M C L C

PHN M U .......................................................................................................... 3 PHN NI DUNG ...................................................................................................... 4 CHNG 1: C S L LUN ............................................................................... 4 1.1. Nhng c s vt l nghin cu cu to nguyn t: ...................................... 4 1.1.1. Thnh phn nguyn t: ............................................................................. 4 1.1.2. Thuyt lng t Planck: ........................................................................... 5 1.1.3. Bn cht sng v ht ca ecletron: ............................................................ 5 1.2. Hm sng v phng trnh sng ca electron: ............................................. 8 1.2.1. Hm sng: ................................................................................................ 8 1.2.2. Phng trnh sng Schrodinger: ............................................................... 9 1.2.3. Kt qu gii phng trnh sng Schrodinger: ......................................... 10 1.2.4. Cc s lng t v ngha: .................................................................... 11 1.3. Obitan nguyn t - hnh dng cc obitan nguyn t: .................................. 14 1.3.1. Khi nim v obitan nguyn t (AO):..................................................... 14 1.3.2. Hnh dng cc electron: .......................................................................... 16 1.4. Nguyn t nhiu electron: ......................................................................... 17 1.4.1. Khi nim v lp, phn lp v lng t:.............................................. 17 1.4.2. Gin nng lng ca cc electron. Qui tc Klechkowski: .................. 18 1.4.3. Nguyn l vng bn, nguyn l Pauli, quy tc Hund v cu hnh electron ca nguyn t: ............................................................................................................ 19 1.4.4. Phng php gn ng mt electron ca Slyt (Slater):........................ 23
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1.5. Cu to ht nhn nguyn t - ng v: ....................................................... 24 1.5.1. Cu to ht nhn nguyn t: ................................................................... 25 1.5.2. ng v: ................................................................................................. 25 1.6. H thng tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc:............................................... 26 1.6.1. nh lut tun hon v bng h thng tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc: 26 1.6.2. Cu hnh electron cc nguyn t trong h thng tun hon: .................... 28 1.6.3. S bin thin tun hon mt s tnh cht ca cc nguyn t: .................. 31 Cu hi v bi tp ............................................................................................ 37 CHNG 2: KIN THC CU TO NGUYN T TRONG CHNG TRNH HA HC PH THNG ...................................................................................... 39 2.1. Cu to nguyn t: .................................................................................... 39 2.2. Bng tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc v nh lut tun hon: ................. 40 Bi tp ............................................................................................................. 41 KT LUN V KIN NGH .................................................................................... 46 1. Kt lun: .......................................................................................................... 46 2. Kin ngh: ........................................................................................................ 46 Ti liu tham kho ...................................................................................................... 47

PHN M U

Ha l l mt trong nhng ngnh ca ha hc. Ha l c kin thc rt rng, i sut trong ha hc ph thng, v sut chng ng hc ha hc. Hiu c ha l th vic hc cc ngnh khc ca ha hc d hn. Xu hng gio dc ngy nay l dy hc ly hc sinh lm trung tm th vai tr ch ng, tch cc, sng to ca hc sinh c pht huy cn vai tr ca gio vin khng h b h thp m tri li c yu cu cao hn nhiu, gio vin ng vai tr t chc v iu khin hc sinh chim lnh tri thc, t hot ng tm ti lnh hi kin thc mi. Do i hi gio vin phi c kin thc va su, va rng c bit l cu to nguyn t l mt chng quan trng trong ha ph thng. Nu hc sinh nm c cu to nguyn t th vic hc ha rt d. Hiu c cu to nguyn t l hiu c tnh cht c bn ca cc cht, gii thch mt s cng ha hc, Xut pht t vn trn ti chn ti mt s ni dung cu to nguyn t trong ha hc ph thng.

PHN NI DUNG

CHNG 1: C S L LUN

1.1. Nhng c s vt l nghin cu cu to nguyn t: 1.1.1. Thnh phn nguyn t: 1.1.1.1. Ht nhn nguyn t: L phn trung tm ca nguyn t, gm cc ht proton v ntron. Ht nhn mang in tch dng, s n v in tch dng ca ht nhn bng s electron trong v nguyn t. Khi lng ca ht nhn xp x khi lng nguyn t. Proton (k hiu p): S th t Z ca nguyn t trong bng h thng tun hon ng bng s proton ca nguyn t nguyn t . Khi lng: mp = 1,6725.10-24 g in tch (dng): qp = +1,602.10-19 C = +e0 hay 1+ Ntron (k hiu n): Khi lng: mn = 1,67482.10-24 g

in tch (dng): qn = 0 Electron (k hiu e): Khi lng: in tch (m): me = 9,11.10-28 g qn = -1,602.10-19 C = -e0 hay 1-

Nh vy, electron mang in tch m, s electron trong nguyn t bng ng s proton. Trong nguyn t electron quay xung quanh ht nhn trn qu o electron to thnh m my electron. Cc electron c in tch v khi chng chuyn ng s sinh ra dng in. V cc electron trong nguyn t xc nh phng thc m n tng tc vi cc nguyn t khc nn chng ng vai tr quan trng trong ha hc.
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1.1.2. Thuyt lng t Planck: Nm 1900 Planck trnh by quan im lng t u tin v cho rng: nh sng hay bc x in t ni chung gm nhng lng t nng lng pht i t ngun sng. Hay: Nng lng bc x do cc cht pht ra hay hp th l khng lin tc, m gin on, ngha l thnh nhng phn ring bit - nhng lng t.

E: lng t nng lng

c E h h

h: hng s Planck (h = 6,625.10-34 J.S) : tn s ca bc x : bc sng bc x c: tc nh sng

Nh vy, bc sng cng ln th tn s sng cng gim v ngc li, E gi l lng t nng lng v vi mi bc x d pht ra hoc hp th u bng mt s nguyn ln ca E. 1.1.3. Bn cht sng v ht ca ecletron: 1.1.3.1. Mu nguyn t Bo (Bohr): Nm 1913, nh vt l l thuyt ngi an Mch Niels Bohr (1885-1962) a ra m hnh bn c in v nguyn t hay cn gi l m hnh nguyn t ca Bohr. Bohr xy dng m hnh mu nguyn t vi ni dung sau: - Trong nguyn t, electron ch c th chuyn ng trn nhng qu o trn xc nh c bn knh xc nh, Khi quay trn cc qu o nng lng electron c bo ton.

Bn knh cc qu o c xc nh theo cng thc:

n l cc s t nhin 1, 2, 3, ...n. Nh vy cc qu o th nht, th hai, th ba,... ln lt c bn knh nh sau:

- Mi qu o ng vi mt mc nng lng electron. Qu o gn nhn nht ng vi mc nng lng thp nht. Qu o cng xa nhn ng vi mc nng lng cng cao. Mi electron c mt nng lng xc nh c tnh theo cng thc:

- Khi electron chuyn ng t qu o ny sang qu o khc th xy ra s hp th hoc gii phng nng lng. Electron hp th nng lng khi chuyn t qu o gn nhn ra qu o xa nhn hn v gii phng nng lng khi chuyn theo chiu ngc li. Nng lng (hp th hoc gii phng) bng hiu gia 2 mc di dng mt bc x c tn s .

Nh vy, s chuyn ng ca electron trong nguyn t gn lin vi vic thu hoc pht ra nng lng di dng bc x nn electron cng c tnh cht sng v ht nh bc x. Nh vo gi thuyt ny ngi ta tnh ton ra cc tn s nh sng quang ph vch ca H. Cc kt qu tnh ton ny ph hp vi cc gi tr o c t thc nghim. Quan nim e tn ti trong cc trng thi dng ca Bohr l bc m chuyn tip l thuyt cu to nguyn t c in sang l thuyt mi l c hc lng t v in ng lc hc lng t. 1.1.3.2. H thc D Bri (De Broglie): Nm 1924 De Broglie trn c s thuyt sng - ht ca nh sng, ra thuyt sng - ht ca vt cht: Khng ch c bc x m cc ht nh trong nguyn t nh e, p cng c bn cht sng v ht, c c trng bng bc sng xc nh.

Gi thuyt ny ph hp vi thc nghim v c hai nh bc hc ngi M (Davisson v Germer) kim chng nm 1927. Hai ng tin hnh th nghim cho ht electron khuch tn trn tinh th m trc tin hnh th nghim i vi tia Rngen (l sng), th kt qa thu c cng ging nh kt qa i vi tia Rngen. iu chng t rng chm electron (hn na l tng electron) cng c tnh cht sng nh tia Rngen. Vy c sng in t v ht vi m u c tnh cht sng v tnh cht ht (gi l lng tnh sng- ht). 1.1.3.3. H thc bt nh Hexenbc (Heisenberg): T tnh cht sng v ht ca cc ht vi m, 1927 nh vt l hc ngi c Heisenberg chng minh nguyn l bt nh: V nguyn tc khng th xc nh ng thi chnh xc c ta v vn tc (hay ng lng, hoc xung lng) ca ht, do khng th xc nh hon ton chnh xc cc qu o chuyn ng ca ht.
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Nu gi sai s ca php o v tc ca ht theo phng x l v sai s ca php o v tr theo phng x l x th ta c biu thc ca h thc bt nh l:

Theo biu thc ny ta thy vx v x bin thin thun nghch vi nhau. Nu x cng nh (x 0) ngha l cng xc nh chnh xc v tr ca ht th vx cng ln (vx 0), ngha l khng th xc nh chnh xc gi tr tc ca elctron. V d: Khi quan st mt h lng t (electron chng hn), ta phi chiu vo n mt bc x c bc sng ngn, tc c xung lng ln). Khi photon va chm vi electron th ta xc nh c v tr ca electron. Tuy nhin do xung lng ca photon ln mt cch ng k so vi xung lng ca electron (vn ny khng xy ra i vi cc h v m trong vt l c in, tc l cc ht vi m thng thng) nn xung lng. Cc ht vi m va c tnh cht sng li va c tnh cht ht, l mt thc t khch quan. K thut o hin nay cng khng o c chnh xc ng thi c ta v xung lng ca ht. H thc bt nh Heisenberg l biu thc ton hc ca lng tnh sng ht ca vt cht. 1.2. Hm sng v phng trnh sng ca electron: 1.2.1. Hm sng: Trng thi chuyn ng ca ht vi m c m t bng hm s (x,y,z) l mt hm xc nh, n v v lin tc gi l hm sng. Bnh phng ca hm sng (hay bnh phng m un ca hm sng): ( x, y , z ) l xc sut c mt ca ht cn xt trong mt n v th tch ti v tr tng ng (ngha l mt xc sut). 2dv l xc sut c mt electron trong mt phn t th tch dv = dxdydz ti ta tng ng trong nguyn t. * ngha vt l ca hm sng:
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Ta khng th xc nh chnh xc electron c mt ta no nhng c th bit xc sut tm thy electron nhiu nht vng m phn ln thi gian electron c mt . Trong c hc lng t, trng thi ca mt h c m t bi hm sng hay hm trng thi . V hm sng (x,y,z,t) c th l hm thc hoc phc nn n khng c ngha vt l trc tip. Ch c bnh phng modun ca hm sng l ||2 (thc v lun lun dng) mi c ngha l mt xc xut tm thy ht ti to tng ng. |(x,y,z,t)|2 d cho bit xc sut tm thy ti thi im t trong nguyn t th tch d c tm l M (x,y,z). Hnh nh ca hm mt xc sut trong khng gian gi l m my in t. * Hm sng phi tho mn cc iu kin sau: - Hm sng phi n tr (ti mi im trong khng gian ng vi ta (x,y,z) ch c mt gi tr duy nht cho xc sut tm thy electron ti ch c mt gi tr tng ng). - Hm sng phi hu hn v lin tc (ngha l khng th bng bt k ta no nhng c th bng 0). * Hm sng phi tho mn iu kin:

xc sut tm thy ht trong ton b khng gian phi bng 1, gi l iu kin chun ho ca hm sng. 1.2.2. Phng trnh sng Schrodinger: tm c hm sng m t chuyn ng ca ht vi m th phi gii phng trnh sng gi l phng trnh Schodinger. l phng trnh c bn ca c hc lng t c nh vt l ngi o Schrodinger a ra nm 1926. l phng trnh vi phn bc 2 ca hm c dng nh sau i vi ht (hay h ht) trng thi dng:

Trng thi dng l trng thi m nng lng ca h khng ph thuc thi gian ngha l E ca h khng i. Khi gii phng trnh Schrodinger ta s thu c cc hm sng m t cc trng thi chuyn ng ca electron trong nguyn t v cc gi tr nng lng E ng vi cc hm . 1.2.3. Kt qu gii phng trnh sng Schrodinger: Bi ton n gin nht c cc nh khoa hc thc hin l bi ton ca nguyn t hydr. Sau khi xy dng hm th nng v a vo phng trnh (*) ngi ta gii phng trnh ny v thu c hm sng nghim ca phng trnh hm sng m t

trng thi chuyn ng ca electron nguyn t gi l orbital nguyn t. Khi gii phng trnh ny, ngi ta nhn c ng thi cc cp nghim E v , cng cc i lng vt l xc nh hm , c trng cho trng thi v v tr chuyn ng ca electron trong nguyn t l cc s lng t n, l, ml. ng vi mt gi tr ca E c mt hm sng , mi t hp (E, ) c trng cho mt trng thi ca electron. Trng hp nhiu hm cng ng vi mt gi tr nng lng E th ta gi l c s suy bin nng lng.

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Vic gii phng trnh schrodinger ch thc hin c vi nguyn t mt electron, hoc ion mt electron nh He+, Li2+. Vi cc nguyn t nhiu electron phi dng cc phng php gn ng. Kt qu ca cc phng php ny gii thch tha mn cc s liu thc nghim. 1.2.4. Cc s lng t v ngha: Khi gii phng trnh Schrodinger ngi ta thy xut hin cc s lng t xc nh hm , cc hm ph thuc vo cc s lng t ny. 1.2.4.1. S lng t chnh (n): - V tr s: nhn cc gi tr nguyn dng: 1, 2, 3, ...

gi tr n cng ln, lp electron cng xa ht nhn. - V ngha: xc nh nng lng ca electron:

Ta thy: - Vi n cng ln th nng lng E cng ln, electron cng cch xa nhn. - Nhng electron c cng gi tr n tc l cng mc nng lng to thnh mt lp electron.

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- y nng lng ca electron l nhng gi tr gin on ph thuc vo s lng t chnh n. - Ngi ta dng cc ch ci K, M, N k hiu cc mc nng lng ng vi cc s lng t chnh n = 1, 2, 3, 4 1.2.4.2. S lng t ph l (s lng t obitan, s lng t phng v): Mi lp electron t n = 2 tr i li chia ra nhiu phn lp. Mi phn lp electron c c trng bng mt gi tr ca s lng t ph l. - V tr s: l nhn cc gi tr nguyn t 0 n (n - 1). ng vi mt gi tr ca n th c n gi tr ca l. V d: vi n = 1: l c mt gi tr l = 0 vi n = 2: l c hai gi tr l = 0 v 1. vi n = 3: l c ba gi tr l = 0, 1 v 2. - V ngha: Xc nh hnh dng v tn ca obital. Nhng electron c cng gi tr l lp nn mt phn lp v c nng lng nh nhau. Lp th n c n phn lp.

V d: m my electron s c dng hnh khi cu, m my electron p c dng s 8 (hnh hai khi cu bin dng tip xc nhau), m my electron d c dng bn cnh hoa,...

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 phn bit nng lng ca cc phn lp cng tn nhng khc lp ta ghi thm gi tr s lng t chnh trc k hiu phn lp: v d: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s ... Ngoi ngha c trng cho phn lp electron, l cn c ngha: - Trong mt lp, nng lng ca cc electron tng theo th t ns np nd nf... - S lng t l xc nh gi tr momen ng lng obitan ca electron. Mi hnh dng m my electron tng ng vi mt gi tr M.

1.2.4.3. S lng t t ml: M men ng lng obitan ca electron l vect M, gi tr ca n c xc nh bng tr s ca s lng t ph l, cn chiu cho php ca vc t M (s nh hng ca m my electron trong khng gian) c xc nh bng cc gi tr ca s lng t ml. - V tr s: l mt s nguyn c gi tr t -l n +l k c gi tr 0. + Vi mt gi tr ca l, th ml c (2l + 1) gi tr. V d: l = 0 (my electron s); ml c mt gi tr l 0 l = 1 (my electron p); ml c 3 gi tr l -1, 0, 1 l = 2 (my electron d); ml c 5 gi tr l -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 l = 3 (my electron f); ml c 7 gi tr l -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3 + Mt gi tr ca ml ng vi mt obtan (AO) - V ngha: c trng cho s nh hng ca orbital trong khng gian chung quanh ht nhn. Tm li, khi gii phng trnh Schrodinger, ngi ta tm thy 3 s lng t c trng cho trng thi chuyn ng ca electron trong nguyn t v tm c hm sng
n ,l ,ml gi l orbital nguyn t , k hiu AO. Hm ny ph thuc vo 3 s lng t n, l,

ml. B ba s lng t n, l, ml xc nh mc nng lng (theo n); phn mc nng lng (theo l) v hng ca obital trong khng gian (theo ml).

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Cc s lng t ny c quan h ph thuc nhau v chi phi ln nhau. T n ta bit s gi tr ca l, t bit s gi tr ca ml, suy ra s AO c trong phn lp v c trong lp . 1.2.4.4. S lng t t spin ms: Ngoi 3 s lng t trn, khi nghin cu cu trc tinh t ca cc ph nguyn t, ngi ta thy cn phi b sung mt s lng t na l s lng t t spin ms m t s t quay ca electron xung quanh trc ca mnh. - V gi tr: ch nhn mt trong 2 gi tr +1/2 hay -1/2 v khng ph thuc g vo cc s lng t trn. - V ngha: c trng cho dao ng t do ca electron c trng cho chuyn ng ni ti ca electron gn vi momen ng lng ring ca electron. Trong t trng ngoi trng thi ms = +1/2 c nng lng thp hn. Quy c: ms = +1/2 biu th bng ng vi electron in vo trc, ms = -1/2 biu th bng ng vi electron in vo sau trong lng t. 1.3. Obitan nguyn t - hnh dng cc obitan nguyn t: 1.3.1. Khi nim v obitan nguyn t (AO): Cc hm sng l nghim ca phng trnh sng c gi l cc obitan

nguyn t (vit tt l AO) v k hiu ln lt l 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, ...Trong cc con s dng ch lp obitan, cn cc ch s, p, ... ch phn lp. V d : 2s ch electron (hay AO) thuc lp 2, phn lp s; 2p ch electron (hay AO) thuc lp 2, phn lp p; 3d ch electron (hay AO) thuc lp 3, phn lp d; Nh vy, Obitan nguyn t l nhng hm sng m t trng thi khc nhau ca electron trong nguyn t. Nu biu din s ph thuc ca hm 2 theo khong cch r, ta c ng cong phn b xc xut c mt ca electron trng thi c bn.

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V d 1: Khi biu bin hm s n gin nht ( 1(1s) m t trng thi c bn electron trong nguyn t H, ta c:

Mi AO c biu th bng hm , c c trng bi 3 gi tr n, l, ml. Mi AO thng c biu din bng mt vung v c gi l lng t. Nh vy: - Mi gi tr ca ml ng vi 1AO - Mt gi tr ca n c n gi tr ca l t l = 0 n l = n - 1. - Mt gi tr ca l c (2l + 1) gi tr ca ml v do c (2l + 1) AO khc nhau. Vy lp thc n c n2 AO V d 2: Vi n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, ta c hm 1,0,0 ng vi AO 1s. Vi n = 3, l = 2 ta c hm 3,2 AO 3d V d 3: Khi n = 3, hi c bao nhiu lp, phn lp, AO. - C 1 lp electron l lp th 3 (M) v n = 3. - l = 0, 1, 2 nn c 3 phn lp: s, p, d. - Vi mt gi tr ca l th c ml c (2l + 1) gi tr nn s AO trong cc phn lp l: Phn lp 1 (l = 0) c 1AO Phn lp 2 (l = 1) c 3 AO Phn lp 3 (l = 3) c 5AO hay lp th 3 s AO nguyn t l 32 = 9AO Trn mi AO c th cha ti a 2 electron c spin i song n c n2 AO v cha ti a 2n2 electron. vy trn lp

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1.3.2. Hnh dng cc electron: Hnh dng cc AO ph thuc vo hm (n,l,ml) v k hiu theo s lng t l: s, p, d, f, Trong h to x, y, z cc orbitan s, p, d m hnh nh ca n l cc m my in t c dng nh sau: 1.3.2.1. AOs (xc nh bi l = 0; ml = 0): c dng hnh cu, tm l ht nhn nguyn t, hm (s) lun lun dng v mi pha ca trc to .

1.3.2.2. AOp (xc nh bi l = 1; ml = -1, 0, +1 (Px, Py, Pz): l nhng cp hnh cu tip xc vi nhau im gc tm nm trn cc trc ta . Cc hm p lun lun dng v pha dng ca trc to v m vi cc gi tr to m.

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1.3.2.3. AOd: (xc nh bi l = 2, m d l = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2) Cc AO d tr dz2 u c biu th bng hnh hoa th 4 cnh.

1.4. Nguyn t nhiu electron: 1.4.1. Khi nim v lp, phn lp v lng t: 1.4.1.1. Lp: Lp l tp hp nhng electron c nng lng gn bng nhau. Trong nguyn t cc electron c cng s lng t chnh n to thnh mt lp electron gi l lp n. Lp n c k hiu bng cc ch ci K, L, M, N ng vi cc gi tr ca n= 1, 2, 3, 4, 1.4.1.2. Phn lp: Phn lp l tp hp nhng electron c nng lng bng nhau. Mi phn lp gm cc electron c cng s lng t l m mi gi tr ca n c n gi tr ca l nn mi lp c n phn lp.

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Lp K c 1 phn lp: 1s Lp L c 2 phn lp: 2s, 2p Lp M c 3 phn lp: 3s, 3p, 3d V Cc electron cng c l = 0 hp thnh phn lp s Cc electron cng c l = 1 hp thnh phn lp p Cc electron cng c l = 2 hp thnh phn lp d Cc electron cng c l = 3 hp thnh phn lp f ch mt phn lp thuc lp no ngi ta dng k hiu ns, np V d: 2s, 2p. 1.4.1.3. lng t hay obitan: Cc electron c 3 s lng t nh nhau (n, l, ml) c trng thi chuyn ng obital ging nhau to thnh mt obitan nguyn t (k hiu l AO) v c xp vo mt lng t - mi lng t c k hiu bng mt vung nh (). S lng t trong mt phn lp bng s cc tr s ml ng vi gi tr l cho. V d: - Phn lp s c l = 0, m = 0 c 1 lng t - Phn lp p c l = 1, m = +1, 0, -1 c 3 lng t - Phn lp d c l = 2, m = +2, +1, 0, -1, -2 c 5 lng t 1.4.2. Gin nng lng ca cc electron. Qui tc Klechkowski: Trong nguyn t nhiu electron, nng lng (E) khng ch ph thuc vo s lng t n m cn ph thuc vo ln ca momen ng lng ngha l cn ph thuc vo s lng t l. Cc trng thi electron thng c k hiu vn tt bng cc s lng t n, l. Mt electron trng thi nl cng c gi l electron nl. V d, cc electron trng thi 2p cng c gi l electron 2p. Gin cc mc nng lng trong nguyn t c xc nh bng quang ph nghim v bng tnh ton l thuyt. Trong nguyn t, nng lng ca cc phn lp electron tng dn theo th t sau:

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1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s nh th t bc thang nng lng ny, ta dng s sau:

Theo quy tc ny th electron c in vo cc AO c gi tr (n + l) nh trc; nu 2 AO c cng gi tr (n + l) th electron s iu vo cc AO c gi tr n nh hn trc. V d: electron c in vo AO 4s trc AO 3d. 1.4.3. Nguyn l vng bn, nguyn l Pauli, quy tc Hund v cu hnh electron ca nguyn t: 1.4.3.1. Nguyn l vng bn: Trong mt nguyn t trng thi c bn, cc electron s xp vo cc phn lp c mc nng lng thp hn trc sau mi xp sang cc phn lp c mc nng lng cao hn. Nng lng ca cc phn lp c xc nh qua vic gii phng trnh

Schrodinger. T , Klechkowski sp xp cc phn lp theo th t mc ny lng tng dn. Da vo nguyn l vng bn, ngi ta c th biu din nguyn t ca mt nguyn t bng cu hnh electron. V d:

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He (Z = 2): 1s2 Li ( Z = 3): 1s22s1 Cl (Z = 17): 1s22s22p63s23p5 1.4.3.2. Nguyn l Pauli (nguyn l loi tr): Trong mt nguyn t khng th tn ti hai electron c cng gi tr ca bn s lng t n, l, ml v ms. V d 1, lp K: n = 1 l = 0 m = 0 ms = +1/2 ms = -1/2. Vy lp K c nhiu nht 2 electron: + electron th nht c gi tr n = 1, l = 0, m = 0 v ms = +1/2. + ectron th hai c gi tr n = 1, l = 0, m = 0 v ms = -1/2. Nu gi thit rng lp K c thm mt electron th 3 th n s c gi tr bn s lng t trng vi mt trong hai electron c, nh vy mu thun vi nguyn l pauli. Da vo nguyn l pauli c th tnh c s electron ti a trn mt obitan nguyn t, trong mt phn lp v trong mt lp electron, c th: - Mi AO c th cha ti a hai electron c spin khc nhau. - S electron ti a c th c cc phn lp: ph thuc vo s lng t obitan l v c xc nh bng cng thc 2(2l + 1). - S electron nhiu nht cc lp: ph thuc vo s lng t n v c xc nh bng cng thc 2n2 (ng i vi n 4). (Lp th n c n2 AO nn trong mi lp c ti a 2n2 electron). V d 2: Tnh s electron nhiu nht phn lp np, y n c gi tr bt k, chng hn n= 2, cn p ng vi l = 1. T ta c: n = 2 l = 1 m = -1 ms = +1/2 ms = -1/2 ng vi AO 2py c nhiu nht 2 electron. n = 2 l = 1 m = 0 ms = +1/2 ms = -1/2 ng vi AO 2pz c nhiu nht 2 electron.

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n = 2 l = 1 m = +1 ms = +1/2 ms = -1/2 ng vi AO 2px c nhiu nht 2 electron. Vy phn lp p c nhiu nht 6 electron. Bng cch tng t ta tnh c s electron ti a cc phn lp d = 10, f = 14. V d 3: Khi n = 2, th s electron ti a l: 2.22= 8 (e). 1.4.3.3. Qui tc Hund: * Qui tc Hund 1 (qui tc tng spin cc i) Trong nguyn t dng trng thi c bn, cc electron thuc cng mt phn lp s c phn b u vo cc lng t sao cho tng spin S ca chng l cc i (tng s electron c thn l cc i). S= ms V d: Nguyn t N (z = 7) c cu hnh: 1s22s22p3 * Qui tc Hund 2: Trong mt phn lp cc electron c khuynh hng in vo cc lng t c s lng t ml c gi tr ln nht trc". V d: Trng thi c bn ca nguyn t F (z = 9) l trng thi.

1.4.3.4. Cch biu din cu to v electron. Cu hnh electron ca nguyn t: Cu hnh eletron ca nguyn t c dng m t cc electron phn b nh th no vo cc lp, phn lp trong nguyn t. C 2 cch biu din: Cch 1: Dng ch vit cu hnh electron nguyn t di dng ch cn bit: - S electron nguyn t (bng s th t Z ca ca nguyn t trong bng tun hon.

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- Th t in electron vo obitan (nguyn l vng bn). - S electron ti a mi phn lp : s = 2, p = 6, d = 10, f = 14 (nguyn l loi tr pauli). Ta cng c th vit cu hnh electron nguyn t khi khng bit s th t Z nhng bit cu hnh electron nguyn t mt hoc vi phn lp ngoi cng ca nguyn t . Chng hn, vit cu hnh electron ca ca nguyn t c cu hnh electron cht 4p4. V d 1: O (Z = 8): 1s22s22p4 Trong cc s ng trc 1, 2 ch s th t ca lp n = 1, 2, cc ch s s, p ch cc phn lp, cc s m ch s electron c trong phn lp. Cch 2: Dng lng t: Ngi ta cn biu din mi AO bng mt vung gi l lng t.

Cch ny cn cho bit s electron c thn trong nguyn t v nguyn t trng thi c bn hay trng thi kch thch. Da vo cc qui tc v nguyn l trn, ta vit c cu hnh electron ca nguyn t: - i vi 20 nguyn t u (Z = 1 20) cu hnh electron trng vi th t mc nng lng (qui tc Klechkowski). - Bt u t nguyn t Z = 21 tr i do c s chn mc nng lng nn cu hnh electron ca cc nguyn t t phn lp 4s tr i khng cn trng vi th t mc nng lng (do vit ng cu hnh trc ht vit theo th t mc nng lng sau chuyn thnh cu hnh theo lp electron). V d 2: Fe (Z = 26). Theo th t mc nng lng: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6 Cu hnh electron: 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2

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- Khi mt AO c hai electron ta ni cc electron ghp i, nu ch c mt electron th electron l c thn. * Cc trng hp ngoi l: Do cu hnh d10 (bo ho) v d5 (bn bo ho) bn, c nng lng thp nn cc nguyn t c cu hnh: (n-1)d9 ns2 s chuyn thnh cu hnh (n-1)d10 ns1 . (n-1)d4 ns2 s chuyn thnh (n-1)d5ns1. V d: Nguyn t Cr (z = 24) Cu (z = 29) Cu hnh electron 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1

1.4.4. Phng php gn ng mt electron ca Slyt (Slater): Phng php coi hm sng ca mt h nhiu electron nh l tch hm sng ch m t mt electron ring bit c gi l gn ng mt electron hoc gn ng obitan. Ni dung c bn theo phng php ny l: - Hon ton b qua tng tc y gia cc electron l mt cch gn ng. hon thin thm, ngi ta ci tin biu thc th nng mt electron trn c s sau: mi electron, ngoi vic chu tc dng ca trng hp dn ht nhn, cn chu tc dng ca trng y cc electron khc. - Theo phng php gn ng Slater c th coi mi electron nh l chu tc dng ca ht nhn m in tch khng cn l Z na m l (Z b) b: hng s chn, n biu th hiu ng trung bnh gy ra bi cc electron khc. (Z b): in tch hiu dng hay s in tch hiu dng. Mt electron bn trong thc t khng "b chn b cc electron bn ngoi, ngc li, mt electron bn ngoi b chn mnh bi cc electron bn trong. - C th tnh hng s chn b theo quy tc bn kinh nghim Slater:

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Phn chia AO thnh nhiu nhm xp theo trt t sau: (1s);(2s,2p);(3s,3p);(3d);(4s,4p);(4d);(5s,5p);(5d); ... v tnh gi tr s hng bi ca cc electron khc theo quy tc sau: + Nhng electron thuc cc nhm AO nm nm pha ngoi (pha phi) ca AO cn xt khng c hiu ng chn (b = 0). + Mi electron trn cc AO thuc cng nhm vi AO cn xt c s hng ng gp b= 0,35. Ring i vi nhm 1s th b = 0,3. + Nu AO cn xt l AOs hay AOp th mi electron trn lp AO pha trong s c s hng b = 0,85 (khi chng cch nhau 1 lp); mi electron trn nhng AO nm su hn s c s hng ng gp b = 1,00 (khi chng cch nhau 2 lp tr ln). + Nu AO ang xt l AOd hay AOf th mi electron thuc nhng nhm bn trong (ngay c cng lp n) u c s hng gp nh nhau: b = 1,00. - Tng t nh cc dng hiro, Staler gn cho mi AOnl mt nng lng gi l nng lng obitan, tnh theo cng thc:

n* c gi l s lng t chnh hiu dng v c tnh theo n:

Ch : Cn phn bit En v : nl nl: nng lng 1 electron phn lp nl. En: nng lng lp electron 1.5. Cu to ht nhn nguyn t - ng v: Ht nhn nguyn t l thnh phn c bn ca nguyn t, gm cc proton v cc ntron. Trong cc bin i ho l, nu ht nhn vn nguyn vn th bn cht ca

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nguyn t c bo ton. Nu ht nhn b bin i th nguyn t ca nguyn t ny s chuyn thnh nguyn t ca nguyn t khc. 1.5.1. Cu to ht nhn nguyn t: Ht nhn mang in tch dng, chim khi lng ch yu (gn nh l ton b) ca nguyn t. Trong nguyn t, s in tch ht nhn bng s electron. Nu gi s proton trong ht nhn l Z v s ntron l N th khi lng ca ht nhn xp x bng khi lng nguyn t. A=Z+N Nh vy, Theo m hnh nguyn t c chp nhn ngy nay th nguyn t c to thnh t mt ht nhn mang in tch dng nm tm nguyn t v cc in t mang in tch m chuyn ng xung quanh. Ht nhn ca in t chim mt vng khng gian rt nh b so vi nguyn t. 1.5.2. ng v: 1.5.2.1. Khi nim: ng v l tp hp nhng nguyn t c cng in tch ht nhn (cng s proton) nhng c s khi khc nhau (s ntron khc nhau). V d: 1.5.2.2. Hin tng phng x t nhin: L hin tng chuyn ha t pht ng v khng bn ca mt nguyn t thnh ng v ca nguyn t khc c km theo s pht ra cc ht c bn hay cc ht nhn nguyn t. C 3 dng phng x c bn: - S phn hu (ht nhn phng ra cc ht ): - S phn hu - (phng ra ht
0 1

e ):

- S phn hu + (phng ra ht 0 1e ) Km theo cc tia hay l cc tia gm cc bc x in t c nng lng ln.

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1.5.2.3. Phn ng ht nhn: L phn ng m trong ht nhn ny b bin i thnh ht nhn khc ngha l nguyn t ny chuyn thnh nguyn t khc. Ngi ta thc hin phn ng ht nhn nhn to bng cch dng cc ht c bn nh, , n, p bn ph vo cc bia l nhn ca mt nguyn t no . V d: Bn ph nit bng ht :

1.5.2.4. ng dng ca ng v phng x nhn to: Bn cnh tc hi to ln ca s phng x n i sng ca con ngi nh cc tia phng x ph hu t bo, tch lu trong xng, gan,... (nht l cc tia , tia ntron) con ngi bit s dng cc ng v phng x phc v cho vic cha bnh, kch thch s tng trng ca cy trng, x l ht ging, sn xut nng lng, V d:
61 14

Co dng tiu dit t bo ung th. C dng xc nh tui ca cc c vt. I dng chn on bnh bu c.

131 18 30

O dng nghin cu c ch phn ng ho sinh. P dng theo di s hp thu phtpho ca cy. U dng trong lnh vc nng lng nguyn t.

238

1.6. H thng tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc: 1.6.1. nh lut tun hon v bng h thng tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc: 1.6.1.1. nh lut tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc: Tnh cht ca cc n cht, thnh phn v tnh cht ca cc hp cht ca cc nguyn t ho hc bin thin tun hon theo chiu tng ca in tch ht nhn nguyn t. Nh vy, s bin i tun hon tnh cht ca cc nguyn t l do s bin i tun hon cu trc electron ca nguyn t cc nguyn t .

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1.6.1.2. Cu to bng h thng tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc: Hin nay ngi ta bit trn 100 nguyn t ho hc c xp thnh by chu k v tm nhm A v tm nhm B. * Chu k Cc nguyn t ca cc nguyn t trong cng mt chu k u c cng s lp electron v bng s th t chu k cha chng. V d, cc nguyn t ca cc nguyn t chu k 2 u c 2 lp e l lp K v lp L Cc nguyn t ca cc nguyn t chu k 3 u c 3 lp e l lp K, lp L v lp M. H thng tun hon gm 7 chu k nh s th t t 1 7. + Chu k 1: c 2 nguyn t. + Chu k 2 v 3: mi chu k c 8 nguyn t. + Chu k 4 v 5: mi chu k c 18 nguyn t. + Chu k 6: c 32 nguyn t. + Chu k 7: cha hon thnh. Cc chu k 1,2,3 gi l cc chu k ngn; 4,5,6,7 gi l cc chu k di. (c bit trong chu k 6 c 14 nguyn t xp sau La (Z = 57) c xp tch ring thnh 1 hng ngang di bng gi l h Lantan). Chu k 7 gm cc nguyn t ang xy dng t Fr (Z = 87) tr i. (Trong chu k 7 c 14 nguyn t xp sau Ac (Z = 89) c tch ring thnh h Actini); Cc nguyn t ny c xp ra ngoi bng thnh 2 hng, mi hng gm 14 nguyn t. Tr cc nguyn t xp ra ngoi bng, mi chu k di c 18 nguyn t (tr chu k 7 cha hon thnh) to thnh 18 ct: Cc nguyn t thuc cc ct 1,2 v cc ct t 13 n 18 to thnh 8 nhm A; Mi ct gia cn li to thnh 8 nhm B. * Nhm Nhm bao gm cc nguyn t c cng s electron ho tr.

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S th t ca nhm bng s electron ho tr m cc nguyn t c. Mi nhm c chia thnh 2 phn nhm: phn nhm chnh v phn nhm ph . - Phn nhm chnh (nhm A): bao gm cc nguyn t s hoc p. - Phn nhm ph (nhm B): bao gm cc nguyn t d hoc f. V d: - Cu (z = 29) c cu hnh electron [Ar]3d104s1: thuc nhm IB - Zn (z = 30) c cu hnh electron [Ar]3d104s2: thuc nhm IIB - Fe (z = 26) c cu hnh electron [Ar]3d64s2: thuc nhm VIIIB - Li (z = 3) c cu hnh electron 1s22s1: thuc nhm IA - Mg (z = 12) c cu hnh electron [Ne]3s2: thuc nhm IIA

1.6.2. Cu hnh electron cc nguyn t trong h thng tun hon: 1.6.2.1. Nhm A (phn nhm chnh): Nguyn t ca cc nguyn t nhm A c nhng c im v cu hnh in t nh sau:

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- S in electron cui cng vo nguyn t theo quy tc kleckowski u xy ra cc phn lp ns hoc np (n l lp electron ngoi cng). - S electron lp ngoi cng ca nguyn t ng bng s th t nhm cha n. iu ny c khng nh hon ton khi s electron lp ngoi cng ln hn hai. - Khi nguyn t ca nguyn t c s electron lp ngoi cng nh hn ba th nguyn t c th l nhm A hoc nhm B. Nguyn t loi ny c khng nh nhm A khi s in electron cui cng xy ra ns. Khi s electron lp ngoi cng ca nguyn t cng bng s th t ca nhm. nhn bit mt nguyn t thuc nhm A no ta da vo cu hnh electron nguyn t nh sau: - IA - IIA : S in electron cui cng vo nguyn t kt thc ns1 (tr H). : S in electron cui cng vo nguyn t kt thc ns2 (tr He).

- IIIA : Phn lp electron ngoi cng ca nguyn t l np1 - IVA : Phn lp electron ngoi cng ca nguyn t l np2 - VA : Phn lp electron ngoi cng ca nguyn t l np3. - VIA : Phn lp electron ngoi cng ca nguyn t l np4. - VIIA : Phn lp electron ngoi cng ca nguyn t l np5. - VIIIA: Phn lp electron ngoi cng ca nguyn t l np6. 1.6.2.2. Nhm B (phn nhm ph): Nguyn t ca cc nguyn t nhm B c nhng c im v cu hnh in t nh sau: - S in electron cui cng vo nguyn t ca cc nguyn t nhm B xy ra (n1) d hoc (n 2) f . Vi n l lp electron ngoi cng. V d: Z = 21: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d1. Z = 58: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f2.

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- S electron lp ngoi cng ca nguyn t nguyn t nhm B l hai (ns2), ca mt s t nguyn t l mt (ns1) v ca mt trng hp nguyn t palai (Z = 46) khng cha electron lp ngoi cng (5s0). Vy s electron lp ngoi cng ca cc nguyn t nguyn t nhm B t hn ba. Nu vit cu hnh electron nguyn t da vo dy nng lng theo nguyn l vng bn th tt c cc nguyn t nguyn t nhm B u c 2 electron lp ngoi cng ns2. Tuy nhin thc nghim xc nhn mt s nguyn t ca nguyn t nhm B, mt electron ns2 chuyn vo (n - 1)d, tr mt trng hp palai c 2 electron 5s2 u chuyn vo 4d. Cc trng hp ni trn thng xy ra khi phn lp (n 1)d gn na bo ho hoc bo ho. V cc phn lp na bo ho hoc bo ho l cc phn lp bn v nng lng hai phn lp (n 1)d v ns xp x nhau. nhn bit mt nguyn t thuc nhm B no ta da vo cu hnh electron nguyn t nh sau: - IIIB: Phn lp electron ngoi cng (n -1)d1ns2 - IVB: Phn lp electron ngoi cng (n -1)d2ns2. - VB: Phn lp electron ngoi cng (n -1)d3ns2. - VIB: Phn lp electron ngoi cng (n -1)d4ns2. - VIIB: Phn lp electron ngoi cng (n -1)d5ns2. - VIIIB: Phn lp electron ngoi cng (n -1 )d6,7,8ns2. - IB: Phn lp electron ngoi cng (n -1)d10ns1. - IIB: Phn lp electron ngoi cng (n -1)d10ns2. Cc nguyn t f m s in electron cui cng vo nguyn t xy ra 4f c gi l cc nguyn t lantanonit hoc cc nguyn t h lantan, cn cc nguyn t f m s in electron cui cng vo nguyn t xy ra 5f c gi l cc nguyn t actinoit hoc cc nguyn t h actini.

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1.6.3. S bin thin tun hon mt s tnh cht ca cc nguyn t: 1.6.3.1. Bin i tun hon cu hnh electron ca cc nguyn t: * i vi cc nguyn t thuc phn nhm chnh: - Trong mt chu k, i t tri sang phi: Cc electron lp ngoi cng tng dn t mt electron ( nhm IA) n tm electron ( nhm VIII A). - Trong mt phn nhm chnh: s electron lp ngoi cng khng i. * i vi cc nguyn t thuc phn nhm ph: - Cc electron lp ngoi cng ging nhau l ns2 (tr mt s trng hp ngoi l). - Cc nguyn t d: Cc electron thuc phn lp d tng t 1 electron ( nhm IIIB) n 9 electron ( nhm IB) v 10 electron ( nhm IIB). - Cc nguyn t f: cu hnh electron ngoi cng v h ngoi ging nhau ch khc nhau phn lp (n-2)f. 1.6.3.2. Bn knh nguyn t: Trong mt chu k khi i t tri sang phi: Do s tng ca s in tch ht nhn nn lc ht gia ht nhn v in t ngoi cng tng dn, do bn knh nguyn t gim dn. Trong mt nhm khi i t trn xung: bn knh nguyn t tng dn do s lp in t tng dn. 1.6.3.3. Nng lng ion ho (I): Nng lng ion ha ca mt nguyn t hay mt phn t l nng lng cn thit bc mt electron ra khi nguyn t trng thi c bn. Nh vy, nng lng ion ho l i lng c trng cho kh nng nhng electron ca nguyn t khi tham gia phn ng ho hc. Nguyn t ( k,cb ) 1e Ion+ ( k,cb ) ; I1 > 0; I thng tnh bng Kj.mol-1.

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Trng thi c bn chnh l trng thi m ti , nguyn t khng chu nh hng ca bt k mt t trng ngoi no c. Tc l 1 nguyn t kim loi trng thi c bn s c dng kh, v cu hnh electron ca n cng l cu hnh c bn: tun theo nguyn l Pauli, nguyn l vng bn v qui tc Hund. V d: Ca (k,cb) - 1e Ca+ ( k,cb ); I1 = 590 Kj.mol-1.

Nng lng ion ho th hai ng vi qu trnh bt electron th hai nh sau: Ca+ (k,cb) - 1e Ca2+ ( k,cb ); I2 = 1145 Kj.mol-1. nh ngha tng t, ta lun c : I1 < I2 < I3 < ... In. Khi nguyn t b ion ho th electron lp ngoi cng (c nng lng ln nht) b bt ra trc tin (electron ng vi gi tr s lng t chnh n ln nht). Nh vy i vi cc nguyn t nhm B, electron b bt ra trc tin khi nguyn t b ion ho l electron ns. * Quy lut bin thin nng lng ion ho th nht: - Trong mt chu k khi i t tri sang phi: s in tch ht nhn, lc ht gia cc ht nhn v electron ngoi cng cng tng dn, electron b ht cht hn nn nng lng ion ho tng dn. - Trong mt nhm khi i t trn xung: do bn knh nguyn t tng nn khong cch gia ht nhn v electron ngoi cng tng dn, lc ht gia ht nhn v in t ngoi cng gim dn do nng lng ion ho gim dn. 1.6.3.4. i lc vi in t: L nng lng c gii phng khi nguyn t trng thi kh nhn thm mt electron tr thnh anion kh c in tch 1_. A + e Aa s cc nguyn t ho hc c i lc in t m. iu ny ngha l chng khng cn nhn nng lng bt in t; thay vo , chng gii phng ra nng lng.

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Nguyn t cng c nhiu kh nng bt cc in t th c i lc in t cng m. Flo l nguyn t ho hc c i lc in t mnh nht. Cho n nay ngi ta ch mi xc nh c i lc i vi in t ca mt s t nguyn t. Trong cc nguyn t nhm VIIA c i lc vi in t l ln nht. Cc nguyn t s2,s2p6, s2p3 c i lc vi in t rt km. V d: Cl (k,cb) + 1e Cl-(k,cb) ; ACl = -348Kj.mol-1 O(k,cb) + 2e O2- (k,cb) ; AO = 657Kj.mol-1 * Mt s quy lut bin thin i lc i vi in t: - Khc vi nng lng ion ha, i lc in t c th dng c th m hay bng khng. i lc in t cng ln, th nng lng gn kt electron cng nh. i lc vi in t ln nht halogen, yu nht cc nguyn t c phn lp electron ngoi cng bo ha np6, ns2. - Ni chung, phi kim c i lc in t m hn kim loi. Tuy nhin, cc kh him l ngoi l, chng c i lc in t dng. - i lc in t tun theo quy tc bt t. Cc nguyn t nhm VIIA c xu hng bt in t v to ra anion c in tch bng 1-. Cc nguyn t kh him trong nhm VIIIA c tm electron (tr He, c 2 electron), v do vic thm mt in t i hi nng lng ln, tuy nhin vn c th thc hin c. Cc nguyn t nhm IIA, bt u t Be v nhm IVA - bt u t thic cng c i lc in t vi gi tr dng v electron phn lp s hay d c in y. - Cc nguyn t trong nhm VA c i lc in t thp v nit thm ch c i lc in t vi gi tr dng. L do l cc v in t c in mt na cng kh bn. - Trong mt chu k i t tri sang phi: i lc in t c gi tr tng ln (do bn knh cc nguyn t gim dn, lm gia tng sc ht t ht nhn, v s in t trong v ngoi tng dn, khin nguyn t cn bng bn hn).

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- Trong bng tun hon khi i t trn xung trong cng mt nhm: i lc in t gim dn (do bn knh cc nguyn t v s in t lp v ngoi tng ln, cc in t y ln nhau, lm gim mc cn bng ca nguyn t). 1.6.3.5. S oxi ho: Trong hp cht ion, s oxi ho ca nguyn t bng in tch ca ion. Trong phn t cng ho tr hay ion nhiu nguyn t c lin kt cng ho tr th s oxi ho l i lng qui c. N l in tch c ion, nu gi thit rng cp electron lin kt c chuyn hn cho cc nguyn t c m in ln hn. - S oxi ho dng cao nht ca cc nguyn t bng s th t ca nhm cha chng (tr cc nhm VIIIB, I , Lantanic, Actinic, O, F v kh him). B - S oxi ho m thp nht hu nh ch c cc nguyn t phi kim v s oxi ho m thp nht ca nguyn t bng s th t ca nhm cha nguyn t tr i 8. 1.6.3.6. Hp cht vi hydro v oxi: * Hp cht vi hydro - Cc kim loi nhm IA, IIA to cc ion hydrua H- (NaH, CaH2 ). - Cc nguyn t phi kim thng to cc hp cht cng ho tr, trong hydro c s oxi ho +1, phi kim c s oxi ho m (CH4, NH3, H2O, HF, HCl ). * Hp cht vi oxi - Oxi to c oxit vi hu ht cc nguyn t (tr Pt, Au). - Trong mt chu k: t tri sang phi: + S oxi ho ca cc nguyn t to oxit tng dn t 1 n 7. + Tnh baz ca cc oxit v hydroxit gi m dn, ng thi tnh axit ca cc oxit v hidroxit tng dn. - Trong mt nhm khi i t trn xung: + S oxi ho ca cc nguyn t to oxit khng i. + Tnh baz ca cc oxit v hydroxit cng tng dn.

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1.6.3.7. Quan h gia cu hnh electron v v tr ca nguyn t trong bng h thng tun hon: * Khi bit s in tch ht nhn ca nguyn t (Z) ta c th xc nh c cu hnh electron, v tr (chu k, nhm) ca nguyn t. V d 1: Cho X c Z = 16: 1s22s22p63s23p4 V tr ca X: chu k 3, nhm VIA. nguyn t lu hunh (S). * Khi bit cu hnh electron ca nguyn t, c th xc nh c: s in tch ht nhn Z, s th t ca nguyn t, chu k, nhm, hp cht vi hydro, hp cht vi oxi, V d 2: Nguyn t X c cu hnh 1s22s22p63s23p5 (Z = 17) n = 3 thuc chu k 3. S electron ngoi cng 2 + 5 = 7 nhm VIIA nguyn t Clo; hp cht vi hydro l HCl, hp cht oxit cao nht vi oxi l Cl2O7 V d 3: Nguyn t Y c cu hnh 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s2 (Z = 25) Y l nguyn t d; Tng s electron ho tr l 7 Y thuc nhm VIIB S lp electron l 4 nguyn t Mn; khng c hp cht vi hydro; hp cht oxit cao nht ca Mn vi xi l Mn2O7 * Khi bit v tr ca nguyn t c th suy ra tnh cht ho hc c trng ca mt s cc hp cht tng ng vi nguyn t .

35

V d 4: Bit nguyn t A thuc chu k 4, nhm IA; vy l kim loi kim, chng c th nhng 1 electron tr thnh cation: A - 1e = A+ to c cc hp cht c lin kt ion l chnh, hp cht vi hydr c cng thc l AH (hidrua), hp cht vi oxi l A2O v hiroxit tng ng l AOH.

36

Cu hi v bi tp

1. Pht biu: ni dung nguyn l bt nh v thuyt sng vt cht. 2. Hy cho bit khi nim hm sng v ngha vt l ca 2 3. Obitan nguyn t l g? Th no l my electron? 4. Hy cho bit hnh dng ca m my electron 2s, 2px v c im ca cc m my . S khc nhau gia cc m my 1s, 2s, 2px, 2py, 2pz. 5. Xc nh b 4 s lng t ca electron cht vi cc nguyn t A (Z = 26), B (Z = 1)? 6. Cho bit ni dung ca nguyn l vng bn v ngha ca nguyn l ny. Vit dy th t nng lng ca cc obitan trong nguyn t. 7. Pht biu quy tc Hund v nu ngha ca quy tc ny. 8. Da vo nguyn l pauli, hy tnh tng s electron trn mt lp, phn lp? 9. Vit cu hnh electron ca cc nguyn t c s th t Z = 15; 24; 28; 36; 46; 53; 58. Hy cho bit v tr ca cc nguyn t trong h thng tun hon v tnh cht ha hc c trng. 10. Vit cu hnh electron ca ion: Fe2+; Fe3+; Cu+; Cu2+. 11. Gii thch ha tr ca cc nguyn t Fe (Z = 26); Zn (Z = 30). 12. S khc nhau c bn ca cc nguyn t thuc nhm A v nhm B? 13. Vit cu hnh electron ca Ar (Z = 18). Cation v anion no c cu hnh electron ging Ar? 14. Nu cu hnh electron ca cc nguyn t nhm IA, IIA, VIA v VIIA. Nu tnh cht ha hc c trng. 15. Nu quy lut bin thin tnh cht (nng lng ion ha, i lc i vi in t, bn knh nguyn t,) ca cc nguyn t nhm A? 16. S dng phng php gn ng mt electron ca Slyt (Slater) xc nh nng lng tng electron ca cc nguyn t S (Z = 16), Sc (Z = 21).

37

17. Tm hiu v hin tng phng x t nhin? Phn ng ht nhn? ng dng ca ng v phng x nhn to trong mt s lnh vc nghin cu?

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CHNG 2: KIN THC CU TO NGUYN T TRONG CHNG TRNH HA HC PH THNG

2.1. Cu to nguyn t: - Thnh phn cu to nguyn t - Ht nhn nguyn t + ht khi. + Nng lng lin kt ca ht nhn. + Phn ng ht nhn. + ng hc qu trnh phn r phng x. - V nguyn t + Obitan nguyn t. + Nng lng electron. + Cu hnh electron nguyn t v ion. + ngha 4 s lng t. + c im lp electron ngoi cng - S chuyn ng ca e trong nguyn t: + M hnh hnh tinh nguyn t + M hnh hin i v s chuyn ng ca e trong nguyn t, obitan nguyn t - Mc nng lng obitan nguyn t - Trt t cc mc nng lng obitan nguyn t - Cc nguyn l v quy tc phn b e trong nguyn t + Nguyn l Pauli + Nguyn l vng bn + Quy tc Hund - Cu hnh e nguyn t

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2.2. Bng tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc v nh lut tun hon: - Bng tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc - S bin i tun hon cu hnh e nguyn t ca cc nguyn t ha hc (nhm A, nhm B) - S bin i mt s i lng vt l ca cc nguyn t ha hc (bn knh nguyn t, nng lng ion ha, m in) - S bin i tnh kim loi, tnh phi kim - nh lut tun hon + S bin thin cu hnh electron nguyn t + Mt s i lng vt l + Tnh cht cc nguyn t + Thnh phn v tnh cht ca cc hp cht.

40

Bi tp

Cu 1: Nguyn t l phn t nh nht ca cht v A. khng mang in. C. mang in tch dng. mang in. Cu 2: Nguyn t ho hc l A. nhng nguyn t c cng s khi. ht nhn. C. nhng nguyn t c cng s ntron. D. nhng phn t c cng s proton. Cu 3: ng v l nhng A. nguyn t c cng s proton nhng khc nhau v s ntron. B. nguyn t c cng s proton nhng khc nhau v s ntron. C. phn t c cng s proton nhng khc nhau v s ntron. D. cht c cng s proton nhng khc nhau v s ntron. Cu 4: Mt nguyn t R c tng s ht mang in v khng mang in l 34, trong s ht mang in gp 1,833 ln s ht khng mang in. Cu h nh electron ca R l A. 1s22s22p63s2. 1s22s22p63s23p2. Cu 5: Tng s ht proton, ntron, electron trong 2 nguyn t kim loi A v B l 142, trong tng s ht mang in nhiu hn tng s ht khng mang in l 42. S ht mang in ca nguyn t B nhiu hn ca nguyn t A l 12. A v B ln lt l A. Ca v Fe. B. Mg v Ca. C. Fe v Cu. D. Mg v Cu. Cu 6: Tng s ht mang in trong anion AB32 l 82. S ht mang in ca nguyn t A nhiu hn ca nguyn t B l 16. Anion l A. CO32-. B. SiO32-. C. SO32. D. SeO32-. B. 1s22s22p63s1. C. 1s22s22p63s23p1. D. B. nhng nguyn t c cng in tch B. mang in tch m. D. c th mang in hoc khng

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Cu 7: Cation R+ c cu hnh e lp ngoi cng l 3p6. Cu hnh electron y ca R l A. 1s22s22p63s23p6. 1s22s22p63s23p63d1. Cu 8: ng v ca M tho mn iu kin s proton: s ntron = 13:15 l A.55M. B. 56M. C. 57M. D. 58M. B. 1s22s22p63s23p5. C. 1s22s22p63s23p64s1. D.

Cu 9: Hp cht X c cng thc RAB3. Trong ht nhn ca R, A, B u c s proton bng s ntron. Tng s proton trong 1 phn t X l 50. Cng thc phn t ca X l A. CaCO3. B. CaSO3. C. MgCO3. D. MgSO3. Cu 10: Cho bit st c s hiu nguyn t l 26. Cu hnh electron ca ion Fe2+ l A. 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1. C.1s22s22p63s23p63d6. B.1s22s22p63s23p64s23d4. D. 1s22s22p63s23p63d5.

Cu 11: Tng s p, n, e trong nguyn t ca nguyn t X l 10. S khi ca nguyn t X l A. 3.

12 13 6C.

B. 4
16 8O;

C. 6.
17 8O; 18 8O;

D. 7. cac bon c 2 ng v l

Cu 12: Trong t nhin oxi c 3 ng v l

6C;

S phn t CO2 c th c to thnh t cc ng v trn l B. 9 C. 12. D. 18.

A. 6.

Cu 13: Cc ion Na+, Mg2+, O2-, F- u c cu hnh electron l 1s22s22p6. Th t gim dn bn knh ca cc ion trn l A. Na+ > Mg2+ > F- > O2-. C. F- > Na+ > Mg2+ > O2-. B. Mg2+ > Na+ > F- > O2-. D. O2-> F- > Na+ > Mg2+.

Cu 14: X v Y l 2 nguyn t thuc 2 chu k k tip nhau trong cng 1 phn nhm chnh ca bng HTTH. Tng s proton trong ht nhn nguyn t ca X v Y l 32. X v Y l A. O v S. B. C v Si. C. Mg v Ca. D. N v P.

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Cu 15:Trong mi chu k, theo chiu tng ca in tch ht nhn nguyn t th bn knh nguyn t v m in tng ng bin i l A. tng, gim. B. tng, tng. A. 1s22s22p63s2. 1s22s22p63s23p1. C. gim, tng. D. gim, gim. C. 1s22s23p63s23p1.

Cu 16: Tng s ht trong 1 nguyn t ca nguyn t X l 40. Cu hnh e ca X l B. 1s22s22p63s1. D.

Cu 17: Trong dy: Mg Al Au Na K, tnh kim loi ca cc nguyn t A. tng dn. C. gim dn. B. mi u tng, sau gim. D. mi u gim, sau tng.

Cu 18: Trong dy N As Te Br Cl, tnh phi kim ca cc nguyn t A. tng dn. C. gim dn. B. mi u tng, sau gim. D. mi u gim, sau tng.

Cu 19: S proton, ntron v electron trong nguyn t ca mt ng v t nhin ph bin nht ca clo tng ng l A. 17, 18 v 17. 17, 20 v 17. Cu 20: Anion X2- c cu hnh electron ngoi cng l 3p6. V tr ca X trong bng HTTH l A. 18, chu k 3, nhm VIIIA. C. 20, chu k 4, nhm IIA. B. 16, chu k 3, nhm VIA. D. 18, chu k 4, nhm VIA. B. 17, 19 v 17. C. 35, 10 v 17. D.

Cu 21: Lai ho sp2 l s t hp tuyn tnh gia A. 1 orbital s vi 2 orbital p to thnh 3 orbital lai ho sp2. B. 2 orbital s vi 1 orbital p to thnh 3 orbital lai ho sp2. C. 1 orbital s vi 3 orbital p to thnh 3 orbital lai ho sp2. D. 1 orbital s vi 1 orbital p to thnh 3 orbital lai ho sp2. Cu 22: Nguyn t A trong phn t AB2 c lai ho sp2. Gc lin kt BAB c gi tr l

43

A. 90O.

B. 120O.

C. 109O28/.

D. 180O.

Cu 23: X v Y l hai nguyn t thuc hai nhm A k tip nhau trong bng HTTH, Y nhm V, trng thi n cht X v Y phn ng c vi nhau. Tng s proton trong ht nhn nguyn t ca A v B l 23. X v Y ln lt l A. O v P. B. S v N. C. Li v Ca. D. K v Be. Cu 24: Cc ion O2-, F- v Na+ c bn knh gim dn theo th t A. F- > O2- > Na+. C. Na+ >F- > O2-. B. O2- > Na+ > F-. D. O2- > F- > Na+.

Cu 25: Hp cht A c cng thc MXa trong M chim 140/3 % v khi lng, X l phi kim chu k 3, trong ht nhn ca M c s proton t hn s ntron l 4; trong ht nhn ca X c s proton bng s ntron. Tng s proton trong 1 phn t A l 58. Cu hnh electron ngoi cng ca M l. A. 3s23p4. B. 3d64s2. C. 2s22p4. D. 3d104s1.

Cu 26: Nguyn t ca nguyn t X c tng s electron trong cc phn lp p l 7. Nguyn t ca nguyn t Y c tng s ht mang in nhiu hn tng s ht mang in ca X l 8. Cu hnh electron lp ngoi cng ca Y l A. 3s23p4. B. 3s23p5. C. 3s23p3. D. 2s22p4.

Cu 27: Hp cht X c khi lng phn t l 76 v to bi 2 nguyn t A v B. A,B c s oxiho cao nht l +a,+b v c s oxiho m l -x,-y; tho mn iu kin: a=x, b=3y. Bit rng trong X th A c s oxiha l +a. Cu hnh electron lp ngoi cng ca B v cng thc phn t ca X tng ng l A. 2s22p4 v NiO. v CS2. Cu 28: Hp cht Z c to bi hai nguyn t M v R c cng thc MaRb trong R chim 20/3 (%) v khi lng. Bit rng tng s ht proton trong phn t Z bng 84. Cng thc phn t ca Z l A. Al2O3. B. Cu2O. C. AsCl3. D. Fe3C. B. CS2 v 3s23p4. C. 3s23p4 v SO3. D. 3s23p4

44

Cu 29: Nguyn t ca mt nguyn t X c tng s ht c bn l 82, trong s ht mang in nhiu hn s ht khng mang in l 22. Cu hnh electron ngoi cng ca ion X2+ l A. 3s23p6. 1s22s22p6 l A. K+, Cl-, Ar. B. Li+, F-, Ne. C. Na+, F-, Ne. D. Na+, Cl-, Ar. B. 3d64s2. C. 3d6. D. 3d10. Cu 30 (A-07): Dy gm cc ion X+, Y- v nguyn t Z u c cu hnh electron

Cu 31 (B-07): Hp cht ion XY (X l kim loi, Y l phi kim), s electron ca cation bng s electron ca anion v tng s electron trong XY l 20. Bit trong mi hp cht, Y ch c mt mc oxi ho duy nht. Cng thc XY l A. LiF. B. NaF. C. AlN. D. MgO.

45

KT LUN V KIN NGH

1. Kt lun: Trn y l ton b ni dung ti mt s ni dung cu to nguyn t trong ha hc ph thng c hon thnh, so vi mc tiu ban u ra th ti thc hin c: Trnh by c c s l lun ca ti Xc nh c mt s ni dung cu to nguyn t trong ha hc ph thng

2. Kin ngh: Thng qua ni dung ti ti c mt s s kin nh nh sau: Khi dy ni dung cu to nguyn t gio vin cn nghin cu, tm hiu k tm ra phng php ging dy thch hp nht nhm gip hc sinh d dng tip thu kin thc mi. Dnh nhiu cho thi gian cng c kin thc thng qua bi tp trc nghim khch quan kt hp t lun.

46

Ti liu tham kho

1. Nguyn Duy i. nh lut tun hon v h thng tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc. NXB gio dc 1977. 2. Nguyn c Chuy. Ha hc i cng. NXB gio dc 1998. 3. B gio dc v o to (nhiu tc gi). Sch gio khoa ha hc lp 10. NXB gio dc 2006-2008. 4. Cc ti liu khc c lin quan.

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