S, T, U l`a cac
15. Gia su. R1 l`a quan he. t`
u.ng minh r`a ng
ta.p h
u.u ha.n. Du..a v`ao ma tra.n Boole bieu dien quan he., ch
1
(R2 R1 )1 = R1
1 R2 .
v`a doi x
u ng, th` R R .
5.3
Quan h
e. th
u. tu..
- i.nh ngha 5.3.1. Quan he. hai ngoi R tren ta.p S du.o..c go.i l`a quan he. th
D
u. tu.. (hay ro ho.n,
`au. Khi
u.ng v`a bac c
quan he. th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n) neu no co cac tnh chat: phan xa., phan doi x
.
.
.
.
do thay cho cach viet aRb, ngu `o i ta thu `o ng viet a b hoa.c b a v`a noi ra` ng a di tru.o.c b,
hoa.c b di sau a. Nhu. va.y
(a) a a vo.i mo.i a S.
(b) Neu a b v`a b a th` a = b.
(c) Neu a b v`a b c th` a c.
96
Neu a b v`a a 6= b ta k
y hie.u a < b hoa.c b > a v`a noi r`a ng a thu..c su.. di tru.o.c b hoa.c b
thu..c su.. di sau a.
u.
K hie.u (S, ) co ngha l`a quan he. th
u. tu.. tren ta.p S; v`a (S, ) du.o..c go.i l`a ta.p co th
.
tu. bo. pha.n.
`an tu. a, b S th` khong nhat thiet phai co a b hoa.c b a.
Nha.n xet ra` ng vo.i hai ph
`an tu. a v`a b go.i l`a so sanh du.o..c vo.i nhau. Neu A S
Neu hoa.c a b hoa.c b a th` cac ph
`an tu. bat k`
v`a hai ph
y cua A l`a so sanh du.o..c vo.i nhau th` A go.i l`a ta.p con sap thang cua S.
V du. 5.3.1. Xet tru.`o.ng so ph
u.c C v`a quan he. x y, trong do x = a + ib v`a y = c + id, i =
- a.t
1, neu a c v`a b d. Hien nhien l`a quan he. th
u. tu... D
A := {x C | x = a + i0, a R}.
Vo.i quan he. ta.p A l`a ta.p con sap thang cua C. Ta co 2 + i3 < 2 + i5. Nhu.ng 2 + i3 khong
so sanh du.o..c vo.i 1 + i5.
- i.nh ngha 5.3.2. (a) Gia su. l`a quan he. th
D
u. tu.. tren ta.p S. Ta noi ra` ng t phu s neu
`on ta.i u S sao cho s < u < t.
s < t v`a khong t
`om cac dnh l`a cac ph
`an tu. cua S
(b) Lu.o..c d`o Hasse cua (S, ) l`a mo.t d`o thi. co hu.o.ng g
u. s den t.
v`a neu t phu s th` co mo.t cung noi t`
- a.t S := {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Ta viet m|n neu n l`a bo.i nguyen cua m. Khi do
V du. 5.3.2. (a) D
.
.
(S, |) l`a ta.p du o. c sap th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n. Ta co lu.o..c d`o Hasse trong H`nh 5.2.
4
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..
H`nh 5.2:
(b) Tren S := P({a, b, c}) xet quan he. bao h`am . Khi do (S, ) l`a ta.p du.o..c sap th
u. tu..
`o Hasse trong H`nh 5.3.
bo. pha.n v`a co lu.o..c d
`o trong H`nh 5.4 khong phai l`a lu.o..c d`o Hasse (ta.i sao?):
(c) Lu.o..c d
u. tu.. bo. pha.n
(d) Cac lu.o..c d`o trong H`nh 5.5 l`a lu.o..c d`o Hasse cua cac ta.p du.o..c sap th
u. d`o thi.).
(du.o..c suy tru..c tiep t`
u. tu.. bo. pha.n, ta co s t neu v`a ch neu
Noi chung vo.i lu.o..c d`o Hasse cua ta.p du.o..c sap th
hoa.c s = t hoa.c co mo.t du.`o.ng di d.inh hu.o.ng t`
u. s den t.
Gia su. (S, ) l`a ta.p du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n v`a A S, A 6= .
97
{a, b, c}
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{a, b}
{a, c}
{b, c}
{a}
{c}
{b}
{}
H`nh 5.3:
e
c
d
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H`nh 5.4:
- i.nh ngha 5.3.3. (a) Ph
`an tu. x S du.o..c go.i l`a ca.n tren cua A neu a x vo.i mo.i
D
a A; khi do A du.o..c go.i l`a bi. cha.n tren. Neu x l`a ca.n tren cua A v`a x A th` x
`an tu. lo.n nhat cua A, k
du.o..c go.i l`a ph
y hie.u
max A := max{a | a A}.
`an tu. y S du.o..c go.i l`a ca.n du.o.i cua A neu y a vo.i mo.i a A; khi do A du.o..c
(b) Ph
`an tu. nho
go.i l`a bi. cha.n du.o.i. Neu y l`a ca.n du.o.i cua A v`a y A th` y du.o..c go.i l`a ph
y hie.u
nhat cua A, k
min A := min{a | a A}.
(c) K
y hie.u As l`a ta.p ho..p tat ca cac ca.n tren cua A. Neu As 6= (t
u.c l`a neu A bi. cha.n
`an tu. nho nhat x th` x du.o..c go.i l`a ca.n tren nho nhat hoa.c ca.n
tren) v`a neu As co ph
y hie.u
tren du
ng cua A, k
sup A := sup{a | a A}.
u.c l`a neu A bi. cha.n
(d) K
y hie.u Ai l`a ta.p ho..p tat ca cac ca.n du.o.i cua A. Neu Ai 6= (t
.
.
i
.
.
.
.
.
`an tu lo n nhat y th` y du o. c go.i l`a ca.n du o.i lo.n nhat hoa.c ca.n
du o i) v`a neu A co ph
ung cua A, k
y hie.u
du.o.i d
inf A := inf{a | a A}.
98
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H`nh 5.5:
`an
V du. 5.3.3. Xet ta.p du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n trong V du. 5.3.2(a). Ta.p S khong co ph
.
.
.
`an tu nho nhat.
tu lo n nhat; 1 l`a ph
`on ta.i, l`a duy nhat.
`an tu. lo.n nhat (nho nhat) cua A, neu t
Nh
a.n x
et 6. (a) Ph
`on ta.i x = max A (tu.o.ng u
.ng y = min A) th` x = sup A (tu.o.ng u
.ng y = inf A).
(b) Neu t
.
.
- i
`eu ngu o. c la.i khong du
D
ng (cho v du.).
u. tu.. bo. pha.n ({1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, |) ta.p con {2, 3} co
V du. 5.3.4. (a) Trong ta.p du.o..c sap th
du
ng mo.t ca.n tren l`a 6, v`a do do sup{2, 3} = 6. Tu.o.ng tu.. inf{2, 3} = 1. Ta.p con {4, 6}
khong co ca.n tren; inf{4, 6} = 2. Ta.p con {3, 6} co ca.n tren 6 v`a hai ca.n du.o.i l`a 1 v`a 3;
do do sup{3, 6} = 6 v`a inf{3, 6} = 3. Va.y cac ca.n tren du
ng v`a ca.n du.o.i d
ung cua A chu.a
.
`on ta.i, v`a neu ch
`on ta.i chu a chac ch
ung thuo.c ta.p con A.
chac t
ung t
`o Hasse trong H`nh 5.6. Ta co
u. tu.. bo. pha.n co lu.o..c d
(b) Xet ta.p con du.o..c sap th
.
`on ta.i.
sup{d, f} = g v`a inf{b, d, e, f } = a. Nhu ng sup{b, c} v`a inf{d, e, f } khong t
g
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H`nh 5.6:
.
.
.
- i.nh ngha 5.3.4. Ta.p du o. c sap th
`on
u tu.. bo. pha.n (S, ) du.o..c go.i l`a lattice (d`an) neu t
D
.
ta.i sup{x, y} v`a inf{x, y} vo i mo.i x, y S. Khi do ta di.nh ngha hai phep toan
x y := sup{x, y},
x y := inf{x, y}.
Hien nhien v`a l`a cac phep toan hai ngoi tren S. Ho.n n
u.a
x y = x x y x y = y.
`an tu. cua lattice L
u.u ha.n ph
B`a ng quy na.p, ch
ung ta co the ch
u.ng minh mo.i ta.p con A h
`on ta.i sup A, inf A.
luon t
99
xx
= x,
xy
= y x,
(x y) z = x (y z).
B`
ai t
a.p
`o Hasse cua cac ta.p du.o..c sap th
1. Ve lu.o..c d
u. tu.. bo. pha.n sau:
(a) ({1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24}, |), trong do m|n ngha l`a n chia het cho m.
(b) Ta.p cac ta.p con cua {3, 7} vo.i quan he. .
2. T`m cac ta.p con thu..c su.. cu..c da.i cua
u. tu.. bo. pha.n
cua ta.p con du.o..c sap th
{a, b, c}.
neu x2 + y 2 < z 2 + w2 ,
neu (x, y) < (z, w) hoa.c (x, y) = (z, w),
neu x2 + y 2 z 2 + w2 .
a
b
c
d
e
f
b c
e a
d
d
e
d
d
e f
e a
e b
e c
e d
e
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101
Ch
u.ng minh cac bat dang th
u.c:
w (x y) 6= (w x) (w y),
w (x y) 6= (w x) (w y).
T`
u. do suy ra lattice C khong thoa man lua.t phan phoi.
u. tu.. bo. pha.n tren S th` quan he. ngu.o..c c
ung
10. (a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu l`a mo.t th
.
.
l`a th
u tu. bo. pha.n tren S.
.
(b) Ch
u ng minh ra` ng neu l`a quan he. tren S thoa tnh chat (T) v`a s s sai vo.i
mo.i s S th` quan he. xac d.inh bo.i
x y neu v`a ch neu x y hoa.c x = y,
l`a quan he. th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n.
`au tren ta.p S.
11. Gia su. R l`a quan he. phan doi x
u.ng v`a bac c
u. tu.. bo. pha.n tren S.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng R E l`a th
(b) R \ E l`a th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n tren S?
y tu... Xet quan he. tren
12. Gia su. l`a mo.t bang cac k
y tu.. v`a l`a ta.p cac chuoi k
.
.
`au cua y, t
u.c l`a
nhu sau. Vo i moi x, y k
y hie.u x y neu x l`a mo.t doa.n kho.i d
`on ta.i z sao cho xz = y. K
y hie.u length(w), w , l`a do. d`ai cua chuoi w.
t
`au.
u.ng v`a bac c
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng co tnh phan xa., phan doi x
.
(b) Ch
u ng minh r`a ng neu x phu y th` length(x) = 1 + length(y).
y hie.u w1 w2, w1 , w2 , ngha l`a length(w1)
13. Gia su. l`a mo.t bang cac k
y tu... K
u. tu.. bo. pha.n tren ? Ta.i sao?
length(w2). Quan he. l`a quan he. th
14. Gia su. l`a mo.t bang cac k
y tu...
`on ta.i v, v 0 sao cho y = vxv 0.
(a) Vo.i moi x, y , di.nh ngha x y neu t
Quan he. l`a th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n tren ? Giai thch.
(b) Tra l`o.i cau hoi tren neu ha.n che x, y .
y tu.. tren bang ch
u. cai := {a, b}. Xet quan he.
15. K
y hie.u l`a ta.p tat ca cac chuoi k
y hie.u (R), (S), (AS) v`a
hai ngoi tren P() bo.i A B neu v`a ch neu A B . K
`au.
(T) l`a cac tnh chat phan xa., doi x
u.ng, phan doi x
u.ng v`a bac c
(a) Cac tnh chat n`ao trong so (R), (S), (AS), (T) m`a quan he. thoa?
(b) l`a th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n?
16. Gia su. x, y, z l`a cac chuoi tren bang k
y tu.. khac trong n`ao do. Quan he. hai ngoi
P (x, y) sau co tnh chat g`:
P (x, y) (z)(concat(x, z) = y),
trong do concat(x, z) l`a chuoi nha.n du.o..c ba` ng cach noi chuoi z sau chuoi x. Chang
ha.n, neu x = ANH, z = EM., th` concat(x, z) = ANH EM..
102
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Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng Left(x, y) v`a Left(y, w) suy ra Left(x, w).
103
`om n ph
`an tu. cua ta.p h
u.u ha.n A; R l`a mo.t th
24. Gia su. (a1 , . . . , an ) l`a day g
u. tu.. bo.
pha.n tren A. Ta noi ra` ng (a1, . . . , an ) l`a sap xep to po cua A doi vo.i R neu vo.i mo.i
ai , aj A, (ai, aj ) R suy ra i < j.
`on ta.i cac ph
`an tu. x, y A
u. tu.. bo. pha.n tren A, th` t
(a) Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng neu R l`a th
`an tu.
sao cho khong co z A thoa (z, x) R v`a (y, z) R. (x, y go.i l`a cac ph
.
.
.
.
nho nhat v`a lo n nhat tu o ng u
ng).
(b) Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng neu R l`a th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n tren A, th` A co the sap xep to po
doi vo.i R.
u. (A, ) nhu. trong B`ai ta.p 19. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng b l`a
25. Gia su. (A, ) nha.n du.o..c t`
ca.n du.o.i lo.n nhat doi vo.i (ai |i I) trong (A, ) neu b l`a ca.n tren nho nhat doi vo.i
(ai |i I) trong (A, ).
5.4
u.o.ng
Quan h
e. tu.o.ng d
Sk
i=1
Ai = A; v`a
`an ch
Ch
u.ng minh. (a) Ta c
u.ng to
S
(i) sS [s] = S.
(ii) Vo.i mo.i s, t S ta co hoa.c [s] = [t] hoa.c [s] [t] = .
S
S
Tha.t va.y, hien nhien r`a ng sS [s] S. Lay s0 S ta co s0 [s0]. Do do S sS [s].
Va.y (i) d
ung.
Khang di.nh (ii) suy t`
u. Bo d`e 5.4.2.
(b) Gia su. {Ai | i I} l`a mo.t phan hoa.ch cua S. Tren S xet quan he. :
`on ta.i i I sao cho s, t Ai .
s t t
De d`ang kiem tra 00 l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng. 2
V du. 5.4.4. (a) Gia su. J l`a ho. cac ta.p n`ao do v`a vo.i moi S, T J ta di.nh ngha S T
`on ta.i anh xa. mo.t-mo.t t`
neu t
u. S len T. Th` 0 l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren J . Hien
`om tat ca cac ta.p con cua J co c`
ung so
nhien r`a ng neu S l`a ta.p h
u.u ha.n, th` [S] g
.
.
.
.
`
phan tu vo i ta.p S. Neu S l`a ta.p dem du o. c th` [S] gom ta t ca cac ta.p con dem du.o..c
(cua J ).
(b) Tren N N ta d.inh ngha
(m, n) (j, k) neu m2 + n2 = j 2 + k 2 .
Hien nhien l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng. Ba` ng cach xet anh xa.
f : N N N,
(m, n) 7 m2 + n2 ,
th` cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng chnh l`a cac ta.p con khac trong f 1 (u), u N.
- i.nh l
D
y 5.4.4. (a) Gia su. S 6= v`
a
anh xa. f : S T. Ta d.inh ngha s t (s, t S)
a c
ac l
o.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng l`
a
neu f (s) = f (t). Th` l`
a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren S v`
1
c
ac t
a.p kh
ac tr
ong f (u), trong d
o u T.
(b) M
oi quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren S du.o..c x
ac d.inh bo.i m
o.t
anh xa. f thch ho..p nhu. trong
`an (a).
ph
ung ta kiem tra l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng:
Ch
u.ng minh. (a) Ch
[Phan xa.]. Ta co f (s) = f (s). Va.y s s vo.i mo.i s S.
- oi x
[D
u.ng]. f (s1 ) = f (s2 ) f (s2 ) = f (s1 ). Va.y quan he. s1 s2 suy ra s2 s1 .
`au]. Neu f (s1 ) = f (s2 ) v`a f (s2 ) = f (s3 ) th` f (s1 ) = f (s3 ).
[Bac c
(b) Xet anh xa. tu.. nhien
f : S [S],
s 7 [s].
B`
ai t
a.p
1. K
y hie.u (R), (S), (AS) v`a (T) l`a cac tnh chat phan xa., doi x
u.ng, phan doi x
u.ng v`a
`au. T`m cac ma tra.n cua cac quan he. tren S := {0, 1, 2, 3} v`a kiem tra cac tnh
bac c
9. Ta noi mo.t ho. cac ta.p con khac trong r`o.i nhau cua ta.p S l`a mo.t phan hoa.ch cua ta.p
S neu ho..p cua cac ta.p n`ay ba` ng S. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng cua mo.t
quan he. tren S la.p th`anh phan hoa.ch cua ta.p S. Ngu.o..c la.i, gia su. (Ai |i I) cac ta.p
con cua S sao cho Ai Aj = , i 6= j, v`a (Ai |i I) = S. Xet quan he. S tren S :
`on ta.i ch so i I sao cho a, b Ai .
a S b neu v`a ch neu t
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng S l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng cua S l`a cac khoi Ai cua phan hoa.ch
(Ai |i I).
10. Gia su. F l`a ta.p tat ca cac h`am t`
u. N len N. Vo.i f, g F, xet quan he. f g neu
f (n) = g(n) ngo`ai mo.t ta.p con h
u.u ha.n cua ta.p cac so tu.. nhien N.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
(b) K
y hie.u lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng cua f bo.i [f ]. Ta noi, [f ] [g] neu f (n) g(n) ngo`ai
mo.t ta.p con h
u.u ha.n cua ta.p cac so tu.. nhien N.
(c) K
y hie.u [k] l`a lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng cua f (n) = k vo.i mo.i n N. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng
`on ta.i vo ha.n cac ph
`an tu. [f1], [f2], . . . , [fm ], . . . , sao cho
t
[k] [f1] [f2 ] [fm ] [k + 1].
11. Cac quan he. sau, quan he. n`ao l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng?
(a) L1 ||L2 , doi vo.i cac du.`o.ng thang trong ma.t phang, neu L1 v`a L2 l`a tr`
ung nhau
hoa.c song song.
(b) L1 L2, doi vo.i cac du.`o.ng thang trong ma.t phang, neu L1 v`a L2 vuong goc.
(c) p1 p2 , doi vo.i ngu.`o.i Vie.t Nam, neu p1 v`a p2 song trong c`
ung mo.t th`anh pho.
(d) p1 p2 , doi vo.i ngu.`o.i, neu p1 v`a p2 co chung cha me..
(e) p1 p2 , doi vo.i ngu.`o.i, neu p1 v`a p2 co chung me..
`ong du.
12. (a) Lie.t ke tat ca cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng cua Z doi vo.i quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng d
modulo cho 4.
(b) Co bao nhieu lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng khac nhau cua Z tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i quan he. tu.o.ng
du.o.ng d`ong du. modulo cho 73.
13. Gia su. S l`a ta.p ho..p. Quan he. = l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng?
`on ta.i ma tra.n kha
14. Cac ma tra.n A v`a B trong Mat(n, n) l`a d`ong da.ng (similar) neu t
nghi.ch P sao cho B = P AP 1 ; khi do ta k
y hie.u A B. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng l`a quan
he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren Mat(n, n).
15. Gia su. S l`a ta.p tat ca cac day (sn ) R, v`a d.inh ngha (sn ) (tn ) neu {n N | sn 6= tn }
u.u ha.n. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren S.
l`a ta.p h
16. Quan he. quen biet l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng?
108
17. Gia su. S l`a ta.p ho..p v`a G l`a nhom cac h`am mo.t-mo.t len f : S S, t
u.c l`a,
(a) h`am d`ong nhat 1S thuo.c G;
(b) neu f, g G th` f g G;
(c) neu f G th` f 1 G.
`on ta.i f G sao cho f (x) = y. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
Vo.i x, y S, di.nh ngha x y neu t
.
.
.
.
l`a quan he. tu o ng du o ng tren S.
18. Tren Z xet quan he. di.nh ngha bo.i m n neu m2 = n2 .
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren Z.
(b) Mo ta cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng doi vo.i . Co bao nhieu lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng?
19. Tren N xet quan he. di.nh ngha bo.i m n neu m2 n2 l`a bo.i cua 3.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren N.
`an tu. trong lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng [0].
(b) Lie.t ke bon ph
`an tu. trong lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng [1].
(c) Lie.t ke bon ph
(d) Co lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng n`ao khac?
20. Khao sat ta.p P(S) cac ta.p con cua ta.p S. Vo.i A, B P(S), k
y hie.u A B neu hie.u
.
.
.
u u ha.n. Ch
u ng minh r`a ng l`a quan he.
doi x
u ng A B := (A \ B) (B \ A) l`a ta.p h
.
.
.
.
tu o ng du o ng tren P(S).
(a) Mo ta cac ta.p trong lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng ch
u.a ta.p trong .
u.a S.
(b) Mo ta cac ta.p trong lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng ch
21. Tren N N di.nh ngha (m, n) (k, l) neu m + l = n + k.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren N N.
`an cua N N de ch ra cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
(b) Ve mo.t ph
- i.nh ngha m n (mod p) van co ngha khi p = 1 hoa.c p = 0.
22. D
(a) Mo ta quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng n`ay doi vo.i p = 1 v`a cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng tu.o.ng u
.ng
trong Z.
(b) Nhu. tren vo.i p = 0.
23. Gia su. P l`a ta.p tat ca cac chu.o.ng tr`nh may tnh v`a hai chu.o.ng tr`nh p1 v`a p2 l`a
- ay l`a quan
`au. D
ung cho c`
ung mo.t ket qua vo.i c`
ung d
u. lie.u ban d
tu.o.ng du.o.ng neu ch
.
.
.
.
he. tu o ng du o ng? Ta.i sao?
y hie.u x y neu length(x) = length(y).
u. cai, v`a vo.i x, y , k
24. Gia su. l`a bang ch
.
.
.
.
.
`
Ch
u ng minh ra ng l`a quan he. tu o ng du o ng v`a mo ta cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
109
25. Khao sat P P v`a di.nh ngha (m, n) (p, q) neu mq = np.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren P P.
.ng vo.i h`am P P Q cho
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tu.o.ng u
bo.i f ((m, n)) = m/n.
26. Co bao nhieu quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren ta.p {0, 1, 2, 3}?
27. Tren Z xet quan he. di.nh ngha bo.i m n neu m2 = n2 .
(a) Sai (v` sao) neu di.nh ngha tren [Z] bo.i [m] [n] neu v`a ch neu m n?
(b) Sai (v` sao) neu di.nh ngha h`am f : [Z] Z, f([m]) = m2 + m + 1?
(c) Nhu. tren, vo.i g([m]) = m4 + m2 + 1.
(d) Sai (v` sao) neu di.nh ngha tren Z, [m] [n] = [m + n]?
5.5
Bao d
- oi khi ch
D
ung ta muon xay du..ng mo.t quan he. mo.i t`
u. mo.t quan he. da co. Chang ha.n, ta co
.
.
.
.
ung ta muon t`m quan he. nho nhat ch
u.a
hai quan he. tu o ng du o ng R1 v`a R2 tren S v`a ch
- i
`eu n`ay xay ra do
ca R1 v`a R2. Quan he. n`ay co the khong phai l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng. D
`au. Va.y quan he. bac c
`au nho nhat ch
u.a R1 R2 l`a g`?
R1 R2 co the khong phai l`a bac c
`an n`ay ch
Trong ph
ung ta se tra l`o.i cau hoi n`ay.
Gia su. R l`a quan he. tren S. K hie.u r(R), s(R) v`a t(R) l`a cac quan he. phan xa., doi x
u.ng
.
.
.
.
.
.
`au nho nhat ch
v`a bac c
u a R. Cac quan he. n`ay du o. c go.i tu o ng u
ng l`a cac bao dong phan
.
`au cua quan he. R.
xa., doi x
u ng v`a bac c
`e 5.5.1. (a) R = r(R) neu v`
M
e.nh d
s(s(R)) = s(R),
t(t(R)) = t(R).
Ch
u.ng minh. Suy t`
u. di.nh ngha. 2
.ng ma tra.n Boole:
V du. 5.5.1. Xet quan he. R tren {1, 2, 3, 4} tu.o.ng u
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
A=
0 0 1 0 .
1 0 0 0
110
(a) Quan he. R khong phan xa.. Ma tra.n Boole r(A) cua quan he. r(R) nha.n du.o..c t`
u. ma
`an tu. tren du.`o.ng cheo b`a ng mo.t v`a d`o thi. cua r(R) suy t`
u.
tra.n A vo.i tat ca cac ph
d`o thi. cua R ba` ng cach them cac khuyen ta.i cac dnh:
1 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
r(A) =
0 0 1 0 .
1 0 0 1
- `o thi. cua quan he. s(R) suy t`
(b) Quan he. R khong doi x
u.ng. D
u. d`o thi. cua quan he. R
`on ta.i cung (i, j). Ma tra.n Boole
ba` ng cach them (neu chu.a co) cac cung (j, i) neu t
s(A) co da.ng
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
s(A) =
1 0 1 0 .
1 0 0 0
`au. Ma tra.n Boole t(A) co
(c) Quan he. R khong bat c
1 0 1
0 1 0
t(A) =
0 0 1
1 0 1
da.ng
1
0
.
0
1
- .inh l
D
y 5.5.2. Neu R v`
a E := {(x, x) | x S} l`
a c
ac quan he. tren S th`
(a) r(R) = R E.
(b) s(R) = R R1 .
S
i
(c) t(R) =
i=1 R .
u.a E. Do do R E
Ch
u.ng minh. (a) Ta biet r`a ng quan he. l`a phan xa. neu v`a ch neu no ch
u.a R E nen r(R) = R E.
l`a phan xa. v`a do mo.i quan he. phan xa. ch
u.a R phai ch
u.ng neu v`a ch neu R1
= R1 . Neu (x, y) R R1 th`
(b) Nhac la.i r`a ng R1 l`a doi x
1
1
1
1
(y, x) R R = R R . Do do R R l`a quan he. doi x
u.ng.
u.ng ch
u.a R. Neu (x, y) R1 th` (y, x) R R1 , v`a do R1 doi
Xet R1 l`a quan he. doi x
.
1
x
u ng nen (x, y) R1. Suy ra R R1 . Va.y R R1 R1 .
S
i
- `au tien ta ch
`au. Tha.t va.y lay x, y, z S sao
(c) D
u.ng minh ho..p U :=
a bac c
i=1 R l`
`
cho (x, y) U, (y, z) U. Khi do ton ta.i i, j N sao cho (x, y) Ri v`a (y, z) Rj . Do do
(x, z) Ri+j U.
111
Rk R1 .
Hay U R1 . 2
`an tu. v`a A l`a ma tra.n Boole cua
V du. 5.5.2. (a) Gia su. R l`a quan he. tren ta.p S co n ph
.
.
.
- i.nh l
y 5.5.3 du o i day ch ra:
R. Nhu trong D
t(R) =
n
[
Ri .
i=1
s(A) = A At,
r(A) = A In .
n
[
Ri .
i=1
Sn
`an ch
u.ng minh t(R) i=1 Ri . Lay (x, y) t(R). Go.i m l`a so nguyen
Ch
u.ng minh. Ch c
`an xet tru.`o.ng ho..p m > 2. Khi do t
`on ta.i day
du.o.ng nho nhat sao cho (x, y) Rm . Ch c
.
`
cac phan tu trong S
x1 , x2, . . . , xm1 , xm = y,
sao cho
xRx1 , x1Rx2 , . . . , xm1 Rxm .
`on ta.i i, j (i < j) sao cho xi = xj th` ta co the bo qua xi , xi+1 , . . . , xj1 v`a
Neu m > n th` t
.
.
du o. c mo.t xch ngan ho.n:
xRx1 , . . . , xi1 Rxj , . . . , xm1 Ry.
Mau thuan v` m nho nhat. 2
112
Ch
ung ta da xet cac bao dong tren quan he. R, bay gi`o. ta se lay mo.t quan he. mo.i co da.ng
l`a to ho..p cua bao dong.
V du. 5.5.3. Xet R trong V du. 5.5.1. Ma tra.n
1 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 0 0
1
0
.
0
1
- o c
D
ung l`a ma tra.n Boole r(s(A)) cua quan he. r(s(R)) v`a v` va.y s(r(R)) = r(s(R)). Ho.n
n
u.a quan he. trs(R) = tsr(R) l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i ma tra.n Boole
1 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
tsr(A) = trs(A) =
1 0 1 1 .
1 0 1 1
V du. 5.5.4. Xet quan he. R tren {1, 2, 3} co
A= 0
0
ma tra.n Boole
1 1
0 0 .
0 1
1 1 1
s(A) = 1 0 0 .
1 0 1
`au!
De thay r`a ng quan he. s(R) khong bac c
`au chu.a chac l`a quan he. bac
V du. n`ay ch
u.ng to bao dong doi x
u.ng cua bao dong bac c
`au. Noi mo.t cach khac cac phep lay bao dong co the pha huy tnh phan xa., doi x
c
u.ng hay
`au.
bac c
B
o d
`
e 5.5.4. (a) Neu R pha n xa. th` s(R) v`
a t(R) c
ung pha n xa..
a t(R) c
ung d
oi x
u.ng.
(b) Neu R d
oi x
u.ng th` r(R) v`
`au th` r(R) c
`au.
(c) Neu R b
ac c
ung b
ac c
Ch
u.ng minh. (a) Hien nhien v` neu E R th` E s(R) v`a E t(R).
(b) B`ai ta.p.
`au v`a (x, y), (y, z) r(R) = R E.
(c) Gia su. R bac c
113
1 1
r(A) = 0 1
0 0
1
1 1
0 , s(r(A)) = 1 1
1
1 0
1
1 1 1
0 , t(s(r(A))) = 1 1 1 .
1
1 1 1
B`
ai t
a.p
1. Xet quan he. R tren ta.p S := {1, 2, 3} tu.o.ng u
.ng ma tra.n Boole
0 1 0
A := 0 0 0 .
0 0 1
T`m cac ma tra.n Boole cua r(R), s(R), rs(R), sr(R) v`a tsr(R).
114
0 1 1
A := 0 0 1 .
0 0 0
3. Vo.i B`ai ta.p 1, lie.t ke cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng cua tsr(R).
4. Vo.i B`ai ta.p 2, lie.t ke cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng cua tsr(R).
5. La.p la.i B`ai ta.p 1 vo.i quan he. R tren {1, 2, 3, 4}
0 1 0
1 0 1
A :=
0 1 1
1 0 1
tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i ma tra.n Boole
1
0
.
0
0
6. Vo.i B`ai ta.p 5, lie.t ke cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng cua tsr(R).
7. Gia su. R l`a quan he. tu..a th
u. tu.. tren ta.p cac so nguyen du.o.ng P : mRn neu m < n.
T`m hoa.c mo ta r(R), sr(R), rs(R), tsr(R), t(R) v`a st(R).
8. La.p la.i B`ai ta.p 7 vo.i mRn neu m l`a u.o.c cua n.
9. (a) Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng neu (Rk ) l`a mo.t day cac quan he. doi x
u.ng tren S th` ho..p
k=1 Rk
.
l`a doi x
u ng.
(b) Gia su. R l`a quan he. doi x
u.ng minh r`a ng Rn , n P, l`a quan he. doi
u.ng tren S. Ch
.
x
u ng.
(c) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu R l`a quan he. doi x
u.ng tren S th` r(R), t(R) l`a cac quan he.
.
doi x
u ng tren S.
10. Xet quan he. R tren ta.p S.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng sr(R) = rs(R).
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng tr(R) = rt(R).
11. Ba` ng phan v du., ch
u.ng minh r`a ng st(R) 6= ts(R).
1
0
12. Gia su. R l`a quan he. tren S := {1, 2} tu.o.ng u
.ng ma tra.n Boole
. Ch
u.ng minh
1 0
`on ta.i quan he. R0 nho nhat ch
ra` ng khong t
u.a R sao cho sR0 s sai vo.i mo.i s S.
`on ta.i x S sao cho
13. Ta noi quan he. R tren S l`a quan he. len neu vo.i mo.i y S t
.
`on ta.i mo.t quan he. len nho nhat ch
u.a quan he.
(x, y) R. Ch
u ng minh ra` ng khong t
.
.
R tren {1, 2} du o. c xac di.nh trong B`ai ta.p 12.
115
14. Gia su. tnh chat p cua quan he. tren ta.p khac trong S thoa man
(i) Quan he. pho du.ng U := S S co tnh chat p;
(ii) p dong doi vo.i phep giao, t
u.c l`a, neu {Ri | i I} l`a mo.t ho. cac quan he. tren S co
ung co tnh chat p.
tnh chat p th` giao iI Ri c
`on ta.i mo.t quan he. nho nhat ch
u.a
(a) Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng vo.i mo.i quan he. R tren S t
R v`a co tnh chat p.
`au thoa man ca hai tnh
(b) Nha.n xet ra` ng cac tnh chat phan xa., doi x
u.ng v`a bac c
chat (i) v`a (ii).
(c) Tnh chat quan he. len trong B`ai ta.p 13 khong thoa tnh chat n`ao trong so (i), (ii)?
5.6
Lattice cua c
ac ph
an hoa.ch
Nha.n xet ra` ng ho. C = P(S S) tat ca cac quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren S l`a ta.p du.o..c sap
`an tu. lo.n
`an tu. nho nhat l`a quan he. d`ong nhat E v`a ph
th
u. tu.. vo.i quan he. bao h`am. Ph
nhat l`a quan he. pho du.ng U v` E R U vo.i mo.i quan he. R tren S. Ho. C l`a lattice vo.i
hai phep toan
R1 R2 := R1 R2 .
R1 R2 := tsr(R1 R2),
u.ng.
Ch
uy
r`a ng tsr(R1 R2) = t(R1 R2 ) v` R1 R2 l`a quan he. co tnh phan xa. v`a doi x
V du. 5.6.1. Xet ho.p S ch
u.a cac vien bi v`a hai quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng:
(s, t) R1 neu s v`a t co c`
ung m`au;
(s, t) R2 neu s v`a t co c`
ung kch thu.o.c.
Khi do (s, t) R1 R2 neu v`a ch neu s v`a t co c`
ung m`au v`a c`
ung kch thu.o.c. Ca.p (s, t)
`on ta.i day cac vien bi t1, t2, . . . , tm1 S sao cho
thuo.c R1 R2 neu t
(s, t1), (t1, t2), . . . , (tm1, t) R1 R2 .
V du. 5.6.2. Tren ta.p cac so nguyen du.o.ng P xet cac quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng R6 v`a R8 trong
do (m, n) R6 neu m = n (mod 6) v`a (m, n) R8 neu m = n (mod 8).
(a) Neu (m, n) R6 R8 th` m n l`a bo.i so cua 6 v`a 8, t
u.c l`a m n l`a bo.i so cua 24. Do
do (m, n) R6 R8 neu v`a ch neu m = n (mod 24).
(b) Ta se ch
u.ng minh R6 R8 = R2 trong do (m, n) R2 neu v`a ch neu m = n (mod 2).
Ch
uy
r`a ng 2 l`a u.o.c so chung lo.n nhat cua 6 v`a 8. De d`ang thay r`a ng R6 R8 R2
`an ch ra
v`a do R2 l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng nen R6 R8 R2 . Ta c
R2 R6 R8 = t(R6 R8 ) R2 .
116
(5.1)
`an cuoi tr`nh b`ay thua.t toan xac di.nh cac phan hoa.ch 1 2 v`a 1 2 khi S h
u.u
Ph
.
.
`an tu.
ha.n. Gia su S := {1, 2, . . . , n} v`a l`a phan hoa.ch cua S. Vo i moi A , cho.n mo.t ph
mA A v`a di.nh ngha (k) := mA , vo.i mo.i k A (chang ha.n mA l`a so nho nhat cua A).
`an tu. cua S thuo.c mo.t ta.p A n`ao do, bo.i va.y ta co h`am : S S thoa man
Moi ph
(i) (j) = (k) neu v`a ch neu j, k thuo.c c`
ung mo.t ta.p cua phan hoa.ch ;
(ii) ((k)) = (k), vo.i mo.i k.
Vo.i moi k S, ta.p A sao cho k A th` (k) A. Va.y A = 1 ((k)). Do do du.o..c
`an t`m cac h`am tu.o.ng u
.ng
xac d.inh bo.i . Nhu. va.y, de xac d.inh 1 2 v`a 1 2, ta c
.ng vo.i phan hoa.ch th` tnh chat
thoa (i) v`a (ii). Neu R l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tu.o.ng u
(i) suy ra
117
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
1
5
5
6
1
7
3
8
8
9
5
10
3
8
8
9
9
10
3
Ch
uy
r`a ng thoa (i) v`a (ii). C
ung co the cho.n h`am
k
(k)
1
4
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
9
6
4
7
3
Vo.i hai phan hoa.ch 1 , 2 cua ta.p S := {1, 2, . . . , n}, gia su. , l`a hai h`am thoa man (i)
v`a (ii). Ch
uy
r`a ng, 1 mi.n ho.n 2 neu
(i) = (j) suy ra (i) = (j), vo.i mo.i i, j S.
Bay gi`o. ta tr`nh b`ay thua.t toan t`m h`am tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i 1 2 . Thua.t toan duye.t moi
.
.
`an tu cua S mo.t l
`an. Khi ga.p ph
`an tu s trong mo.t khoi mo.i cua phan hoa.ch 1 2 ta
ph
gan nhan cua khoi n`ay l`a s.
5.6.1
Thu
a.t to
an x
ac d
.inh h
o.i cu a hai ph
an hoa.ch
- a.t (k) = 0, k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Bu.o.c 1. D
Bu.o.c 2. Cho.n k = 1.
Bu.o.c 3. Neu (k) 6= 0 th` chuyen sang Bu.o.c 4; ngu.o..c la.i, vo.i moi j = k, k + 1, . . . , n thoa
(j) = (k) v`a (j) = (k), da.t (j) = k.
Bu.o.c 4. Neu k = n, d`
u.ng; ngu.o..c la.i, k := k + 1 v`a chuyen sang Bu.o.c 3.
V du. 5.6.5. Gia su. 1 v`a 2 l`a cac phan
v`a :
k
1 2
(k) 3 2
(k) 5 4
4
2
4
5
3
5
6
7
5
7
7
5
8
2
4
`om hai ta.p. Bang 5.1 minh ho.a thua.t toan cha.y
Ta co 1 = {{1, 3, 5}, {2, 4, 8}, {6, 7}}; 2 g
.
.
.
.
.
.
ng h`ang cuoi trong bang v`a do do co bon ta.p.
t`
u ng bu o c. Phan hoa.ch 1 2 tu o ng u
Thua.t toan ke tiep t`m h`am tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i 1 2.
118
k
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
(1)
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
(2)
0
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
(3)
0
0
0
3
3
3
3
3
3
(4)
0
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
(5)
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
(6)
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
6
6
(7)
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
6
6
(8)
0
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
(6)
1
5
5
5
(7)
7
7
7
5
(8)
4
4
4
4
Bang 5.1:
k
0
1
2, 3, 4, 5, 6
7, 8
(1)
1
5
5
5
(2)
2
2
4
4
(3)
5
5
5
5
(4)
4
4
4
4
(5)
5
5
5
5
[h`am ]
Bang 5.2:
5.6.2
an hoa.ch
Thu
a.t to
an x
ac d
i.nh tuy
en cu a hai ph
- a. t (k) = (k), k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Bu.o.c 1. D
Bu.o.c 2. Vo.i k = 1, . . . , n neu (k) 6= ((k)) th` t`m tat ca j vo.i (j) = (k) thay (j)
ba` ng ((k)) vo.i mo.i j nhu. the.
V du. 5.6.6. Gia su. 1 v`a 2 l`a cac phan
v`a :
1 2
k
(k) 1 2
(k) 3 4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
1
6
7
7
6
8
4
8
B`
ai t
a.p
1. Gia su. mo.t ho.p du..ng 10 vien bi, trong do 6 vien nho m`au xanh, 3 vien lo.n m`au do
v`a 1 vien lo.n m`au xanh. Mo ta 1 2 v`a 1 2 . Co bao nhieu ta.p trong moi phan
hoa.ch n`ay?
2. Cau tra l`o.i cua ba.n nhu. the n`ao doi vo.i B`ai ta.p 1, neu vien bi lo.n m`au xanh bien
mat?
119
u.a
3. La.p la.i B`ai ta.p 1, neu ho.p bi co 10 vien, trong do 4 vien nho m`au v`ang, 3 vien v`
m`au xanh, 2 vien v`
u.a m`au trang v`a 1 vien lo.n m`au v`ang.
4. Cau tra l`o.i cua ba.n nhu. the n`ao doi vo.i B`ai ta.p 3, neu mo.t vien bi lo.n m`au xanh ro.i
v`ao ho.p?
5. Khao sat cac quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng R3 , R5 tren P, trong do (m, n) R3 neu m
.ng vo.i cac phan hoa.ch 3, 5.
n (mod 3) v`a (m, n) R5 neu m n (mod 5) tu.o.ng u
(a) Mo ta quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng R3 R5 .
(b) Mo ta phan hoa.ch 3 5.
(c) Suy ra r`a ng, R3 R5 l`a quan he. pho du.ng tren P. Kiem tra la.i
(1, 2), (1, 30), (1, 73), (47, 73), (72, 73) R3 R5.
(d) Mo ta quan he. phan hoa.ch 3 5 .
6. Vo.i moi phan hoa.ch du.o.i day cua S := {1, 2, . . . , 6} t`m h`am thoa man cac tnh
chat (i) v`a (ii):
(a) 1 = {{1, 3, 5}, {2, 6}, {4}}.
(b) 2 = {{1, 2, 4}, {3, 6}, {5}}.
(c) 3 = {{1}, {2}, {3}, {4}, {5}, {6}}.
(d) 4 = {{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}}.
.ng vo.i 3, 4 ?
(e) Quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng n`ao tu.o.ng u
7. T`m cac phan hoa.ch 1 , 2, 3, 4 cua {1, 2, . . . , 8} du.o..c xac d.inh bo.i cac h`am 1 , 2, 3 , 4
sau
k
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 (k) 1 1 3 1 5 6 3 5
2 (k) 2 2 6 8 5 6 7 8
3 (k) 4 4 3 4 5 3 3 4
4 (k) 3 2 3 8 2 3 7 8
8. T`m cac h`am tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i phan hoa.ch 1 2 v`a 1 2 trong B`ai ta.p 7.
9. Nhu. B`ai ta.p 8 cho 3 v`a 4.
10. Nhu. B`ai ta.p 8 cho 2 v`a 3.
11. Thua.t toan tro.n cac phan hoa.ch van cha.y d
ung neu hoan doi vai tr`o cua v`a ?
12. (a) Ch
u.ng minh quan he. xac d.inh tren (S) bo.i 1 2 neu v`a ch neu 1 mi.n
.
u. tu.. bo. pha.n tren (S).
ho n 2 l`a th
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu 1 , 2, 3 (S) v`a neu 3 1, 3 2 th` 3 1 2.
120
13. Phan tch thua.t toan t`m giao v`a tro.n cac phan hoa.ch trong tru.`o.ng ho..p 1 mi.n ho.n
2 qua v du. S := {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} v`a
k
(k)
(k)
1
1
5
2
4
4
3
3
5
4
4
4
5
1
5
6
6
4
7
7
7
121
122
Chu.o.ng 6
BOOLE
-A
D
I
S
O
.
- e tu.o.ng nho. nh`a toan ho.c G. Boole, mo.t v`ai khai nie.m du.o..c mang ten ong: da.i so Boole,
D
h`am Boole, bieu th
u.c Boole v`a v`anh Boole. G. Boole l`a mo.t trong nh
u.ng nh`a toan ho.c
.
.
.
quan tam den vie.c h`nh th
u c hoa v`a co che hoa tu duy logic (xem The law of thought cua
`eu dong gop trong vie.c phat trien l
y thuyet logic
ong xuat ban nam 1854). G. Boole co nhi
.
.
su du.ng cac k
y hie.u thay cho cac t`
u.
`eu nh`a toan ho.c (da.c bie.t C. E. Shannon) da nha.n ra r`a ng da.i so
Mo.t the ky sau, nhi
.
Boole co the su du.ng de phan tch cac ma.nh die.n tu.. Do do da.i so Boole tro. th`anh mo.t
cong cu. khong the thieu du.o..c trong vie.c phan tch v`a thiet ke cac may tnh die.n tu., chang
ha.n trong vie.c thiet ke cac ma.ch die.n tu. vo.i so linh kie.n t nhat.
6.1
Lattice
- i.nh ngha 6.1.1. Gia su. L l`a ta.p khac rong v`a , l`a cac phep toan hai ngoi tren L. Bo.
D
`e sau thoa man
(L, , ) du.o..c go.i l`a lattice da.i so neu vo.i mo.i x, y, z L cac tien d
1L. Tnh giao hoan.
(a) x y = y x;
(b) x y = y x.
2L. Tnh ket ho..p
(a) (x y) z = x (y z);
(b) (x y) z = x (y z).
3L. Tnh hap thu. cua cac phep toan:
123
(a) x (x y) = x;
(b) x (x y) = x.
x y do.c l`a x tuyen y hoa.c tong cua x v`a y.
x y do.c l`a x ho.i y hoa.c tch cua x v`a y.
Nh
a.n x
et 7. (a) (1La)-(3La) doi ngau vo.i (1Lb)-(3Lb) theo ngha neu ta hoan vi. vai tr`o
cua hai phep toan , trong (1La)-(3La) th` ta se du.o..c (1Lb)-(3Lb) v`a ngu.o..c la.i.
(b) Do tnh ket ho..p cua cac phep toan , ta co the viet
xyz
v`a x y z.
`an tu.
Tong quat, co the viet cho tru.`o.ng ho..p n ph
x1 x2 . . . xn
v`a x1 x2 . . . xn .
Tnh ch
at 6.1.2. Neu (L, , ) l`
a lattice da.i s
o th`
(a) x x = x.
(b) x x = x.
(c) x y = y neu v`
a ch neu x y = x.
- a. t y := x x. Khi do
Ch
u.ng minh. (a) D
x = x (x y)
(theo 3La)
= x [x (x x)]
= xx
(theo 3Lb).
(b) Su. du.ng tnh chat doi ngau.
(c) Gia su. ra` ng x y = y. Ta co
x = x (x y)
=xy
(theo 3Lb)
(theo gia thiet).
u := (x y) z,
v := x (y z).
V`
y x y u,
z u.
Suy ra u l`a mo.t ca.n tren cua y, z. Nhu.ng y z l`a ca.n tren nho nhat cua y v`a z nen
y z u.
Ma.t khac
x x y u.
Nen u l`a ca.n tren cua x v`a y z. Va.y
x (y z) u.
T
u.c l`a v u.
ung co u v. Va.y u = v.
Ch
u.ng minh tu.o.ng tu.. ta c
u.ng minh (2La).
+ (2Lb). Tu.o.ng tu.. nhu. ch
- a. c bie.t, vo.i w := x y, ta co
uy y
. D
+ (3La). Lay x, y L. V` x x w vo.i w t`
x x (x y).
V` x x v`a x y x nen x l`a ca.n tren cua x v`a x y. Do do
x (x y) x.
Va.y
x (x y) = x.
+ (3Lb). Tu.o.ng tu.. nhu. ch
u.ng minh (3La). 2
- .inh l
- i.nh l
y sau
D
y 6.1.3 ch ra ra` ng lattice da.i so (L, , ) cam sinh t`
u. lattice (L, ). D
.
.
cho ch
ung ta khang di.nh ngu o. c la.i.
- i.nh l
a m
o.t lattice da.i s
o. Ky hie.u
D
y 6.1.4. Gia su. (L, , ) l`
x y x y = y,
o l`
a quan he. th
u. tu.. tren L v`
v
o.i mo.i x, y L. Khi d
a (L, ) l`
a lattice tho a
x y = sup(x, y),
125
x y = inf(x, y).
Ch
u.ng minh. Ta ch
u.ng minh l`a quan he. th
u. tu.. tren L.
+ Tnh phan xa.: v` x x = x nen x x.
u.ng: gia su. x y v`a y x, t
u.c l`a
+ Tnh phan doi x
xy =y
v`a
y x = x.
v`a y z = z.
Suy ra
x z = x (y z)
= (x y) z
=yz
= z.
Ch
u.ng minh x y = sup(x, y). V`
x (x y) = (x x) y
= x y.
Nen
x x y.
Tu.o.ng tu.., ta co
y x y.
Va.y x y l`a mo.t ca.n tren cua x v`a y.
Gia su. u l`a mo.t ca.n tren cua x v`a y. Khi do
x u v`a y u.
Hay
x u = u v`a y u = u.
V` va.y
(x y) u = x (y u)
=xu
= u.
Suy ra
x y u.
Do do
x y = sup(x, y).
.
.
.
.
Ch
u ng minh tu o ng tu. cho x y = inf(x, y). 2
126
Nh
a.n x
et 8. (a) T`
u. Tnh chat 6.1.2, ch
ung ta co the di.nh ngha
x y x y = x, vo.i mo.i x, y L.
- i.nh l
(b) Hai D
y 6.1.3 v`a 6.1.4 cho ta moi quan he. gi
u.a lattice da.i so v`a lattice. Ho.n n
u.a,
.
.
.
neu cho lattice (L, ) th` quan he. th
u tu. bo. pha.n cam sinh bo i lattice da.i so (L, , ) tr`
ung
.
.
.
.
.
u tu. ban d`au; ngu o. c la.i neu cho lattice da.i so (L, , ) th` cac phep toan
vo i quan he. th
`au.
hai ngoi cam sinh bo.i lattice (L, ) tr`
ung vo.i cac phep toan , ban d
V du. 6.1.1. Cho S l`a ta.p bat k`
y. Vo.i cac phep toan ho..p v`a giao, (P(S), , ) l`a mo.t
- i.nh l
lattice da.i so. Theo D
y 6.1.4, vo.i moi ta.p A, B trong P(S), ta d.inh ngha A B neu
u. tu.. bo. pha.n v`a
v`a ch neu A B = B. Th` (P(S), ) l`a ta.p du.o..c sap th
(
sup(A, B) = A B,
inf(A, B) = A B.
`e. Tren L ta xet quan he. du.o..c di.nh
V du. 6.1.2. Gia su. L l`a ta.p ho..p cac me.nh d
.
`e logic. Khi do l`a quan
ngha nhu sau: p q neu v`a ch neu p q l`a mo.t me.nh d
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
he. tu o ng du o ng tren L. Go.i l`a ta.p ho. p cac lo p tu o ng du o ng tren L xac di.nh bo.i .
T
u.c l`a
:= {[p] | p L}.
- a.t
D
[p] [q] := [p or q],
V du. 6.1.3. K
y hie.u Fun(R, R) l`a ta.p tat ca cac h`am so thu..c xac di.nh tren R. Tren
Fun(R, R) ta xet quan he. du.o..c di.nh ngha nhu. sau: f g, f, g Fun(R, R), neu v`a
ch neu f (x) g(x) vo.i mo.i x R.
`on ta.i
Khi do l`a quan he. th
u. tu.. tren Fun(R, R). De thay r`a ng sup(f, g) v`a inf(f, g) t
.
.
vo i mo.i f, g Fun(R, R). Vo i mo.i x R, da.t
(f g)(x) := max(f (x), g(x)),
(f g)(x) := min(f (x), g(x)).
Khi do (Fun(R, R), , ) l`a lattice da.i so v`a
f g = sup(f, g),
f g = inf(f, g).
(6.1)
(6.2)
(
(
1
0
1
0
Cac nguyen tu. trong Fun(S, B) l`a cac h`am da.c tru.ng 1{x} , x S.
V du. 6.1.5. Cac lu.o..c d`o Hasse trong H`nh 6.1 tu.o.ng u
.ng cac lattice da.i so.
.......
.....
...
..
...
...
....
..
...
.
..
........
..
....
...
..
...
...
...
...
...
.
...
... ....
.... ......
...
...
....
....
.
.
.
.......
.......
.....
.....
....
.
.
.
....
...
.
.
...
.
...
....
....
....
...
..
..
...
.........
........
..
...
.
...
....
...
....
....
.
.
.
....
...
.
....
.
.
....
....
........
.......
....
.....
.... ......
........
.
....
...... ..
..... .. ..
..... .. ...
..
..... ...
.
.
.
.
..
..
.
...
.....
..
..
.....
..
..
.....
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
.......
....
.
........
.
.
.
..
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
....
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
...
.....
...
....
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.........
.
...
.
.......
.......
.
..
.
.
.
.......
.
.
.
.
.....
........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.......
...
..
.........
........
..
..........
...........
.......
........
....... .
....... ... ..............
....... .. .......
......
H`nh 6.1:
`an tu. a, b
Lu.o..c d`o Hasse trong H`nh 6.2 khong tu.o..ng tru.ng cho mo.t lattice n`ao v` hai ph
u ch
ung co ca.n du.o.i lo.n nhat l`a e :
khong co ca.n tren nho nhat, ma.c d`
c
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H`nh 6.2:
- i.nh ngha 6.1.7. Gia su. (L, , ) l`a lattice da.i so. Ta.p con M khac rong cua L du.o..c go.i
D
l`a lattice con (sublattice) cua L neu vo.i mo.i x, y M, ta co
x y M,
x y M.
T
u.c l`a M dong doi vo.i cac phep toan tuyen v`a ho.i.
`o Hasse trong H`nh 6.3(a). Ta co M1
V du. 6.1.6. Xet lattice da.i so (L, , ) co lu.o..c d
trong H`nh 6.3(b) l`a lattice con cua L; c`on M2 trong H`nh 6.3(c) khong phai l`a lattice con
cua L.
B`
ai t
a.p
uc n`ao c
ung d
ung):
1. Viet du.o.i da.ng doi ngau cac phu.o.ng tr`nh sau (m`a khong phai l
(a) x (y z) = (x y) z.
(b) x (y z) = (x y) (x z).
129
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(a)
(b)
(c)
H`nh 6.3:
`an tu. lo.n nhat 1 v`a ph
`an tu. nho nhat 0.
2. Gia su. L l`a lattice da.i so vo.i ph
(a) 1 l`a bat kha quy? Giai thch.
(b) 0 l`a bat kha quy? Giai thch.
`an tu.
3. Xet lattice h
u.u ha.n (P, ) v`a lu.o..c d`o Hasse cua no. Giai thch ta.i sao mo.t ph
`eu nhat mo.t ph
`an tu..
l`a bat kha quy neu v`a ch neu no phu nhi
4. Xet lattice trong cac h`nh du.o.i:
t
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6. K
y hie.u P l`a ta.p cac so nguyen du.o.ng. Xet lattice (P, |), trong do m|n neu m l`a u.o.c
so cua n.
ung cua P ba` ng may?
(i) Ca.n du.o.i d
`on ta.i ca.n tren du
(b) T
ng cua P?
(c) Mo ta cac nguyen tu. cua P.
`an tu. bat kha qui theo phep tuyen cua P.
(d) Mo ta cac ph
`om 1 v`a 90. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng D90 l`a
7. Gia su. D90 l`a ta.p tat ca cac u.o.c so cua 90 bao g
u. tu.. |.
lattice vo.i th
`o Hasse cua lattice n`ay.
(a) Ve lu.o..c d
(b) Tnh 6 10, 6 10, 9 30, 9 30.
(c) Lie.t ke cac nguyen tu. cua D90 .
`an tu. bat kha qui cua D90 .
(d) Lie.t ke cac ph
`an tu. bat kha qui.
(e) Viet 90, 18, 5 da.ng tuyen cua cac ph
`an tu. bao g
`om 1 v`a 90.
8. T`m tat ca cac lattice con cua D90 m`a co bon ph
9. Vo.i moi x, y R, di.nh ngha x y := max{x, y} v`a x y := min{x, y}.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng (R, , ) l`a lattice da.i so.
(b) Th
u. tu.. cam sinh bo.i lattice n`ay l`a g`?
`an tu. cua R l`a bat kha qui theo phep tuyen?
(c) Ta.i sao cac ph
`on ta.i mo.t tu.o.ng u
.ng
10. Hai lattice (L1 , , ) v`a (L2 , , ) du.o..c go.i l`a dang cau neu t
mo.t-mo.t len : L1 L2 sao cho
(x y) = (x) (y),
(x y) = (x) (y)
vo.i mo.i x, y L1 .
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay (x) (y) neu v`a ch neu x y.
131
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu (L1 , , ) v`a (L2 , , ) dang cau th` x l`a nguyen tu. cua L1
neu v`a ch neu (x) l`a nguyen tu. cua L2 .
(c) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng hai lattice trong h`nh sau khong dang cau:
t
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`om cac u.o.c so cua 30 (ke ca 1 v`a 30) dang cau vo.i
(d) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng lattice D30 g
lattice P(S), trong do |S| = 3. (HD. Su. du.ng S = {2, 3, 5}).
u.ng minh r`a ng neu x y, th` x (z y) (x z) y vo.i
11. Gia su. (L, ) l`a lattice. Ch
mo.i z L.
6.2
Lattice ph
an b
o
- i.nh ngha 6.2.1. Lattice da.i so (L, , ) du.o..c go.i l`a lattice phan bo (distributive) neu
D
u.c l`a vo.i mo.i x, y, z L ta co
cac phep toan , phan phoi doi vo.i nhau, t
(a) x (y z) = (x y) (x z);
(b) x (y z) = (x y) (x z).
V du. 6.2.1. (a) Lattice da.i so trong V du. 6.1.1 l`a phan bo.
(b) Lattice da.i so trong V du. 6.1.2 l`a lattice phan bo.
u. tu.. doi vo.i quan he. th
u. tu.. tuyen tnh thong thu.`o.ng.
(c) R hoa.c N l`a ta.p du.o..c sap th
.
- o l`a cac lattice phan bo, vo i
D
x y = max(x, y) v`a x y = min(x, y).
V du. 6.2.2. Cac lattice da.i so trong H`nh 6.4 khong phan bo.
Chang ha.n, ch
u.ng minh (a). Ta co
B (C D) = B A = B.
132
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C D
(b)
(a)
[(x y) x] [(x y) z]
[x (x y)] [z (x y)]
x [z (x y)]
x [(z x) (z y)]
[x (z x)] (z y)
[x (x z)] (y z)
x (y z)
(do (a))
(tnh giao hoan)
(tnh hap thu.)
(do (a))
(tnh ket ho..p)
(tnh giao hoan)
(tnh hap thu.)
v`
a
Th` x = y.
133
x a = y a.
Ch
u.ng minh. Ta co
x =
=
=
=
=
=
=
x (x a)
x (y a)
(x y) (x a)
(y x) (y a)
y (x a)
y (y a)
y.
2
`e sau ch
`an tu. lo.n nhat l`a 1 v`a ph
`an
T`
u. day v
ung ta luon gia su. (L, , ) l`a lattice co ph
.
tu nho nhat l`a 0 (1 khac 0).
- .inh ngha 6.2.4. Hai ph
`an tu. x, y L du.o..c go.i l`a b`
D
u nhau (complement) neu
x y = 1 v`a x y = 0.
`an tu. cua L d`eu t
`on ta.i ph
`an tu.
u (complemented) neu mo.i ph
Lattice L du.o..c go.i l`a kha b`
b`
u.
`an tu. cua lattice L co the co hoa.c khong co ph
`an tu. b`
Nh
a.n x
et 10. (a) Mo.t ph
u. Trong
.
.
.
`on ta.i, co the duy nhat hoa.c khong duy nhat.
tru `o ng ho. p t
`an tu. 1 v`a 0 l`a b`
`an tu. b`
(b) Cac ph
u nhau v`a l`a ph
u duy nhat cua nhau.
`an tu. b`
u khong nhat thiet
V du. 6.2.3. (a) Lattice trong V du. 6.2.2(a) l`a kha b`
u. Cac ph
.
`an tu b`
u cua ca C v`a D.
duy nhat: B l`a ph
`an tu. b`
u c
ung khong duy nhat.
(b) Lattice L trong V du. 6.2.2(b) c
ung kha b`
u. Cac ph
Chang ha.n, ca A v`a C d`eu l`a b`
u cua B.
u. V` neu co
V du. 6.2.4. Lattice trong H`nh 6.5 l`a phan bo nhu.ng khong kha b`
x y = 1 v`a x y = 0.
u.c sau cho y = 0. Vo l
y.
Th` dang th
u.c d`au cho y = 1 c`on dang th
x
0
1
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
H`nh 6.5:
- i.nh l
`an tu. 1 v`
`an tu. x (neu c
D
y 6.2.5. Trong lattice ph
an b
o L c
o ph
a 0, b`
u cu a ph
o) l`
a
duy nh
at.
134
Ch
u.ng minh. Gia su. ra` ng
x y = 1,
x y = 0,
x z = 1,
x z = 0.
Ta co
y
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
y0
y (x z)
(y x) (y z)
1 (y z)
(x z) (y z)
(x y) z
0z
z
(v` 0 y)
(v` x z = 0)
(v` tnh phan bo)
(v` y x = x y = 1)
(v` x z = 1)
(v` tnh phan bo)
(v` x y = 0)
(v` 0 z).
2
`an tu. trong lattice t
`on ta.i duy nhat ph
`an tu. b`
`an tu. b`
Nh
a.n x
et 11. Neu ph
u, th` ph
u cua
.
.
0
y hie.u l`a x .
x du o. c k
B`
ai t
a.p
1. Xet lattice da.i so L1 vo.i lu.o..c d`o Hasse:
1
..
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.......
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.........
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....
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.
....
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.
....
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...
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.
....
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..
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.....
.....
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....
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.
.
....
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....
....
....
....
....
....
...
.... .......
....
u? Giai thch.
(e) L1 l`a lattice kha b`
(f) L1 l`a lattice phan bo?
`o Hasse trong h`nh:
2. Xet lattice L2 vo.i lu.o..c d
r
.......
.... .. ....
.... .... .......
....
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.
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6.3
- a.i s
D
o Boole
`an tu. b
ap th
u. tu.. m`
a hai ph
at k`
y c
o the so s
anh du.o..c v
o.i nhau.
Xch l`
a t
a.p du.o..c s
137
x 7 x0
A Ac = .
=
=
=
=
=
Tu.o.ng tu..
(x y) (x0 y 0) = 0.
T`
u. do co (a). (b) V`
x y = (x0)0 (y 0)0
= (x0 y 0 )0.
Nen
2
- i.nh l
D
y 6.3.3. Gia su. A l`
a da.i s
o Boole h
u.u ha.n v
o.i t
a.p c
ac nguyen tu. S := {a1, a2, . . . , an }.
oi x A, x 6= 0, ta c
o the viet du.
o.i da.ng tuyen c
ac nguyen tu. kh
V
o.i m
ac nhau nhu. sau
x = ai1 ai2 . . . aik .
(6.3)
u.c tren l`
u. tu.. cu a c
u.a bieu th
a duy nh
at kh
ong ke th
ac nguyen tu. trong bieu th
u.c,
Ho.n n
a c
ac nguyen tu. x.
v`
a ai1 , ai2 , . . . , aik l`
- `au tien ta ch
`on ta.i.
u.ng minh tnh t
Ch
u.ng minh. + D
139
0 < y = y y 0.
(6.4)
(
ai
x ai =
0
neu ai x,
neu ngu.o..c la.i,
x = b1 b2 . . . bm ,
trong do bi l`a cac nguyen tu.. Khi do bi x, i = 1, 2, . . . , m.
Va.y
bi {a S | a x},
i = 1, 2, . . . , m.
i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
- i.nh l
Ch
u.ng minh. Theo D
y 6.3.3, mo.i x A co the bieu dien duy nhat du.o.i da.ng
x = ai1 ai2 . . . aik .
Ta di.nh ngha
f (x) = bi1 bi2 . . . bik .
- a.c bie.t
D
f (ai ) = bi ,
i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
141
- i.nh l
y 6.3.3, ta co
Theo di.nh ngha cua f v`a do D
f (x) = {f (a) | a S, a x}
v`a
f (x) = {b T | b f (x)}.
V` bieu dien cua f (x) l`a duy nhat, nen vo.i mo.i a S ta co
ax
- e ch
D
u.ng minh (a), lay x, y A v`a ch
uy
r`a ng a S, ta co
f (a) f (x y) a (x y)
a x hoa.c a y
f (a) f (x) hoa.c f (a) f (y).
T
u.c l`a, vo.i moi b T ta co
b f (x y) b f (x) hoa.c b f (y)
b f (x) f (y).
du.ng D
- .inh l
y 6.3.3, suy ra
Ap
f (x y) = f (x) f (y).
Va.y khang di.nh (a) du.o..c ch
u.ng minh. Tu.o.ng tu.. ta c
ung co (b).
Ch
u.ng minh (c). Ta co
f (x) f (x0 ) = f (x x0) = f (1) = 1,
f (x) f (x0 ) = f (x x0) = f (0) = 0.
Va.y [f (x)]0 = f (x0 ). 2
`an tu. th` P(S) l`a mo.t da.i so Boole (tu.o.ng u
Neu S l`a ta.p co n ph
.ng vo.i cac phep toan
.
.
`an b`
u) co n nguyen tu , cu. the {x}, x S. Va.y
ho. p, giao v`a lay ph
o n nguyen tu. th` d
H
e. qua 6.3.5. M
o.t da.i s
o Boole h
u.u ha.n c
a ng c
au da.i s
o Boole v
o.i
`an tu..
P(S), #S = n, v`
a v` v
a.y c
o du
ng 2n ph
B`
ai t
a.p
1. (a) Kiem tra B := {1, 0} vo.i hai phep toan , thong thu.`o.ng v`a 00 = 1, 10 = 0, l`a da.i
so Boole.
142
x0 :=
6
.
x
`an tu.
`an tu. nho nhat v`a ph
Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng (D6 , +, ,0 ) l`a da.i so Boole. T`m cac ph
.
lo n nhat.
4. Tren ta.p D8 := {1, 2, 4, 8} xet cac phep toan + v`a nhu. trong B`ai ta.p 3 v`a x0 = 8/x.
Ch
u.ng minh (D8 , +, ,0 ) khong phai da.i so Boole.
5. Lattice (D30 , |) l`a da.i so Boole.
`o Hasse cua lattice n`ay.
(a) Ve lu.o..c d
(b) Lie.t ke cac nguyen tu. cua D30 .
`an ch
uy
ra` ng, cac da.i so con c
u.a 1
(c) T`m tat ca cac da.i so Boole con cua D30. Ch
v`a 30.
`an tu. nhu.ng khong phai l`a da.i so Boole con.
(d) T`m lattice con co bon ph
6. Lattice (D210 , |) l`a da.i so Boole. T`m ta.p S sao cho P(S) v`a D210 l`a dang cau da.i so
Boole v`a t`m dang cau n`ay.
u.ng gia tri. m n`ao th` lattice (Dm , |) l`a da.i so Boole?
7. Vo.i nh
8. Tren ta.p Sn := {1, 2, . . . , n} xet cac phep toan:
x + y := max(x, y),
(a) Ch
u.ng minh tren Sn cac phep toan n`ay thoa man cac tnh chat giao hoan, ket ho..p
v`a hap thu..
`an tu. nho nhat 0, ph
`an tu. lo.n nhat 1 v`a phep
(b) Ch
u.ng minh co the di.nh ngha ph
toan phu di.nh 0 sao cho Sn vo.i cac phep toan n`ay l`a da.i so Boole neu v`a ch neu n = 2.
9. Gia su. (A, , ) l`a da.i so Boole v`a S l`a ta.p con cua A. Ch
u.ng minh S vo.i cac phep
toan , cam sinh l`a da.i so Boole neu v`a ch neu 1 S v`a x y 0 S vo.i mo.i x, y S.
143
10. (a) Ch
u.ng minh trong da.i so Boole, [x(x0 + y))]0 = x0 + y 0 vo.i mo.i x, y.
u.c tren.
(b) Viet doi ngau v`a ch
u.ng minh bieu th
11. Gia su. P l`a ta.p cac so nguyen du.o.ng v`a S l`a ho. cac ta.p con h
u.u ha.n cua P. Giai thch
.
.
`an b`
ta.i sao S vo i cac phep ho. p, giao v`a lay ph
u khong l`a da.i so Boole.
12. T`m ta.p S sao cho P(S) v`a B5 l`a dang cau da.i so Boole v`a t`m dang cau n`ay.
- i
`eu n`ay c`on du
13. Mo ta cac nguyen tu. cua Fun(S, B), S := N. D
ng neu S := R?
`an tu.? Giai thch.
`on ta.i da.i so Boole vo.i 6 ph
14. (a) T
`an tu. dang cau vo.i da.i so Boole Jn cua cac h`am
(b) Mo.i da.i so Boole h
u.u ha.n ph
Boole? Giai thch.
15. (a) Mo ta cac nguyen tu. cua lattice P(N).
`an tu. cua lattice l`a tuyen cua cac nguyen tu.? Thao lua.n.
(b) Moi ph
`an tu. cua da.i so Boole, v`a a l`a mo.t nguyen tu..
16. Gia su. x, y l`a cac ph
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng a x y neu v`a ch neu a x hoa.c a y.
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng a x y neu v`a ch neu a x v`a a y.
`ong th`o.i ca hai.
(c) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng hoa.c a x hoa.c a x0 v`a khong d
`an tu. cua da.i so Boole h
u.u ha.n m`a du.o..c viet du.o.i da.ng tuyen
17. Gia su. x, y l`a cac ph
.
cac nguyen tu
x = a1 a2 an , v`a y = b1 b2 bm .
18. (a) Giai thch cach viet x y v`a x y da.ng tuyen cac nguyen tu. phan bie.t. Minh ho.a
ba` ng v du..
(b) Viet s0 da.ng tuyen cac nguyen tu. phan bie.t.
u.a cac da.i so Boole A v`a B th`
19. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng neu l`a dang cau da.i so Boole gi
x y neu v`a ch neu (x) (y).
`om ta.p trong v`a tat ca cac ta.p con cua S sao cho co the viet
20. Gia su. S := [0, 1] v`a A g
.
.
.
o da.ng ho. p h
u u ha.n cac khoang co da.ng [a, b).
`an tu. cua A co the viet nhu. ho..p h
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng moi ph
u.u ha.n cua cac khoang
.
r`o i nhau da.ng [a, b).
.ng vo.i cac phep toan giao (), ho..p () v`a
(b) Ch
u.ng minh A l`a da.i so Boole tu.o.ng u
`an b`
lay ph
u.
(c) Ch
u.ng minh A khong co nguyen tu..
`an b`
21. Gia su. a a
.ng vo.i da.i so Boole
, a a
l`a hai phep toan lay ph
u tu.o.ng u
, vo.i mo.i a A.
(A, , ). Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng a = a
144
6.4
H`
am Boole
`an n`ay ch
`e h`am Boole, d
`ong th`o.i mo ta cac
Ph
ung ta se d.inh ngha mo.t cach tong quat v
da.ng chnh quy cua ch
ung. Nghien c
u.u h`am Boole t
u.c l`a nghien c
u.u cac anh xa. Boole t`
u.
.
`an tu cua da.i so Boole go.i l`a ha` ng so.
mo.t da.i so Boole v`ao chnh ban than no. Moi ph
.
`an tu cua da.i so Boole go.i l`a bien Boole.
Moi mo.t k
y hie.u bieu dien mo.t trong cac ph
du.o..c go.i l`a h`am Boole n bien neu no du.o..c cau ta.o theo nguyen tac sau day
`an th
(a) H`am ha` ng f (x) = a, a B, v`a phep chieu len th`anh ph
u. i : f (x) = xi l`a h`am
Boole.
ung l`a h`am Boole.
(b) Neu f l`a h`am Boole th` h`am phu di.nh f 0 c
(c) Neu f v`a g l`a cac h`am Boole th` f g v`a f g c
ung l`a h`am Boole.
`an cac quy lua.t ke tren
u.u ha.n l
(d) Mo.i h`am so du.o..c cau ta.o b`a ng cach ap du.ng mo.t so h
d`eu l`a h`am Boole.
Nh
a.n x
et 13. Theo d.inh ngha tren th` h`am Boole l`a mo.t h`am so du.o..c cau ta.o t`
u. cac
.
.
`an cac phep toan ho.i, tuyen
u u ha.n l
ha` ng so v`a cac phep chieu b`a ng cach u
ng du.ng mo.t so h
v`a phu di.nh.
V du. 6.4.1. (a) Cac h`am du.o.i day l`a cac h`am Boole theo ba bien x, y, z :
(x y) (x0 z) y,
y 0 (x z 0),
x y,
z.
l`a
x
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
y
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
z
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
y0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
xz
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
f
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
Nh
a.n x
et 14. Moi h`am Boole co duy nhat mo.t bang chan tri.. Ngu.o..c la.i, ta luon luon co
`om 2n h`ang cho truo.c.
the xay du..ng du.o..c vo so h`am Boole n bien co bang chan tri. g
V du. 6.4.3. Xet bang chan tri.
x y
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
1 0
1 0
1 1
1 1
z
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
f
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
x
x
x
x y 0 z,
x0 y z,
x0 y 0 z 0 .
- i.nh ngha 6.4.2. Hai h`am Boole du.o..c go.i l`a tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i nhau neu ch
D
ung co c`
ung
mo.t bang chan tri..
V du. 6.4.4. Cac bieu th
u.c x(y z) v`a xy xz l`a tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
- i.nh l
`an tu. cua ta.p tat ca cac h`am Boole n bien: Fun(Bn , B) :=
D
y sau cho ch
ung ta so cac ph
{f : Bn B}.
n
- .inh l
anh xa. t`
u. Bn v`
ao B.
D
y 6.4.3. C
o 22
Ch
u.ng minh. Ro r`ang #Bn = 2n . Moi h`am t`
u. Bn v`ao B co the lay mo.t trong hai gia tri.
n
2n
.
do.c la.p l`a 0 v`a 1. Do va.y ta co 2 to ho. p kha nang khac nhau; ngha l`a co 22 anh xa. khac
nhau. 2
V du. 6.4.5. (a) Tru.`o.ng ho..p n = 1 ta co bon h`am Boole:
f1 = 0, f2 = x, f3 = x0, f4 = 1.
(b) Tru.`o.ng ho..p n = 2 ta co 16 h`am so Boole du.o..c lie.t ke trong bang sau
STT
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
f
0
x1 x2
x1 x02
x1
x01 x2
x2
x1x02 + x01x2
x1 + x2
x01 x02
x1x2 + x01x02
x02
x1 + x02
x01
x01 + x2
x01 + x02
1
Ten go.i
H`am h`a ng 0
H`am AND
`eu kie.n
H`am keo theo khong di
n
o.i c
ac phep to
an +, ., l`
a m
o.t da.i s
o Boole d
a ng c
au v
o.i B2 .
H
e. qua 6.4.4. Fun(Bn , B) v
B`
ai t
a.p
1. Ch
u.ng minh cac bieu th
u.c du.o.i day l`a cac h`am Boole v`a t`m gia tri. cua cac h`am n`ay
khi x = 1, y = 1, z = 0 :
147
(a) (x y) (y 0 z).
(b) (x y)0.
(c) x (y 0 z).
(d) (x y 0) (y z 0).
(e) (x (y (x y 0))) ((x y 0) (x z 0)0 ).
2. Cac bieu th
u.c n`ao l`a h`am Boole:
(a) x (y z).
(b) x (y 0 z).
(c) (x).
(d) (x y) z 0 .
(e) ((x)).
3. T`m h`am Boole f : B3 B neu f (0, 0, 0) = f (0, 0, 1) = f (1, 1, 0) = 1 v`a f (a, b, c) = 0
vo.i tat ca (a, b, c) B3 khac.
4. Kiem tra cac dang th
u.c sau:
(a) x x = x.
(b) x (x y) = x.
(c) x y 0 = (x0 y)0 .
(d) x (y z)0 = (x y 0 ) (x z 0).
(e) x0 ((y z) (x y z)) = x z.
-u
5. D
ng hay sai:
(a) (x y) (x0 z) (x0 y z 0) = y (x0 z).
(b) (x y z) (x z)0 = (x z) (x0 z 0 ).
6. Ch
u.ng minh neu f1 v`a f2 l`a cac h`am Boole theo cac bien x1, x2 , . . . , xn th` f1 f2
.
tu o.ng du.o.ng vo.i f2 f1 .
`om mo.t bien do.n hoa.c ph
`an b`
7. Cac h`am Boole nhu. x hay y 0 g
u cua no du.o..c go.i l`a
literal.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh x0 z y 0z khong tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i tch cac literal.
(b) Ch
u.ng minh x0z y 0z khong tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i tuyen cua cac tch cua cac literal
`an (a) v`a (b) ch ra r`a ng x0z y 0z l`a toi
m`a trong do mo.t tch l`a mo.t literal do.n. (Ph
u.u).
(c) Nhom ba so ha.ng xyz xyz 0 xy 0z da.ng cac ca.p de nha.n du.o..c mo.t bieu th
u.c
`om hai literal.
tu.o.ng du.o.ng da.ng tuyen cua hai tch m`a moi tch g
148
6.5
Bi
eu di
en c
ac h`
am Boole qua h
e. tuy
en, h
o.i v`
a phu
d
i.nh
Nhu. ch
ung ta da biet, mo.t trong nh
u.ng cach cho h`am Boole l`a d`
ung bang chan tri.. Moi
.
`eu h`am so khac nhau, nhu ng cac h`am so n`ay phai tu.o.ng
bang chan tri. co the bieu dien nhi
.
.
.
ung bang chan tri. de kiem tra cac h`am Boole
du o ng vo i nhau. Noi mo.t cach khac co the d`
.
.
.
.
.
co tu o ng du o ng vo i nhau hay khong?
Ngo`ai ra, de so sanh cac h`am Boole vo.i nhau ngu.`o.i ta du.a ra da.ng chnh quy (hay da.ng
chuan). Hai cach bieu dien khac nhau cua h`am Boole co c`
ung mo.t da.ng chnh quy neu v`a
.
.
.
.
.
ch neu ch
ung tu o ng du o ng vo i nhau. Noi cach khac, da.ng chnh quy cua mo.t cach bieu
ung, do l`a da.ng tuyen chnh
dien h`am Boole l`a duy nhat. Co hai da.ng chnh quy thu.`o.ng d`
quy (hay da.ng tong cua cac tch) v`a da.ng ho.i chnh quy (hay da.ng tch cua cac tong).
- e tie.n tr`nh b`ay, ta du.a v`ao quy u.o.c sau. Gia su. x l`a mo.t bien v`a e B. K
D
y hie.u
(
x neu e = 1,
xe :=
x0 neu ngu.o..c la.i.
T`
u. di.nh ngha ta co
- i.nh ngha 6.5.1. Gia su. f l`a h`am Boole n bien. Ta.p
D
Tf := {x = (x1, x2 , . . . , xn ) Bn | f (x) = 1}
du.o..c go.i l`a ta.p da.c tru.ng cua f.
Tnh ch
at 6.5.2. (a) Tf 0 = [Tf ]0 = {x = (x1, x2 , . . . , xn ) Bn | f (x0 ) = 1}.
(b) Tf +g = Tf Tg .
(c) Tf g = Tf Tg .
Ch
u.ng minh. Hien nhien theo di.nh ngha. 2
Ho.n n
u.a co mo.t tu.o.ng u
.ng mo.t-mo.t gi
u.a cac h`am Boole v`a ta.p da.c tru.ng cua no. Cac
u.ng minh tren da.i so logic sang cac ch
tnh chat n`ay cho phep chuyen ch
u.ng minh tu.o.ng
.
.
u
ng tren da.i so ta.p ho. p.
- i.nh l
D
y 6.5.3. C
o d.inh i {1, 2, . . . , n}. Khi d
o mo.i h`
am Boole n bien f d`eu c
o the bieu
.
.
en du
o i da.ng tuyen chnh quy
di
X
f (x) =
f (e1 , e2, . . . , ei , xi+1 , xi+2, . . . , xn )xe11 xe22 . . . xei i ,
(6.5)
149
ho
a.c du.
o.i da.ng h
o.i chnh quy
Y
f (x) =
f (e1 , e2, . . . , ei , xi+1, xi+2 , . . . , xn )xe11 xe22 . . . xei i ,
(6.6)
o.i l
ay tren t
a.p (e1, e2, . . . , ei) Bi .
trong do
tuyen, h
`an ch
u.ng minh bieu dien da.ng (6.5). Gia su.
Ch
u.ng minh. B`a ng lua.t doi ngau, ta ch c
(x1, x2 , . . . , xn ) Tf . Khi do so ha.ng u
.ng vo.i bo. gia tri. e1 = x1 , e2 = x2, . . . , ei = xi trong
tuyen ve phai cua (6.5)
xe11 xe22 . . . xei i f (e1 , e2, . . . , ei , xi+1 , xi+2, . . . , xn )
- i
`eu n`ay keo theo to`an bo. ve phai ba` ng 1.
se ba` ng 1. D
Ngu.o..c la.i, neu ve phai ba` ng 1 th` phai xay ra ta.i so ha.ng n`ao do, chang ha.n ta.i so ha.ng
tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i bo. gia tri. (e1, e2, . . . , ei) v`a do do (x1 , x2, . . . , xn ) Tf . 2
Cho i = 1 trong d.inh l
y v`a nha.n xet r`a ng vai tr`o cua cac bien xi l`a nhu. nhau, ta du.o..c
o.t do
i s
o xi
H
e. qua 6.5.4. H`
am Boole f c
o the du.o..c khai trien theo m
f (x) = x0if (x1 , . . . , xi1, 0, xi+1 , . . . , xn ) xi f (x1 , . . . , xi1 , 1, xi+1 , . . . , xn ),
(6.7)
(6.8)
ho
a.c
(6.9)
eTf
o.i da.ng h
o.i chnh quy
ho
a.c du.
f (x) =
(6.10)
eTf
Cong th
u.c khai trien (6.9) c`on du.o..c go.i l`a da.ng tuyen chuan tac ho`an to`an cua f v`a moi
`an tu. toi thieu) cua f.
so ha.ng cua no du.o..c go.i l`a mo.t cau ta.o do.n vi. (hay ph
150
V du. 6.5.1. Da.ng tuyen chnh quy v`a da.ng ho.i chnh quy cua h`am Boole co bang chan tri.
x1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
x2
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
x3
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
f (x1 , x2, x3 )
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
.ng l`a
tu.o.ng u
f = x01x02x03 + x01x2 x03 + x01 x2x3 + x1x02 x3 + x1x2 x3,
f = (x1 + x2 + x03)(x01 + x2 + x3)(x01 + x02 + x3 ).
Nhu. va.y da.ng chnh quy khong nh
u.ng gi
up ch
ung ta so sanh cac h`am so m`a c`on gi
up
.
.
.
.
u c da.i so t`
u bang chan tri. v`a
ch
ung ta trong vie.c bieu dien h`am Boole du o i da.ng bieu th
u. He. qua 6.5.5, ta nha.n du.o..c
trong vie.c do.n gian hoa toi thieu cac h`am Boole. T`
u. c
ac bien nh`
o. c
ac h`
am OR, AND,
H
e. qua 6.5.6. Mo.i h`
am Boole d`eu c
o the x
ay du..ng t`
v`
a NOT.
`on ta.i nhi
`eu he. khac c
Ngo`ai he. tuyen, ho.i v`a phu di.nh, t
ung co tnh chat mo.i h`am Boole
d`eu bieu dien qua cac th`anh vien cua he.. Mo.t he. h`am nhu. va.y du.o..c go.i l`a he. d`ay du.
H
e. qua 6.5.7. C
ac he.
(a) {AND, NOT}; v`
a
am d`
ay du hai bien.
(b) {OR, NOT} l`
a nh
u.ng he. h`
Ch
u.ng minh. (a) Tha.t va.y, do
x y = (x0)0 (y 0)0
= (x0y 0)0
nen h`am OR du.o..c thay ba` ng hai h`am AND v`a NOT. Ket lua.n du.o..c suy t`
u. He. qua 6.5.6.
(b) B`ai ta.p. 2
Vie.c nghien c
u.u tnh d`ay du cua mo.t he. h`am co y
ngha thu..c tien quan tro.ng, no tra l`o.i
.
.
u mo.t so h`am do.n gian cho.n tru.o.c hay khong?
cau hoi co the xay du. ng mo.t h`am Boole t`
151
B`
ai t
a.p
1. Ch
u.ng minh cac khai trien trong He. qua 3.5.5 l`a duy nhat.
2. T`m da.ng tuyen chnh quy cua h`am Boole ba bien:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
xy.
z0.
xz (y 0 y 0z) xy 0z 0 .
x yz.
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
3. Tr`nh b`ay phu.o.ng phap t`m da.ng ho.i chnh quy. Cho v du. minh ho.a.
4. Su. du.ng cac phu.o.ng phap da.i so, t`m da.ng tuyen chnh quy cua cac h`am Boole sau:
(a) x xy.
(b) (x y)(x0 y 0 ).
(c) (yz xz 0)(xy 0 z)0 .
(d) (x0 y x0 z 0)(x yz)0.
(e) x (y 0 (xy 0 xz 0)).
5. Ch
u.ng minh neu m1 m2 mk l`a da.ng tuyen chnh quy cua f th` m01 m02 m0k
l`a da.ng ho.i chnh quy cua f 0 . Cho v du. minh ho.a.
`ay du: {OR, NOT}, {NOR}, v`a {NAND}. (H`am
6. Ch
u.ng minh cac he. h`am sau l`a d
.
.
NAND v`a NOR c`on k
y hie.u tu o ng u
.ng l`a v`a ).
7. Ch
u.ng minh cac he. h`am sau khong d`ay du: {AND}, {OR }, {NOT}, v`a {AND, OR}.
8. Ch
u.ng minh hoa.c t`m phan v du.: x (y z) = (x y) z vo.i mo.i x, y, z B.
9. Bieu dien h`am XOR qua he. h`am NAND.
6.6
6.6.1
am Boole
Bi
eu di
en t
oi thi
eu cua h`
Kh
ai ni
e.m
di.nh ngha bo i
(
0
neu x = y = 1,
x y :=
1
neu ngu.o..c la.i,
khi bieu dien qua he. tuyen, ho.i v`a phu di.nh, co the co cac cach
x y = x0y 0 x0y xy 0 = x0 y 0.
152
hoa l`a t`m da.ng bieu dien do n gian nhat cho mo.t bieu th
u c Boole. Nhu va.y b`ai toan toi
u.c ta.p cua cac bieu th
u.c
thieu cac bieu th
u.c Boole tro. th`anh b`ai toan so sanh m
u.c do. ph
tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
u.c Boole. Nhom th
u.
Noi chung, co hai nhom phu.o.ng phap de toi thieu hoa cac bieu th
.
.
.
.
.
.
`om cac phu o ng phap bien doi da.i so cac bieu th
u c Boole du. a tren co so cac dang
nhat bao g
.
.
`an cac tnh chat cua da.i so Boole. Cac phu.o.ng phap n`ay khong
th
u c da gio i thie.u trong ph
.
.
`eu th`o i gian, da.c bie.t trong tru.`o.ng ho..p co nhi
`eu bien. Nhom th
tie.n lo. i, d`oi hoi nhi
u. hai
`om cac phu.o.ng phap thua.t toan, cac phu.o.ng phap n`ay cho phep de d`ang tu.. do.ng hoa
bao g
bieu th
u.c Boole.
6.6.2
ap ba n d
`
o Karnaugh
Phu.o.ng ph
Ban d
`
o Karnaugh hai bi
en
Ban d`o Karnaugh hai bien l`a mo.t h`nh vuong du.o..c chia th`anh bon h`nh vuong nho ho.n
nhu. trong H`nh 6.6.
153
y0
x0
x
...................................................................................................................................................
...
...
...
..
..
.....
...
0
0 ......
0
....
....
...
...
..
...
...
..
.........................................................................................................................................................
...
..
..
...
...
...
....
....
....
0
...
..
..
...
...
...
....
....
..
....................................................................................................................................................
x y
x y
xy
xy
...................................................................................................................................................
...
....
....
.....
....
....
..
..
..
...
.
.
...
....
.....
....
..
..
.
...................................................................................................................................................
...
.
.
.
....
.....
....
...
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
...
..
................................................................................................................................................
y0
x0
...................................................................................................................................................
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
....
...
...
..
...
......................................................................................................................................................
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
....
....
...
..
..
...
...
...
....
...
...
.................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
....
...
...
...
...
..
......................................................................................................................................................
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
....
....
...
..
..
...
...
...
....
...
...
.................................................................................................................................................
1
1
`e nhau
H`nh 6.7: Ket ho..p cac h`nh vuong k
`an tu. toi thieu v`a co
.ng mo.t-mo.t vo.i mo.t ph
Nha.n xet l`a moi h`nh vuong con tu.o.ng u
.
.
.
.
`an tu toi thieu trong tru `o ng ho. p hai bien.
du
ng bon ph
`e nhau neu ch
Ta noi ra` ng hai h`nh vuong con l`a k
ung co chung mo.t ca.nh. V` mo.t h`nh
.
.
.
.
vuong con tu o ng u
ng mo.t phan tu toi thieu (l`a bieu th
u.c Boole hai bien) nen cac h`nh
`e nhau l`a bieu th
vuong con k
u.c Boole mo.t bien nhu. H`nh 6.7.
Ta minh ho.a phu.o.ng phap qua v du. sau.
V du. 6.6.1. Xet h`am Boole
f (x, y) = (x0 y) (x y) (x y 0).
Ta chia l`am ba bu.o.c.
`o Karnaugh v`a da.t 1 v`ao moi h`nh vuong con tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i mo.t
Bu.o.c 1. Ve mo.t ban d
`an tu. toi thieu cua f. Ta co H`nh 6.8.
ph
`e nhau sao cho cac ellipse n`ay ch
Bu.o.c 2. Bay gi`o. ve cac ellipse ch
u.a cac so 1 k
u.a tat ca
.
`eu ho n c
`an thiet. Ta co H`nh 6.9.
cac so 1. Ch
uy
l`a khong ve nhi
Bu.o.c 3. Vo.i moi ellipse co du.o..c trong bu.o.c tru.o.c, ch
ung ta to ho..p la.i th`anh mo.t bieu
.
`oi tuyen cac bien n`ay la.i de co da.ng do.n gian g(x, y). Trong v du.
th
u c Boole mo.t bien, v`a r
154
y0
x0
x
...................................................................................................................................................
...
...
...
..
..
.....
...
...
....
....
....
...
..
..
...
...
..
.........................................................................................................................................................
...
..
..
...
...
...
....
....
....
...
..
..
...
...
...
....
....
..
....................................................................................................................................................
H`nh 6.8:
y
y0
x0
x
...................................................................................................................................................
...
...
...
..
..
.......
.....
... .....
...
...
..
..
.
.
...
.
....
..
..
...
.
.
.
..
.
.
..
...
..
.
.
..
.
.
................................................................................................................................................................
...
...
..
..
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
........................
..............
....
....
.....
....
...
..........
.. ......
.......
...
..
..
.
.
... ...........
...........
.
...
.
...
. .....
...........................
........................................................
....
..
.....................................................................................................................................................
H`nh 6.9:
n`ay ta co
g(x, y) = x y.
Ban d
`
o Karnaugh ba bi
en
`o Karnaugh ba bien l`a mo.t h`nh ch
Ban d
u. nha.t du.o..c chia th`anh tam h`nh vuong con nhu.
.
.
.
.
H`nh 6.10. Nhu tru `o ng ho. p hai bien, moi h`nh vuong con du.o..c gan vo.i mo.t trong tam kha
`an tu. toi thieu ba bien. Mo.t trong nh
nang cua cac ph
y do de thua.t toan Karnaugh
u.ng l
.
.
.
.
`e nhau tu o ng u
`an tu. toi thieu ch khac nhau
ng hai ph
thu. c hie.n l`a hai h`nh vuong con k
.
`an ch
mo.t bien. Tuy nhien c
uy
r`a ng, cac h`nh vuong con o co.t d`au v`a co.t cuoi (trong c`
ung
.
.
.
.
.
.
`an
`e nhau. Trong tru `o ng ho. p ba bien, moi h`nh vuong con tu o ng u
ng mo.t ph
mo.t h`ang) l`a k
.
.
.
.
.
yz
y0z
yz 0
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
..
..
..
...
...
..
...
...
...
...
....
....
....
....
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
..
....
..
..
..
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
....
...
..
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
....
....
....
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
0
0
0
0
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
x y z
x y z
x yz
x yz
xy z
xy z
xyz
xyz
H`nh 6.10:
155
y0z0
x0
x
yz 0
y0z0
x0
x
y0z0
x0
yz
y0z
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
...
...
...
...
..
..
..
..
.....
...
...
...
...
....
....
....
....
....
..
..
...
..
..
...
...
...
...
..
......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
..
...
..
..
...
...
...
...
...
....
....
....
....
....
..
..
...
..
..
...
...
...
...
...
....
....
....
....
..
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
yz
y0z
xyz x0y 0
(a)
(b)
yz
y0z
yz 0
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
....
....
....
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
....
...
...
...
...
..
...
..
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
....
....
....
....
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
......................................................................................................................................................................................................................
y0z0
x0
yz 0
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
...
...
...
...
..
..
..
..
.....
...
...
...
...
....
....
....
....
....
..
..
...
..
..
...
...
...
...
..
......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
..
...
..
..
...
...
...
...
...
....
....
....
....
....
..
..
...
..
..
...
...
...
...
...
....
....
....
....
..
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
y0z
yz
yz 0
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
....
....
....
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
....
...
...
...
...
..
...
..
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
....
....
....
....
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
...
..
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1
1
x0 y z 0
(c)
(d)
H`nh 6.11:
y 0z 0
x0
x
yz
y 0z
yz 0
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
...
...
...
...
...
....
....
....
....
...
..
..
..
..
...
...
...
...
...
....
....
....
....
....
...
.
..
..
..
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
...
...
...
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
z0
H`nh 6.12:
V du. 6.6.2. Xet h`am Boole
f (x, y, z) = (x0 y 0 z) (x y 0 z 0) (x y z) (x0 y z).
- `au tien ve ban d
`o Karnaugh v`a da.t trong moi h`nh vuong mo.t so 1 tu.o.ng u
Bu.o.c 1. D
.ng
`an tu. toi thieu trong f. Ta du.o..c H`nh 6.13
ph
`e nhau sao cho phu tat ca cac so 1
u.a cac so 1 k
Bu.o.c 2. Ve cac ellipse hay quadruple ch
.
.
`an thiet. Ta co H`nh 6.14.
v`a khong su du.ng cac ellipse hay quadruple ho n so c
(Ch
uy
r`a ng, neu co the, hay su. du.ng cac quadruple nhu. V du. 6.6.3 du.o.i day).
Bu.o.c 3. Bay gi`o. vo.i moi ellipse (hoa.c quadruple) ta co tu.o.ng u
.ng mo.t bieu th
u.c mo.t
hoa.c hai bien. Tuyen cac bieu th
u.c n`ay ta du.o..c h`am toi thieu
g(x, y, z) = (x y 0 z 0 ) (x0 z) (y z).
156
y 0z 0
x0
x
y 0z
yz
yz 0
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
...
...
...
...
..
..
..
..
.....
...
...
...
...
....
....
....
....
....
...
..
..
..
..
...
...
...
...
..
......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
..
...
..
..
...
...
...
...
...
....
....
....
....
....
..
..
...
..
..
...
...
...
...
...
....
....
....
....
..
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
H`nh 6.13:
y 0z 0
x0
x
y 0z
yz
yz 0
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
.
...
..
..
...............................................................................
.
..
...
...
.............
.
.......... ....
...
....
... .........
...
...
.. .... ...
...
....
...
... .....
...
....... ..
.
.
...........
.
...
.
.
.
.
...
...
.
.
........................................................................ ...
.
.
.
....
...
..
.
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
. .
.
.
..
.
.
.
...
.
..
...
....
....
....
....
....
...
.
..
...
...
...
...
...
..
..
.
.
.
...
...
...
...
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
...
...
...
...
..............
...
....
...
...
..
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
H`nh 6.14:
V du. 6.6.3. Xet h`am Boole
f (x, y, z) = (x0 y 0 z 0) (x y z) (x y 0 z) (x0 y 0 z) (x0 y z) (x0 y z 0).
`o Karnaugh v`a da.t so 1 v`ao cac h`nh vuong tu.o.ng u
`an tu.
Bu.o.c 1. Ta co ban d
.ng cac ph
toi thieu (H`nh 6.15).
y 0z 0
x0
x
y 0z
yz
yz 0
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
..
..
..
...
...
...
..
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
....
...
...
...
...
..
...
...
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
..
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
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...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
H`nh 6.15:
`e nhau sao cho phu tat ca cac so
Bu.o.c 2. Ve cac ellipse hay cac quadruple cua cac so 1 k
.
.
1 v`a khong ve th`
u a. Co the l`am ba cach nhu sau
Su. du.ng H`nh 6.16(a) ta co
g1 (x, y, z) = x0 (x z).
Su. du.ng H`nh 6.16(b) ta co
Su. du.ng H`nh 6.16(c) ta co
y 0z 0
x0
x
yz
y 0z
yz 0
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................
. ............................... ..
.
..
.. .....................
..
...
...............................
....
.........
..............
...
...
..
...
....
.......
...
.....
.
....
....
....
....
.
.........
.
.
.....
.
.
.
.
..
.
...............
.
.. .............................
...
.
.....
..
...............................
...
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
...
..
..
..
.
.
.
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...
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...
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.
...........
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...
.
..
..
..
.
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.
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.
.
.....
..
.
.
.
.
.
...
..........
...
...............................................................
.....
.....
.....
....
..
..
...
..
.
......................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(a)
y 0z 0
x0
x
yz
y 0z
yz 0
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
..
................................
.................
......... .... .................
.
.............
... ..............................
..
..
.......
....
....... ....
...
.....
....
... ......
....
...
... ..
...
...
. ...
.
.
.
.
....
.
...
.
.
.
. ......
.
...
.. ...
.
.
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...
.
...
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.
.............
..
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..
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.
.
.
..........................................
.
.
.
...
...
...
.
.
.
........ ..
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
....
....
...
.....
....
....
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...
..
..
..
..
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..
..
..
...
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..
.
.
.
....
...
.
....
....
....
.
...
.
.....
.
...
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.
..
..
.
..
.
.
......
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
...
..
.
....
...
.
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
y 0z 0
x0
x
yz
y 0z
yz 0
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
........ .....................................
...
.............................. .........
...
...
................
....
................... ....
...
........
....
...
...
....
....
..........
...
...
...
...
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...
......
..
...
.
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...
.
.......
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...
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..
...............
.....
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...
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..
.
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.
.
.........
. .........
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
...
..
..
..
...
..
...
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...
...
...
...
...
.
..
....
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..
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..
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c)
H`nh 6.16:
B`
ai t
a.p
`o Karnaugh v`a t`m da.ng tuyen chnh tac toi thieu cua cac h`am Boole hai
1. Ve cac ban d
bien:
(a) xy + xy 0.
(c) xy + x0y 0 .
`o Karnaugh v`a t`m da.ng tuyen chnh tac toi thieu cua cac h`am Boole ba
2. Ve cac ban d
bien:
(a) x x0 yz.
(b) (x yz)0.
(c) y 0z xyz.
(d) (y z).
(e) xz yz.
(f) xy xz yz.
(g) xyz xy 0z 0 x0yz 0 x0y 0z.
(h) xy yz zx.
(h) xy yz zx.
158
Chu.o.ng 7
TUYE
N TINH
MA
u. nam 1940 vo.i nh
L
y thuyet ma bat d`au h`nh th`anh v`a phat trien t`
u.ng ket qua rat co. ban
`au l`a b`ai toan cua
u ban d
cua M. J. E. Golay, R. W. Hamming v`a C. E. Shannon. Ma.c d`
.
.
.
.
.
k
y su , nhu ng va n de da du o. c phat trien su du.ng ra t nhieu cong cu. toan ho.c. Chu.o.ng n`ay
u.c do. do.n gian nhat. Qua do ngu.`o.i
tr`nh b`ay l
y thuyet cac ma phat hie.n v`a su.a sai o. m
u.ng b`ai toan da.t ra do su.. phat trien cong
do.c co the thay ro moi lien he. ma.t thiet vo.i nh
nghe. vien thong.
7.1
7.1.1
`au
Mo. d
Kh
ai ni
e.m
7.1.2
i
M
a ph
at hi
e.n l
o
ph
a
t hie.n sai m`a c`on su.a ch
u.a cac loi sai (neu co).
nhien, co cac bo. ma khong ch
160
7.1.3
M
a su.a sai
B`
ai t
a.p
1. Cac chuoi bit nha.n du.o..c sau co the l`a du
ng (su. du.ng bit kiem tra chan le):
(a) 1000011.
(b) 111111000.
(c) 10101010101.
(d) 110111011100.
`an):
2. Cac chuoi bit nha.n du.o..c sau co the l`a du
ng (la.p moi bit trong thong bao hai l
(a) 110011.
(b) 1100000011.
(c) 101111.
`an. Su.a sai cac chuoi bit nha.n du.o..c sau (neu sai):
3. Cac ban tin du.o..c la.p ba l
(a) 111000101.
(b) 110000001.
(c) 111011111000.
161
7.2
C
ac kh
ai ni
e.m
u. ma x Bn , n >
Trong chu.o.ng n`ay, gia thiet moi ban tin u Bk du.o..c ma hoa th`anh cac t`
- e do.n gian, ta se d`ong nhat vector co.t x = (x1 , x2, . . . , xn )t vo.i chuoi bit x1 x2 . . . xn .
k. D
- i.nh ngha 7.2.1. Khong gian vector con k chi
`eu C cua khong gian vector Bn tren tru.`o.ng
D
`eu. He.
B go.i l`a [n, k]-ma tuyen tnh. n du.o..c go.i l`a do. d`ai cua bo. ma v`a dim C := k l`a chi
.
.
so cua bo. ma l`a t so k/n. Cac phan tu cua C go.i l`a cac t`
u ma.
Noi cach khac, ta.p con C cua Bn l`a mo.t ma tuyen tnh neu
(a) x + y C vo.i mo.i x, y C; v`a
(b) x C vo.i mo.i x C, B.
T`
u. di.nh ngha ta thay ra` ng, [n, k] ma tuyen tnh C ho`an to`an du.o..c xac di.nh bo.i ta.p bat
u. ma x C d`eu co the bieu dien
k`
y cac t`
u. ma do.c la.p tuyen tnh x1 , x2, . . . , xk v` moi t`
da.ng
k
X
x=
i xi
(mod 2),
i=1
=
=
=
=
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1 1 1
G2 := 0 0 1
1 1 1
V du. 7.2.3. [7, 4]-ma tuyen tnh C3 vo.i ma tra.n
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
G3 :=
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
sinh
0 0
1 0 .
1 1
sinh
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
.
0
1
x1 = u1 + u3 ,
x2 = u1 + u3 ,
x3 = u1 + u2 + u3 ,
x4 = u2 + u3 ,
x = u .
5
3
`an tu. cua ma C (do. d`ai n). Ta bieu dien cac ph
`an tu. cua C ba` ng mo.t
K
y hie.u M l`a so ph
u. ma.
mang kch thu.o.c M n m`a cac h`ang l`a cac t`
u. ma x C ta ap du.ng phep bien
Gia su. l`a hoan vi. cua ta.p {1, 2, . . . , n} v`a vo.i moi t`
doi, go.i l`a hoan vi. vi. tr,
: x 7 x0
xac d.inh bo.i
i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
x0i := x(i) ,
Tu.o.ng tu.., neu l`a hoan vi. cua cac k
y hie.u {0, 1}, ta noi cam sinh mo.t phep hoan vi. k
y
.
.
u. ma x C ta ap du.ng phep bien doi
hie.u neu vo i ch so i n`ao do, v`a vo i moi t`
x 7 x0 ,
trong do x0 xac d.inh bo.i
x0j :=
neu i 6= j,
neu i = j.
xj
(xi )
tu.o.ng du.o.ng ba` ng cach su. du.ng hoan vi. ({1, 2, 3, 4}) =
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
0 0
1
0 1
v`a
0
1 0
1
1 1
0
0
1
1
0
C :=
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
C 0 :=
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
.
0
1
0 1
1 0
u. 2 v`a th
u. 4.
cac k
y hie.u o. vi. tr th
u. ba trong C v`a sau do hoan vi. hai vi. tr th
B
o d
`
e 7.2.3. Hai ma tr
a.n Boole c`
ung c
ap k n sinh ra hai m
a tuyen tnh tu.o.ng du.o.ng
`
neu ch
ung nh
a.n du.o..c t`
u. nhau b
a ng d
ay c
ac phep to
an:
(a) ho
an vi. c
ac h`
ang;
(b) c
o.ng hai h`
ang; v`
a
(c) ho
an vi. c
ac c
o.t.
Ch
u.ng minh. Cac phep toan tren h`ang (a) v`a (b) khong thay doi ha.ng cua ma tra.n sinh
u. ma.
(ch thay doi cac vector co. so.). Phep toan (c) tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i hoan vi. vi. tr cac t`
2
V du. 7.2.5. (a) Ma tra.n sinh G1 v`a G3 co da.ng ba.c thang, t
u.c ma tra.n co cac tnh chat:
`an tu. khac khong ben trai nhat trong moi h`ang ba` ng 1.
1. Ph
`an tu. ben trai nhat cua mo.t h`ang ba` ng 1 co tat ca cac ph
`an tu. khac ba` ng
2. Co.t ch
u.a ph
0.
164
1 1 0 0 1
G02 := 0 0 1 0 1 .
0 0 0 1 1
Su. du.ng G02 cho bo. ma C2, ma hoa (7.1) co da.ng
x1 = u1 ,
x2 = u1 ,
x3 = u2 ,
x4 = u3 ,
x = u +u .
5
1
3
- i
`eu n`ay ch ra r`a ng cac k
y hie.u ban tin u1 , u2, u3 xuat hie.n tu.`o.ng minh trong cac t`
u. ma;
D
`an tu. ben trai
u. ti cua t`
u. ma x = utG neu ph
noi chung, k
y hie.u ui se xuat hie.n ta.i vi. tr th
u. ti .
nhat cua h`ang th
u. i cua G xuat hie.n trong co.t th
Nha.n xet r`a ng, cac ma tra.n ba.c thang cua ma C1 v`a C3 co da.ng G = (Ik A), trong do Ik
du.ng phu.o.ng phap cua Bo d`e 7.2.3, ma tra.n G0 co the du.a v
`e
l`a ma tra.n do.n vi. cap k. Ap
2
1 0 0 1 1
00
G2 := 0 1 0 0 0 .
0 0 1 0 1
Tong quat ta co
- i.nh l
`on ta.i m
D
y 7.2.4. Gia su. C l`
a [n, k]-m
a. Khi d
o t
a C 0 tu.o.ng du.o.ng C v
o.i ma tr
a.n
sinh da.ng (Ik A).
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
Theo ket qua tren, ta luon co the gia thiet ma tra.n sinh G co da.ng (Ik | A).
- i.nh ngha 7.2.5. Gia su. C l`a [n, k]-ma tuyen tnh v`a H l`a ma tra.n Boole cap (n k) n.
D
u. ma x C ta co
H go.i l`a ma tra.n kiem tra chan le cua C neu vo.i mo.i t`
Hx = 0
(mod 2).
He. (7.2) du.o..c go.i l`a he. phu.o.ng tr`nh kiem tra chan le.
165
(7.2)
x2 + x3 + x4 = 0,
x1 + x3 + x5 = 0,
x1 + x2 + x6 = 0.
0 1 1 1 0 0
H := 1 0 1 0 1 0 .
1 1 0 0 0 1
- i.nh l
D
y 7.2.6. Gia su. G v`
ac h`
ang d
o.c l
a.p tuyen tnh c
o kch
a H l`
a c
ac ma tr
a.n v
o.i c
.
.
.
.
.
o c tu o ng u
ng k n v`
a (n k) n. Khi d
o G v`
a H l`
a c
ac ma tr
a.n sinh v`
a ma tr
a.n kiem
thu
t
tra ch
an le cu a m
o.t m
a neu v`
a ch neu GH = 0.
Ch
u.ng minh. Gia su. GH t = 0. Khi do moi h`ang cua G l`a nghie.m cua he. phu.o.ng tr`nh (7.2)
v`a do do khong gian sinh bo.i tat ca cac to ho..p tuyen tnh cua cac h`ang cua G ch
u.a trong
`eu ba` ng k nen ch
ung
khong gian cac nghie.m cua (7.2). Nhu.ng ca hai khong gian n`ay co chi
.
.
.
.
.
`
`
`eu ngu o. c la.i. 2
ba ng nhau. Ba ng cach suy lua.n tu o ng tu. ta co chi
V du. 7.2.8. Cac ma C1 , C2, C3 trong cac v du. tren co cac ma tra.n kiem tra chan le tu.o.ng
u
.ng l`a
1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0
1
1
0
0
0
H2 :=
H1 :=
,
1 0 0 1 0 ,
1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
v`a
0 1 1 1 1 0 0
H3 := 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 .
1 1 0 1 0 0 1
166
Nha.n xet r`a ng neu G = (Ik A) th` ma tra.n kiem tra chan le co da.ng H = (At Ink ). Khi
u.a cac k
y
do he. phu.o.ng tr`nh kiem tra chan le (7.2) cho mo.t phu. thuo.c h`am tu.`o.ng minh gi
x5 = x2 + x3 + x4 ,
x6 = x1 + x3 + x4 ,
x7 = x1 + x2 + x4 ,
u. ma (hay lie.t ke ch
ung!).
Do do C3 co 24 = 16 t`
Tren Bn xet tch vo hu.o.ng cua hai vector di.nh ngha bo.i
hx, yi :=
n
X
xiyi
(mod 2).
i=1
Ch
uy
ra` ng, khac vo.i tch vo hu.o.ng thong thu.`o.ng tren khong gian Euclide, co the xay ra
hx, xi = 0 vo.i vector x 6= 0 n`ao do.
- i.nh ngha 7.2.7. Ma doi ngau hay ma tru..c giao, k
D
y hie.u C , cua ma tuyen tnh C xac
di.nh bo.i
C := {y Bn | hx, yi = 0 vo.i mo.i x C}.
De d`ang thay r`a ng C l`a ma tuyen tnh thoa dim C + dim C = n. Ho.n n
u.a
- i.nh l
`
D
y 7.2.8. V
o.i mo.i m
a ng ma tr
a.n
a tuyen tnh C, ma tr
a.n kiem tra ch
an le cu a C b
.
.
sinh cu a C v`
a ngu o. c la.i.
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
167
B`
ai t
a.p
1. Gia su. H l`a ma tra.n Boole cap r n. Ch
u.ng minh ta.p C := {x Bn |Hx = 0} l`a ma
tuyen tnh.
2. Ch
u.ng minh neu C l`a [n, k]-ma th`
C := {(x, xn+1) Bn B1 |x = x1x2 . . . xn C, xn+1 := x1 + x2 + + xn }
c
ung l`a ma tuyen tnh (go.i l`a ma mo. ro.ng). T`m moi lien he. gi
u.a cac ma tra.n kiem
1
1
0 1 1
,
1
1 0 1
0
1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 0 1
,
1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 1
5. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng cac ma tra.n sinh
1 1 0 0
G := 0 1 1 0 ,
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 .
1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1
G0 := 0 1 0 1 ,
0 0 1 1
1
G := 0
0
ma tra.n sinh
1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 ,
0 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
G0 := 0 1 1 0 1 1 ,
0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 1
G := 0 1 1 0 1 .
1 1 0 0 0
T`m ma tra.n A sao cho ma co ma tra.n sinh (I3 A) tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i C. Lie.t ke tat ca
cac t`
u. ma cua C.
9. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng quan he. ma tu.o.ng du.o.ng l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
`on ta.i ma C 0 ch
u.ng minh ra` ng t
u.a a v`a tu.o.ng
10. Gia su. C l`a [n, k]-ma v`a a Bn . Ch
.
.
.
du o ng vo i C.
u.a hai t`
u. ma l`a n.
11. Ch
u.ng minh so cac ma khong tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i do. d`ai n v`a ch
12. Gia su. C l`a [7, 4]-ma tuyen tnh vo.i ma
1 0
0 1
G :=
0 0
0 0
tra.n sinh
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
.
0
1
0 1 1 1 0 0
H := 1 0 1 0 1 0 .
1 1 0 0 0 1
14. (Ma la.p) T`m ma tra.n sinh v`a cac t`
u. ma cua [5, 1]ma co ma tra.n kiem tra chan le
1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0
H :=
1 0 0 1 0 .
1 0 0 0 1
15. (Ma tro.ng lu.o..ng chan) Cho ma tra.n kiem tra chan le
H := 1 1 1 1 1 .
T`m ma tra.n sinh v`a cac t`
u. ma.
16. T`m ma tra.n sinh v`a cac t`
u. ma co ma tra.n kiem tra chan le
1 0 1 0
H :=
.
1 1 0 1
17. Cho ma tra.n kiem tra chan le
0 1 1 1 1 0 0
H := 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 .
1 1 0 1 0 0 1
u. ma.
Lie.t ke tat ca cac t`
169
1 0 1 0 0
H := 1 1 0 1 0 .
0 1 0 0 1
T`m ma tra.n sinh v`a cac t`
u. ma.
.ng vo.i ma du.o..c thiet la.p ba` ng cach them mo.t
19. T`m ma tra.n kiem tra chan le tu.o.ng u
bit kiem tra chan le doi vo.i chuoi bit do. d`ai 4.
.ng vo.i ma la.p ba doi vo.i chuoi bit do. d`ai 3.
20. T`m ma tra.n kiem tra chan le tu.o.ng u
21. T`m ma tra.n kiem tra chan le H neu
1
0
G :=
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
.
1
0
22. T`m cac ma doi ngau cua cac ma C2 v`a C3 trong cac V du. 4.2.2 v`a 4.2.3.
23. T`m cac ma doi ngau cua cac ma sau:
0000
1100
C1 :=
,
0011
1111
000
110
C2 :=
011
101
24. (a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng (C ) = C.
- a.t C + D := {x + y|x C, y D}. Ch
(b) D
u.ng minh (C + D) = C + D .
25. K
y hie.u En l`a ta.p tat ca cac vector do. d`ai n co tro.ng lu.o..ng chan.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh En l`a ma tuyen tnh. T`m cac tham so [n, k], ma tra.n kiem tra chan
le v`a ma tra.n sinh cua En .
(b) T`m ma En .
7.3
ach Hamming
Khoang c
d(0111, 0000) = 3.
- i.nh l
D
y 7.3.2. Khoa ng c
ach Hamming d(x, y) l`
a m
o.t metric, t
u.c l`
a
`
au b
a ng xa y ra khi v`
a ch khi x = y.
(a) d(x, y) 0 v
o.i mo.i x, y C; d
(b) d(x, y) = d(y, x).
(c) d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y) v
o.i mo.i x, y, z C.
`au suy tru..c tiep t`
Ch
u.ng minh. Hai khang di.nh d
u. di.nh ngha.
Ch
u.ng minh (c): Nha.n xet r`a ng
{i | xi 6= yi} {i | xi 6= zi } {i | zi 6= yi },
v` neu xi 6= yi th` hoa.c xi 6= zi hoa.c zi 6= yi . Suy ra
#{i | xi 6= yi } #{i | xi 6= zi } + #{i | zi 6= yi }.
du.ng nguyen l
Ap
y bao h`am-loa.i tr`
u. v`a bat dang th
u.c:
#(A B) = #A + #B #(A B) #A + #B
`eu c
`an ch
ta co di
u.ng minh. 2
Gia su. ra` ng mo.t ban tin du.o..c ma hoa th`anh t`
u. ma x C du.o..c gu.i di v`a nha.n du.o..c
vector y. Co hai tru.`o.ng ho..p xay ra
(a) Hoa.c y C khi do y = x.
(b) Hoa.c y 6 C khi do vector loi e := y x 6= 0.
`e da.t ra l`a l`am sao su.a du.o..c loi sai, phu.c h
`oi du.o..c t`
Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p (b), van d
u. ma x
t`
u. vector nha.n du.o..c y?
`an nhat, nha` m tnh
Phu.o.ng phap giai ma du.a ra o. day, go.i l`a giai ma theo lan ca.n g
.
.
.
ung ta t`m t`
u. ma x
u ma trong C. De giai ma y, ch
khoang cach Hamming gi
u a y vo i moi t`
co khoang cach Hamming den y nho nhat. Neu
`an nhat trong C du lo.n; v`a
u. ma g
(+) khoang cach gi
u.a hai t`
(+) neu cac loi du t;
th` x l`a duy nhat-chnh l`a t`
u. ma du.o..c gu.i.
171
d(1110, 0110) = 1,
d(1011, 0110) = 3.
`an nhat)
Do do neu nha.n du.o..c y = 0110
/ C th` ch
ung ta ket lua.n (giai ma theo lan ca.n g
.
.
t`
u ma gu i l`a 1110.
ung xac suat sai p, 0 p < 1/2. Ch
ung ta go.i kenh nhu. the l`a
Gia su. moi bit gu.i di co c`
kenh doi x
u.ng nhi. phan.
u.ng nhi.
V du. 7.3.3. K
y hie.u P (X) l`a xac suat xay ra bien co X. Ta co trong kenh doi x
phan
P ({e = 00000}) = (1 p)5 ,
P ({e = 01000}) = p(1 p)4 ,
P ({e = 10010}) = p2 (1 p)3 .
Mo.t cach tong quat, neu v l`a vector co a bit b`a ng 1 th`
P ({e = v}) = pa (1 p)na .
V` p < 1/2 nen 1 p > p; do do
(1 p)n > p(1 p)n1 > p2 (1 p)n2 >
Phu.o.ng phap giai ma ho..p l
y nhat nhu. sau: Gia su. nha.n du.o..c vector y, ch
ung ta t`m t`
u.
`en t`
`eu kie.n nha.n du.o..c y l`a cu..c
u. ma x vo.i di
ma x sao cho xac suat P (x|y) cua su.. kie.n truy
y nhat trong bo. ma tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i thong bao nha.n
da.i. Noi cach khac, t`m mo.t t`
u. ma ho..p l
.
.
du o. c.
- i.nh l
`en v
D
y 7.3.3. Gia su. t
a du.o..c truy
o.i c`
ung kha n
ang v`
a su. du.ng kenh
at ca c
ac t`
u. m
.
.
.
`an nh
a ho. p ly nh
a theo l
an c
a.n g
at.
an. Khi d
o gia i m
at tr`
ung v
o i gia i m
d
oi x
u ng nhi. ph
Ch
u.ng minh. Trong kenh doi x
u.ng nhi. phan, neu d(x, y) = d th` co d loi khi thay doi t`
u.
`eu kie.n t`
`eu kie.n P (y|x) cua su.. kie.n nha.n du.o..c y vo.i di
u.
x sang y; do do xac suat co di
.
.
d
nd
.
`en t`
`en l`a p (1 p) . Ma.t khac, theo gia thiet, xac suat truy
ma x du o. c truy
u ma x l`a
1
P (x) = #C . Do do
P (x|y) = pd (1 p)nd (1/#C)P (nha.n du.o..c y),
`an vo.i y nhat. 2
l`a h`am giam theo d. Va.y P (x|y) cu..c da.i khi x l`a t`
u. ma g
- i.nh ngha 7.3.4. Khoang cach (Hamming) cua bo. ma C, k
D
y hie.u d(C), l`a khoang cach
.
.
.
u a hai t`
nho nha t gi
u ma khac nhau, t
u c l`a
d(C) := min{d(x, y) | x, y C, x 6= y}.
[n, k]-ma C vo.i khoang cach d du.o..c k
y hie.u l`a [n, k, d]-ma.
172
V du. 7.3.4. (a) Vo.i C = {00000000, 11111000, 01010111, 10101111} th` d(C) = 5.
(b) Vo.i C = {000000, 111111}, th` d(C) = 6.
Khoang cach Hamming xac d.inh kha nang phat hie.n v`a/hoa.c su.a sai cac loi.
- i.nh l
oi neu v`
a ch neu d(C) k + 1.
D
y 7.3.5. M
a C c
o the ph
at hie.n du.o..c k l
Ch
u.ng minh. B`a ng phan ch
u.ng. Gia su. C co the phat hie.n k loi v`a d(C) k. Khi do
`on ta.i a, b C sao cho d(a, b) = d(C) k. Noi cach khac a v`a b ch khac nhau nhi
`eu nhat
t
`en t`
u. ma b. V` va.y ngu.`o.i
k vi. tr. Do do se xuat hie.n k loi khi truy
u. ma a v`a nha.n du.o..c t`
nha.n khong the phat hie.n du.o..c cac loi n`ay.
`en t`
Gia su. d(C) k + 1, v`a khi truy
u. ma x ta nha.n du.o..c y vo.i d(x, y) k. Do khoang
`en phai l`a x. V` va.y ngu.`o.i nha.n co the
cach gi
u.a hai t`
u. ma t nhat l`a k + 1, th` t`
u. ma truy
phat hie.n du.o..c cac loi n`ay. 2
`on ta.i
Gia su. k N. Ta noi C co the su.a k loi neu vo.i mo.i thong bao nha.n du.o..c y Bn t
.
.
- i
`eu nhat mo.t t`
`eu n`ay co ngha ra` ng, neu mo.t t`
nhi
u ma x sao cho d(x, y) k. D
u ma du.o..c
`en v`a co nhi
`eu nhat k loi th` giai ma theo lan ca.n g
`an nhat se thu du.o..c du
ng mo.t t`
u.
truy
.
.
`en.
ma du o. c truy
- .inh l
oi neu v`
a ch neu d(C) 2k + 1.
D
y 7.3.6. M
a C c
o the su.a k l
`on ta.i hai t`
Ch
u.ng minh. Gia su. C co the su.a du.o..c k loi. Neu d(C) 2k th` t
u. ma a
v`a b khac nhau l vi. tr, vo.i l 2k. Thay doi [l/2] bit trong a sao cho co vector c ch khac
vector b du
ng [l/2] vi. tr. Khi do
d(a, c) = d(b, c) = [l/2].
Do do khong the su.a du.o..c [l/2] k loi khi nha.n du.o..c c, mau thuan!
`en v`a nha.n du.o..c vector z
u. ma x du.o..c truy
Ngu.o..c la.i gia su. d(C) 2k + 1. Gia su. t`
u. ma khac x th` d(z, y) k + 1, v` neu d(z, y) k ta se
vo.i d(x, z) k. De thay neu y l`a t`
co
d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y) k + k = 2k.
- i
`eu phai ch
Mau thuan vo.i d(C) 2k + 1. D
u.ng minh. 2
- a. t
V du. 7.3.5. D
C := {00000000, 11111000, 01010111, 10101111}.
Ta co d(C) = 5 v`a do do co the phat hie.n du.o..c 51 = 4 loi v`a co the su.a du.o..c [(51)/2] = 2
loi.
173
Co mo.t cach de d`ang de t`m khoang cach toi thieu cua bo. ma. Tru.o.c het ta co khai nie.m
sau:
- i.nh ngha 7.3.7. Tro.ng lu.o..ng Hamming, k
D
y hie.u wt(x), cua vector x = x1x2 . . . xn l`a so
cac ch so i sao cho xi 6= 0.
V du. 7.3.6. wt(00000) = 0, wt(10111) = 4, wt(11111) = 5.
B
o d
`
e 7.3.8. Gia su. x, y l`
a cu a m
a tuyen tnh C. Khi d
o d(x, y) = wt(x y).
a c
ac t`
u. m
Ch
u.ng minh. Cac vi. tr ba` ng 1 trong vector x y chnh l`a nh
u.ng vi. tr m`a hai vector x v`a
y khac nhau. Do do d(x, y) = wt(x y). 2
- i.nh l
`
D
y 7.3.9. Khoa ng c
ach cu a m
a C b
a ng tro.ng lu.o..ng t
oi thieu cu a t`
u. m
a kh
ac kh
ong
trong C.
`on ta.i x, y C, x 6= y, sao cho d(x, y) = d. Do do
Ch
u.ng minh. Gia su. d(C) = d th` t
wt(x y) = d.
Nhu.ng C l`a ma tuyen tnh nen x y C.
Ngu.o..c la.i gia su. x C l`a t`
u. ma khac khong vo.i tro.ng lu.o..ng toi thieu. Do C l`a tuyen
tnh nen 0 C. Va.y
wt(x) = wt(x 0) = d(x, 0) d(C).
2
B`
ai t
a.p
1. T`m khoang cach Hamming cua cac ca.p chuoi bit sau:
(a) 00000, 11111;
(b) 1010101, 0011100;
(c) 000000001, 111000000;
(d) 1111111111, 0100100011.
2. Co bao nhieu loi co the phat hie.n v`a bao nhieu loi co the su.a sai trong cac ma sau:
(a) {0000000, 1111111}.
(b) {00000, 00111, 10101, 10010}.
(c) {00000000, 11111000, 01100111, 10011111}.
3. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu khoang cach toi thieu gi
u.a cac t`
u. ma l`a bon, th` co the su.a sai
du
ng mo.t loi v`a phat hie.n sai ba loi.
174
1 0 0 1 1 0 1
G2 := 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 .
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
175
13. Gia su. x v`a y l`a cac vector nhi. phan vo.i d(x, y) = d. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng so cac vector z
sao cho d(x, z) = r v`a d(y, z) = s l`a C(d, i)C(n d, r i), trong do i = (d + r s)/2.
Neu d + r s le th` so n`ay ba` ng 0, trong khi neu r + s = d, no ba` ng C(d, r).
14. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
hx, yi :=
n
X
xi yi = 0
(mod 2)
i=1
neu v`a ch neu wt(x y) chan v`a ba` ng 1 neu v`a ch neu wt(x y) le. Suy ra hx, xi = 0
neu v`a ch neu wt(x) chan.
15. Gia su. u, v, w, x l`a bon vector doi mo.t co khoang cach d (d phai l`a so chan).
`on ta.i chnh xac mo.t vector m`a khoang cach den cac vector
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng t
`
u, v, w ba ng d/2.
`on ta.i nhi
`eu nhat mo.t vector m`a khoang cach den cac vector
(b) Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng t
u, v, w, x ba` ng d/2.
16. Gia su. C l`a [n, k]-ma vo.i ma tra.n kiem tra chan le H = (A Ink ) v`a 1 t k. Ma
.ng ma tra.n kiem tra chan le Ht = (At Ink ) trong do At l`a ma tra.n cap
Ct tu.o.ng u
u. A ba` ng cach xoa di t co.t d`au tien.
(n k) (k t) nha.n du.o..c t`
`om tat ca cac t`
(a) Ch
u.ng minh Ct g
u. ma cua C vo.i t to.a do. d`au tien b`a ng 0 bi. xoa.
(b) Ch
u.ng minh Ct l`a [n t, k t]-ma.
(c) Ch
u.ng minh d(C ) d(C).
t
u. do suy ra:
tnh, nhu ng ton ta.i ta.p gom d co.t phu. thuo.c tuyen tnh. T`
(a) Neu C l`a [n, k, d]-ma th` d n k + 1.
(b) Khoang cach toi thieu cua ma co ma tra.n
1
I
7
1
176
sinh:
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
.
1
1
1
i=0
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu
k
d2
X
C(n 1, i) < 2n .
i=0
`on ta.i ma tuyen tnh [n, k] vo.i khoang cach toi thieu d.
th` t
22. Gia su. C l`a [n, k, d]-ma C vo.i n < 2d. Ch
u.ng minh
X
d(x, y) n22k1 .
2k (2k 1)d
x,yC
7.4
H
o.i ch
u.ng
- i.nh ngha 7.4.1. Gia su. C l`a [n, k]ma tuyen tnh. Vo.i moi vector a Bn ta.p ho..p
D
Ca := a + C = {a + x | x C}
du.o..c go.i l`a coset (modulo hay ti.nh tien) cua C.
Nh
a.n x
et 18. (a) Mo.i vector b Bn thuo.c mo.t coset n`ao do.
(b) Hai vector a v`a b thuo.c c`
ung mo.t coset neu v`a ch neu (a b) C.
(c) Moi coset ch
u.a 2k vector.
`e 7.4.2. Hai coset ho
M
e.nh d
a.c r`
o.i nhau ho
a.c tr`
ung nhau.
`on ta.i x, y C sao cho
Ch
u.ng minh. Gia su. v (a + C) (b + C). Khi do t
v = a + x = b + y.
Va.y
b = a + x y = a + x0 ,
trong do x0 = x y C.
Suy ra
b + C a + C.
Tu.o.ng tu..
a + C b + C.
2
`e 7.4.2 ta co the phan tch Bn th`anh ho..p cac coset r`o.i nhau cua C :
T`
u. Me.nh d
Bn = C (a1 + C) (at + C),
(7.3)
x C.
Do do quyet di.nh cua ngu.`o.i giai ma l`a, neu nha.n du.o..c vector y th` cho.n mo.t vector co
u.a y v`a giai ma y l`a x
= y e. Vector tro.ng lu.o..ng
tro.ng lu.o..ng nho nhat e trong coset ch
nho nhat trong coset du.o..c go.i l`a coset leader (neu co ho.n mo.t vector vo.i tro.ng lu.o..ng nho
nhat, th` cho.n ngau nhien mo.t v`a go.i l`a coset leader).
Gia su. ra` ng ai trong (7.3) l`a coset leader. Cach thong thu.`o.ng de giai ma l`a su. du.ng bang
`au tien g
`om chnh bo. ma, vo.i t`
u. ma khong da.t ben
chuan du.o..c d.inh ngha nhu. sau. H`ang d
trai:
s = 2k ;
x(1) = 0, x(2), . . . , x(s) ,
cac h`ang tiep theo l`a cac coset ai + C du.o..c sap xep theo c`
ung th
u. tu.. vo.i coset leader da.t
ben trai:
ai + x(1), ai + x(2), . . . , ai + x(s).
1 0 1 1
.
V du. 7.4.1. [4, 2]Ma vo i ma tra.n sinh G =
co bang chuan
0 1 0 1
Ban tin
00
10
01
11
Bo. ma C
0000
1011
0101
1110
Coset a1 + C
1000
0011
1101
0110
Coset a2 + C
0100
1111
0001
1010
Coset a3 + C
0010
1001
0111
1100
.
Ho.ich
u ng
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
coset
leader
7.4.1
an
a d`
ung ba ng chu
Gia i m
Neu nha.n du.o..c vector y, gia su. 1111, ta se t`m du.o..c vi. tr cua no trong bang. Khi do
ung h`ang vo.i y, trong tru.`o.ng ho..p
vector loi e l`a coset leader n`a m o. vi. tr ben trai nhat c`
.
.
.
`en l`a:
n`ay e = 0100, v`a t`
u ma du o. c truy
x = y e = 1011
u.a y, ban tin tu.o.ng u
na` m tren dnh cua co.t ch
.ng l`a 10.
- e t`m coset ch
y cu..c da.i. D
u.a
Nh
a.n x
et 19. (a) Giai ma d`
ung bang chuan l`a giai ma ho..p l
u.ng (syndrome) cua y.
y, ch
ung ta t`m vector s := Hy Bnk , du.o..c go.i l`a ho.i ch
(b) Neu y l`a t`
u. ma th` s = 0. Tha.t va.y neu y = x + e, s C, th`
s = Hy = Hx + He = He
179
(7.4)
th` t`
u. (7.4) ta co
X
s=
ej Hj = Ha + Hb + Hc +
trong do Hj l`a vector tu.o.ng u
.ng co.t th
u. j cua ma tra.n H.Va.y
- i.nh l
`
a.n H, trong
a ng t
ong c
ac vector c
o.t Hj cu a ma tr
D
y 7.4.3. H
o.i ch
u.ng cu a vector y b
.
.
.
ng vi. tr xu
at hie.n l
oi .
d
o ch s
o j tu o ng u
Ho.n n
u.a, hai vector c`
ung mo.t coset cua C neu v`a ch neu ch
ung co c`
ung ho.i ch
u.ng.
u.c l`a H(u v) = 0; hay tu.o.ng
Tha.t va.y u v`a v c`
ung coset neu v`a ch neu (u v) C; t
.
.
du o ng Hu = Hv. Do do
- i.nh l
`on ta.i tu.o.ng u
.ng m
o.t-m
o.t len gi
u.a coset v`
a h
o.i ch
u.ng trong m
a C.
D
y 7.4.4. T
u. ma du.o..c
V du. 7.4.2. Su. du.ng ma tra.n kiem tra chan le trong V du. 7.2.7 de xac d.inh t`
`eu nhat mo.t loi xuat hie.n). Ta co
gu.i neu nha.n du.o..c thong bao 001111 (gia thiet co nhi
0
0
0
0 1 1 1 0 0
1
= 0 .
Hy = 1 0 1 0 1 0
1
1
1 1 0 0 0 1
1
1
- ay l`a co.t th
`en l`a
D
u. sau cua H. Do do bit th
u. sau cua 001111 l`a sai. Va.y t`
u. ma du.o..c truy
001110.
B`
ai t
a.p
u.
1. Gia su. C l`a [n, k]-ma v`a a Bn . Ch
u.ng minh coset Ca = C neu v`a ch neu a C. T`
do suy ra
`an tu. cua ta.p {x C|d(x, a) = i} ba` ng Ai-so cac t`
(a) So ph
u. ma co tro.ng lu.o..ng i.
(b) So cac ca.p t`
u. ma (x, y) sao cho d(x, y) = i ba` ng 2k Ai.
ung l`a ma tuyen tnh.
2. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu C l`a ma tuyen tnh v`a a 6 C, th` C C c
a
3. (a) Xay du..ng mang chuan doi vo.i cac ma co cac ma tra.n sinh
1 0
1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
G1 :=
, G2 :=
, G3 :=
.
0 1
0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
(b) Su. du.ng mang chuan th
u. ba de giai ma cac vector 11111 v`a 01011.
(c) Cho cac v du.: Hai loi xuat hie.n trong t`
u. ma v`a su.a du
ng; hai loi xuat hie.n trong
.
.
m
a
v`
a
su
a khong du
ng.
t`
u
180
0 1
H := 1 0
1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 .
0 0 0 1
Su. du.ng mang n`ay de giai ma cac vector 110100 v`a 111111.
6. (a) Xay du..ng mang chuan doi vo.i ma co ma tra.n sinh
1 0 1 0
G :=
.
0 1 1 1
u. do giai ma.
(b) T`m vector ho.i ch
u.ng cua y = 1111. T`
7. Gia su. [7, 4]-ma co ma tra.n kiem tra
H := 0
1
chan le
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 .
1 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1
0 0 0
H :=
0 1 1
1 0 1
chan le
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
.
0
0
Ch
u.ng minh C l`a ma tu.. doi ngau.
7.5
M
a ho`
an hao
- .inh l
`om c
D
y 7.5.3. Gia su. C l`
a b
o. m
a g
ac t`
u. m
a d
o. d`
ai n v`
a d(C) 2k + 1. Th`
#C
2n
.
[C(n, 0) + C(n, 1) + + C(n, k)]
Ch
u.ng minh. Du..a tren cac nha.n xet sau
+ Co 2n vector do. d`ai n (do #Bn = 2n ).
`au B(x, k), x C, ch
+ Moi qua c
u.a
C(n, 0) + C(n, 1) + + C(n, k)
vector (xem Bo d`e 7.5.1).
+ Vo.i moi x, x0 C, x 6= x0 , th` B(x, k) B(x0, k) = . 2
V du. 7.5.1. Neu C co do. d`ai 7 v`a d(C) = 3 th`
#C
27
= 128/8 = 16.
[C(7, 0) + C(7, 1)]
- i.nh ngha 7.5.4. Ma ho`an hao (perfect code) l`a bo. ma C sao cho d(C) = 2k + 1 v`a
D
#C =
2n
.
[C(n, 0) + C(n, 1) + + C(n, k)]
B`
ai t
a.p
1. T`m so cu..c da.i cac t`
u. ma trong mo.t bo. ma m`a cac t`
u. ma l`a chuoi cac bit co do. d`ai
u.a cac t`
u. ma l`a nam.
chn v`a khoang cach toi thieu gi
`om hai t`
`om to`an
u. ma co do. d`ai n g
2. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu n l`a so tu.. nhien le, th` ma g
so 0 v`a 1 l`a mo.t ma ho`an hao.
`am thu.`o.ng vo.i khoang cach toi thieu
3. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu C l`a ma ho`an hao khong t
.
7 th` do. d`ai t`
u ma l`a 23.
183
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
A :=
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
(a) Ch
u.ng minh G24 tu.. doi ngau, t
= G24.
u.c l`a: G24
(b) Ch
u.ng minh (A I12) c
ung l`a ma tra.n sinh cua G24.
u. ma cua G24 co tro.ng lu.o..ng chia het cho 4.
(c) Ch
u.ng minh mo.i t`
(d) Ch
u.ng minh G24 khong co t`
u. ma vo.i tro.ng lu.o..ng 4.
(e) Ch
u.ng minh G24 l`a [24, 12, 8]-ma (go.i l`a ma Golay).
u. ma.
(f) Gia su. G23 nha.n du.o..c t`
u. G24 ba` ng cach bo tat ca cac to.a do. cuoi trong cac t`
Suy ra cac tham so cua ma G23 v`a do do G23 l`a ma ho`an hao.
5. Gia su. x, y Bn . Ta noi vector x phu vector y neu x y = y. Chang ha.n, 111001 phu
101000.
`on ta.i duy nhat t`
(a) Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng neu vector y B23 tro.ng lu.o..ng 4 th` t
u. ma
x G23 phu y.
(b) Suy ra so cac t`
u. ma tro.ng lu.o..ng 7 trong G23 l`a 253.
`on ta.i [90, 278 , 5]-ma tuyen tnh.
6. Ch
u.ng minh khong t
`on ta.i [13, 64, 5]-ma tuyen tnh. (HD. Gia su. C l`a [13, 6, 5]-ma
7. Ch
u.ng minh khong t
.ng ma tra.n sinh
tu.o.ng u
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
.
G1
G1
- i.nh l
Ch
u.ng minh G2 sinh ra [8, 5, 3]-ma, mau thuan vo.i D
y 7.5.3).
7.6
M
a Hamming
v`a doi mo.t khac nhau. Neu H co r h`ang th` se co 2r 1 vector co.t co do. d`ai r thoa gia
thiet tren.
V du. 7.6.1. Neu r = 3 th` co 23 1 = 7 co.t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1
l`a bieu dien nhi. phan cua cac so t`
u. 1 den 7.
- i.nh ngha 7.6.1. Ma Hamming ba.c r l`a ma co ma tra.n kiem tra chan le H cap r (2r 1)
D
sao cho cac co.t cua H khac khong v`a doi mo.t khac nhau.
V du. 7.6.2. Ma tra.n H cua ma Hamming ba.c 2 co da.ng
1 1 0
H=
.
1 0 1
- ay l`a ma la.p tuyen tnh ba.c 3.
Bo. ma n`ay co hai t`
u. ma l`a 000 v`a 111. D
V du. 7.6.3. Ma tra.n H cua ma Hamming ba.c 3 co da.ng
0 1 1 1 1 0 0
H = 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 .
1 1 0 1 0 0 1
Bo. ma n`ay co 16 t`
u. ma.
u. m
a v
o.i n = 2r 1.
B
o d
`
e 7.6.2. M
a Hamming b
a.c r ch
u.a 2nr t`
Ch
u.ng minh. Hien nhien theo di.nh ngha. 2
`
a Hamming b
a.c r b
a ng 3.
ach t
oi thieu cu a m
B
o d
`
e 7.6.3. Khoa ng c
Ch
u.ng minh. V` ma tra.n kiem tra chan le H co cac co.t khac 0 v`a khong co hai co.t
- i.nh l
n`ao giong nhau nen ma Hamming ba.c r co the su.a sai mo.t loi. Theo D
y 7.3.6 ta co
d(C) 3. Trong so cac co.t cua ma tra.n H co ba co.t sau
1
1
0
C1 = 0 ,
..
.
0
1
0
0
C2 = 0 ,
..
.
0
185
0
1
0
C3 = 0 .
..
.
0
Ch
uy
r`a ng
C1 + C2 + C3 = 0
(mod 2).
- a.t x l`a vector ba` ng 1 o. vi. tr cua cac co.t n`ay v`a b`a ng 0 neu ngu.o..c la.i. Khi do Hx = 0.
D
- i.nh l
Noi cach khac, x l`a t`
u. ma. Nhu.ng wt(x) = 3. Do do, theo D
y 7.3.9 th`
d(C) wt(x) = 3.
2
- i.nh l
D
y 7.6.4. M
a Hamming b
a.c r l`
a m
a ho`
an ha o.
- a. t n := 2r 1. Theo Bo d`e 7.6.2 th` #C = 2nr . Theo Bo d`e 4.6.3 th`
Ch
u.ng minh. D
d(C) = 3. Va.y
2nr [C(n, 0) + C(n, 1)] = 2nr (1 + n) = 2nr (1 + 2r 1) = 2n .
2
- i.nh l
u.u ma ho`an hao l`a mo.t
D
y 7.6.4 ch ra r`a ng ma Hamming l`a ma ho`an hao. Nghien c
trong nh
u.ng lnh vu..c quan tro.ng nhat cua l
y thuyet ma v`a da co nh
u.ng ket qua nhat d.inh.
B`
ai t
a.p
1. [7, 4]ma C co ma tra.n kiem tra chan le
1 1 1 0 1 0 0
H := 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 .
1 0 1 1 0 0 1
`om hai ban tin u = 0000 1101.
(a) Ma hoa thong bao g
`eu nhat mo.t loi
(b) Giai ma khi nha.n du.o..c chuoi bit 0000111 0001110 (gia su. co nhi
sai).
(c) T`m cac tham so n, k, d cua C.
2. Gia su. [7, 4, 3]-ma Hamming co ma tra.n
0 1
H := 1 0
1 1
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 .
0 1 0 0 1
3. T`m mo.t ma tra.n kiem tra chan le cua ma Hamming ba.c 4. Giai ma cac vector nha.n
`eu nhat mo.t loi sai):
du.o..c (gia thiet co nhi
(a) 100 000 000 000 000.
(b) 111 111 111 111 111.
4. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng cac ma tra.n
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
H := 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 ,
1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 0 0
H 0 := 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 1
sinh ra c`
ung mo.t ma Hamming ba.c 3.
5. Lie.t ke ba da.ng cua ma tra.n kiem tra chan le H cua ma Hamming ba.c 4. Viet
u. do ma hoa ban tin u = 11111100000, v`a giai ma vector
H du.o.i da.ng (A Ir ). T`
111000111000111.
y ma
6. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng ma Hamming ba.c r du.o..c xac di.nh duy nhat theo ngha: Bat k
.
r
r
.
.
.
.
.
vo i cac tham so [2 1, 2 1 r, 3] tu o ng du o ng vo i ma Hamming ba.c r.
u.ng minh mo.i t`
u.
7. T`m ma tra.n sinh G cua ma Hamming ba.c r v`a su. du.ng no de ch
`on ta.i t`
u. ma co tro.ng lu.o..ng 2 th`
ma khac khong co tro.ng lu.o..ng 3. (HD. Neu t
`eu nhat hai h`ang cua G).
no phai l`a tong cua nhi
8. T`m ma tra.n kiem tra chan le cua [15, 11, 3]-ma Hamming. Giai thch cach giai ma
neu co d
ung mo.t loi xuat hie.n. Neu co ho.n hai loi th` sao?
9. Ch
u.ng minh so cac ma Hamming khac nhau co do. d`ai n = 2r 1 l`a
(2r 1)!
.
Qm1 m
i
i=0 (2 2 )
187
188
T`
ai li
e.u tham khao
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o thi. v`
au
.ng du.ng, NXB Khoa ho.c v`a k
y thua.t H`a No.i, 1971.
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190