Tp ch KHOA HC HSP TPHCM

S 31 nm 2011

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NHNG NG GP CA THUYT NHN HC I VI VIC PHN TCH GI HC TRN LP

CLAUDE COMITI*, L TH HOI CHU**

TM TT Quan st lp hc, hiu theo ngha thu thp thng tin v nhng tc ng qua li gia nhiu yu t ca h thng dy hc ang hot ng trong khong thi gian xc nh, l mt phng php cho php lm sng t cc hin tng lin quan n vic truyn th v lnh hi mt tri thc. Tnh a dng v phc tp ca cc hot ng dy hc trong lp hc i hi mt s m hnh ha lm cn c cho nh nghin cu phn tch nhng g quan st c. Bi bo ny trnh by mt phm vi l thuyt cho php m hnh ha nhng tc ng qua li c th quan st c v qu trnh dy hc trong lp hc. Mt phn tch lp hc s c nu ra nh l v d minh ha cho cch tip cn ca phm vi l thuyt . T kha: t chc ton hc, t chc dy hc, quan st lp hc. ABSTRACT The contribution of anthropology theory to analyzing teaching in normal classrooms Classroom observation, understood as collecting information about the interactions among many factors of the learning system operational at a definite time, is a method that clarifies phenomena relating to knowledge acquisition and transmission. The diversity and complexity of classroom teaching activities require modeling as a basis for researchers to analyze what they observe. This article presents a theory to model the observable interactions in classrooms. The analysis of the process of teaching in a class can be used as an example to illustrate the approach to applying that theory. Keywords: mathematical organization, didactic organization, classroom observation.

M u Vi nhim v lm sng t v kin gii cc hin tng lin quan n hot ng dy hc (DH), nh nghin cu khng th b qua vic quan st lp hc. Quan st lp hc phi l mt trong nhng vic lm cn c u tin. Vic lm ny li cng c vai tr quan trng v l c hi i chiu l thuyt (ci phi xy ra theo m hnh gii thch ca nh nghin cu) vi nhng ci ngu nhin (ci c th
PGS TS, Trng i hc Joseph Fourier PGS TS, GVC Khoa Ton Tin hc Trng HSP TPHCM
** *

1.

xy ra m cng c th khng xy ra trong lp hc). Chng ti gi quan st lp hc (ch khng phi quan st trong lp hc) l vic nm ly thng tin v cc tng tc gia nhiu yu t ca h thng DH ang hot ng trong mt thi gian xc nh. Trong phn di, nhn mnh quan im ny, chng ti s gi l quan st h - lp cch ni rt gn ca thut ng h thng - lp hc. Tnh a dng v phc tp trong phng thc hot ng ca cc yu t tc ng vo h thng DH i hi phi c

Tp ch KHOA HC HSP TPHCM

Claude C. v tgk

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mt m hnh cho php biu th tng phn t ch cht v nhng tng tc gia cc phn t y. Vic xy dng m hnh phi da vo l thuyt m nh nghin cu tha nhn. Trong cun sch song ng Nhng yu t c bn ca didactic ton1 xut bn nm 2009, chng ti phn tch nhiu tit hc c quan st trn lp t cch tip cn ca L thuyt tnh hung (Brousseau 1986). Trong bi bo ny, chng ti s cp n mt cch tip cn khc c hnh thnh t Thuyt nhn hc do Chevallard (1991) t nn mng. Chng ti s ch ra nhng ng gp m l thuyt ny mang li cho vic phn tch cc hin tng ghi nhn c t quan st h - lp. Tit hc s nghin cu y l tit hc u tin nhm a vo ni dung phng trnh bc nht trong mt lp t Php (tng ng vi lp 8 ca h thng gio dc ph thng Vit Nam). Chng ti s dng bin bn quan st lp hc m Alain Bronner v Annie Noirfalise ngh em ra nghin cu Trng h Didactic Ton ln th 11 (t chc nm 2001 Cng ha Php). Trong bi bo ny, trc ht chng ti s nhc li th no l thu thp thng tin v h - lp cng nh nhng thi im mu cht ca s quan st. Sau chng ti s trnh by: - Mt phn tch v h - lp quan st, c thc hin t cch tip cn ca Thuyt nhn hc. C th l chng ti s phn tch nhng rng buc do th ch2 p t ln vic DH i tng phng trnh lp t v nghin cu cc t chc ton

hc (TCTH)3 m th ch xem l quan trng. - Mt phn tch tnh hung trn lp hc (TCTH c dy v t chc DH (TCDH) c trin khai trong tit hc dy TCTH ). - Mt s yu t nh gi TCDH quan st c. 1.1. Vn thu thp thng tin khi quan st mt lp hc bnh thng Thut ng lp hc bnh thng mun ni n mt lp hc hot ng bnh thng, khng c s tc ng ca nh nghin cu: khi quan st lp hc, nh nghin cu khng h c trch nhim la chn cng nh qun l cc hot ng DH. Nh nghin cu thu thp thng tin gn lin vi mt trng thi ca h thng do lp hc (i tng quan st) to nn. Th nhng mun quan st lp hc theo mt quan im no , th phi nh r nhng thng tin cn thu thp trong h thng ny, ch khng phi ch n thun l tnh trng ca n trong thi gian c quan st. Phng tin no c th dng thu thp thng tin v h - lp? Nhng tng tc gia cc thnh phn khc nhau ca h - lp pht trin trong sut c qu trnh DH. Vic thu thp thng tin v mt h - lp ph thuc vo ci ngi ta mun quan st v vo l thuyt m ngi ta s dng nhn dng cc thng tin tha ng. Nhng d kin thu thp c qua quan st mt h - lp khng phi l nhng d kin trung tnh m lun l nhng d kin c kin thit.
9

Tp ch KHOA HC HSP TPHCM

S 31 nm 2011

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Ty theo m hnh c u tin nht v ty theo vn cn xem xt, nh nghin cu s thu thp thng tin v h lp bng nhng phng tin sau: - Quan st ngoi lp hc: chng hn nh xem chng trnh ( n s tin trin tng bc ca n), xem sch gio khoa, gio n, phng vn, thm d kin hay tm hiu nhng sn phm khc do gio vin (GV) hoc hc sinh (HS) to ra. - Quan st ti lp hc: chnh cc tng tc HS / mi trng / tri thc / GV xy ra mt thi im v mt ni xc nh. y ta cn thu m hay quay phim gi hc trn lp, c bit l khng th thiu vic ghi chp b sung cho cc bng ghi m, ghi hnh; ta cn c th thu thp bi lm ca HS; . 1.2. Nhng thi im mu cht ca s quan st Quan st l mt qu trnh phc tp, gm nhiu giai on khc nhau. 1.2.1. Chun b cho vic quan st Vic chun b cho mt quan st khng c thc hin trong bi cnh bit lp m phi gn vi nhng vn nghin cu c t ra, v v th phi c mt c s l thuyt ch o s chun b . Quan st ch l mt phn ca mt phng php lun rng hn. S quan st din ra trong mt thi gian v mt ni xc nh. Vic chun b cho quan st ph thuc vo ci m ta mun quan st. Trong trng hp m chng ti ly lm v d y, mun i chiu TCTH c dy v TCTH m th ch khuyn nn dy s buc ta phi nghin cu chng trnh v cc gii thch chnh thc

cho chng trnh lp t v nhng g lin quan n phng trnh bc nht. 1.2.2. Trin khai quan st Phng tin thu thp d liu ph thuc vo mc ch quan st v vo nh phn tch cc d liu ny. D l quay phim hay ghi m th iu c bn l chng phi c b sung bi nhng ghi chp ca ngi quan st. Trong trng hp m chng ti phn tch th khng nht thit phi quay phim m ch cn ghi m bui hc v ghi chp b sung l . 1.2.3. To lp v phn ct bin bn Bin bn l ti liu khi phc li tin trnh xy ra trong lp hc, trong c a vo mt s ghi chp ca nh quan st v nhng ci m ngi thy l quan trng, cn phi c ch n. Cng vic to dng li ny ph thuc vo s la chn phng php lun v vo cch t vn nghin cu. i vi v d ca chng ti, bin bn c dng li t cc bng ghi m v nhng ghi chp ngay trn lp ca ngi quan st. Nhng ghi chp y gip dng li ng x ca GV trn lp, nhng vic GV lm, nhng g GV vit ln bng, v.v (trong bin bn nhng iu ny c vit bng ch nghing). Sau bin bn c phn ct thnh cc on m nh nghin cu gi nh rng chng c mt ngha no . 1.3. Mt v d v phn tch h - lp trong s tin hnh quan st Trong v d ca chng ti (quan st vic DH phng trnh bc nht lp t), chnh cc t liu ngoi lp hc (chng trnh, sch gio khoa, cuc ni

10

Tp ch KHOA HC HSP TPHCM

Claude C. v tgk

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chuyn vi GV) s mang li nhng yu t phn tch h - lp. Chng ti trnh by nhng yu t hai phn di. 1.3.1. Cc TCTH cn dy Theo quy nh ca chng trnh, GV khng th ch bng lng vi vic quan tm n mt kiu nhim v duy nht l gii phng trnh bc nht, tng ng vi mt TCTH b phn. TCTH b phn ny l mt phn ca mt t chc a phng tng ng vi mt ch nghin cu, thm ch n c rt ra t mt t chc rng hn, gi l vng, ng vi mt khu vc nghin cu. Hn hp ca nhiu t chc vng dn n mt t chc tng th, c th ng nht vi mt lnh vc nghin cu. V tp hp nhng lnh vc ny kt hp li thnh ci m chng ta gi chung l mn hc - y l mn ton. Chevallard m t nhng iu bng s cc cp xc nh. T cch tip cn ca Thuyt nhn hc, phn tch chng trnh lp t v nhng vn bn gii thch chng trnh cho php ta xc nh cc cp khc nhau ny tc ng nh th no trong DH phng trnh bc nht.
Mc 1 Mc 2 Mc 3 Mc 4 Mc 5 Mn hc Lnh vc Khu vc Ch ti

C th, vic nghin cu chng trnh lp t cho thy rt r s kt hp gia gii ton vi lp phng trnh. Nghin cu ch ra rng ti phng trnh bc nht (bao hm c vic nghin cu cch gii m tit hc chng ta xem xt di y c cp n) thuc ch nghin cu gn vi kiu nhim v T gii bi ton dn n mt phng trnh bc nht mt n. Ch ny c t trong lnh vc s. Thuc lnh vc ny c khu vc tnh ton trn ch, t ch nhn mnh s khc nhau gia tnh ton trn s (cc php tnh) v tnh ton i s . Hn th, nghin cu vn bn gii thch chng trnh lp t, chng ti thy kiu nhim v T c phn thnh ba kiu nhim v con: - Tlpt: lp phng trnh (lpt) cho bi ton; - Tgpt: gii phng trnh (gpt); - Tgt: gii thch (gt) kt qu (chp nhn hay loi b cc nghim ca phng trnh ty theo nhng iu kin do bi ton t ra v trnh by li kt qu trong ng cnh ca bi ton ban u). Chng ti tm tt li nhng iu trn trong bng sau.
Mn hc Lnh vc nghin cu Khu vc nghin cu Ch nghin cu ti nghin cu

Php Ton Cc s Tnh ton trn ch Gii bi ton dn n mt phng trnh bc nht mt n Phng trnh bc nht mt n
11

S cc cp xc nh

Tp ch KHOA HC HSP TPHCM

S 31 nm 2011

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1.3.2. D n DH ca GV Trong phm vi chng trnh, kiu nhim v m GV phi ng u c th c pht biu l: dn dt HS vo nghin cu ch ton hc gii bi ton dn n mt phng trnh bc nht mt n. Nh vy, vn ca GV l hnh thnh trong mt lp t, mt t chc no v tri thc ton hc cn dy. dn dt HS vo nghin cu cc phng trnh bc nht, GV phi lng vo nhng hiu bit thu nhn c cc nm trc m chng ti nhc li di y. lp 6e ca Php (tng ng vi lp 6 trong h thng gio dc Vit Nam), HS gp cc phng trnh phn tm mt s cn thiu trong mt php ton. lp 5e ca Php (tng ng vi lp 7 trong h thng gio dc Vit Nam), bc khi u cho vn gii phng trnh c kt hp vi hot ng tnh ton trn cc ch. C ch ca du = c cp nh sau khi ngi ta xc nh nhng kh nng m HS cn t c: kim tra s ng sai ca mt ng thc cha mt hoc hai s khng xc nh khi gn cho chng nhng gi tr s c th. Nh th, trnh ny, s bng nhau hay khng ca hai biu thc cha ch s ph thuc vo gi tr s gn cho cc bin c mt trong biu thc. Ngi ta c th ni rng cc biu thc bng nhau i vi nhng gi tr no ca n, v k thut xt s bng nhau l thc hin cc tnh ton s c ch ra.

lp t, GV quyt nh bt u t bi ton sau: Arthur ni vi Claire: Hy ngh n mt s, cng s vi 3, nhn s nhn c vi 5, ri tr i 7. Ni cho t bit s cu thu c l s no, ti s ni vi cu s m cu chn lc u. Claire nhn c s 48. Arthur s lm th no tm s m Claire chn ? Nhng, t HS vo mt tnh hung quen thuc (vi nhng kin thc h thu nhn c t cc nm trc), GV khng yu cu cho bit Arthur s lm th no tm cc s ny m trnh by thnh hai cu hi: a. Claire ngh n s 7 phi khng ? b. Tng tng rng ta tm thy cu tr li v by gi phi kim tra kt qu. lm iu , ta biu din s tm thy bng mt ch - ch x. Th th ta c th vit g ? - Cu hi a. khin HS phi tr v vi vic kim tra xem mt ng thc c ng hay khng nh tnh ton trn s (cch lm m HS hc lp 5e). - Cu hi b. c gi nh l nhm a vo khi nim phng trnh v cc k thut nhm n tm li gii. ca GV l dn n ch ni r cc thut ng phng trnh, n, nghim ca phng trnh v cui gi hc phi i n ch hnh thnh c k thut chuyn v nhm cc s hng cha x v mt v ca phng trnh cn cc hng s th nhm li v kia. Cng ngh gn lin vi k thut l i du khi chuyn v.

12

Tp ch KHOA HC HSP TPHCM

Claude C. v tgk

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1.4. Nghin cu TCDH do GV trin khai trong tit hc c quan st 1.4.1. TCDH v cc thi im nghin cu Chevallard xut m t mt TCDH trn c s xem xt cc chc nng DH m n m nhn. ng gi cc chc nng l nhng thi im s phm (v n i n mt thi im m chc nng ny phi c m bo...). Di y chng ti s nhanh chng chuyn sang xem xt cc thi im. Nhng cn phi lu ngay t by gi rng th t cc thi im y khng nht thit l th t xy ra trong lp hc. Hn th, cc thi im thng c thc hin qua nhiu giai on. Thi im th nht l thi im gp g ln u vi kiu nhim v T. Thi im th hai l thi im nghin cu kiu nhim v T v hnh thnh k thut gii quyt T. Thi im th ba l thi im cng ngh - l thuyt. l thi im to ra (hay xc nh) khi [ / ]. Thi im th t l thi im lm vic vi TCTH c to ra (hay ang trn ng c to ra). y ngi ta vn hnh cc yu t son tho tin chc l chng tr c khi gii quyt cc nhim v thuc kiu nhim v T v, nu c th, th hon thin chng. ng thi, ngi ta cng luyn tp kh nng lm ch TCTH thit lp, c bit l lm ch k thut c xy dng. Thi im th nm l thi im th ch ha. y ngi ta trnh by r t chc [T///] (hay [T, T, T / ,

, / / ]) bng cch ch ra cc thnh phn ca n v nu c th th st nhp n vo mt TCTH tng c th ch ha. Thi im th su l thi im nh gi. Lc ny ngi ta nh gi HS v kh nng lm ch t chc c to ra, ng thi cng nh gi chnh t chc ny, c ngha l c gng xc nh gi tr c th mang li cho ci ny hay ci kia trong mt d n rng hn v vic xy dng cc t chc [T///]. Lu rng nu thot u cu trc ca mt TCDH c th c m t qua cc thi im, th khng c ngha l nhng thi im ny phn tch r rng n: vic gii thch cho nhng thi im khc nhau ca nghin cu trc ht phi xut pht t TCTH c thit lp. Ngc li, s phn tch TCDH s gip lm sng t TCTH ny. 1.4.2. Cu trc ca tit hc: phn tch bin bn theo cc thi im Do khun kh c hn ca bi bo, chng ti khng th a vo ton b bin bn tit hc m s trch dn n khi cn thit. Bin bn c nh nghin cu to lp thnh 97 on (nh s th t t 1 n 97), mi on l mt gii thch, mt yu cu, hay mt cu hi ca GV hoc mt cu ni, mt cu tr li ca HS. S phn tch theo thut ng thi im cho thy cu trc ca tit hc kh phc tp. Cc pha m ta c th phn ct theo trnh t thi gian xy ra trong tit hc c nhng chc nng khc nhau. Thi im gp g u tin (on 1-7)
13

Tp ch KHOA HC HSP TPHCM

S 31 nm 2011

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Hot ng c th hin di hnh thc mt tr chi s, nh m vic y thc bi ton c th s d dng hn. HS khng phi gii bi ton c t ra (vit bng ch nghing) m phi tr li cho nhng cu hi sau . Cu hi th nht (a. C phi Claire ngh n s 7 khng ?) l cu hi quen thuc vi HS v bn cht ca n l tnh ton trn cc s. khng phi l mt cu hi m h.
3. (GV) No, ta s lm th no bit? Nhiu cnh tay gi ln. Mt HS c GV gi tr li. Em HS nhc dy cc php ton v GV vit li trn bng theo li HS c, k c cc du ngoc, du mc [(7 + 3) 5] 7. 4. (GV) Th no, ta tm c bao nhiu ? 5. (HS) 43 ! 6. (GV) ng th. Th th sao, th c c khng ? 7. (Nhiu HS) Khng GV vit ln bng [(7+3)5] 7 = 43 sau vit thm vo di : 7 khng phi l s c chn. Cng trong thi gian c mt HS ni rng cu tr li phi l s 8, nhng GV khng ni g v cu tr li ny.

p t mt k thut lp phng trnh gii bi ton. Ta c th gi nh l mt s HS gii theo cch khc (v cng trong thi gian c mt HS ni rng cu tr li phi l s 8, nhng GV khng tm ly cu tr li ny m li hi lp hc lm th no tr li cu hi th hai) Lp hc tho lun cu hi th hai v t n vic ni r phng trnh [(x + 3) 5] 7 = 48. Nhim v c thc hin trong s hp tc v hon ton do GV iu khin.
8. (GV) Lm th no tr li cu hi th hai ? 9. (HS) Cng nh trc, mt HS c GV gi v HS c cho GV vit ln bng : [(x+3) 5] 7 = 48 10. (GV) Cui cng chng ta lm g vy ? 11. (HS) Lp lun vi mt n. 12. (HS) Mt phng trnh. 13. (GV) chnh l ci m ta s gi l mt phng trnh. Ta mun lm g ? 14. (HS) Tm x.

Nh mt h cu hi theo kiu gi m, GV lm h m k thut i ngc li cc tnh ton : k thut 1 gii phng trnh tm thy.
15. (GV) ng ri. V lm th no y ? ... Ta lm th no t s 43 tm c s 7 ? 16. (HS) 43 cng 7, chia 5, tr i 3. 17. (GV) Rt tt ! Nhng php ton no cho php tm thy s 7 t s 43 ? Jen, em hy nhc li xem 18. Jen nhc li v GV vit : [(43+7) : 5] 3 = 7. 19. (GV) By gi ta cng s lm nh th i vi x. Kar ? 20. (Kar) [(48+7) : 5] 3

Thi im nghin cu vi s h m mt k thut 1, l i ngc li cc tnh ton (on 8-12) Cu hi th hai (b. tng tng l ta tm c li gii v by gi phi kim tra kt qu. kim tra, ta biu din s tm thy bng mt ch ci x. Th th ta c th vit th no ?) loi b i c tnh m h ca hot ng bng cch

14

Tp ch KHOA HC HSP TPHCM

Claude C. v tgk

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21. 22.

(GV) Kt qu l bao nhiu ? (Kar) 8.

Thi im cng ngh - l thuyt (on 23-37) Phn tip theo a vo cc yu t cng ngh lin quan n kiu nhim v Tgpt : xc nh cc thut ng : n, phng trnh, nghim ca mt phng trnh.
23. (GV) x bng 8 c ngha l g? 24. (HS) Ngha l n bng 8. 25. (GV) iu c ngha l g, i vi phng trnh ? 26. (HS) L ta gii c phng trnh. 27. Nhng r hn, phng trnh l g ? l mt khi nim ca ton hc. Khi nim y c th c th hin nh th no ? 28. (HS) Mt ng thc. 29. (GV) ng ri. Th cn 8, ta c th ni g v s 8 ? 30. (HS) l s cho php tm li ng thc. 31. (GV) ng thc c ng vi mi x khng ? 32. (HS) Khng ! 33. (GV) Nu x = 7 th ng thc c ng khng ? 34. (HS) Khng ! 35. (GV) Nu x = 8, ng thc c ng khng ? 36. (HS) C ! 37. (GV) Cc em khng bit ? Khng bit sao? No, tnh to ln ! Ta ni rng 8 l nghim ca phng trnh. Ta c th lm g kim tra iu ? GV vit ln bng vic kim tra : [(8+3) 5] 7 = 48.

38. (GV) Theo cc em, c phi l mt k thut quen thuc khng ? 39. (HS) D phi 40. (GV) Cc em thc s tin nh th ch ? 41. (HS) Khng

Thi im th ch ha mt phn mi trng cng ngh (on 42 62)

42. (GV) No, ta s ghi vo v tt c nhng g gp va ri GV vit ln bng bi Cc phng trnh, sau vit I. nh ngha.

y GV din t t chc ton hc [T///] bng cch ch r tng thnh phn ca n. GV cng ni r nhng yu t cng ngh l ra trc (phng trnh, n, gii phng trnh) v cng thm vo nh ngha v v phi, v tri. Vic th ch ha c thc hin thng qua mt v d.
43. (GV) Cc em hy ly v ghi bi ra (GV va c va vit ln bng) Ta xem ng thc sau 44. (HS) Dng mu phi khng ? 45. (GV) Mu xanh. Nhng t c gch di th bng mu Xt ng thc sau : 2x+5 = x 4 ng thc ny c gi l mt phng trnh. Th x l g ? 46. (HS) L n . 47. (GV) Gii. Ta s vit iu x l n ca phng trnh ny. Th cn phn ny gi l g ? (GV ch vo 2x + 5). Cc em c bit khng ? 48. (HS) 49. (GV) 2x + 5 l v tri ca phng trnh v x 4 l v phi Ta hy quan tm n nhng g va ni lc ny Gii mt phng trnh, l g vy ? 50. (HS) Tm n. 51. (GV) Ni r hn xem.

K thut 1 nhanh chng b loi b. N khng phi l mt phn ca t chc ton hc cn xy dng.

15

Tp ch KHOA HC HSP TPHCM

S 31 nm 2011

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52. (HS) Nhng phng trnh y c gii u ! 53. (GV) Cha. 54. (HS) L tm mt ng thc gia v phi v v tri. 55. (GV) ng, ng vy. Bi v ti lun lun c th thay x bi mt ci g , v khng trnh khi vic s khng c c mt ng thc. Cc em thy iu ch ? Gii phng trnh, khng th ch ni l tm x (GV li va ni va vit ln bng). Gii mt phng trnh n x l tm gi tr ca x sao cho ng thc l ng thc ng. GV ri khi bng trong khi vn tip tc c, sau li n gn bng v sa ch gi tr thnh cc gi tr m khng gii thch g c.

62. (GV) Cc em vit rng 2 khng phi l nghim, cn 4 l nghim ca phng trnh By gi cc em tr li vi hot ng lc ny, ta s tip tc.

Thi im nghin cu s hnh thnh k thut 2 v thi im cng ngh - l thuyt (on 63-78) Phng trnh m hot ng khi u cho php to ra c s dng li loi b k thut 1 vi lp lun vic lm ngc li vi cc tnh ton khng c thun tin cho lm, ng thi cng lm xut hin k thut mi - 2.
63. (GV) Ta tr li vi hot ng lc ny. Vic lm ngc li vi cc tnh ton khng c thun tin cho lm. Ta s thy mt phng php khc. Ta mun i n mt biu thc kiu nh th no ? 64. (HS) x bng mt s. 65. (GV) ng th. Ta mun i n ch c x bng mt s. Theo cc em, ta c th lm nh th no ? 66. (HS) Ta lm ngc li. 67. (GV) y chnh l cch ta va lm lc ny Nhng nu cc em li tr v vi nhng phng trnh phc tp hn th sao ?

GV tip tc va c va vit trong khi HS chp li vo v. Mt v d v vic kim tra xem hai s c phi l nghim ca phng trnh hay khng c xem xt di dng i thoi vi lp hc m GV ch o rt st sao.
56. (GV) Cc gi tr y c gi l nghim ca phng trnh. V d. Cho ng thc sau y : 3x 4 =7x 20. S 2 c phi l nghim ca phng trnh ny khng ? Luc ? 57. (Luc) Ta thay x bng 2. 3 nhn 2 tr 4 c 2 Sau ta tnh 7 ln 2 tr i 20, ta c -6. 58. (GV) Vy th sao ? Tr li th no ? 59. (Luc) Khng phi l nghim. 60. (GV) Khng thay th cho x trong ng thc chng no m cc em cha bit c s bng nhau hay khng. No, 4 c phi l nghim ca phng trnh khng ? Marie ? 61. (Marie) Ta ly 3 ln 4, tr i 4, c 8. Nu ly 7 ln 4 tr i 20 th c 8. Vy 4 l nghim.

Ging nh trc y, GV s dng mt b cu hi c hng dn st sao. Trong khi trao i, mt vi yu t ca k thut c ch r: ta khai trin, ta b 8 i mi v.
68. (GV) Ta khai trin. Ta c 5x + 15 7 = 48. Sau 5x + 8 = 48 69. (HS mun tip tc. Nhng GV yu cu dng li) 70. (GV) By gi cho s 8 mt i, ta c th lm g ? 71. (HS) Ta b 8 mi v.

16

Tp ch KHOA HC HSP TPHCM

Claude C. v tgk

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72. (HS) Ti sao li c lm nh th ? 73. (HS) 74. (GV) N cng ging nh vi mt ci cn y. GV nhi li bng iu b rt nhanh m t nguyn tc ca mt ci cn.

Vn bin minh cho phn ny ca k thut c mt HS t ra (ti sao li c lm nh th) v GV tr li nh s tng t vi nguyn l ca mt ci cn, trc khi c cho HS chp quy tc bo ton ng thc bng php cng hay tr cng mt s vo hai v (cng ngh 2). HS ghi li vo v.
75. (GV) Khi c mt ng thc, nu ta cng hay tr cng mt s vo hai v ca phng trnh, ta vn c mt ng thc Vy th ta nhn c g no ? Oc ? 76. (Oc) 5x = 40 77. ng. Ti vit bc trung gian 5x + 8 8 = 48 8 78. (GV) Ta s kt thc vic gii 5x = 40 x = 8

82. (HS) Ta ly 5x4 x = 4 x 4 x 2 83. (GV) Ta b i x mi v 5x 4x = - 2 x = - 2. Cc em c nhn thy y mt quy tc khng ? 84. (HS) Nh th l ta t cc s hng c x li vi nhau. 85. (HS) Ta nhm cc x li vi nhau. 86. (GV) chnh l mc ch. Nhng ti th ti mun xut hin mt quy tc tnh ton 87. (HS) Ta ly nghch o cc s 88. (GV) Khng, khng phi l nghch o. Nu ti cho s 5, nghch o ca n l g? 89. (HS) 1/5. Ah y l s i.

Gv can thip rt st sao (cc em c nhn thy mt quy tc khng Nhng ti th ti mun xut hin mt quy tc tnh ton ) v lm cho mt yu t mi l cng ngh 3 c h m.
90. (GV) Ta s vit rng ta nhn thy l khi mt s khng, mt s hng chuyn t v ny sang v kia ca mt phng trnh th ? n b i du Cc em ghi iu ri ch ?

Lu rng bc trung gian ny cng tham gia vo vic th ch ha 2. Thi im lm vic vi k thut 2, h m k thut 3, thi im cng ngh l thuyt (on 79-89) Hai mu phng trnh c xem xt (x + 12 = 36 v 5x = 4x 2), xut pht t ngh ca nhng HS s dng k thut 2 trc y.
79. (GV) By gi ta s xt vi v d. x + 12 = 36 5x = 4x 2 80. (HS) Ta thc hin x + 12 12 = 36 12 81. (GV) Tt. Ta b mi v i 12 x = 36 12 x = 24. Th cn phng trnh ny, ta lm g ?

Quy tc mi 3, quy tc chuyn v, c pht biu v ghi vo v. Nh vy, giai on ny tham gia vo s th ch ha. Chng ti lu rng thi im th ch ha s c tr li trong tit hc sau, v hai quy tc 2, 3 s c ghi vo v. Yu t cng ngh cho 3 cho php bin i k thut 2 to ra k thut 3 thng qua trung gian l vic gii phng trnh 1,1 + u = 3,2. Thi im lm vic vi 3 (on 93 97)
17

Tp ch KHOA HC HSP TPHCM

S 31 nm 2011

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Chc nng ca thi im lm vic vi TCTH l vn hnh cc yu t ca t chc tin chc rng chng tr c, v nu c dp th hon thin t chc ny. ng thi, y cng l thi im ngi ta luyn tp lm ch t chc c xy dng, c bit l lm ch k thut c thit lp. y th thi im ny rt ngn : GV ch a ra vi phng trnh gii ngay ti lp (s dng 3) v mt s khc th HS phi tip tc lm vic nh.
91. (GV) Ta s xt vi v d. Cc em vit 1,1 + u = 3,2 v 5y-3 = 4y Tr ra ba dng, ch gii cc phng trnh ny ngay by gi. Cn chun b cho th nm, nhng bi ny x + 9 = 36, 5z + 6 = 4z, 6 + 5x = 6x + 2 v 3,6 x = 9,6 Cc em ghi vo s l gii nhng phng trnh ny cho ngy th nm. Th nm ta s i phng y. 92. (HS) y l bi ch cho tun ny ? 93. (GV) Khng. 94. (GV) No, lm bi i. Gii cc phng trnh ny i 1,1 + u = 3,2 Jes ? 95. (Jes) u = 3,2 1,1.

Nhng, do ht thi gian, v d cui cng c chuyn v lm nh, cng vi bn bi mu khc : x + 9 = 36, 5z+6 = 4z, 6+5x = 6x + 2 v 3,6 x = 9,6. 1.5. Cc yu t nh gi TCTH, TCDH v s pht trin ca TCTH y ta s nhn mnh rng nh gi khng phi l mt hin tng ch xy ra trng hc m ni chung l c mt trong mi hot ng ca con ngi v n lun c mt vai tr no y. Ci y c gi tr g i vi iu ngi ta mun lm ? y l mt cu hi rt c bn, vo bt c lc no v bt c ni u. Cc thnh phn khc nhau ca TCDH m GV trin khai trong mt th ch trng hc I c th phn ln l c xc nh bi cc yu cu m th ch a ra, ngha l bi rt nhiu rng buc trong th ch m ta xem xt. V vn ny, ngi ta b sung cho s cc cp ni phn 3.1 bng thang bc xc nh sau y :
X hi Trng hc Dy hc Ton hc Mn hc Lnh vc Khu vc

Lc ny c mt yu t cng ngh mi c ch ca cc ch c s dng, xut hin thng qua lu sau : Cc em thy l bt c ch ci no cng c th dng c.
96. (GV) ng ri. Cc em thy l bt c ch ci no cng c th dng c. Cui cng th sao ? 97. (Jes) u = 2,1.

Ch ti Hot ng ca GV

GV d nh gii c phng trnh 5y 3 = 4y, tc l n cng nm trong thi im lm vic vi TCTH xy dng.
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Nhng rng buc no chi phi tit hc m ta quan st v liu c cch khc thc hin cc chc nng s phm ca cc thi im phn tch hay khng ? Rng buc cp trng hc : s phn ct thi gian

Tp ch KHOA HC HSP TPHCM

Claude C. v tgk

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Yves Chevallard nhc li mt s tc ng ca s phn ct thi gian do chia nh vic DH thnh cc tit 55 pht: rng buc ny v thi gian c nh hng ln ln vic la chn TCDH ca GV thc hin tit dy m chng ta phn tch. Qung thi gian ngn ngi ca tit hc lm cho bi hc (c xem nh mt n v) ch bn n ti (gii phng trnh bc nht mt n), cn ch m ti c lng vo (gii bi ton dn n phng trnh bc nht) th khng thc s c xem xt. Tuy nhin, v TCDH ny ta c th ngh l vic nghin cu ch trong mt qung thi gian di hn s cho php lin kt hot ng hc tp v ba kiu nhim v Tlpt, Tgpt v Tgt. C th thy i theo hng ny vi tnh hung Arthur v Claire, nhng iu cn rt hn ch. Liu c th gim bt hn ch bng cch dnh nhiu thi gian hn cho hot ng m u, qua to ra mt s gp g u tin vi ch khng ? Chc chn l c, nu bt u bi mt hot ng nghin cu v phng trnh v bi ton vn ny c th dng nh mt ln gp g u tin, trc khi t ra vic tm k thut gii phng trnh. Rng buc v DH: s tin ln ca thi gian DH GV lun qun l lp hc rt st sao. Thi gian lm vic c nhn ca HS rt ngn ; HS t khi lm vic trn bng v nu c th ch l sa bi tp ; s tc ng bng li ca h ch c yu cu khi nhng g h ni i theo hng m

GV mong mun. V tr ca HS ch quy v gii bi tp m k thut c a ra trc. Ta c th gi nh rng theo quan im ca GV th thi gian DH phi tin ln v rng buc v s pht ca tit hc m ta ni trn v cng cn c th v e s lp hc s vt qu gii hn (lc vo nhng vn nm ngoi d kin) m vic iu hnh c xem l kh kh khn. Rng buc ny cng c th l l do khin cho vic nghin cu cc yu t cng ngh ch thc hin kh s si v c bit l quy tc bo ton cc ng thc khi chuyn v khng c chng minh m ch c gii thch bi s tng t nh quy tc hot ng ca mt ci cn. Khi trao i (vi nh nghin cu), GV ngh l khng th p t quy tc cho HS ca mnh v s cc em khng nhn thc c s cn thit ca php chng minh trong ton hc i vi mt tnh cht kh t nhin. Nhng rng buc cp mn hc v lnh vc: hot ng hc tp v nghin cu Vic l a chn mt bi ton s im xut pht nh l hot ng hc tp v nghin c u l ph hp vi nhng ch dn v chng trnh lp t. ngi ta ni r : nhng bi ton c ngun gc t cc phn khc ca chng trnh dn n vic a vo cc phng trnh v gii phng trnh. Hot ng m GV chn c chc nng to ra ln gp g u tin vi kiu
19

Tp ch KHOA HC HSP TPHCM

S 31 nm 2011

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nhim v c nghin cu gii mt phng trnh. GV yu cu HS c mt on c tn HOT NG : cc phng trnh. on ny bao gm phn thut li, bng ch in nghing, iu Arthur thch thc Claire v mt tr chi on s v yu cu tm chin lc Arthur s dng nhn li thch thc. N cn bao gm c hai cu hi vit bng ch thng. Cu hi u tin l mt hot ng n gin trn cc s, i hi phi i theo th t ca on vn thut li trc , cho php ch ra l Arthur phi i din vi mt nhim v thc s : khng th tr li theo kiu h ha. Nh vy l cu hi ny to ng c cho vic nghin cu mt chin lc. Cu hi th hai a ra mt chin lc chp nhn thch thc, mt k thut m hnh ha: tng tng l tm thy li gii v by gi ta phi kim tra kt qu. lm iu ta biu din s tm thy bng mt ch ci - ch x. Th th ta c th vit g? Cu hi ny lm mt i tnh m h ca cu hi vit nghing: Arthur s lm nh th no tm thy s ?. Ta cng c th yu cu HS t t vo v tr ca Arthur v m hnh ha vn thc hin nhim v m h: tm s m Claire chn. Nh th l kiu vn ny mang li nhiu kh nng. Vy th v l do g m GV l i hn ch quyn t ch ca HS

bng cch t mnh p t s m hnh ha? Ln gp g vi Tlpt khng xy ra v GV bin i hot ng : hot ng c chc nng to ra ln gp g u tin vi Tgpt ch khng phi vi Tlpt. 2. Kt lun t trong phm vi ca Thuyt nhn hc, phn tch nhng g quan st c tit hc cho php ch r: - Cu trc ca TCTH c dy - iu ny c lm bng cch phn bit cc kiu yu t khc nhau ca TCTH cng nh mi lin h gia chng ; - Cu trc ca TCDH trong thc t phc tp hn cu trc tam phn c in hot ng/ tng kt/bi tp; - S an xen ca cc thi im vi nhng chc nng rt khc nhau v i khi thay i rt nhanh (c bit l trng hp th ch ha); - Mt s thiu ht cc yu t cng ngh - l thuyt lin quan n khu vc tnh ton trn cc ch v n c ch i tng ca i s; - Kh khn ca vic xem xt mt TCTH trong khun kh ca ch hoc khu vc ton hc m t chc thuc vo ; - Nhng rng buc sinh ra t trng hc, hot ng DH, mn hc v ch c nh hng ln n vic la chn TCDH.

20

Tp ch KHOA HC HSP TPHCM

Claude C. v tgk

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1 2

BESSOT A., COMITI C., L TH HOI CHU., L VN TIN (2009), tr.210-261.

Th ch l mt trong nhng thut ng c bn ca Thuyt nhn hc. Trong thuyt ny, ngi ta xem th ch l mt b phn x hi I c th rt nh trong cc ch th (tc l cc c nhn chim nhng v tr khc nhau trong I) c php v thm ch buc phi vn dng mt cch lm, mt cch ngh ring. Chng hn, gia nh l mt th ch m ch th l cha m v con ci, lp hc l mt th ch m ch th l gio vin v hc sinh, ton b h thng gio dc ca mt nc l mt th ch trong ch th khng phi ch c gio vin, hc sinh m cn nhiu thnh phn khc nh cc nh lp chng trnh, tc gi sch gio khoa, nh qun l, v.v. ... 3 Theo cch tip cn ca Thuyt nhn hc, ng vi mi kiu nhim v T c mt cch lm - mt k thut gii quyt. Tnh tha ng ca k thut ny c gii thch bi cc yu t cng ngh . n lt mnh, cng ngh li c gii thch bi cc yu t l thuyt . Khi kiu nhim v T l mt kiu nhim v ton hc th b bn [T///] c gi l mt t chc ton hc. Khi T thuc kiu nhim v DH th b bn gi l mt t chc DH.

1. 2.

3.

4.

TI LIU THAM KHO BESSOT A., COMITI C., L TH HOI CHU, L VN TIN (2009), Nhng yu t c s ca didactic ton, Nxb i hc Quc gia TPHCM, tr. 210-261. BRONER A., NOIRFALISE A. (2001), Structures, fonctionnement, cologie des organisations didactiques a propos de lalgbre en quatrime, Actes de la 11 Ecole de didactique des mathmatiques, La Pense Sauvage, Grenoble. BROUSSEAU G. (1986), Fondements et mthodes de la didactique des mathmatiques, Recherches en Didactique des Mathmatiques, vol.7.2, pp. 33-115, La Pense Sauvage, Grenoble. CHEVALLARD Y. (1991), Concepts fondamentaux de la didactique : perspectives apportes par une approche anthropologique, Recherches en Didactique des Mathmatiques, vol.12.1, pp. 73-112, La Pense Sauvage, Grenoble.

(Ngy Ta son nhn c bi: 09-02-2011; ngy chp nhn ng: 12-6-2011)

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