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Strain Gages

D 2

P
L 2

DD

D 2

D 2

D 2

D D

L 2

STRAIN GAGES
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Strain, Stress, and Poisson's Ratio


When a material receives a tensile force P, it has a stress that corresponds to the applied force. In proportion to the stress, the cross section contracts and the length elongates by from the length L the material had before receiving the tensile force (see illustration in Fig. 1) below.

For example, if a tensile force makes a 100mm long material elongate by 0.01 mm, the strain initiated in the material is as follows:

L
L

0.01 = 0.0001 = 100m/m 100

Fig. 1

P
L 2

or m/m with a numeric value with x10 -6 strain, suffixed. Based on Hooke's law, the relation between stress and the strain initiated in a material by an applied force is expressed as follows:
= E Stress Young's modulus E Strain

Thus, strain is an absolute number and is expressed

L L L Tension

L L L Compression

L 2

The ratio of the elongation to the original length is called a tensile strain and is expressed as follows:

Stress is thus obtained by multiplying strain by the Young's modulus. When a material receives a tensile force P, it elongates in the axial direction while contracting in the transverse direction. Elongation in the axial direction is called longitudinal strain and contraction in the transverse direction, transverse strain. The absolute value of the ratio between the lon and gituding strain transverse straln is called Poisson's ratio, which is expressed as follows:
2 = 1 Poisson's ratio

= L
L

Strain

L Original length L Elongation

See the lower illustration in Fig. 1. If the material receives a compressive force, it bears a compressive strain expressed as follows:

Lor 1 Longitudinal strain 2 Transverse strain - D or

L D Fig. 1 D

L Fig. 1

= - L
L

Poisson's ratio differs depending on the material. For major industrial materials and their mechanical properties including Poisson's ratio, refer to page 9-1.

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A strain gage detects a minute dimensional change (strain) as an electric signal. By measuring strain with the gage bonded to a material or structure, the strength or safety can be known. Thus, the strain gage is used in various industries including machinery, automobile, electric, civil engineering, medical, and food. The strain gage is also adopted as a sensing element of force, pressure, acceleration, vibration, displacement, and torque transducers used for various purposes including measurement and control of production lines. KYOWA produced the first Japanese-made strain gages in 1951, and based on the abundant experience and technologies accumulated throughout these years, the Company manufactures a variety of high-performance, environmentally friendly strain gages.

STRAIN GAGES

Principle of Strain Gages


Each metal has its specific resistance. An external tensile force (compressive force) increases (decreases) the resistance by elongating (contracting) it. Suppose the original resistance is R and a straininitiated change in resistance is R. Then, the following relation is concluded:

Structure of Foil Strain Gage


The foil strain gage has metal foil photo-etched in a grid pattern on the electric insulator of the thin resin and gage leads attached, as shown in Fig. 2 below. The strain gage is bonded to the measuring object with a dedicated adhesive. Strain occurring on the measuring site is transferred to the strain sensing element via the gage base. For accurate measurement, the strain gage and adhesive should match the measuring material and operating conditions including temperature. For the bonding method and dampproofing treatment, refer to page 9-9.

R
R

=Ks

L
L

= K s

where, Ks is a gage factor, the coefficient expressing strain gage sensitivity. General purpose strain gages use copper-nickel or nickel-chrome alloy for the resistive element, and the gage factor provided by these alloys are approximately 2.

Types of Strain Gages


Types of strain gages include foil strain gage, wire strain gage, and semiconductor strain gage.
Fig. 2

Example of KFG gage

Base length Laminate


Base width

Grid length (strain sensing part)

Gage length Grid width

Base

Center mark Base Metal foil Laminate lm Solder


Gage lead (silver-clad copper wire, 0.12 to 0.16 mm and 25 mm long)

Bonded surface

1-2

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Strain gage

R1

R2

e 0=

R1R3-R2R4 E (R1R2) (R3R4)


Excitation voltage E

Suppose the resistance R1 is a strain gage and it changes by R due to strain. Then, the output voltage is,

e 0=

R1+ RR3-R2R4 (R1+ R+R2) (R3R4)

Strain Gage Wiring System


A strain gage Wheatstone bridge is configured with 1, 2 or 4 gages according to the measuring purpose. The typical wiring systems are shown in Figs. 4, 5 and 6. For varied strain gage bridge formation systems, refer to pages 8-11. 1-gage system With the 1-gage system, a strain gage is connected to one side of the bridge and a fixed resistor is connected to each of the other 3 sides. This system can easily be configured, and thus it is widely used for general stress/strain measurement. The 1-gage 2-wire system shown in Fig. 4-1 is largely affected by leads. Therefore, if large temperature changes are anticipated or if the lead wire length is long, then the 1-gage 3-wire system shown in Fig. 4-2 must be used. For the 1-gage 3-wire system, refer to "Method of Compensating Temperature Effect of Leadwire" (page 9-4).

If R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R in the initial condition,

e 0=

R2+R R-R2 (2R+ R) 2R

Since R may be regarded extremely larger than DR,

e 0

1 R 1 E = K s E 4 4 R

Thus obtained is an output voltage that is proportional to a change in resistance, i.e. a change in strain. This microscopic output voltage is amplified for analog recording or digitial indication for strain measurement.

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Output voltage eo

STRAIN GAGES
Principle of Strain Measurement
Strain initiated resistance change is extremely small. Thus, for strain measurement a Wheatstone bridge is formed to convert the resistance change to a voltage change. Suppose in Fig. 3 resistances () are R1, R2, R3 and R4 and the bridge voltage (V) is E. Then, the output voltage eo (V) is obtained by the following equation:
Fig. 3

R4

R3

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S T R A I N

STRAIN GAGES G A G E S

Fig. 4-1
R
Strain gage

Fig. 5-2
R

Rg

eo
R E R
Strain gage

Rg2 eo

Fig. 4-2
R

R Rg1 E

Rg R

eo

2-gage system With the 2-gage system, 2 strain gages are connected to the bridge, one each to adjacent or opposite sides with fixed resistor inserted in the other sides. See Figs. 5-1 and 5-2 . There exist the active-dummy method, where one strain gage serves as a dummy gage for temperature compensation, and the active-active method, where both gages serve as active gages. The 2-gage system is used to eliminate strain components other than the target strain; according to the measuring purpose, 2 gages are connected to the bridge in different ways. For details, refer to "How to Form Strain Gage Bridges" (page 9-7).
Fig. 5-1
R R eo

4-gage system See Fig. 6. The 4-gage system has 4 strain gages connected one each to all 4 sides of the bridge. This circuit ensures large output of strain gage transducers and improves temperature compensation as well as eliminates strain components other than the target strain. For details, refer to "How to Form Strain Gage Bridges" (page 9-7).
Fig. 6
Rg 4 Rg 3

eo
Rg 1 E Rg 2

Rg 1 E

Rg 2

1-4

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Thermally-induced apparent strain output (m/m)

STRAIN GAGES
Self-Temperature-Compensation Gages (SELCOM Gages)
When receiving a temperature change, a strain gage bonded to a measuring object generates an apparent s t r a i n d u e t o a d i ff e re n c e i n l i n e a r e x p a n s i o n coefficient between the measuring object and the resistive element of the strain gage, and a thermallyinduced resistance change of the gage element. The SELCOM gage has a resistance temperature coefficient of the resistive element adjusted to match with the measuring object, thereby minimizing the apparent strain. Virtually all KYOWA's strain gages are SELCOM gages, and if bonded to suitable materials, the thermally-induced apparent strain is within 1.8 m/ m/ in a temperature range of 10 to 80 . As shown in Fig. 7, the thermally-induced apparent strain of KFG gages is within m/m/ in a temperature range of 20 to 40 in which they are most frequently used. For the principle of SELCOM gage, refer to page 9-3. For the model numbers and applicable materials, refer to page 1-6.
Typical characteristic curve of thermally-induced apparent strain with KFG gage
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
-20 -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 -140

The following are described in Technical Notes

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m/m

Mechanical properties of industrial materials Linear expansion coefficients of materials Examples of measurement with strain gages Tensile and compressive stress measurement Bending stress measurement Equations to obtain strain on beams Torsional and shearing stress measurement Temperature effect of leadwies in 2-wire system Effect of insulation resistance Resistance change of strain gage bonded to curved surface Compensation of gage factor Misalignment effect Compensation of leadwire extension effect Compensation of nonlinearity of 1-gage system Method of obtaining the magnitude and direction of principal stress (rosette analysis) Generating calibration value based on tip parallel resistance method.

1m/m/
Temp. 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

10

-1m/m/

-1.8

/m/

AdhesiveCC-33A

Fig. 7

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Strain Gage Model Name Coding System


Resistance Gage Length mm
Sufx N indicates base and grid widths are narrow.

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Gage Pattern Applicable linear expansion coefcient

STRAIN GAGES

Series Designation

Type and Length of Leadwire Cable

KFG-2-120-C1-11 L1M3R
Applicable linear expansion coefcient ( x 106/C )

KFG: General-purpose foil strain gage KFGT: Foil strain gage with temperature sensor KFR: Foil strain gage KFW: Waterproof foil strain gage KFWS: Small waterproof foil strain gage KCW: Weldable waterproof foil strain gage KC: Wire strain gage KM: Embedded foil strain gage for concrete KMC: Embedded wire strain gage for concrete KFRP: Foil strain gage for composite materials KFRS Foil strain gage for printed boards KFP: Foil strain gage for plastics KFML: Foil strain gage for low-elasticity materials KSP: Semiconductor strain gage KSN: Self-temperature-compensation semiconductor strain gage KSPH: High-output semiconductor strain gage KSPL: Ultralinear semiconductor strain gage KHCX: Encapsulated strain gage KHCV: Encapsulated strain gage KHCR: Encapsulated strain gage KHCS: Encapsulated strain gage KHCM: Encapsulated strain gage KHC: Encapsulated strain gage KFU: High-temperature foil strain gage KH: Weldable high-temp foil strain gage KFH: High-temperature foil strain gage KFL: Low-temperature foil strain gage KFEM: Ultrahigh-elongation foil strain gage KFEL: High-elongation foil strain gage KFN: Noninductive foil strain gage KFS: Shielded foil strain gage KFF: Foil bending strain gage KCH: Foil strain gage with protector KMP: Embedded foil strain gage for plastics KV: Crack gage

A1: Uniaxial, leads at one end (KC, KTB gages) C1: Uniaxial, leads at one end (foil gage) C2: Uniaxial 90, lead at both ends C3: Uniaxial 0, lead at both ends C9: Uniaxial, leads at one end (KFN gage) C11: Uniaxial, 2-element, 1 mm thick (KFF gage) C12: Uniaxial, 2-element, 2 mm thick (KFF gage) C15: Uniaxial right 45, for shearing strain, leads at one end C16: Uniaxial left 45, for shearing strain, leads at one end C20: Uniaxial, leads at a side (for bolt axial tension) D1: Biaxial 0/90, lead at both ends D2: Biaxial 0/90, lead at both ends (for torque) D3: Triaxial 0/90/45, lead at both ends, plane arrangement D4: Triaxial 0/120/240, plane arrangement D6: Quadraxial 0/30/90/150 D9: Uniaxial 5-element 90 D16: Biaxial 0/90 stacked rosette, round base D17: Triaxial 0/90/45 stacked rosette, round base D19: Uniaxial 5-element 0 D20: Biaxial 0/90 (KFN gage) D22: Triaxial 0/90/45, plane arrangement D25: Triaxial 0/90/45, plane arrangement D28: Triaxial 0/135/90, plane arrangement (for boring) D29: Biaxial 0/90, leads at one end, plane arrangement D30: Triaxial 0/90/45, leads at one end, plane arrangement D31: Biaxial 0/90, leads at one end (for torque) D34: Biaxial 0/90, plane arrangement D35: Triaxial 0/90/45, plane arrangement D39: Biaxial 5-element 0/90 E3: Uniaxial, lead at both ends (semiconductor gage) E4: Uniaxial, leads at one end (semiconductor gage) E5: Uniaxial, lead at both ends with no base (semiconductor gage) F2: Uniaxial 2-element (semiconductor gage) F3: Biaxial 0/90 (semiconductor gage) G4: Uniaxial, leads at one end (KH-G4) G8: Uniaxial active/dummy 2-element, Inconel (for KHC) G9: Uniaxial active/dummy 2-element, SUS (for KHC) G10: Uniaxial (for KCW) G12: Uniaxial active/dummy 2-element (for KHCS) G13: G15: Uniaxial active/dummy 2-element (for KHCM) G16: Uniaxial active/dummy 2-element (for KHCR) G17: Uniaxial active 1-element (for KHCV) H1: Uniaxial (for KM-30) H2: Uniaxial (for KM-120) H3: Uniaxial (for KMC) H4: Uniaxial with T thermocouple (for KMC) J1: Uniaxial (for KFS)

1: Composite materials such as CFRP Amber (1.1) Diamond (1.2) 3: Composite materials such as GFRP Silicon (2.3) Sulfur (2.7) 5: Composite materials such as GFRP Tungsten (4.5) Lumber (5.0) Molybdenum (5.2) Zirconium (5.4) Kobar (5.9) 6: Composite materials such as GFRP 28 Tantalum (6.6) 9: Composite materials such as CFRP, GFRP Titanium alloy (8.5) Platinum (8.9) Soda-lime glass (9.2) 11: Common steel (11.7) SUS631 (10.3) SUS630 (10.6) Cast iron (10.8) Nickel-molybdenum steel (11.3) Beryllium (11.5) Inconel X (12.1) 13: Corrosion and heat-resistant alloys such as NCF Nickel (13.3) Printed board (13.0) 16: Stainless steel SUS304 (16.2) Beryllium steel (16.7) Copper (16.7) 23: 2014-T4 aluminum (23.4) Brass (21.0) Tin (23.0) 2024-T4 aluminum (23.2) 27: Magnesium alloy (27.0) Composite material, GFRP (35.0) 65: Acrylic resin (65.0) Polycarbonate (66.6)

Note: Combination of codes is limited and menu options cannot freely be selected.

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Leadwire Cables
L-Type Leadwire Cables
Operating Temperature Range Model Type Conductor Material Nominal Cross Section of Conductor (mm2) Number of Strands/ Wire Diam. (mm) Reciprocating Coated Resistance Wire per Meter Diameter () (mm) Unit Length (m)

1
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High-temperature leadwire Room temp. to 350

STRAIN GAGES

L-1
Vinyl-coated at 3-wire cable

CuNi alloy

0.07

10.30

14.20

0.50

50

10 to 80

L-2 L-3 L-4


Vinyl-coated at 2-wire cable Fluororesin-coated high/low-temp. 3-wire cable

Copper

0.30

120.18

0.12

2.30

100

269 to 250

Silver-plated copper

0.14

70.16

0.28

0.98

50

High-temperature leadwire cable Room temp. to 350C Nickel-clad copper 0.20 10.50 0.18 0.70 30

10 to 80

L-5
Vinyl-coated at 2-wire cable

Copper

0.50

200.18

0.07

2.50

10 to 80

L-6 L-7 L-9

(1)

Copper Vinyl-coated at 3-wire cable

0.08

70.12

0.44

1.00

10 to 80

(2)

Copper Vinyl-coated at 2-wire cable

0.08

70.12

0.44

1.00

10 to 80

(1)

Copper Vinyl-coated at 3-wire cable

0.11

100.12

0.32

1.00

10 to 80

L-10 (2) L-11 L-12 L-13 L-14 L-15 L-16 L-17


Middle-temperature 2-wire cable

Copper

0.11

100.12

0.32

1.00

100

100 to 150

Silver-plated copper

0.08

70.12

0.44

0.86

100 to 150

Middle-temperature 3-wire cable

Silver-plated copper

0.08

70.12

0.44

0.86

10 to 80

Vinyl-coated normal-temperature low-noise 3-wire cable

Tin-plated copper

0.09

70.13

0.46

3.50

50 to 90

Chloroprene-coated normal-temperature low-noise 4-wire cable

Tin-plated copper

0.08

70.12

0.48

4.00

269 to 250

Fluoroplastic-coated high/low-temp. low-noise 3-wire cable

Silver-plated copper

0.08

70.12

0.48

2.50 10

269 to 250

Fluoroplastic-coated high/low-temp. low-noise 4-wire cable

Silver-plated copper

0.08

70.12

0.48

3.30

269 to 350

High/low-temperature 3-wire cable

Nickel-plated copper

0.07

10.30

0.50

0.38

30

1. These models have a suffix R, W, G, Y or B indicating the coating color; red, white, green, yellow or black. e.g. L-6B: Black vinyl coated. 2. These models have a suffix WR, WL or WY indicating the stripe color; red, blue or yellow on white vinyl coating. e.g. L-7WR: Red stripes on white coating.

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