i hc nng

Trng i hc bch khoa

--------------
Hong Minh Cng














Gio trnh
L luyn kim























nng - 2005
Chng 1
Khi nim v cc c trng c bn
1.1. Khi nim
Trong cng nghip ni chung v ngnh luyn kim ni ring, nhiu qu trnh
cng ngh, chng hn nh qu trnh nu chy, qu trnh nung nng vt liu hoc sn
xut vt liu mi ... i hi phi tin hnh nhit cao hoc rt cao. thc hin cc
qu trnh cng ngh ny, ngi ta xy dng cc thit b nhit gi chung l l cng
nghip. L l thit b m nhn vic to ra ngun nhit c cng sut ln vi mc tp
trung cao, ng thi l ni t chc qu trnh trao i nhit cung cp nhit cho vt
liu gia cng. Nhit cung cp cho l c th l nhit sinh ra do t chy nhin liu, do
bin i in nng thnh nhit nng hoc nhit t pht sinh nh cc phn ng ha hc
pht nhit xy ra trong qu trnh gia cng vt liu. Nhit t ngun nhit c truyn
cho vt liu gia cng lm bin i trng thi, tnh cht ca vt liu gia cng, chun b
cho cc bc cng ngh tip theo hoc to ra vt liu mi. S trao i nhit trong l c
th thc hin bng truyn nhit bc x, i lu, dn nhit hoc phi hp cc dng
truyn nhit trn. Cu trc l hp l v ch nhit ph hp vi yu cu cng ngh l
nhng yu t nh hng trc tip v c tnh quyt nh n cht lng, gi thnh sn
phm cng nh nng sut v cc ch tiu kinh t khc ca l.
L cng nghip l mt thit b c s dng rng ri trong nhiu ngnh cng
nghip. Trong ngnh luyn kim l c dng thiu kt qung, luyn thp, nu hoc
luyn gang, nu hoc luyn cc kim loi v hp kim mu, nung kim loi... Trong
ngnh vt liu xy dng s dng cc l nung vt liu nh nung vi, nung gch, nung
clinke sn xut xi mng, nu chy men, nu thu tinh. Cc l sy dng sy nguyn
vt liu hoc nng lm sn trong ch bin.
Hin nay l cng nghip s dng ti 50% lng nhin liu t hng nm v
khong 25% lng in sn xut ra.
1.2. Phn loi
L cng nghip, cng nh l luyn kim c phn loi theo cc c trng c
bn sau:
+ Ngun nhit s dng.
+ c im cng ngh.
+ Ch cng tc nhit.
- 5 -
+ Kt cu ca l.
1.2.1. Phn loi theo ngun nhit s dng
Theo ngun nhit s dng, cc l cng nghip c chia lm ba nhm:
+ L dng nhin liu.
+ L dng in nng.
+ L t pht nhit.
Mi nhm li c phn ra cc loi tu theo c trng chung ca chng.
a) L dng nhin liu: s dng nhit sinh ra do t chy nhin liu. Theo trng thi
ca nhin liu, cc l dng nhin liu c chia ra ba loi:
+ L dng nhin liu rn: than , than cc, than ci ...
+ L dng nhin liu lng: du mazut, du izen ...
+ L dng nhin liu kh: kh l cc, kh l cao, kh thin nhin ...
b) L dng in: s dng in nng bin i thnh nhit nng. Theo phng php
bin i in nng thnh nhit nng ngi ta chia ra cc loi:
+ L in tr: bin i in nng thnh nhit nng da trn hin tng to nhit
khi cho dng in i qua mt in tr hoc vt dn c in tr ln. Th d l in tr
nu kim loi mu, l in tr nung kim loi, l in tr sy vt liu ...
+ L in cm ng: bin i in nng thnh nhit nng da trn c s ca hin
tng cm ng in t. Th d l in cm ng nu thp, nu gang ...
+ L in h quang: bin i in nng thnh nhit nng da trn c s hin
tng phng h quang gia cc in cc khi t gn nhau. Th d l in h quang trc
tip nu thp, gang, sn xut t n, l in h quang gin tip nu ng ...
c) Cc l t pht nhit: s dng nhit do cc phn ng pht nhit sinh ra ngay trong
bn thn vt liu trong qu trnh gia cng. Th d trong cc l chuyn luyn thp thi
oxy nhit cp cho l ch yu l do phn ng chy ca cc tp cht C, Si, Mn.
1.2.2. Phn loi theo c im cng ngh
Theo c im cng ngh, cc l cng nghip c phn ra:
a) L nu chy: vt liu gia cng c nung nng v lm nng chy hon ton. Th
d: cc l luyn thp, l cao luyn gang, l nu hp kim mu, l nu thu tinh ...
b) L nung: vt liu gia cng b nung nng nhng khng b ho lng. Th d l nung
kim loi trong gia cng p lc, nhit luyn, l nung gch, vi, clinke .. .

- 6 -
1.2.3. Phn loi theo ch cng tc nhit
Theo c trng truyn nhit t ngun nhit ti b mt vt liu gia cng trong l,
ngi ta phn ra:
+ Cc l lm vic ch bc x.
+ Cc l lm vic ch i lu.
+ Cc l lm vic ch lp.
a) L lm vic ch bc x: s truyn nhit ti b mt vt liu gia cng ch yu
bng truyn nhit bc x. Theo s phn b dng nhit t ngun nhit ti vt nung v t
ngun nhit ti tng, nc l, ngi ta phn ra ba loi:
+ Ch bc x phn b u.
+ Ch bc x trc tip.
+ Ch bc x gin tip.
Thng thng l c coi l lm vic ch bc x khi nhit trong khng
gian lm vic ca l trn 600
o
C. Th d l nung thp gia cng p lc hoc nhit
luyn, l phn x nu nhm, ng ...
b) L lm vic ch i lu: s truyn nhit ti b mt vt liu gia cng ch yu
bng trao i nhit i lu. Trong cc l lm vic ch i lu, trao i nhit c
thc hin thng qua mt mi cht chuyn ng tip xc vi vt liu gia cng. Theo
ngun gc lc tc ng gy ra chuyn ng ca mi cht, ngi ta phn ra:
+ Ch i lu t nhin.
+ Ch i lu cng bc.
Thng thng cc l c nhit lm vic di 600
o
C thuc l lm vic ch
i lu. Th d: l sy vt liu, nng sn, thc phm, l ram thp ...
c) L lm vic theo lp: vt liu gia cng l vt liu dng ht c cht y ton b
hay mt phn khng gian lm vic ca l thnh lp, cn kh nng chuyn ng qua lp
ht v truyn nhit cho chng. Trong l tn ti c ba dng trao i nhit: bc x, i
lu v dn nhit. Theo trng thi ca cc ht vt liu trong lp, ngi ta phn ra:
+ Ch lp cht.
+ Ch lp si.
+ Ch lp l lng.


- 7 -
1.2.4. Phn loi theo kt cu
Theo kt cu l c chia ra cc loi: l ng, l tang quay, l bung, l hm,
l ging, l nhiu vng . . .
1.3. Cc c trng c bn ca l cng nghip
Cc c trng c bn ca mt l cng nghip bao gm:
+ Ch nhit .
+ Ch nhit.
+ Cng sut nhit.
+ Nng sut.
+ Hiu sut ca l.
+ Sut tiu hao nhin liu tiu chun.
1.3.1. Ch nhit ca l
a) Nhit l: nhit l l nhit trung bnh gia nhit ca ngun nhit v
nhit ca tng, nc l. Nhit l ph thuc vo nhit chy l thuyt ca nhin
liu, ph ti nhit ca l, cu trc v tnh cht cch nhit ca l.
t
l
= .t
lt
; [
o
C] (1.1)
Trong :
+ t
lt
l nhit chy l thuyt ca nhin liu, [
o
C].
+ l h s xt n nh hng ca cu trc v tnh cht cch nhit ca l.
Trong thc t nhit ca l thng c o bng cc cp nhit in.
b) Ch nhit ca l: l quy lut thay i ca nhit l theo thi gian.
t
l
= f () (1.2)
Nhng l c nhit khng thay i theo thi gian gi l l c ch nhit
n nh.
0
t
l
=

hay t
l
= const.
Nhng l c nhit thay i theo thi gian gi l l c ch nhit khng
n nh.
0
t
l

hay t
l
const.


- 8 -
1.3.2. Ch nhit ca l
Lng nhit cp cho l ti mt thi im nht nh c gi l ph ti nhit ca
l ti thi im v quy lut thay i ph ti nhit theo thi gian c gi l ch
nhit ca l.
Q = f() (1.3)
Nhng l c ph ti nhit khng thay i theo thi gian c gi l l c ch
nhit n nh.
0
Q
=

hay Q = const
Nhng l c ph ti nhit thay i theo thi gian c gi l l c ch nhit
khng n nh.
0
Q

hay Q const
1.3.3. Cng sut nhit ca l
Cng sut nhit ca l l ph ti nhit ln nht m l c th tip nhn c
trong mt n v thi gian m vn m bo iu kin lm vic bnh thng. Cng sut
nhit thng c tnh bng [KW].
1.3.4. Nng sut ca l
Nng sut ca l l lng sn phm gia cng c bi l trong mt n v thi
gian. Nng sut l thng c tnh bng [kg/h], [tn/h] hoc [kg/ngy], [tn/ngy].
Ngoi ra, so snh nng sut ca cc l khc nhau, ngi ta cn dng khi
nim nng sut ring hay cn gi l cng y l, l lng sn phm gia cng
c ng vi mt n v din tch y l trong mt n v thi gian. Thng thng
cng y l c tnh theo [kg/m
2
.h].
1.3.5. Cc hiu sut ca l
a) Hiu sut s dng nhit c ch
Hiu sut s dng nhit c ch ca l l t s gia lng nhit c ch gia cng
vt liu v ton b lng nhit cp t bn ngoi vo cho l trong cng mt n v thi
gian.
100
Q
Q
cp
cch
q
=

; [%] (1.4)
Lng nhit cp cho l t ngoi vo xc nh theo cng thc:
- 9 -

+ + =
vl
nl
vl
kk c cp
Q Q Q Q ; [kj/h] (1.5)
Trong :
+ l ng nhit do t chy nhin liu, c xc nh theo cng thc:
c
Q
Q = B. Q
c d
; [kj/h] (1.6)
+ l lng nhit vt l do nung nng trc khng kh c xc nh theo
cng thc:
vl
kk
Q
) i i ( f BL Q
d
kk
c
kk n
vl
kk
= ; [kj/h] (1.7)
+ l lng nhit vt l do nung nng trc nhin liu c xc nh theo
cng thc:
vl
nl
Q
) i i ( B Q
d
nl
c
nl
vl
nl
= ; [kj/h] (1.8)
Vi: B l lng nhin liu t chy trong mt gi, [kg/h] hoc [m /h].
3
Q
d
- nhit tr thp ca nhin liu, [kj/ kg] hoc [kj/m
3
].
L
n
- lng khng kh dng t chy 1 kg hoc 1m nhiu liu,[m
3
/kg] hoc
[m /m
3
].
3
3
f - t l khng kh nung nng trc.
d
kk
i , - nhit hm khng kh v nhin liu trc khi nung, [kj/m
d
nl
i
3
].
c
kk
i , - nhit hm khng kh v nhin liu sau khi nung, [kj/m
c
nl
i
3
].
Lng nhit c ch xc nh theo cng thc sau:
Q
c ch
=Q
vt liu
+ Q
x
+ Q
thu
- Q
to
; [kj/h] (1.9)
Trong :
+ Q
vt liu
- lng nhit cn thit gia cng vt liu, [kj/h].
+ Q
x
- lng nhit cn thit to x, [kj/h].
+ Q
thu
- lng nhit cp cho cc phn ng thu nhit, [kj/h].
+ Q
to
- lng nhit to ra t cc phn ng to nhit, [kj/h].
Ta c cng thc tng qut xc nh hiu sut nhit c ch nh sau:
100
Q Q Q
Q Q Q Q
vl
nl
vl
kk c
to thu x liu vt
ch c

+ +
+ +
= [%] (1.10)
b) Hiu sut s dng nhin liu c ch
Hiu sut s dng nhin liu c ch l t s gia lng nhit c ch v lng
nhit cp vo l do t chy nhin liu:
- 10 -
100
Q
Q
c
ch c
liu n nhi
= ; [%] (1.11a)
Hay: 100
Q
Q Q Q Q
c
to thu x liu vt
liu n nhi

+ +
= [%] (1.11b)
c) Hiu sut s dng nhit ca l
Ngoi lng nhit c ch, mt lng nhit ng k b mt mt ngay ti l do
truyn nhit qua tng l, bc x qua ca l, do khi r qua ca, do nc lm ngui,
tch nhit ca tng l, nung nng cc gi ... c trng cho kh nng s dng
nhit v cu trc ca l (v phng din nhit) ngi ta s dng khi nim hiu sut s
dng nhit ca l, l t s gia tng lng nhit c ch v lng nhit mt mt ti l
so vi ton b lng nhit cp cho l.
100
Q
Q Q
cp
l i t t m mt ch c
q

+
=

; [%] (1.12a)
Hay: 100
Q
Q Q
cp
i th khi cp
q

; [%] (1.12b)
So snh cng thc (1-4) v (1-12a) ta thy hiu sut s dng nhit bao gi cng
ln hn hiu sut s dng nhit c ch. Nu cu trc l hp l, sao cho mt mt nhit
ti l l khng ng k, th hiu sut s dng nhit c ch c gi tr xp x vi hiu
sut s dng nhit, khi v phng din s dng nhit th l c cu trc tt nht.
1.3.6. Sut tiu hao nhin liu tiu chun
Trong thc t, cc l cng nghip s dng nhiu loi nhin liu khc nhau v
cu trc l, cng ngh gia cng cng khc nhau, bi vy nh gi v so snh chng
v phng din nhit ngi ta dng khi nim sut tiu hao nhin liu tiu chun, l
lng nhin liu tiu chun cn thit gia cng mt ki-l-gam vt liu, vi quy c
mt ki-l-gam nhin liu tiu chun c nhit tr thp bng 7.000 kcal/kg hoc 29.300
kj/kg.

P 300 29
Q B
b
d

= ;

ng c gia liu vt kg
chun u ti liu n nhi kg
(1.13)
Trong : B - lng tiu hao nhin liu [kg/h].
Q
d
- nhit tr thp ca nhin liu [kj/kg].
P - nng sut l [kg/h].
- 11 -
Chng 2
cng tc nhit ca l
2.1 Ch lm vic bc x
Ch lm vic bc x l ch lm vic m s trao i nhit bn ngoi ca l
ch yu bng truyn nhit bc x. Thng thng cc l c nhit lm vic cao (trn
600 - 700
o
C) u lm vic ch bc x.
2.1.1. Mt s khi nim v nh lut c bn v truyn nhit bc x
a) Bc x nhit v s hp th nng lng bc x
Theo vt l hc hin i th bc x nhit l mt hin tng phc tp, mt s
trng hp n c tnh cht sng, mt s trng hp khc n li c tnh cht ht,
ngha l nhng lung ht bay rt nhanh gi l lng t hay ph-tng. Ngy nay, ngi
ta coi bc x nhit l mt dng ca sng in t, c bc sng t 0,76 - 400 m.
Kh nng bc x nhit ca mt vt th c nh gi qua nng lng bc x
ng vi mt n v din tch b mt vt th trong mt n v thi gian:
F
Q
E = ; [W/m
2
] (2.1)
Trong :
Q l lng nng lng bc x ca vt th trong mt n v thi gian, [J/s].
F l din tch b mt ca vt th, [m
2
].
Nng lng bc x ng vi cc tia nhit c chiu di bc sng khc nhau th
khc nhau, cng bc x n sc (I

) ng vi mt chiu di bc sng () xc nh
bi cng thc :

d
dE
I ; [W/m
2
.m] (2.2)
Khi mt lung bc x nhit (Q) p ti mt vt th khc, mt phn b vt th
hp th (Q
A
), mt phn b phn x tr li (Q
R
) cn mt phn n cho i qua (Q
D
).
Q Q Q Q
D R A
= + +
Suy ra 1
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
D R A
= = + +
Hay A + R + D = 1 (2.3)
Trong :
A - l kh nng hp th ( h s hp th).
- 12 -
R - l kh nng phn x (h s phn x).
D - l kh nng cho qua (h s cho qua).
Da vo kh nng hp th, phn x v cho qua i vi bc x nhit, ngi ta
phn chia cc vt th ra nh sau:
+ Vt en tuyt i : A = 1; R = 0; D = 0.
+ Vt trng tuyt i : A = 0; R = 1; D = 0.
+ Vt trong sut : A = 0; R = 0; D = 1.
+ Vt xm : A + R = 1; D = 0.
Trn thc t khng c vt en tuyt i, tc l cc vt hp th hon ton, khng
phn x v cng khng cho qua cc tia nhit vi mi chiu di bc sng p ti n.
Ngi ta coi cc vt th hp th hu ht cc tia nhit bc x ti n v ch phn x mt
phn nh l vt en. Trong l cng nghip, hu ht cc vt liu th rn v th lng
c coi l vt xm (A+R=1), cc sn phm chy th kh ch c kh nng hp th v
cho qua m khng c kh nng phn x ( R =0).
b) S bc x v hp th nng lng bc x ca vt en tuyt i
Mu vt en tuyt i c ch to bng cch ly mt khi cu rng lm bng
vt liu hon ton c ( D=0) ri khot mt l nh trn thnh ca n, bt k mt tia
nhit no i qua l vo trong khi cu u b hp th hon ton mc du mt trong ca
n c kh nng phn x.






a) b)

Hnh 2.1 Mu vt en tuyt i
a) Hp th b) Bc x



Bng thc nghim v l thuyt ngi ta chng minh c cc nh lut v
bc x ca vt en tuyt i nh sau:
+ nh lut Plng: xc lp quan h gia cng bc x ca vt en tuyt i
vi chiu di bc sng v nhit tuyt i ca n:
- 13 -
1 e
. C
I
T
C
5
1
2

; [
m . m
W
2
] (2.4)
Trong :
C
1
, C
2
l cc hng s thc nghim.
[W.m
16
1
10 . 69 , 3 C

=
2
]
[m.
2
2
10 . 44 , 1 C

o
K]
+ nh lut Stphan-Bolzman: xc lp quan h gia kh nng bc x ca vt en
tuyt i vi nhit tuyt i ca n:
4
0
0
0
T d . I E = =

=
; [
h . m
Kcal
2
] hay [W/m
2
] (2-5a)
Trong :
T l nhit tuyt i ca vt, [
o
K].

0
l h s bc x ca vt en tuyt i:
; [
8
0
10 . 7 , 5

=
4 o 2
K . m
W
]
Cng thc (2-5a) thng c vit di dng sau:

4
0 0
100
T
C E

= ; [W/m
2
] hay [
h . m
Kcal
2
] (2.5b)
7 , 5 C
0
= cng c gi l h s bc x ca vt en tuyt i, [
4 o 2
K . m
W
]
+ nh lut Lm-bec-ta: xc lp s phn b nng lng bc x theo cc hng
trong khng gian.
Theo nh lut Lm-bc-ta, mt tia bc x i ra t l h ca mu vt en
tuyt i theo cc hng khc nhau th khc nhau, n t l vi cosin ca gc l gc
to thnh bi hng nghin cu vi php tuyn ca mt phng l h:
=

cos E E
n
(2.6)
Trong : E
n
, E

l mt tia nng lng theo hng php tuyn v hng

nghin cu, l gc gia hng nghin cu v hng php tuyn.
+ nh lut bnh phng khong cch: mt tia bc x t l nghch vi bnh
phng khong cch ti ngun bc x:
2
1
r
r
E
E = (2.7)
- 14 -
Trong : E
1
l mt tia bc x khong cch mt mt t ngun bc x, E
r
l
mt tia bc x khong cch r mt ti ngun bc x.
c) S bc x v hp th nng lng bc x ca vt xm
Trong thc t tnh ton nhit trong cc l cng nghip ngi ta tha nhn bc
x ca cc vt rn v cht lng l bc x ca vt xm v gi l bc x xm.
i vi vt xm l tng, cng bc x ca n ch khc vi cng bc
x ca vt en tuyt i bi mt h s no ( < 1) cng mt nhit v bc
sng. Bi vy, kh nng bc x ca vt xm c th xc nh theo cng thc:
4
0 0
T E E = = (2.8a)
Hay
4 4
0
100
T
. C
100
T
C E

= (2.8b)
H s c gi l en ca vt xm, C c gi l h s bc x ca vt xm.
Nghin cu kh nng hp th bc x ca cc vt th ni chung v vt xm ni
ring, ngi ta thy nu mt vt th c kh nng hp th nng lng bc x mnh th
n cng c kh nng bc x mnh.
Theo nh lut Kic-khp th: T s gia kh nng bc x ca vt xm v kh
nng hp th ca n c gi tr ng nht vi mi vt xm v bng kh nng bc x ca
vt en tuyt i cng nhit trn.
0
n
n
2
2
1
1
E
A
E
A
E
A
E
= = = = (2-9)
So snh (2.8a) v (2.9) ta thy vi vt xm, gi tr ca h s hp th A cng
bng en ca n.
d) S bc x v hp th nng lng bc x ca kh
Trong cc l luyn kim, khi l bao gm cc kh c mt, hai hay nhiu nguyn
t, nhng kh c mt hay hai nguyn t nh Ar, N
2
, O
2
, H
2
, CO ... c quang ph bc x
l nhng di hp cho nn tng nng lng bc x ca nhng kh ny nhit cao
khng ln lm. Thc t c th coi nhng kh ny hon ton khng bc x nhit v cng
khng hp th nng lng bc x i qua n. Bi vy, khng kh sch c th coi nh vt
hon ton trong sut. Nhng kh c ba hay nhiu nguyn t c kh nng hp th v bc
x kh mnh nhit cao.
Trong cc l luyn kim, quan trng nht l s bc x ca kh CO
2
v H
2
O,
quang ph ca chng trnh by trn hnh 2.2.
- 15 -
Kh CO
2
: 2,36 - 3,02 m; 4,01 - 4,08 m; 12,5 - 16,3 m.
Hi nc : 2,24 - 2,27 m; 4,80 - 8,5 m; 12 -25 m.

IH
2
O
ICO
2

(m)
(m)




Hnh 2.2 Quang ph bc x ca kh CO
2
v H
2
O

Nng lng bc x ca kh CO
2
v H
2
O ph thuc vo p sut ring phn ca
kh (p), chiu dy c hiu qu ca lp kh (S
hq
) v nhit , c th xc nh bng cng
thc sau:
5 , 3
3
1
hq CO
100
T
) pS .( 1 , 4 E
2

= ; [W/m
2
] (2.10)
3
6 , 0
hq
8 , 0
O H
100
T
S . p . 7 , 40 E
2

= ; [W/m
2
] (2.11)
T cc cng thc trn ta nhn thy bc x nhit ca kh CO
2
v H
2
O khng
tun ng theo nh lut Stphan- Blzman. Tuy nhin tnh ton c thun li
ngi ta coi bc x ca kh cng tun theo nh lut Stphan- Blzman nhng en
ca chng ph thuc nhit .
4
0 k k
100
T
C E

= (2.12)
en ca kh
k
xc nh theo cng thc:
O H CO k
2 2
+ = (2.13)
Biu xc nh , v c dng nh trn hnh 2.3.
2
CO

O H
2

Chiu dy c hiu qu ca lp kh bc x tnh theo cng thc:

F
V 4
S
hq
= (2.14)

Trong :
- 16 -
+ l h s c trng cho phn nng lng ca kh n b mt vt nung hay
tng l. Thng = 0,9 - 0,95.
+ V l th tch khi kh, m
3
.
+ F l din tch b mt bao quanh khi kh, m
2
.


2
CO

hq O H
S . p
2
hq CO
S . p
2
O H
2

O H
2
p
hq O H
S . p
2

t
o
C
t
o
C

Hnh 2.3 Biu tra
2
CO
,
O H
2
v

e) H s gc bc x
Xt hai b mt tham gia trao i nhit c din tch l F
1
v F
2
, nu t b mt F
1

bc x mt nng lng Q
1
ra mi trng bao quanh th ch mt phn nng lng bc
x ny p ti b mt F
2
v ngc li cng vy. Ngi ta gi t s gia phn nng
lng bc x p ti F
2
(Q
12
) trn tng nng lng bc x ca mt F
1
l h s gc bc
x t mt F
1
ti mt F
2
, k hiu l
12
:

1
12
12
Q
Q
= (2-14a)
Tng t ta c h s gc bc x t mt F
2
ti mt F
1
l:

2
21
21
Q
Q
= (2-14b)
H s gc bc x khng ph thuc nhit , h s bc x, khong cch gia hai
mt m n hon ton c xc nh bi cc gc c trng cho v tr tng i gia hai
mt trong khng gian.
Di y l gi tr ca s h s gc bc x trong mt s trng hp n gin
(hnh 2.4):
- Trng hp (a): Hai mt phng song song c khong cch nh.
1
21 12
= =
- 17 -
- Trng hp (b): Hai mt cu hoc hai mt tr c khong cch b so vi chiu
di lng nhau:
1
12
= v
2
1
21
F
F
=


F
1
F
2
F
1
F
2
F
1
F
2 F
1
F
2


a) b) c) d)

Hnh 2.4 S tnh h s gc bc x gia hai b mt
- Trng hp (c): Mt cu rng v mt phng ct nhau.
1
12
= v
2
1
21
F
F
=
- Trng hp (d): Hai mt chm cu to thnh mt cu.

2 1
2
12
F F
F
+
= v
2 1
1
21
F F
F
+
=
2.1.2. Ch lm vic bc x phn b u
a) Truyn nhit ch bc x phn b u
ch bc x phn b u, dng nhit bc x t ngun nhit ti b mt vt
nung bng dng nhit bc x t ngun nhit ti tng v nc l (gi chung l tng
l).

T
N
V
N
q q =
c trng ca ch bc x phn b u l s phn b ng u ca nhit
v en ca ngun nhit trong ton b th tch khng gian lm vic ca l.
Khi l lm vic ch phn b u, tng l ng vai tr quan trng trong
qu trnh trao i nhit. C th coi tng l nh vt trung gian tham gia vo qu trnh
trao i nhit gia ngun nhit v vt nung. Do en tng l kh ln ( ),
trong qu trnh trao i nhit, tng l hp th mnh bc x nhit t ngun nhit p
ti, lm cho nhit tng ln v tr thnh vt bc x truyn nhit ti vt nung. Khi
trng thi n nh, nhit tng l cng cao th lng nhit bc x truyn t tng l
6 , 0
T
>
- 18 -
ti vt nung cng ln, nu en ca ngn la 1
N
= v tn tht nhit qua tng
th nhit tng l t cc i v bng nhit ngn la: 0 q
tt
=
N T
T T =
Trong thc t, do 1
N
< v tn tht nhit qua tng nn nhit tng thng
nm trong khong gia nhit vt nung v nhit ngn la:
0 q
tt
>

N T V
T T T < <
en ca ngun nhit cng nh hng ln ti hiu qu truyn nhit ti vt
nung, khi tng hiu qu truyn nhit tng.
N

b) Chn nhin liu v phng php t

Ch lm vic bc x phn b u c ng dng rng ri trong cc l nhin
liu. Tiu chun quan trng chn nhin liu khi l lm vic ch bc x phn b
u l kh nng to ra ngn la c sng cao (
N
ln). Do vy, nhin liu thch hp
l cc loi nhin liu kh cha nhiu cacbuahydro (CH
4
, C
m
H
n
), nhin liu lng v
nhin liu bi. Vi cc nhin liu cha nhiu cacbuahydro, khi chy cacbuahydro phn
hy to ra mt lng ln ht cacbon c sng cao lm cho ngn la c sng cao.
V phng php t, do sng ca ngn la bao gi cng cao hn sng ca
sn phm chy nn khi iu kin cng ngh cho php, cn kt hp qu trnh t chy
v qu trnh trao i nhit trong cng mt khng gian lm vic ca l. Mt khc, phi
to iu kin tt nht cho qu trnh cacbon ha t nhin ca ngn la trong qu trnh
chy. Nung nng trc nhin liu v khng kh lm tng kh nng cc bon ha t
nhin, cn ha trn trc kh t v khng kh li cn tr s cacbon ho.
c) C hc kh
i vi ch bc x phn b u, mt yu cu quan trng l phi to s ng
nht ca trng nhit v sng ca kh l. t c iu , thng dng
nhiu m t cng sut nh v b tr sao cho to ra s xo trn mnh gia ngn la v
sn phm chy. Cc ming knh khi cn b tr hp l khng hnh thnh cc gc
cht (ti kh l khng lu thng), khng c b tr ming knh khi i din vi
m t khi khong cch gia chng khng ln.
2.1.3. Ch lm vic bc x trc tip
a) Truyn nhit ch bc x trc tip
- 19 -
ch bc x trc tip, dng nhit bc x t ngun nhit ti b mt vt nung
ln hn dng nhit bc x t ngun nhit ti tng v nc l.

T
N
V
N
q q >
c trng ca ch bc x trc tip l s phn b khng ng u ca trng
nhit v en ca ngun nhit trong khng gian lm vic ca l. Vng gn b mt
vt nung l vng c nhit v sng cao, vng gn tng v nc l l vng c nhit
v sng thp. Trong l nhin liu, vng c nhit cao chnh l vng cha ngn
la, gia ngn la v vt nung, cng nh gia ngn la v tng l l lp sn phm
chy c nhit thp. Khi dng nhit t vng ngn la c nhit cao i qua lp kh
c nhit thp, b cc lp kh ny hp th mt phn nn cng ca n gim.
- Vai tr ca tng l: Trong ch ny, nhit tng l thp v tng l c chc
nng cng tc nhit nh hn so vi ch bc x phn b u.
- Vai tr ca ngn la: hiu qu trao i nhit ph thuc nhit v sng ca
vng nhit cao (ngn la), en ca lp c nhit thp (sn phm chy). Khi
nhit cc i ca ngn la ch bc x trc tip bng nhit ngn la ch
bc x phn b u th nhit trung bnh ca n thp hn. Do vy, tng hiu qu
trao i nhit cn nng cao nhit cc i ca ngn la. Vic tng sng ca lp c
nhit cao v gim en ca lp c nhit thp lm tng tnh nh hng bc x
v pha vt nung.
b) Chn nhin liu
Ch lm vic bc x trc tip thng d dng thc hin trong cc l nhin
liu. to ra ngn la c sng cao, nhin liu phi c kh nng cacbon ha cao,
do nhin liu thch hp l cc loi nhin liu kh cha nhiu cacbuahydro, nhin
liu lng, nhin liu bi.
c) C hc kh v phng php t
V phng php t, cn t nhin liu sao cho to ra ngn la tp trung ch yu
trong vng nhit cao, trong vng nhit thp ch yu cha sn phm chy.
Chuyn ng ca kh trong l khng gy ra s xo trn gia hai vng. Do vy, thng
chn thit b t c cng sut ln, s lng t, cc thit b t c b tr v mt bn,
hng ngn la v gn b mt nung, ming knh khi b tr i din vi thit b t,
to ra dng chuyn ng thng ca kh trong l l tt nht.
d) Lnh vc ng dng
- 20 -
Ch bc x trc tip c ng dng rng ri trong cc l nu chy nh l
luyn thp, l nu gang, l nu thu tinh Ch bc x trc tip cng c dng
trong cc l nung nung vt mng cng nh vt dy, tuy nhin khi nung vt dy hiu
qu thp hn ch bc x phn b u.
2.1.4. Ch lm vic bc x gin tip
a) Truyn nhit
ch bc x gin tip, dng nhit bc x t ngun nhit ti b mt vt nung
b hn dng nhit bc x t ngun nhit ti tng v nc l.

T
N
V
N
q q <
c trng ca ch bc x trc tip l s phn b khng ng u ca trng
nhit v en ca ngun nhit trong khng gian lm vic ca l. Vng gn b mt
tng, nc l c nhit v sng cao, vng gn b mt vt nung c nhit v
sng thp. Dng nhit t ngun nhit ch yu tp trung ln nc l v tng l, chuyn
thnh bc x xm truyn n vt nung.
thc hin ch bc x trc tip ngi ta s dng cc phng php sau:
- Trong cc l nhin liu, hng thit b t v pha tng v nc l, to ra ngn
la c nhit v sng cao nm gn tng v nc l, vng gn vt nung cha sn
phm chy c nhit v sng thp.
- Dng cc thit b t c mt gm t nc l to ra b mt bc x. Trong
trng hp ny, hn hp kh t v khng kh c ha trn trc v c t chy
cng bc ngay trn mt gm lm cho b mt gm b nung ln n nhit gn nhit
chy ca nhin liu, ng thi b mt nc l cng b nung nng ln nhit cao to
nn b mt bc x, dng nhit bc x qua lp kh trong l p ti vt nung.
- Dng tng v nc l c b mt phn x cao ( 97 , 0 95 , 0 R = ), khi hu ht
lung nhit p ti tng v nc l b phn x ti b mt vt nung.
Trong ch bc x gin tip, vai tr cng tc nhit ca tng v nc l nng
hn nhiu so vi cc ch trn. pht trin ca tng l
V
T
F
F
= nh hng ln n
hiu qu truyn nhit, cn chiu cao l t nh hng hn.
b) Chn nhin liu
Vi l lm vic ch bc x gin tip, yu cu en ca sn phm chy phi
thp v nhit cc i ca ngn la phi cao nn nhin liu thch hp l cc loi
- 21 -
nhin liu kh c nhit tr cao (thng trn 16.000 kj/m
3
) hoc l nhin liu lng thuc
nhm nh.
c) C hc kh v phng php t
V c hc kh, ch bc x trc tip, cn to ra cc lung ngn la c hot
lc ln to nn vng c nhit cao v sng ln ng u st nc l, nhng
khng c qu ln trnh s xo trn gia vng ny vi lp kh st vt nung.
t c yu cu trn, v phng php t, ngi ta dng cc m t c tc
phun nh (khi t nhin liu kh), m phun thp p hoc m phun c bin bi c
hc (khi t nhin liu lng), b tr thit b t tp trung phn trn ca l v hng
ngn la v pha b mt nc l. Ming cc knh khi b tr u phn di ca l
trong vng tun hon ca lp kh c nhit thp.
d) Lnh vc ng dng
L lm vic ch gin tip c s dng trong nhiu cng ngh khc nhau tr
hai trng hp sau:
- Khi nung cc vt nung dy m vt nung c xp y khng gian l (v d
l nung ngi, nung gch).
- Khi nhit yu cu ca vt nung gn bng nhit lm vic ti a ca
gch xy tng l v nc l.
2.1.5. Tnh ton trao i nhit bc x
Ta xt trng hp trao i nhit trong l c s trnh by trn hnh 2.5, vi gi
thit:
T
V
Q
T
K
Q
T
T
Q
V
K
Q
V
T
Q










Hnh 2.5 S trao i nhit trong l

+ Nhit mt tng v vt nung c gi tr ng nht l T
T
v T
V
.
+ en ca tng v vt nung cng ng nht l
T
v
V
.
- 22 -
+ H s gc bc x t tng l n tng l v t tng l n vt nung cng
ng nht theo mi hng v mi im trn tng l l
T-T
v
T-V
Gi
hq
l lng nhit c hiu qu m vt nung hp th c, xt cn bng
nhit trn b mt vt nung ta c:
V
Q
= Q
hq
V
Q
p ti vt
- Q
i ra t vt
Q
p ti vt
=
V
T
V
K
Q Q +
Q
i ra t vt
= + +
V K
PX
Q
V T
PX
Q
V
BXR
Q
Vy = ( ) - ( + + )
hq
V
Q
V
T
V
K
Q Q +
V K
PX
Q
V T
PX
Q
V
BXR
Q
Hay = ( ) - Q
hq
V
Q
V
T
V
K
Q Q +
V
(2.15)
Vi: Q
V
= + + (2.16)
V K
PX
Q
V T
PX
Q
V
BXR
Q
Trong :
+ Lng nhit t kh l p ti b mt vt nung:
V
K
Q
V
4
K
0 K
F .
100
T
C .

=
+ Lng nhit t tng l p ti b mt vt nung:
V
T
Q ( )
K V T T
1 . Q =


Vi Q
T
l tng lng nhit bc x v phn x ca tng l.
+ l lng nhit bc x t kh l n vt b vt phn x:
V K
PX
Q

=
V K
PX
Q ( )
V V
4
K
0 K
F . 1 .
100
T
C .

+ l lng nhit t tng p ti vt b vt phn x:
V T
PX
Q

V T
PX
Q

= ( ) ( )
V k V T T
1 . 1 . . Q


+ l lng nhit bc x ring ca vt nung:
V
BXR
Q
V
4
V
0 V
V
BXR
F .
100
T
. C . Q

=
Mt khc gi l lng nhit c hiu qu m tng hp th c v xt cn
bng cc dng nhit trn b mt trong ca tng l, ta c:
hq
T
Q
hq
T
Q = Q
p ti tng
- Q
i ra t tng
Q
p ti tng
=
T K
L
T
V
T
T
T
K
Q Q Q Q

+ + +
- 23 -
Q
i ra t tng
=
T
BXR
T V
PX
T K
PX
Q Q Q + +

Vy = ( ) - ( )
hq
T
Q
T K
L
T
V
T
T
T
K
Q Q Q Q

+ + +
T
BXR
T V
PX
T K
PX
Q Q Q + +

Hay = ( ) - Q
hq
T
Q
T K
L
T
V
T
T
T
K
Q Q Q Q

+ + +
T
(2.17)
Vi Q
T
= ( ) (2.18)
T
BXR
T V
PX
T K
PX
Q Q Q + +

Trong :
+ l lng nhit t kh p ti tng:
T
K
Q
T
K
Q
T
4
K
0 K
F .
100
T
C .

=
+ l lng nhit t tng p ti tng:
T
T
Q
T
T
Q ( )
K T T T
1 . Q =


+ l lng nhit t vt nung p ti tng:
T
V
Q
T
V
Q ( )
K V
1 . Q =
+ l lng nhit i lu t kh l ti tng:
T K
L
Q

( )
T T K
T _ K
L
T K
L
F . T T ( Q =

+ l lng nhit bc x t kh l ti tng b tng phn x:

T K
PX
Q

( )
T T
4
K
0 K
T K
PX
F . 1 .
100
T
C . Q

+ l lng nhit t vt p ti tng b tng phn x:
T V
PX
Q

( ) ( )
T K V
T V
PX
1 . 1 . Q Q =

+ l lng nhit bc x ring ca tng l:
T
BXR
Q
T
4
T
T
T
BXR
F .
100
T
. Q

=
trng thi nhit tng l n nh, th lng nhit c hiu qu m tng l
hp th c khng th tch li trong tng l m n s truyn qua tng l ra bn
ngoi, tc l =Q
hq
T
Q
hq
T
Q
tt
(Q
tt
l lng nhit tn tht qua tng l do dn nhit).
Nu coi lng nhit m tng l truyn ra ngoi bng lng nhit m tng
nhn c bng i lu vi kh l ( ), gii h phng trnh (2.15), (2.17) v
(2.18) ta c:
T K
L tt
Q Q

=
- 24 -

V
4
V
4
k
V T K
hq
V
F .
100
T
100
T
C Q

=

(2.19)
Vi =
V T K
C
( ) [ ]
( ) ( )( [ ] )
V k k V T k
k V T V k
0
1 1 1 1
1 1 .
. C
+
+

H s C
K-T-V
c gi l h s bc x quy dn t kh l ti vt nung c tnh n
vai tr tham gia trao i nhit bc x ca tng l.
Nu t:
V
T
V T
F
F 1
=

( gi l pht trin ca tng l)

V:
( ) [ ] + +

+
=
V V
K
K
K
1
1
1
K
Ta c: C
K-T-V
= C
0
.
V
.K .
H s K c th xc nh bng tnh ton hay tra theo biu . Biu tra K c
dng hnh 2.6.


2
1
3
4
=5

K
K
0.8



0,4

0,4 0.8 0
Hnh 2.6 Biu tra h s K

T phng trnh trao i nhit (2.19) ta nhn thy lng nhit hp th c hiu
qu ca vt nung tng khi:
+ Tng b mt ca vt nung bng cch thay i cch xp vt nung.
+ Tng nhit kh l bng cch dng nhin liu c nng sut to nhit cao,
nung nng trc khng kh v nhin liu, lm giu oxy trong khng kh.
+ Tng C
K-T-V
: C
K-T-V
ph thuc ,
K
v
V
. Tng
K
th

C
K-T-V
tng, khi en
ca kh thp (
K
< 0,6) th nh hng ca
K
cng ln. Tng th C
K-T-V
tng, nhng
cn lu rng khi tng phi m bo khi kh in y ton b khng gian l
- 25 -
tng chiu dy khi kh bc x nu khng hiu qu trao i nhit khng tng m li
gim do tng tn tht nhit qua tng l.
2.2. Ch lm vic i lu
L lm vic ch i lu khi s truyn nhit t ngun nhit ti b mt vt
nung ch yu bng truyn nhit i lu. Thng thng cc l c nhit lm vic di
600
o
C u thuc l lm vic ch i lu.
2.2.1. Mt s khi nim v nh lut c bn v truyn nhit i lu
a) Truyn nhit i lu
ch lm vic i lu, trao i nhit c thc hin thng qua mt cht kh
hoc cht lng (gi chung l mi cht) chuyn ng tip xc vi b mt vt liu gia
cng. Da vo lc tc ng gy ra chuyn ng ca mi cht trong qu trnh trao i
nhit ngi ta chia ra:
+ Ch i lu t nhin.
+ Ch i lu cng bc.
ch i lu t nhin, nguyn nhn gy ra chuyn ng ca mi cht l s
chnh lch nhit gia b mt vt nung v mi cht bao quanh, ch ny tc
chuyn ng ca mi cht thng nh. ch i lu cng bc, mi cht chuyn
ng nh tc ng ca ngoi lc, tc chuyn ng ca mi cht kh ln.
b) Phng trnh c bn v truyn nhit i lu
Lng nhit trao i bng i lu gia mi cht v vt nung xc nh theo
phng trnh Newton:

V dl
F . t . Q =
Trong :
Q - lng nhit trao i bng i lu [W].
- h s trao i nhit i lu [W/m
dl

2
.].
t - chnh lch gia nhit mi cht v nhit b mt vt [
o
C].
Trong cc thng s trn, h s trao i nhit
dl
l i lng c gi tr nm
trong mt khong rng, ph thuc vo kch thc v tnh cht ca lp gii hn b mt,
cc thng s ny li c xc nh bi mt lot thng s khc ca dng chy v b mt
bao quanh dng chy, n l hm ca nhiu tham s:
( ) = , l , l , l , , c , , t , t , W f
3 2 1 k k v k dl

- 26 -
Trong :
W - tc dng chy [m/s].
t
k
- nhit mi cht [
o
C].
t
V
- nhit b mt vt [
o
C].
c
k
- nhit dung ca mi cht [j/kg.
o
C].
- nht ng lc hc ca kh l [Pa.s].
- khi lng ring ca mi cht [kg/m
k

3
].
l
1
, l
2
, l
3
- cc kch thc ca b mt vt [m].
- h s c trng cho hnh dng vt.
Thng thng ngi ta xc nh
dl
thng qua xc nh tiu chun Nuy-xen:

=
o
r r e 0 u
l
l
, G , P , R , F f N
Trong :

=
l
N
u
- tiu chun Nuy-xen, tiu chun ng dng v truyn nhit i lu.

2
o
x
a
F

= tiu chun Phu-ri-.

=
Wd
R
e
- tiu chun Rey-nn, tiu chun c trng cho ch dng chy.
a
P
r

= - tiu chun Prng--lia, tiu chun ng dng v trng nhit v

tc .
t .
gl
G
3
r

= - tiu chun Grat-xp, tiu chun c trng cho chuyn ng i

lu t do.
- h s dn nhit [W/m.].
- h s nht ng [m
2
/s].
- thi gian [s].

=
c
a - h s truyn nhit [m
2
/s].
- h s gin n nhit ca mi cht [1/].
g - gia tc trng trng [m/s
2
].
- 27 -
t - hiu s nhit [
o
C].
x, l, l
o
- cc kch thc [m].
2.2.2. Ch i lu t nhin
Trao i nhit i lu t nhin trong khng gian t do trng thi n nh, c
c trng bi phng trnh c dng tng qut:
(
r r u
P , G f N ) = (2.29)
Cng thc thng gp nht c dng:
(2.30) (
n
r r u
P . G C N = )
Trong C, n l cc hng s chn theo bng (2.1).
Bng 2.1. Gi tr ca cc hng s C, n
(G
r
.P
r
) C n
<10
-5
0,45 0
10
-3
5.10
2
1,18 0,125
5.10
2
2.10
7
0,54 0,25
> 2.10
7
0,135 0,333

Khi vt nung c b mt trao i nhit hng ln trn th tng hng s C ln 30%,
cn khi hng xung di th gim 30% so vi tr s trong bng.
Trong cng thc (2.30) cc thng s vt l ly theo nhit trung bnh:

2
t t
t
v k
tb
+
=
Kch thc (l) chn ph thuc vo hnh dng v cch t vt, xem hnh 2.7.

l l


Hnh 2.7 Xc nh kch thc vt nung khi tnh G
r

Cng thc (2.30) p dng cho c cht kh v cht lng v vt th c hnh dng bt
k.
Trong tnh ton k thut, vi cc trng hp n gin c th xc nh theo
cc cng thc gn ng:
dl

- 28 -
- i vi tng nm ngang, mt trao i nhit hng ln trn:
4
dl
t . 26 , 3 = [W/m
2
.]
- i vi tng nm ngang, mt trao i nhit hng xung di:
4
dl
t . 56 , 2 = [W/m
2
.]
- Trao i nhit i lu t nhin trong cc l in tr:
H . T
p . T
036 , 0 t . 47 , 2
k
19 , 0
dl

+ = [W/m
2
.]
Trong :
t - d chnh nhit gia b mt trong tng l v kh l[].
p - p sut kh quyn [Pa].
T
k
- nhit kh l [
o
K].
H - chiu cao khng gian lm vic ca l [m].
2.2.3. Ch i lu cng bc
ch i lu cng bc, h s trao i nhit ph thuc nhiu yu t hn,
phng trnh tng qut c dng:
(
r e u
P , R f N ) = (2.31)
Khi tnh ton trao i nhit i lu cng bc phi phn ra nhng trng hp c
th, di y l mt s trng hp in hnh.
- Trao i nhit khi kh chuyn ng trong ng hoc knh:

25 , 0
'
r
r 43 , 0
r
8 , 0
e u
P
P
P . R . 021 , 0 N

= (2.32)
Trong , cc thng s vt l tnh R
e
, P
r
ly theo nhit trung bnh:

2
t t
t
k v
+
=
Cn vi ly theo nhit b mt vt t
'
r
P
v
.
Phng trnh (2.32) ng dng cho c cht kh v cht lng khi
v v L/d>50 (L, d l chiu di v ng knh thy lc ca knh).
6 4
e
10 . 5 10 R =
2500 6 , 0 P
r
=
Trng hp ng un cong (hnh 2.8) p dng cng thc (2.32) v nhn thm h
s hiu chnh ph thuc t s d/R:
- 29 -

R
d
. 77 , 1 1+ =


R
d





Hnh 2.8 ng dn kh un cong

- Trao i nhit khi kh chuyn ng vung gc vi chm ng:
Khi kh chuyn ng vung gc vi chm ng, mc chy ri tng dn khi i
qua cc hng ng v t c trng thi n nh t hng th ba tr i. H s trao i
nhit cho hng th ba tr i xc nh theo cng thc sau:
Khi b tr kiu qun c (hnh 2.9a):
25 , 0
'
r
r 33 , 0
r
65 , 0
e u
P
P
P . R . 23 , 0 N

=
Khi b tr kiu so le (hnh 2.9b):
25 , 0
'
r
r 33 , 0
r
60 , 0
e u
P
P
P . R . 41 , 0 N

=
i vi hng th nht ly bng 60% cho c hai kiu b tr v hng th 2 ly
bng 90% vi kiu b tr qun c, 70% vi kiu so le so vi tr s ca hng th 3.
H s trao i nhit ca c chm ng:

n 2 1
n n 2 2 1 1
S ... S S
S . ... S . S .
+ + +
+ + +
= [W/m
2
.]







Hnh 2.9 B tr ng trong chm ng
a) B tr kiu qun c b) B tr kiu so le
- 30 -
2.2.4. Trao i nhit i lu trong cht lng
Trong luyn kim thng gp cc l nung hoc lm ngui chi tit kim loi bng
cht lng nh nc, du, mui hoc kim loi nng chy u im ca nung nng v
lm ngui bng cht lng l h s trao i nhit ln, nung u, trnh c oxy ha.
Cc cht lng c dng lm mi cht ti nhit c chia lm hai nhm:
- Nhm kim loi hoc hp kim nng chy: tnh dn nhit cao, s thay i
cng trao i nhit i lu khng ln khi chuyn t chy tng sang chy ri.
- Nhm cc mui hoc oxyt nng chy: tnh dn nhit thp v xp x bng
tnh dn nhit ca khng kh. Nc v du cng c xp vo nhm ny.
Trn hnh 2.10, biu th s ph thuc ca h s trao i nhit vo qu nhit
ca mui nng chy, khi nung nng v lm ngui chi tit bng thp.

4
3
2
5
4
3
2
1
200


800
600
400
300
250 200 150 0 50 100
1800

1600

1400
1200

1000




350

Hnh 2.10 S ph thuc ca h s trao i nhit vo qu nhit ca mui
lng khi lm ngui ( ) v khi nung nng ( ) chi tit thp.
1) NaCl 2) 55%KNO
3
+45%NaNO
3
3) NaNO
3
4) NaNO
2
5) BaCO
2



T th ta nhn thy:
- H s trao i nhit khi lm ngui ln hn rt nhiu so vi khi nung nng.
- H s trao i nhit khi lm ngui t cc i khi qu nhit ca mui
nm trong khong 150 - 200
o
C.
- H s trao i nhit khi nung nng tng tuyn tnh vi qu nhit, khi
nhit ca mui gn nhit nng chy h s trao i nhit ca cc mui gn nh
nhau v nm trong khong 200 - 220 W/m
2
..
- 31 -
Khi nung vt bng mui nng chy, nu nhit nng chy ca mui cao v vt
nung c khi lng ln, trong giai on u trn b mt vt hnh thnh lp tinh th kt
tinh v truyn nhit qua lp ny l truyn nhit dn nhit nn h s truyn nhit nh.
Khi lm ngui vt, khng xy ra hin tng hnh thnh lp tinh th, ngc li, do cht
lng b nung nng, nht gim, i lu t nhin tng lm tng h s trao i nhit.
2.2.5. Chn nhin liu v phng php t
i vi ch i lu, nhit l thng thp (< 400
o
C) nhin liu c t
trong bung t ring nn c th s dng mi loi nhin liu (rn, lng, kh) hoc dng
in.
Khi dng nhin liu, nu nhin liu lng s dng m phun thp p, nu nhin
liu kh dng m t c ngn la ngn gim th tch bung t. Bung t phi b
tr sao cho khng c s bc x trc tip t bung t sang bung l.
Khi l lm vic ch i lu, do nhit sn phm chy thng cao hn
nhiu so vi nhit yu cu ca l nn thng phi pha long kh l bng khng kh
hoc bng mt phn kh thi tun hon tr li. Th tch kh pha long xc nh t
phng trnh:
( )
hh hh kk k kk kk kk k k k
t c V V t c V t c V + = +
Trong :
V
k
- lu lng th tch sn phm chy iu kin tiu chun [m
3
/s].
V
kk
- lu lng th tch khng kh hoc kh pha long iu kin tiu chun
[m
3
/s].
c
k
, c
kk
, c
hh
- nhit dung ring ca sn phm chy, khng kh v hn hp
[J/m
3
.].
t
k
, t
kk
, t
hh
- nhit ca sn phm chy, khng kh v hn hp [
o
C].
2.2.6. Lnh vc ng dng
Ch i lu c ng dng trong cc l sy, l nung nhit thp hoc cc
l nung, l lm ngui dng mi cht lng.
Trong trng hp nhit l tng i cao (t 500 - 800
o
C) mc d trao i
nhit bng bc x l ch yu nhng khi kh l chuyn ng vi tc ln trao i
nhit i lu vn c vai tr ng k cn tnh n khi tnh ton trao i nhit.
2.3. Ch lm vic theo lp
2.3.1. Khi nim v phn loi
- 32 -
L lm vic theo ch lp l nhng l dng nung nng (hoc lm ngui) vt
liu ht, trong vt liu gia cng c cht y ton b hay mt phn khng gian lm
vic ca l, cn kh l i qua khe h gia cc ht liu trong lp v thc hin qu trnh
trao i nhit vi vt liu.
Khi ch lp, trong l tn ti c ba dng truyn nhit: bc x, i lu v
dn nhit. Mt khc, din tch b mt trao i nhit khng n nh, do tnh ton
truyn nhit khi l lm vic ch lp ngi ta a ra khi nim h s trao i nhit
th tch:

V
S .
V

= [W/m
3
.]
Hay
0 V
S . =
Trong :
- h s trao i nhit b mt [W/m
2
.]
S - tng din tch b mt ca cc ht liu trong th tch V ca lp liu [m
2
].
S
0
- din tch b mt ca cc ht trong mt n v th tch lp liu [m
2
/m
3
]
i vi liu dng ht l tng (dng hnh cu ng knh d) ta c:

( ) f 1 6
1
S
1
S
V
0

= =
Vi f l rng ca lp.
i vi ht kch thc khng u, t s V/S c tnh theo cng thc Furnas:

( ) f 1 5 , 7
d
S
V

=
Vi d l ng knh trung bnh ca ht liu [m].
Da vo c tnh phn b v chuyn ng ca cc ht liu khi l lm vic,
ngi ta phn ch lp thnh ba dng:
- Ch lp cht.
- Ch lp si.
- Ch lp l lng.
ch lp cht: liu c dng cc (kch thc ln) xp thnh lp, khi l lm
vic, cc cc liu nm st nhau v hu nh khng chuyn ng tng i vi nhau, kh
l i qua khe h cc cc liu.
- 33 -
ch lp si: liu c dng ht kch thc trung bnh, khi l lm vic, di
tc ng ca dng kh cc ht liu trong lp chuyn ng tng i vi nhau to nn
s xo trn mnh ca cc ht liu tng t nh hin tng si.
ch lp l lng: liu c dng ht nh, khi l lm vic, di tc ng ca
dng kh cc ht liu chuyn ng trng thi l lng trong dng kh, khong cch
gia cc ht liu ln.
2.3.2. Ch lp cht
a) c tnh ca lp cht
ch lp cht, liu c xp thnh lp cht y ton b hoc mt phn
khng gian lm vic ca l, cc ht liu nm st nhau, kh l i qua khe h gia cc ht
liu v thc hin qu trnh trao i nhit. S xo trn ca cc ht liu trong lp hu nh
khng ng k.
Trong thc t, cc l lm vic ch lp cht thng c cu trc ng (gi l
l ng), liu c cht vo ming l pha trn, cn kh l i t di ln, liu v kh
chuyn ng ngc chiu nhau.
b) Trao i nhit trong lp cht
Do din tch tip xc gia cc ht liu b, chnh lch nhit gia cc ht liu
tng i nh nn ch lp cht c th b qua truyn nhit dn nhit. ng thi
chiu dy lp kh gia cc ht liu b, vi cc l nhit lm vic di 500
o
C c th
b qua truyn nhit bc x. Do vy, truyn nhit trong l lm vic ch lp cht
ch yu l bng truyn nhit i lu. Khi b qua nhit phn ng ha hc, c th xc
nh h s trao i nhit th tch theo cng thc sau:
Khi liu mng

0
R
:
2
f 56 , 3 f 68 , 1
m
7 , 0
0
3 , 0
1
V
10 .
d
W . T . A

=
Khi liu dy

0
R
:
2
f 56 , 3 f 68 , 1
75 , 0
9 , 0
0
3 , 0
2
V
10 .
d
W . T . A

=
Trong :
R - bn knh ht liu [m].
- h s dn nhit ca vt liu [W/m.].
T - nhit tuyt i ca vt liu [
o
K].
W
0
- tc kh tnh ton (khi l rng) iu kin tiu chun [m/s].
- 34 -
m - h s ph thuc vt liu: m = 1,3 khi lm ngui than cc, m = 0,9 cc trng
hp cn li.
A
1
, A
2
- h s ph thuc vt liu v dng gia cng (nung nng hoc lm ngui)
chn theo bng.
Trng nhit ca kh l v liu theo chiu cao lp liu trong l c dng hnh
2.11. Nhit ca vt liu t
v
thay i theo thi gian lu liu trong l xc nh bi
cng thc sau:

=
k
v
v v
v
W
W
1
c
.
1 k
v
e 1
t
t

Trong :
c
v
- nhit dung ring ca vt liu [kj/kg.].

v
- khi lng ring th tch ca vt liu [kg/m
3
].
W
k
- ng lng nhit ca kh l [W/].
W
v
- ng lng nhit ca vt liu [W/].
- thi gian lu liu trong l [s]

t
k1
H
1
H
2
H
1
H
2
t
v1
t
v2
t
k2
t
k1
t
v1
t
k2
t
v2
Hnh 2.11 Trng nhit ca kh l v liu
trong l ng lm vic theo lp cht
a) S l b) Khi W
k
> W
v
c) Khi W
k
< W
v











Xt trao i nhit trong l c th chia ra hai trng hp:
- Trng hp a: ng lng nhit ca kh ln hn ng lng nhit ca vt
liu (W
k
>W
v
), khi kt thc qu trnh trao i nhit
1 k 2 v
t t nhng , do
1 v 2 k
t t >>
- 35 -
nhit kh thi cn rt cao, hiu qu tn dng nhit thp, nhng vt liu t b qu
nhit.
- Trng hp b: W
k
<W
v
, khi kt thc qu trnh trao i nhit
2 k 1 v
t t
nhng , do nhit kh thi thp, hiu qu tn dng cao, nhng vt liu d
b qu nhit.
2 v 1 k
t t >>
Trong c hai trng hp, phn chiu cao l H
2
hiu qu truyn nhit thp nn H
2

ln ch lm cho l cng knh v ch. Trong thc t, c th coi qu trnh trao i nhit
kt thc khi khi chiu cao l c th tnh theo cng thc: (
1 k v
t 98 , 0 95 , 0 t = )

=
k
V
v
v v v
W
W
1
c 3
H [m]
Trong :
v
- tc dch chuyn liu [m/s].

c) ng dng
Ch lp cht c ng dng rng ri trong cc l gia cng vt liu dng ht,
theo nguyn l lm vic c th chia ra ba nhm:
Nhm 1: cc l c bung t ring hoc khng gian t ring, ti nhin liu
c t chy hon ton, phn cn li ca l khng c phn ng pht nhit hoc thu
nhit. Cc l in hnh cho nhm ny gm: l ng nu gang, nu ng, l nung vt
liu samt dng ht
Nhm 2: cc l c bung t ring hoc khng gian t ring, ti nhin liu
c t chy hon ton, phn cn li ca l vn c phn ng pht nhit hoc thu nhit
c ngha cng ngh. Cc l in hnh cho nhm ny gm: l nung vi, manhdit,
lmit, l tch khi qung ng, qung ch, qung nikel, l cao luyn gang
Nhm 3: cc l khng c bung t hoc khng gian t ring, qu trnh chy
ca nhin liu xy ra trong ton b khng gian l, ng thi c cc phn ng thu pht
nhit c ngha cng ngh xy ra. in hnh cho nhm ny l l nu chy tinh qung
ng.
2.3.3. Ch lp si
a) iu kin hnh thnh lp si
S hnh thnh lp si ch bt u khi tc kh trong l t ti mt tc cn
thit gi l tc ti thiu. Khi tip tc tng tc kh, hin tng si xy ra vi mc
- 36 -
cng ln hn v t n mt tc cc i no th hin tng si b ph v.
c trng cho trng thi lp si ngi ta a ra ch s gi l s si xc nh theo
cng thc sau:

min
s
s
W
W
m =
Trong :
m
s
- s si.
W
s
- tc thi ca kh (ng vi l rng) [m/s].
W
min
- tc thi ti thiu hnh hnh lp si [m/s].
Hnh 2.12 m t trng thi ca lp si ng vi cc gi tr khc nhau ca s si:
Hnh 2.12a: bt u hnh thnh lp si, 2 1 m
s
= .
Hnh 2.12b: s xo trn ca vt liu c th nhn bit bng mt thng, ng vi
, th tch lp liu tng khong 15%. 6 5 m
s
=

W
s
m
s
> 50100
d)






W
s W
s
W
s

m
s
=50100
m
s
=12 m
s
=56

c)
a)
b)

Hnh 2.12 Trng thi ca lp si ng vi cc gi tr khc nhau ca m
s

Hnh 2.12c: trong lp liu bt u hnh thnh cc khong trng gi l bong bng
kh, ng vi 100 50 m
s
= .
Hnh 2.12d: cc bong bng kh m rng chim ton b tit ding ngang ca l,
ng vi , lp si b ph v v bt u hnh thnh lp l lng. 100 50 m
s
>
Quan h gia tr lc ca lp liu (p), tc thc ca kh (W
thc
)v chiu cao lp
liu (H) vo tc thi (W
s
), trnh by trn hnh 2.13.

- 37 -

Lp l lng
Lp si Lp cht
W
thc

p
H







W
min
W
max
W
s

Hnh 2.13 Quan h gia tr lc (p), tc thc ca kh (W
thc
)
v chiu cao lp liu (H) vo tc thi (W
s
)

i vi cc l tit din trn, tc thi ti thiu W
min
xc nh theo cng thc
sau:

d
. R
W
min e
min

=
Trong :
- h s nht ng ca kh l [m
2
/s].
d - ng knh ht liu [m].

r
r
min e
A 22 , 5 1400
A
R
+
=
A
r
- tiu chun achimed, xc nh theo cng thc:
( )
k v
k
2
3
r
gd
A

=
g - gia tc trng trng [m/s].

v
,
k
- khi lng ring ca vt liu v kh l [kg/m
3
].
Tc W
max
xc nh theo cng thc:
d
. R
W
max e
max

=
Vi
r
r
max e
A 6 , 0 18
A
R
+
=

- 38 -
b) Trao i nhit trong lp si
Liu ca lp si c ht nh nn c th coi l liu mng, s trao i nhit
quyt nh bi qu trnh trao i nhit bn ngoi, mt khc do liu c xo trn mnh
nn vai tr truyn nhit bc x cng chim v tr quan trng.
H s trao i nhit trong lp si xc nh theo cng thc:

k
td u
d N

=
Trong : d
t
- dng knh tng ng ca ht liu:
v
td
n
G 6
d

=
n - s lng ht trong th tch kho st.
G - tng khi lng ca cc ht trong th tch kho st [kg].

V
- khi lng ring ca vt liu [kg/m
3
].
- h s dn nhit ca kh [W/m.].
k

N
u
- tiu chun Nuy-xen.
Gi tr ca N
u
ph thuc vo gi tr ca tiu chun F
e
(tiu chun Fedorob) c gi
tr xc nh theo cng thc sau:

k
k v
2
td e
.
3
g 4
d F

=
Khi : 100 30 F
e
=

34 , 0
td
65 , 0
e
74 , 0
e u
d
H
R . F . 0151 , 0 N

=
Khi : 200 100 F
e
=

34 , 0
td
65 , 0
e
604 , 0
e u
d
H
R . F . 0283 , 0 N

=
Trong :

=
td s
e
d . W
R .
c) Lnh vc ng dng ca lp si
Ch lp si c ng dng sy v gia cng vt liu dng ht kch thc
nh.
Cc l sy: l sy ct, vt liu chu la, sy ht nng sn
- 39 -
Cc l gia cng vt liu: l gia cng qung sunfat nikel, ph thi pirit sau khi
tuyn ni, cc l nung manhdit, lmit
2.3.4. Ch lp l lng
a) c tnh ca lp l lng
Nh kho st phn trn, khi 100 50 m
s
> bt u hnh thnh lp l lng,
iu chng t ranh gii gia lp si v lp l lng khng c gii hn r rt. ch
lp l lng, mt ht trong lp rt b, khong cch gia cc ht ln. Trng thi
chuyn ng ca ht liu ph thuc rt ln vo kch thc ht.
Khi ht c kch thc rt b ( 001 , 0 d < mm), c th coi chuyn ng ca cc
ht liu l chuyn ng t do (chuyn ng Brown). Khi , cc ht liu b cun theo
kh thi kh ln, gy tn tht vt liu nn t ng dng ch ny.
Khi ht c kch thc 1 , 0 01 , 0 d = mm, c th chia lm hai nhm:
+ Nhm cc ht nh: khi chuyn ng, lc nng ca dng kh (lc Stoke) cn
bng vi lc gy chuyn ng (trng lng ca ht, lc y Achimed ) cc ht c
th t ti tc n nh. i vi nhm ny gi tr 15 , 0 R
e
< , chuyn ng ca cc
ht c trng bi phng trnh:

e
r
R
18
A
=
Trong : (
k v
k
2
3
r
gd
A

= ) l tiu chun Achimed.
+ Nhm cc ht ln: khi chuyn ng, lc nng ca dng kh (lc Stoke) cha
cn bng vi lc gy chuyn ng, cc ht khng th t ti tc n nh. i vi
nhm ny gi tr , chuyn ng ca cc ht c trng bi phng trnh: 15 , 0 R
e
>

2
e
r
R
k 3
A 4
=
Trong : k l h s tr lc.
b) Trao i nhit trong lp l lng
Trong lp l lng, do ht c kch thc b liu c th coi v vt mng, ng thi
khong cch gia cc ht ln, do vy ta c th vit phng trnh cn bng nhit cho
tng ht trong lp l lng:
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 qV d . S T T C d . S T T C d . S T T
v v v
4
T
4
v 1 v
4
v
4
k 1 v v k
= + +
- 40 -
Trong :
- h s trao i nhit i lu gia kh v liu [W/m
2
.
o
K].
C
1
- h s trao i nhit bc x gia kh v liu [W/m
2
.
o
K
4
].
C
2
- h s trao i nhit bc x gia liu v tng l [W/m
2
.
o
K
4
].
q - hiu ng nhit ca cc phn ng ha hc [j/kg].
V
v
,
v
- th tch [m
3
] v khi lng ring ca vt liu [kg/m
3
].
T
k
, T
v
, T
T
- nhit tuyt i ca kh, vt liu v tng l [
o
K].
- thi gian lu liu trong l [s].
Xt trao i nhit i lu trong lp l lng, ta c:
i vi trng hp i lu t nhin:
Khi : 45 1 G
r
=
03 , 0
r u
G . 29 , 2 N =
Khi : 2500 45 G
r
=
167 , 0
r u
G . 4 , 1 N =
i vi trng hp i lu t nhin v cng bc:
Khi v : 30 5 R
e
= 45 1 G
r
=
( )
e
6 4
R 10 . 48 10 . 24
r e u
G . R . 75 , 2 0594 , 0 N

= .
Khi v 120 20 R
e
= 1500 35 G
r
= :
( )
e
6 4
R 10 . 477 10 . 572
r e u
G . R . 03 , 3 0361 , 0 N

= .
i vi trng hp i lu cng bc, 400 20 R
e
= :
83 , 0
e u
R . 2 , 0 N =
Trong cc tiu chun trn, tc ca kh c ly theo hiu s tc ca kh v
ht liu ti v tr ra khi khng gian lm vic ca l.
c) Lnh vc ng dng
Ch lp l lng c ng dng nhiu trong cc l nung hoc sy qung
sunfat, dung dch c c ca sunfat km, ng, pirit v cc cht thi pirit sau tuyn ni.
2.3.5. Chn nhin liu v phng php t
Nhin liu dng cho l lm vic ch lp c th l nhin liu rn, lng v
kh.
V phng php t, i vi ch lp cht v lp si, khi dng nhin liu kh
khng cn ha trn trc, nhin liu v kh c thi ng thi qua ghi l, qu trnh
ha trn v dt chy xy ra trong lp liu. Nhin liu lng cng c thi qua ghi cng
- 41 -
vi khng kh, trong qu trnh chy mt phn nhin liu ha kh ha trn vi khng kh
v b t chy, mt phn bm vo b mt ht liu v chy ngay trn mt ht liu. i
vi nhin liu rn thng c nghin thnh ht v trn cng vt liu khi a vo l,
qu trnh chy xy ra ngay trong lp liu. Trong mt s trng hp nh l thiu kt
qung, lng nhit cp cho l chnh l nhit cc phn ng ha hc sinh ra trong qu
trnh gia cng vt liu, trong trng hp ny khng cn dng nhin liu.
ch lp l lng, nhin liu c t bung t ring sau dn kh nng
vo l, i vi cc l gia cng qung thng khng cn cung cp nhit bn ngoi m
tn dng nhit phn ng sinh ra do cc phn ng ha hc.





- 42 -
Chng 3
Nung kim loi
3.1. Khi nim chung
3.1.1. Mc ch ca qu trnh nung
Nung kim loi l mt khu quan trng trong nhiu qu trnh sn xut luyn kim.
Trong gia cng kim loi bng p lc, nung nng nhm mc ch tng do, gim tr
lc bin dng, lm tng kh nng bin dng ca kim loi, iu cho php tng nng
sut gia cng, gim c yu cu v cng sut thit b v gim hao mn dng c.
Trong gia cng nhit luyn, kim loi c nung nng n nhit thch hp trc khi
lm ngui t c s thay i t chc theo yu cu. Qu trnh nung kim loi c
thc hin trong cc l nung, cng nung kim loi khng nhng ph thuc cng tc
nhit ca l m cn ph thuc nhiu yu t khc nh: tnh cht nhit, vt l ca kim
loi, kch thc hnh dng ca vt nung ... Vic xc nh hp l cng nung v thi
gian nung c nh hng rt ln n cht lng sn phm cng nh cc ch tiu kinh t,
k thut ca l.
3.1.2. Cc hin tng xy ra khi nung
Trong qu trnh nung, tu theo kim loi cng nh iu kin nung c th xy ra
nhiu hin tng khng mong mun nh: hin tng oxy ha kim loi, hin tng
thm hoc thot ccbon (i vi cc loi thp), hin tng qu nhit hoc chy, hin
tng nt.
- Hin tng oxy ha: trong mi trng nhit cao v tc ng ca mi trng kh
l, kim loi lp b mt b oxy ha, gy ra s chy hao kim loi. Lng kim loi b
chy hao trong mt ln nung cn v rn t 1- 2 %, nung nhit luyn khong 0,5 -
1,0 %. Tc oxy ha kim loi xy ra mnh khi nhit cao, v d i vi chi tit
bng thp khi nhit trn 800
o
C xy ra vi tc rt ln.
- Hin tng thot cc bon: i vi chi tit bng thp, song song vi qu trnh oxy
ha cn xy ra qu trnh kh cc bon, cc phn ng kh cacbon xy ra nh sau:
2H
2
+ Fe
3
C 3Fe + CH
4
CO
2
+ Fe
3
C 3Fe + 2CO
H
2
O + Fe
3
C 3Fe + H
2
+ CO
- 43 -
- Hin tng nt: Khi nung, nu tc nung ln, trong kim loi pht sinh ng sut
nhit do cc lp kim loi c nhit khc nhau, nu ng sut sinh ra qu ln, kim loi
c th b nt. Do vy, khi nung cc loi thp c hm lng cacbon cao, thp hp kim
lc u phi nung vi tc chm trnh nt (trong khong nhit di 500
o
C),
cn khi nhit cao cn nung vi tc ln gim chy hao v tng nng sut.
Cn khi nhit nung chn khng hp l c th dn n kim loi b qu nhit
hoc chy lm gim cht lng sn phm hoc gy ra ph phm.
3.1.3. Ch nung khi nung kim loi
Ch nung quyt nh cng nung kim loi, thng c th hin qua cc
gin nung, biu hin s thay i nhit ca l, nhit kim loi theo thi gian.
Chn ch nung hp l khng nhng nng cao ch tiu k thut, cht lng sn phm
m cn lm tng ng k hiu qu kinh t.
Tu thuc tnh cht kim loi, hnh dng, kch thc cng nh nhit yu cu
sau khi nung, ngi ta c th ng dng nhiu ch nung khc nhau. Trn hnh 3.1
trnh by mt s gin nung vi cc ch nung in hnh.

t
o
C
t
o
C t
o
C
II I
t
m
t
t

t
m
t
t
I I II
III
t
k
t
m
t
t
t
k
t
k







c)
a)
b)

Hnh 3.1 Gin nung
a) Nung 1 giai on b) Nung 2 giai on c) Nung 3 giai on

- Gin hnh 3.1a: gin nung mt giai on thng p dng cho cc vt nung
mng hoc cc vt nung trung bnh c h s dn nhit ln (tr nhit b).
- Gin hnh 3.1b: gin nung hai giai on thng p dng cho cc vt nung
trung bnh c h s dn nhit kh ln (tr nhit trung bnh) v chnh lch nhit
mt v tm cho php sau khi nung kh ln.
- 44 -
- Gin hnh 3.1c: gin nung ba giai on c giai on gi nhit, p dng cho
cc vt nung dy, c h s dn nhit thp (tr nhit cao) v chnh lch nhit mt
v tm cho php sau khi nung b.
Khi xy dng cc gin nung, nu chng ta chn nhit l cao, cng
nung ln, gim c thi gian nung, gim c chy hao kim loi nhng d gy ra nt
(nht l giai on khi nhit vt nung cn thp) v qu nhit kim loi. Ngc li,
chn nhit l thp, cng nung b, thi gian nung ko di, tng oxy ho (nht l
khi nhit cao) v gim nng sut.
3.2. Tnh ton thi gian nung
3.2.1. Cc iu kin gii hn khi nung
Tnh ton qu trnh nung kim loi lin quan ti vic gii phng trnh vi phn
truyn nhit dn nhit (phng trnh Phu-ri-) c dng:

2
2
2
2
2
2
z
t
y
t
x
t
a
t
(3.1)
Trong a l h s truyn nhit :

=
c
a [m
2
/s] (3.2)
Nghim ca phng trnh (3.1) xc lp mi quan h gia s thay i ca nhit ca
vt th theo thi gian v khng gian:
) , z , y , x ( f t = (3.3)
Nghim c th ca phng trnh ph thuc vo cc iu kin gii hn: trng thi
nhit ban u ca vt th (gi l iu kin ban u), kch thc hnh hc ca vt th
v quy lut trao i nhit gia b mt vt th vi mi trng chung quanh (gi l iu
kin bin).
a) iu kin ban u : l iu kin gii hn v thi gian, xc nh s phn b nhit
vt th ti thi im ban u = 0, biu th bi hm s c dng:
t

= f(x, y, z, 0) (3.4)
Trng hp n gin nht l trng hp nhit ban u ca vt th mi im l nh
nhau:
t

= t
0
= const.
i vi trng thi nhit n nh, nhit ban u ca vt th khng nh hng n s
phn b nhit ca vt th nn iu kin gii hn v thi gian khng cn ch n.
- 45 -
b) iu kin bin: l iu kin gii hn v khng gian, c chia ra ba trng hp:
- iu kin bin loi 1: cho ch nhit ca b mt vt th, ngha l cho bit nhit
b mt ca vt th thay i nh th no theo thi gian:
t
m
= f(). (3.5)
V d nhit b mt vt th tng theo hm s bc nht:
t
m
= C
n
hay t
m
= t

+ C
n
(3.6)
Trong C
n
l tc nung [
o
C/s].
- iu kin bin loi 2: cho trc dng nhit i qua mt vt th.
q = f() hay q = const. (3.7)
- iu kin bin loi 3: Cho ch nhit ca ngun nhit v quy lut truyn nhit
t ngun nhit n b mt vt th.
t
l
= f() hay t
l
= const (3.8)
V ( )
m l
t t q = hay ( )
4
m
4
l 0
T T C q =
3.2.2. Phng php tnh
Trong trng hp tng qut, vic xc nh thi gian nung bng phng php gii
gii tch phng trnh vi phn truyn nhit kt hp vi cc iu kin gii hn thng
rt phc tp v gp nhiu kh khn. Tuy nhin, trong nhng trng hp n gin nh
vt nung c dng hnh hc n gin (hnh tm, hnh tr, hnh cu) v vi nhng gi
thit gn ng, cho php ta gii bi ton vi chnh xc chp nhn c. Di y
kho st mt s trng hp in hnh khi tnh ton thi gian nung kim loi trong l.
a) Phn loi vt nung
tnh ton ngi ta phn vt nung thnh hai loi: vt mng v vt dy.
Cc vt nung c coi l vt mng l nhng vt c tr nhit b (t s gia chiu
dy v h s dn nhit ) 0
x

, l cc vt m vt liu c h s dn nhit rt ln
( ) hoc chiu dy ca vt b ( ). Khi nhit vt gn nh ng nht
trong ton b vt th v ch ph thuc thi gian:
0 x
) ( f t =
Cc vt dy l nhng vt c tr nhit ln (

x
c gi tr ng k), nhit vt
nung ph thuc to im kho st v thi gian:
- 46 -
) , z , y , x ( f t =
Khi khng th b qua chnh lch nhit gia mt v tm trong qu trnh nung.
Trong tnh ton, ngi ta thng dng tiu chun Bi (tiu chun Bi-) xc nh
gii hn gia vt mng v vt dy:

=
x
Bi (3.9)
Trong :
- h s trao i nhit [W/m
2
.].
- h s dn nhit [W/m.].
x - ta im kho st [m].
Khi gi tr Bi < 0,25 vt nung c gi l vt mng v Bi > 0,5 gi l vt dy,
cn vi gi tr Bi = 0,25 - 0,5 c coi l vt trung bnh nhng trong tnh ton thng
tnh ton theo vt dy.
b) Tnh thi gian nung cc vt mng
tnh ton thi gian nung i vi cc vt mng vi iu kin bin loi 3, ngi
ta chia thi gian nung thnh nhiu giai on, ng vi mi giai on coi nhit l v
nhit vt khng i v ly bng gi tr trung bnh. Tng thi gian nung xc nh
theo cng thc:
[h] (3.10)

=
=
n
1 i
ni
Khi thi gian nung vi mi giai on tnh theo cng thc:
(
td tc i
F F
k
c x

= ) [h] (3.11)
Trong :
x - chiu dy quy dn [m].
- khi lng ring ca vt liu, [kg/m
3
].
c- nhit dung ca vt liu [Kcal/kg.
o
C].
k - h s hnh dng, v d i vi dng tm k = 1, dng tr k = 2.
- h s trao i nhit b mt [Kcal/m
2
.h.
o
K
4
].
F
t
, F
tc
- thng s nhit , tra theo biu (hnh 3.2 v 3.3) ng vi nhit u
v cui giai on.
Cc thng s vt l trong biu thc chn theo nhit trung bnh.
- 47 -
F
t
t
k
o
C

Hnh 3.2 Biu xc nh thng s nhit
khi tnh thi gian nung i vi vt mng khi t
k
<1000
o
C

t
k
o
C
F
t











Hnh 3.3 Biu xc nh thng s nhit
khi tnh thi gian nung i vi vt mng khi t
k
>1000
o
C

c) Tnh thi gian nung cc vt dy
tnh ton vi vt nung c coi l vt dy, ngi ta ng dng rng ri cc
phng trnh tiu chun c thit lp trn c s ca l thuyt ng dng. Khi
phng trnh vi phn truyn nhit c vit li di dng phng trnh ca cc tiu
chun ng dng l nhng i lng khng th nguyn.
i vi vt nung n gin v iu kin bin loi ba, phng trnh c dng:
- 48 -

=

0 0
x
x
, Fo , Bi F (3.12)
Trong
0

=

thng s nhit tng i, xc nh theo cng thc (3.13):

o v k
v k
0
t t
t t

= (3.13)
- nhit trung bnh ca kh l [
k
t
o
C].
- nhit ca im kho st trn vt nung ti thi im [
v
t
o
C].
o v
t

- nhit ban u ca im kho st trn vt nung [
o
C].
Fo- tiu chun Fu-ri-:
2
x
a
Fo

= (3.14)
0
x
x
- ta tng i ca im kho st, khi 0
x
x
0
= th im kho st tm vt
th, 1
x
x
0
= th im kho st trn b mt vt th.
Bng tnh ton l thuyt v thc nghim, ngi ta xy dng cc biu biu th
quan h gia cc tiu chun (phng trnh 3.12) ng vi cc trng hp khc nhau.
Trn cc hnh (3.4 - 3.7) gii thiu biu tnh ton ng vi vt nung dng tm v
dng tr.

Hnh 3.4 Nhit tng i ca b mt vt khi vt nung dng tm
- 49 -

Hnh 3.5 Nhit tng i ca tm vt khi vt nung dng tm

Hnh 3.6 Nhit tng i ca mt vt khi vt nung dng tr

Thi gian nung vt dy gm thi gian nung c bn v thi gian gi nhit, tnh
ton ngi ta cng chia thi gian nung thnh nhiu giai on, trong mi giai on nhit
kh l v nhit kim loi c coi nh khng i v ly bng nhit trung bnh.
Khi tng thi gian nung xc nh bi cng thc:
(3.15)
gn
1 n
1 i
ni
+ =

=
Trong : n - s giai on nung v gi nhit.
- 50 -

ni
- thi gian nung c bn ng vi giai on th i.

gn
- thi gian gi nhit vi mc ch lm ng u nhit gia tm v mt


Hnh 3.7 Nhit tng i ca tm vt khi vt nung dng tr

tnh thi gian nung c bn, ta tin hnh tnh ton cho tng giai on. Trong
mi giai on, da vo nhit trung bnh ca kim loi, ly gn ng theo nhit
trung bnh ca mt vt
2
t t
t
c
m
d
m
i
+
= , xc nh cc thng s vt l ca vt liu, tnh tiu
chun Bi
i
, nhit tng i b mt
m,i
v tra biu ( )
m m
, Bi F Fo = xc nh
tiu chun Fo
i
. Bit gi tr ca Fo
i
, tnh c thi gian nung:

i
2
0 i
i , n
a
x . Fo
= (3.16)
Sau dng gin , xc nh c (
i i t
Fo , Bi F = )
i , t
v tnh nhit tm cui giai
on theo cng thc:

i , t
d
i , t
i , k i , k
c
i , t
) t t ( t t = (3.17)
tnh thi gian gi nhit, trc ht cn xc nh chnh nhit cho php gia mt
v tm cui giai on gi nhit:
[ ] (3.18)
0
c
t
c
m c
x . t t t t = =
- 51 -
Trong t l chnh nhit cho php trn mt n v chiu dy [
o
C/cm], x
0
chiu
dy truyn nhit [cm]. Nu u giai on gi nhit (cui giai on nung cui cng)
chnh nhit mt v tm [
c d
t t ] > ta phi tnh thi gian gi nhit.
Gi thit nhit tm khi kt thc gi nhit yu cu bng , xc nh nhit
mt tm:
c
t
t
(3.19)
c
c
t
c
m
t t t + =
Bit , v , tnh c Bi v
d
m
t
d
t
t
c
m
t
m
, tra biu ( )
m m
, Bi Fo = xc nh gi tr
ca Fo v tnh
gn
.

1
2
6
1
2
3
4
5
2
0
x
a
0,2 0,4
0,6
0
0,4
0,8
0,12

Fo =






c
c
t
t

Hnh 3.8 Biu tra Fo khi gi nhit
1) Dng tm. 2-5) Dng thi (khi B/S=2;1,5;1,2;1) 6) Dng tr

tnh thi gian gi nhit
gn
khi t
m
= const, cng c th s dng phng trnh
thc nghim i vi mi dng vt nung:
- i vi dng tm:

2
0
gn
x
a
47 , 2
d
c
e . 03 , 1
t
t

(3.20)
- i vi dng tr:

2
0
gn
r
a
76 , 5
d
c
e . 142 , 1
t
t

(3.21)
Hoc
2
0
gn
2
gn
r
a
25 , 8
h
a
47 , 2
d
c
e . 142 , 1
t
t

khi r
0
<0,5h.
Trong : r
0
, h l bn knh v chiu di thi hnh tr [m].

- 52 -

Hoc s dng biu hnh 3.8, khi :

a
x . Fo
2
0
= (3.22)
i vi vt nung dng thi, F
o
ph thuc vo t l gia b rng thi (B) v chiu dy
truyn nhit (S).
3.3. V d tnh thi gian nung
Ta xt trng hp vt nung bng thp C20 dng tm, chiu dy 2x
0
=200 mm, t

=
20
o
C, nhit nung yu cu t
t,c
= 1200
o
C, nung i xng 2 mt.
Gin nung biu th trn hnh 3.9 gm 2 giai on nung v mt giai on gi
nhit.
- Giai on 1: nung t 20 - 1000
o
C, c h s bc x quy dn C
1
= 2,92 Kcal/m
2
.h.
o
K
4
.
- Giai on 2: nung t 1000 - 1200
o
C, c h s bc x quy dn C
2
= 2,57
Kcal/m
2
.h.
o
K
4
.
- Giai on 3: gi nhit, c h s bc x quy dn C
3
= 2,34 Kcal/m
2
.h.
o
K
4
.










t
m0
=t
to
=20
30 t
3
=
t
k1
=1350
t
m
t
t
t
t2
t
t1
t
m2
=1200
t
k3
=1250
t
m1
=1000
t
k0
=1000
t
o
C


n 1

n 2

gn
Hnh 3. 9 Gin nung
a) Giai on nung 1:
- Nhit trung bnh ca kh l:
1175
2
1350 1000
2
t t
t
1 k 0 k
1 k =
+
=
+
= [
o
C]
- Nhit trung bnh ca kim loi:
510
2
1000 20
2
t t
t
1 m 0 m
1 =
+
=
+
= [
o
C]
- 53 -
Tra bng ta c: 7695
1
= [kg/m
3
], 8 , 33
1
= [Kcal/m.h.
o
C], 134 , 0 c
1
= [Kcal/kg.
o
C]
v tnh c a
1
= 0,033 [m
2
/h].
- H s truyn nhit bc x:
176
783 1448
100
783
100
1448
. 92 , 2
T T
100
T
100
T
C
4 4
1 1 k
4
1
4
1 k
1
bx , 1
=

= [Kcal/m
2
.h.
o
K
4
]
Ly , ta tnh c h s truyn nhit tng cng:
bx , 1 dl , 1
. 1 , 0 =
194 176 . 10 , 1 . 10 , 1
bx , 1 dl , 1 bx , 1 1
= = = + = [Kcal/m
2
.h.
o
K
4
]
- Tnh tiu chun Bi:
57 , 0
8 , 33
1 , 0 . 194 x .
Bi
1
0 1
1
= =

=
Bi
1
= 0,57 >Bi
th
, vt nung coi l vt dy.
- Tnh nhit tng i ca mt tm:
15 , 0
293 1448
1000 1448
T T
T T
0 m
1 k
1 m
1 k
1 m
=

=
- Tnh thi gian nung giai on 1:
Bit Bi
1
= 0,57,
m1
= 0,15 tra biu ( )
1 m 1 m
, Bi Fo = xc nh c v
tnh c thi gian nung:
4 , 3 Fo
1
=
04 , 1
33 , 0
1 , 0 . 4 , 3
a
x . Fo
2
1
2
0 1
1 n
= = = [h]
- Xc nh nhit tm cui giai on:
Bit Bi, Fo tra biu

=
0
0 t
x
x
, F , Bi xc nh c 2 , 0
1 t
= v tnh nhit tm
cui giai on:
944 2 , 0 ). 20 1175 ( 1175 ). t t ( t t
1 t 0 t
1 k 1 k
1 t
= = = [
o
C]
b) Giai on nung 2:
- Nhit trung bnh ca kh l:
1350 t 2 k = [
o
C]
- Nhit trung bnh ca kim loi:
- 54 -
1100
2
1200 1000
2
t t
t
2 m 1 m
2 =
+
=
+
= [
o
C]
Tra bng ta c: [kg/m 7696
2
=
3
], 5 , 24
2
= [Kcal/m.h.
o
C], 165 , 0 c
2
= [Kcal/kg.
o
C]
v tnh c a
2
= 0,02 [m
2
/h].
- H s truyn nhit bc x:
348
1373 1623
100
1373
100
1623
. 57 , 2
T T
100
T
100
T
C
4 4
2 2 k
4
2
4
2 k
2
bx , 2
=

= [Kcal/m
2
.h.
o
K
4
]
Ly , ta tnh c h s truyn nhit tng cng:
bx , 1 dl , 2
. 05 , 0 =
365 348 . 05 , 1 . 05 , 1
bx , 1 dl , 1 bx , 1 1
= = = + = [Kcal/m
2
.h.
o
K
4
]
- Tnh tiu chun Bi:
49 , 1
5 , 24
1 , 0 . 365 x .
Bi
2
0 2
2
= =

=
- Tnh nhit tng i ca mt tm:
43 , 0
1273 1623
1473 1623
T T
T T
1 m
2 k
2 m
2 k
2 m
=

=
- Tnh thi gian nung giai on:
Bit Bi
2
= 1,49,
m2
= 0,43 tra biu ( )
2 m 2 m
, Bi Fo = xc nh c 5 , 0 Fo
2
=
v tnh c thi gian nung:
25 , 0
02 , 0
1 , 0 . 5 , 0
a
x . Fo
2
2
2
0 2
2
= = = [h]
- Xc nh nhit tm cui giai on:
Bit Bi
2
, Fo
2
tra biu xc nh c (
2 2 t
Fo , Bi = ) 6 , 0
2 t
= v tnh nhit tm
cui giai on:
1106 6 , 0 ). 944 1350 ( 1350 ). t t ( t t
2 t 1 t
2 k 2 k
2 t
= = = [
o
C]
c) Tnh thi gian gi nhit
- Nhit trung bnh ca kh l:
1250 t 3 k = [
o
C]
chnh nhit gia mt v tm cho php 3
o
C/cm:
- 55 -
[ 30 x . t t
0 3
= =
o
C]
T s 32 , 0
94
30
t
t
d
c
= =

, tra biu (3.8) nhn c Fo = 0,5, tnh c:

23 , 0
022 , 0
1 , 0 . 5 , 0
a
x . Fo
2
3
2
0 3
gn
= = = [h].
Vy thi gian nung tng cng:
52 , 1 23 , 0 25 , 0 04 , 1
gn 2 1
= + + = + + = [h]


- 56 -
Chng 4
Nhin liu v s chy ca nhin liu
4.1. Nhin liu
4.1.1. Khi nim chung
Nhin liu l loi vt cht m khi chy ta ra mt lng nhit ln, lng nhit
ny c th s dng mt cch c hiu qu trong cng ngh cng nh trong i sng.
Nhin liu phi tho mn cc yu cu chung sau y:
+ Sn phm chy ca nhin liu phi th kh. Khi , sn vt chy mi c th
chuyn ng thun li trong l, truyn nhit cho vt nung v thot ra ngoi d dng
phn ng chy ca nhin liu tip tc xy ra.
+ Sn phm chy khng gy tc ng c hi i vi vt liu gia cng, khng ph
hy thit b, khng c hi i vi ngi v sinh vt xung quanh.
+ C th khng ch c qu trnh chy.
+ Tr lng ln v gi thnh khai thc, ch bin thp.
T cc yu cu chung trn, ta thy ch nhng cht c ngun gc hu c, gm
cc bon v hyr to thnh, mi c th tho mn ng thi cc yu cu . Cc bon v
hyr khi b oxy ho u c hiu ng nhit ln, sn phm chy th kh v vi nng
khng ln l loi kh khng c hi.
4.1.2. Cc loi nhin liu
a) Phn loi
- Cn c vo ngun gc hnh thnh, nhin liu c phn ra: thin nhin, nhn to.
- Cn c vo trng thi, nhin liu c phn ra: nhin liu rn, nhin liu lng,
nhin liu kh. Cc loi nhin liu c s dng trong cng nghip trnh by bng
4.1.
Bng 4.1 Phn loi nhin liu s dng trong cng nghip
Trng thi Ngun gc
Thin nhin Nhn to
Rn Ci, g, than bn, than nu, than
khi, than ngtraxit, ...
Than ci, than cc, than bi,..
Lng Du m
t xng, du ho, mazut,...
Kh Kh t thin nhin Kh t l cc, kh l cao, kh l sinh
kh,...
- 57 -
b) Nhin liu rn
- Nhin liu rn thin nhin: gm cc loi g, than bn, than nu, than khi, than
antraxit.
G: Thnh phn ch yu ca g l xen-luy-l, nc v mt s oxyt kim loi
kim. Thnh phn nguyn t ca g nh sau: %C = 49,4 50,4; %H = 5,9 6,1; %O =
42,7 43,9; %N = 0,7 1. Nhit tr Q
d
= 1.878 4.460 Kcal/kg.
G c hm lng cht bc cao (khong 80 %) d chy, khng cha lu hunh,
hm lng tro nh (A = 0,7 1,2 %), nhc im ca g l cha nhiu nc (g ti
W = 40 60 %, g kh W = 30%), nhit tr ca g thp ( khi w = 50 %, Q
d
=1878
Kcal/kg), khi lng th tch nh nn chi ph vn chuyn cao.
G l loi nhin liu c dng nhiu trc y, song hin nay g l ngun
nguyn liu c gi tr ca nhiu ngnh cng nghip khc nn rt hn ch dng lm
nhin liu.
Than bn: l loi than tr tui nht va chuyn t thc vt sang, cha nhiu nc,
mi khai thc W = 85 91 %, phi kh k vn cn W = 30 40 %, khi lng th tch
nh 325 425 kg/m
3
. Thnh phn nguyn t trung bnh ca than: %C
c
= 57,8; %H
d

=6,0; %O = 33,4; %N
c
= 2,5; %S
c
=0,3; %A
k
= 9,7. Nhit tr Q
d
= 2.660 2.940
Kcal/kg.
Than bn c u im: d bc chy, cha t lu hunh, d kh ha. Nhc im:
khi lng th tch nh, bn c hc thp, nhit tr thp, im chy ca tro thp.
Than bn ch yu dng trong cng nghip a phng, gn ni khai thc.
Than nu: than nu do than bn tri qua mt thi k bin i to thnh, qu trnh
chuyn bin t thc vt sang khong vt hon thnh. Thnh phn nguyn t ca
than nu: %C
c
= 72 78 ; %H
d
= 4,4 5,6; %O = 15 21; %N
c
= 1,3 1,5; %S
c
= 0,4;
%A
k
= 11 30; %W
d
= 35 - 50. Nhit tr Q
d
= 2.660 4.100 Kcal/kg.
So vi than bn, than nu c thnh phn cc bon cao hn, khi lng th tch t
800 900 kg/m
3
, bn c hc cao hn, ht nc t hn, thnh phn cht bc thp
hn.
Than nu c th c dng lm nhin liu cho cc l nhit khng cao, kh ho
sn xut kh t.
- 58 -
Than khi: Qu trnh cc bon ho ca than hon thin hn, ht nc ca than
b, lng cht bc gim, bn c hc cao hn. Theo cng dng than khi c phn
ra: than la di, than kh t, than bo, than luyn cc, than gy. Than la di v than
kh t c hm lng cht bc cn kh cao, khi chy sinh ra ngn la di, c dng
t trc tip hoc ch to kh t. Than bo mt phn t trc tip, mt phn luyn
cc. Than luyn cc l loi than qu dng luyn than cc, loi nhin liu quan trng
trong cc l luyn v nu gang. Than gy ch yu dng t trc tip.
- Than khng khi ( than antraxit): than khng khi l loi than gi tui nht, bn
ln, ht m t, hm lng cc bon cao, lng cht bc thp, khi chy khng sinh khi.
Hm lng tro v lu hunh trong than bin i trong phm vi rng. Than khng khi
c dng t trc tip, mt phn c nhit luyn thay th mt phn than cc
trong nu gang.
- Nhin liu rn nhn to: than g, than cc, than antraxit nhit luyn.
Than g: than g c ch to bng cch chng kh ci g theo phng php th
cng hoc dng l kn v nung bng khng kh nng 350 - 400
o
C.
Thnh phn hu c ca than g: %C = 79,81 88,87 ; %H = 4,33 3,23; %
(O+N) = 15,86 7,90.
Than g cha t lu hunh, trc y c s dng lm nhin liu cho l c, l
cao c nh nhng hin nay t dng.
Than cc: Than cc c luyn bng cch nung bt than c tnh dnh kt tt (than
luyn cc, than bo) trong mi trng cch bit vi khng kh ti nhit 850 -
1000
o
C sau lm ngui.
Qu trnh luyn cc nh sau: nghin than n ht khong 3 mm, cht vo l v
nung. Di tc dng ca nhit, than c sy kh v chng, trong than xy ra cc phn
ng phn ha nhit. Giai on quan trng nht i vi s to thnh than cc l nhit
400 - 500
o
C, than b bin mm v tit ra cht bc lm cho khi than tr nn xp.
Tip tc nng nhit , khi than s chuyn sang trng thi rn ta thu c than cc.
Than cc c ly ra khi l v lm ngui bng nc sau sng phn loi theo c
ht. Than cc c c im: bn c v bn nhit cao, xp than ln, hm lng
cht bc thp, hm lng tro t 8 - 14%. Than cc ch yu dng cho cc l cao luyn
gang v cc l ng nu gang.
- 59 -
Than antraxit nhit luyn: Than antraxit c xp b, khi b nung nng t ngt,
nc v cht bc thot ra mnh lm cho than b v vn nhiu gy kh khn cho qu
trnh chy l. tng bn nhit ca than antraxit ngi ta tin hnh nhit luyn.
Qu trnh nhit luyn than tin hnh nh sau: em than nung nng chm n 1000 -
1100
o
C, gi nhit trong mt thi gian sau lm ngui, thu c than nhit luyn. Khi
nung nng chm, nc v cht bc trong than thot ra ngoi, hm lng nc v cht
bc trong than gim, ng thi xp ca than tng ln lm tng ng k bn nhit
ca than khi chy l. Than gy nhit luyn c s dng thay th mt phn than cc
nu gang trong l ng v luyn gang trong cc l cao c nh.
c) Nhin liu lng
Nhin liu lng dng trong l cng nghip ch yu l du mazut v du izen l
cc sn phm thu c khi gia cng du m.
Du m nguyn khai l hn hp ca nhiu loi cacbua hyr v mt lng nh
cc tp cht ca oxy, nit v lu hunh. Cc cacbua hyr trong du m c chia ra
ba nhm: m-tan (C
n
H
2n+2
), np-ten (C
n
H
2n
) v cacbua thm (C
n
H
2n-6
). Du m c khi
lng ring 750 - 1.000 kg/m
3
, nhit tr 9.800 - 10.500 kcal/kg. Mc d du m c
nhit tr cao nhng ngi ta khng dng n trc tip lm nhin liu v trong n cha
nhiu sn vt qu.
Du m c gia cng bng hai phng php: chng phn trc tip v crc-
kinh.
Khi chng phn trc tip, da vo nhit si khc nhau ca cc sn phm
trong du m, ngi ta chng du m nhng nhit cn thit tch ring tng
loi. Cc sn phm thu c khi chng phn trc tip gm: t-xng nh, t-xng nng,
du ho, ligrain, gajin v mazut. em mazut chng trong chn khng, tip tc thu
c cc loi du nhn v hc-n.
Crc-king du m l qu trnh lm phn ha nhit du m 450 - 460
o
C bin
nhng cacbuahyr nng thnh nhng cacbuahyr nh hn. Nh phng php crc-
king ngi ta tng thm c lng du nh thu hi khi gia cng du m.
d) Nhin liu kh
So vi nhin liu rn v lng, nhin liu kh c nhiu u im hn:
+ D ho trn vi khng kh nn ch cn h s d khng kh nh cng m bo
t chy hon ton, gim tn tht nhit do khi l mang ra ngoi.
- 60 -
+ C th t dc nhit chy cao nh nung nng trc khng kh v nhin
liu.
+ Thit b t n gin, d khng ch nhit , chiu di ngn la v p sut
trong l.
+ D vn chuyn t ni sn xut n ni tiu th.
- Kh t thin nhin: Kh t thin nhin c cc m ring hoc cc m du. Thnh
phn c th chy trong n ch yu l m tan(CH
4
), chim khong 75 - 98%, mt t
cacbuahyr nng, hyr v CO, thnh phn khng th chy l CO
2
v N
2
.
Kh t thin nhin c nng sut to nhit cao, Q
d
8.600 Kcal/m
3
.
- Kh t nhn to: Kh t nhn to gm nhiu loi (bng 4.2).
Bng 4.2 Thnh phn v nhit tr ca kh nhn to
Thnh phn theo th tch (%) Q
d
Loi kh
t
CO
2
+H
2
S O
2
CO H
2
CH
4
C
m
H
n
N
2

kcal/m
3
Kh t
bn cc

12 -15

0,2-0,5

7 - 12

8 - 12

45 - 62

5 - 8

2 - 10
5.300
-7.000
Kh t
l cc

2 - 3

0,7 - 1,2

4 - 8

53 - 60

19 - 25

1,6 - 2,3

7 - 15
3.700
- 4.000
Kh t
hi nc

5 - 7

0,1 - 0,2

35 - 40

47 - 52

0,3 - 0,6

-

2 - 6
2.400
- 2.500
Kh t
hn hp

5 - 7

0,1 - 0,3

24 - 30

12 - 15

0,5 - 3

0,2 - 0,4

46 - 55
1.150
- 1.550
Kh t
khng kh

0,5 - 15

-

32 - 33

0, 5 -0,9

-

-

64 - 66
900
- 1.030
Kh t
l cao

8 - 14

-

23 - 31

10 -15

0,1 - 2,6

-

48 - 60
900
- 1.265

Kh t l cao: l sn phm ph khi luyn gang bng l cao, luyn 1 tn gang thu
c 3.600 - 4.000 m
3
kh l cao. Thnh phn kh chy ch yu ca kh l cao l CO
(hm lng 23 - 31%) v hyr (hm lng 10 - 15%). Nhit tr kh l cao thp (Q
d
=
900 - 1265 Kcal/m
3
), nng cao nhit chy ngi ta thng nung nng trc hoc
hn hp vi kh l cc.
- 61 -
Kh l cc: l sn phm ph thu c khi luyn than cc, luyn 1 tn than cc thu
c 230 - 270 m
3
kh l cc. Thnh phn c th chy ca kh l cc ch yu l H
2
(53
- 60%) v CH
4
(19 - 225%), Q
d
= 3700 - 4000Kcal/kg.
Kh t khng kh l sn phm thu c khi kh ha than m kh thi l khng
kh. Thnh phn chy ch yu l CO (32 - 33%). Nhit tr kh t khng kh thp, Q
d
=
3780 - 4600 Kcal/kg.
Kh t hi nc l sn phm thu c khi kh ha than bng hi nc. Thnh
phn chy ch yu l CO ( 35 - 40%) v H
2
(47 - 52 %). Nhit tr kh t hi nc
thp Q
d
= 2400 - 2500 Kcal/kg v gi thnh cao nn t dng trong luyn kim.
4.1.3. Thnh phn ca nhin liu
Thnh phn nhin liu l mt ch tiu quan trng nh gi cht lng ca
nhin liu.
a) Thnh phn nhin liu rn v lng
i vi cc nhin liu rn v lng, thnh phn ca chng rt phc tp, cc
nguyn t to thnh chng thng khng tn ti mt cch c lp, m ho hp vi
nhau to thnh cc hp cht. Vic phn tch chnh xc thnh phn nhin liu theo cc
hp cht to thnh chng rt kh khn, bi vy trong tnh ton nhit thng ngi ta
coi nhin liu rn v lng bao gm cc cht tn ti c lp:
- Cc bon (C): l thnh phn chy chnh ca nhin liu rn v lng. Phn ng chy
hon ton ca ccbon vi oxy c hiu ng nhit ln.
C +O
2
= CO
2
+ 8.137 Kcal/kg
- Hyr (H): dng chy c gm hyr t do v hyr ha hp vi cc cht chy
c, dng khng chy c l hp cht vi oxy. Phn ng chy ca hyr vi oxy:
H
2
+
2
1
O
2
= H
2
O + 34.180 Kcal/ kg
- Nit (N): l thnh phn khng chy c, trong nhin liu rn v lng nit ch
chim 1 - 2 % nn t nh hng.
- Lu hunh (S): c ba dng l lu hunh hu c, lu hunh sunphit v lu hunh
dng mui. Hai dng u c th chy cn lu hunh dng mui khng th chy. Lu
hunh l tp cht c hi trong nhin liu cn hn ch.
- Tro (A): gm cc khong cht SiO
2
, Al
2
O
3
, MgO, Fe
2
O
3
... l cc thnh phn khng
chy c. Hm lng tro trong nhin liu cng cao th cht lng nhin liu cng
- 62 -
gim do gim hm lng cht chy c, tn hao nhit do nung nng tro, tng lng
bi trong sn phm chy, gy kh khn cho vic khng ch qu trnh chy.
- Nc (W): gm nc hp ph b mt, nc hp th qua cc l xp ca nhin liu
v nc kt tinh. Khi sy nhin liu ch hai dng u l c kh nng bc hi cn dng
nc kt tinh vn cn trong nhin liu.
i vi nhin liu rn v lng, thnh phn ca chng c biu din bng bn
cch:
+ Cht hu c : C
h
+ H
h
+ O
h
+ N
h
= 100 %. (4.1)
+ Cht c th chy : C
c
+ H
c
+ O
c
+ N
c
+ S
c
= 100 %. (4.2)
+ Cht kh : C
k
+ H
k
+ O
k
+ N
k
+ S
k
+A
k
= 100 %. (4.3)
+ Thng dng: %C
d
+ %H
d
+ %O
d
+ %N
d
+ %S
d
+%A
d
+ %W
d
= 100 % (4.4)
chuyn i t thnh phn ny qua thnh phn khc ngi ta dng cc h s
th hon cho bng 4.3.
Bng 4.3. H s chuyn i thnh phn nhin liu rn v lng
Thnh phn mun chuyn i Thnh
phn
bit
Cht hu c C th chy Cht kh Thng dng
Cht hu
c
1
100
S 100
c

100
) A S ( 100
k k
+
100
) W A S ( 100
d d d
+ +

C th
chy
c
S 100
100

1
100
A 100
k

100
) W A ( 100
d d
+

Cht kh
) A S ( 100
100
k k
+

k
A 100
100

1
100
W 100
d

Thng
dng
) W A S ( 100
100
d d d
+ +

) W A ( 100
100
d d
+
d
W 100
100

1

b) Thnh phn nhin liu kh
Nhin liu kh thng l hn hp c hc ca mt s kh, c th phn tch chnh
xc tng thnh phn ca chng. Cc thnh phn c th chy trong nhin liu kh gm:
CO, H
2
, CH
4
, C
m
H
n
, H
2
S. Cc thnh phn khng th chy gm CO
2
, N
2
, SO
2
, H
2
O, O
2
.
Trong cc thnh phn c th chy th cc cacbuahyr nh CH
4
, C
m
H
n
c nng sut to
nhit cao, sau l H
2
v CO, cn H
2
S l thnh phn c hi cn hn ch.
Thnh phn nhin liu kh c biu th bng hai cch:
+ Thnh phn kh:
CO
2
k
+ CO
k
+ H
2
k
+ CH
4
k
+ C
2
H
2
k
+ H
2
S
k
+ ...+ N
2
k
= 100 % (4.5)
- 63 -
+ Thnh phn t:
CO
2
u
+ CO
u
+ H
2
u
+ CH
4
u
+ C
2
H
2
u
+ H
2
S
u
+...+ N
2
u
+ H
2
O
u
= 100% (4.6)
Cng thc chuyn i gia cc thnh phn nh sau:
100
O H 100
. X X
u
2 k u

= (4.7)
u
2
u k
O H 100
100
. X X

= (4.8)
Trong :
+

=
3 , 806
100
O H
u
2
(4.9)
Vi l m ca nhin liu, tnh bng lng nc cha trong mt mt khi kh
kh [ g/m
3
].
4.1.4. Nhit tr ca nhin liu
Nng sut to nhit hay nhit tr ca nhin liu l lng nhit to ra khi t chy
hon ton mt n v khi lng nhin liu (nu l nhin liu rn v lng) hay mt n
v th tch nhin liu ( nu l nhin liu kh), c k hiu l Q [kcal/kg hoc kj/kg v
kcal/ m
3
hoc kj/m
3
]. Trong thc t, ngi ta dng hai khi nim v nhit tr l nhit tr
cao v nhit tr thp.
- Nhit tr cao l nhit tr ca nhin liu xc nh vi iu kin cc sn vt chy
ngui n nhit ban u, nc trong sn vt chy th lng v ngui n 0
o
C, k
hiu l Q
c
.
- Nhit tr thp l nhit tr ca nhin liu xc nh vi iu kin cc sn vt chy
ngui n nhit ban u, nc trong sn vt chy th hi v ngui n 20
o
C, k
hiu l Q
d
.
xc nh nhit tr ca nhin liu c hai phng php: xc nh bng thc
nghim v tnh ton.
i vi nhin liu rn v nhin liu lng, v khng bit thnh phn cu to cht,
nn xc nh nhit tr thng tin hnh bng thc nghim. Ngoi ra, c th tnh ton
gn ng theo thnh phn nguyn t bng cc cng thc thc nghim, trong cng
thc c dng nhiu l cng thc ca Men--l-p:
Q
c
= 4,18 [81C
d
+ 300H
d
- 26( O
d
- S
d
)] [Kj/kg] (4.10)
Q
d
= 4,18 [81C
d
+ 246H
d
- 26( O
d
- S
d
) - 6W
d
] [Kj/kg] (4.11)
- 64 -
i vi nhin liu kh c th xc nh bng thc nghim hoc tnh ton theo
thnh phn nhin liu. Cng thc tnh nhit tr ca nhin liu kh khi bit thnh phn
kh nh sau:
Q
c
= 4,18(30,2CO + 30,5H
2
+ 95CH
4
+152C
2
H
4
+ . . . +61H
2
S)[Kj/m
3
] (4.12)
Q
d
= 4,18(30,2CO + 25,7H
2
+ 85,5CH
4
+141C
2
H
4
+ . . . +56H
2
S) [Kj/m
3
] (4.13)
4.2. S chy ca nhin liu
4.2.1. S chy ca nhin liu rn
Qu trnh chy ca nhin liu rn (ch yu l than) l qu trnh chy d th gia
mt cht l th rn (nhin liu) v mt cht l th kh (oxy ca khng kh). Tuy nhin,
trong qu trnh chy cng xy ra mt phn qu trnh chy ng th l qu trnh
chy cht bc.
Qu trnh chy ca nhin liu rn c th chia ra cc giai on sau:
+ Nung nng v bc hi nc.
+ Phn ha nhit nhin liu, thot cht bc v to thnh cc.
+ Chy cht bc.
+ Chy cc bon.
Khi chy, s chy cht bc xy ra trc, tuy thi thi gian chy cht bc ngn,
nhng n c ngha quan trng lm tng nhit ca nhin liu, thc y qu trnh
chy tip theo. S chy ca cc bon l qu trnh chy ch yu ca nhin liu rn.
Qu trnh chy cac bon c c trng bi cc phn ng sau:
- Chy cac bon:
C + O
2
= CO
2
+ 399 254 kj/kmol
2C + O
2
= 2CO + 246 623 kj/kmol.
- Phn hy kh CO
2
v hi nc:
C + CO
2
= 2CO - 162 530 kj/kmol
C + 2H
2
O = CO
2
+ 2H
2
- 65 294 kj/kmol
- Chy tip kh CO:
2CO + O
2
= 2CO
2
+ 571 684 kj/kmol
Trong qu trnh chy, cc phn ng chy cac bon xy ra trc, cc phn ng phn hy
kh CO
2
, hi nc v chy CO l cc phn ng tip theo (phn ng th cp). Qu trnh
chy ca cc bon l qu trnh chy d th, do tc khhuch tn oxy ti b mt cc
- 65 -
bon nh hng ln ti qu trnh chy. Lng kh khuch tn n b mt vt rn xc
nh bi cng thc:
( ) F . . C C
D
V
n 0

= [g] (4.14)
Trong :
V - lng kh khuch tn [gam].
D - h s khuch tn phn t [cm
2
/s].
- chiu dy lp chy tng bao quanh vt rn [cm].
C
0
, C
n
- nng cht khuch tn trong dng kh v gn mt vt rn [g/cm
3
].
F - b mt vt rn [cm
2
].
- thi gian [s].
Tc khuch tn ca oxy n mt than ph thuc vo tiu chun Re v tc dng
kh ():

2 , 0
e
kt
R
. 031 , 0
= [cm/s] (4.15)
Lng oxy khuch tn n b mt than, mt phn chy cn mt phn c b mt vt
rn hp th. S hp th oxy ca mt than ch yu ph thuc vo b mt than v p sut
kh, khi p sut kh tng lng oxy c hp th tng.
Nghin cu tc chy cc bon trong lp nhin liu rn gm nhng ht hnh cu,
ngi ta thy tc bin i b mt than ph thuc p sut kh v tc dng kh nh
sau:
(4.16) ( ) B p A K
4 , 0
+ =
Trong :
K - tc bin i b mt cu [cm
2
/s].
, p - tc v p sut dng kh, [m/s] v [at].
A, B: cc h s thc nghim.
T phng trnh (4.16), ta nhn thy khi tng tc hay p sut dng kh dn n tc
chy cc bon tng.
4.2.2. S chy ca nhin liu lng
Qu trnh chy ca nhin liu lng (ch yu l cc loi du) va l qu trnh chy
d th (s chy cc ht rn sinh ra khi phn hu nhin liu) va l qu trnh chy ng
th (chy hi du).
- 66 -
t chy nhin liu lng cn phi tch nhin liu thnh ht nh tng b mt
tip xc gia nhin liu v khng kh, qu trnh c gi l qu trnh bin bi. Cht
bin bi du gi l cht bin bi. Hin nay ngi ta dng cht bin bi l khng kh
nn, hi nc v khng kh p sut cao. Khi cht bin bi va chm vo dng nhin liu,
ng nng cht bin bi gim, gim ng nng U
0
ca cht bin bi mt phn
sinh cng c hc lm bin bi nhin liu cn phn ln nng lng ny bin thnh nhit
lm tng nhit hm ca hn hp. Phn ng nng lm bin bi nhin liu ( U) ph
thuc vo t s gia khi lng ring ca cht bin bi (
2
) v khi lng ring ca
nhin liu (
1
). Nu b qua tc ng ca nht th t s gia U v U
0
c th tnh
gn ng:

1
2
0
U
U

Nu khi lng ring ca nhin liu khng i th khi lng ring ca cht bin bi
cng ln th t s ny cng ln v hiu qu bin bi cng cao.
Nu gi E l nng lng cn thit ph v b mt t do git nhin liu th E
= U, do xc nh c ng knh ca cc ht bi du:

( ) [ ]

+
+

=
1
.
. E 1
. 12
d
2
2
1 u 2

Hay:
( )

+


=
1
.
.
. 12
d
2
2
[m] (4.17)
Trong :
- h s sc cng b mt ca nhin liu [N/m
2
].

1
2
G
G
= - sut tiu hao n v ca cht bin bi (G
1
v G
2
l lu lng nhin liu
v cht bin bi) [kg/kg].
. ( )
1 u 2
E 1 + =
Kch thc ht du sau khi bin bi dao ng trong khong 0,05 - 0,5 mm.
Qu trnh chy ca cc ht bi du xy ra theo cc giai on sau:
- Ho trn gia bi du v khng kh.
- Hn hp c sy nng v bi du bc hi.
- Phn hu cc hp cht cacbua hyr.
- 67 -
- Xy ra cc phn ng chy.
Trn thc t cc giai on trn c quan h mt thit vi nhau v khng tch ri
nhau.
2
1
3






Hnh 4.1 Qu trnh chy bi du
1) Ht du 2) Vng hi du 3) Vng xy ra cc phn ng chy
Xt cc yu t nh hng ti s chy ca nhin liu lng ta nhn thy, nu kch
thc ht du cng nh v qu trnh trao i nhit gia mi trng vi hn hp cht
bin bi v nhin liu tt th hn hp c sy nng nhanh, du bc hi tt v qu
trnh chy xy ra nhanh. Qu trnh chy cn ph thuc vo s khuch tn ca oxy vo
vng chy v s khuch tn ca sn phm chy ra khi vng ny nn s xo trn hn
hp tt cng lm cho qu trnh chy xy ra nhanh hn.
4.2.3. S chy ca nhin liu kh
Qu trnh chy ca nhin liu kh l qu trnh chy ng th gia kh chy v oxy
ca khng kh. Qu trnh chy ca nhin liu kh c th chia ra:
+ Giai on ho trn nhin liu v khng kh to thnh hn hp chy.
+ Giai on chy ca hn hp chy.
Tc v cht lng chy ca nhin liu kh, nhit v chiu di ca ngn la
trn thc t ch yu ph thuc vo tc v cht lng ca qu trnh ho trn. Nguyn
nhn to thnh hn hp l do s khuch tn ca cc phn t kh do chnh lch nng
(khuch tn phn t) hoc do s va p ca cc dng kh chuyn ng (khuch tn xo
trn). Khi s ha trn xy ra cng tt th qu trnh chy xy ra cng nhanh, chy cng
hon ton, chiu di ngn la ngn hn v nhit ngn la cng cao hn.
Mt yu t quan trng khc nh hng ti s chy ca nhin liu kh v nhit
ngn la l t l gia khng kh v kh t trong hn hp. Nu lng khng kh a vo
khng th kh t chy khng hon ton, nhit ngn la thp. Ngc li, nu
lng khng kh a vo d, nhin liu chy hon ton, tuy nhin nhit ngn la
cng khng cao do tn nhit nung khng kh d.
- 68 -
4.2.4. Khi nim chy hon ton, chy khng hon ton v h s khng kh d
a) Khi nim chy hon ton v chy khng hon ton
S chy ca nhin liu thc cht l qu trnh phn ng ha hc gia nhng thnh
phn c th chy ca nhin liu vi oxy:

2 2
CO O C = +
O H O
2
1
H
2 2 2
= +

2 2
SO O S = +
Nu nhng thnh phn c th chy trong nhin liu u tham gia phn ng chy
v sn vt chy to thnh ch gm nhng cht kh khng th chy nh c nh CO
2
,
H
2
O, SO
2
... th gi l qu trnh chy hon ton. Ngc li, trong qu trnh chy, mt
phn nhin liu khng tham gia phn ng hay trong sn vt chy cn c c nhng kh
chy c nh CO, H
2
... th gi l qu trnh chy khng hon ton.
Da vo nguyn nhn gy ra chy khng hon ton ngi ta chia ra:
- Chy khng hon ton ho hc: xy ra khi mt phn nhng cht c th chy trong
nhin liu tham gia phn ng chy, v mt iu kin no khng th chy c v b
cun ra ngoi theo sn vt chy. Nguyn nhn gy ra chy khng hon ton ha hc c
th l:
+ Cung cp khng kh khng .
+ Khng kh v nhin liu hn hp khng tt.
+ Phn ha nhit.
Trong cc nguyn nhn trn, hai nguyn nhn u c th hn ch c, nguyn
nhn th ba khng th hn ch c, v d phn ng phn ho ca CO
2
:

2 2
O CO 2 CO 2 +
Mc phn ha ca CO
2
ph thuc p sut ring phn v nhit ca kh.
- Chy khng hon ton c hc: do nhin liu b ri vi, r r trong qu trnh t, lm
cho mt phn khng th tham gia phn ng chy. Chy khng hon ton c hc ph
thuc nhin liu v thit b t, v d than lt qua mt ghi, kh r r trn ng ng
trc m t ...


- 69 -
b) H s khng kh d
Thng thng khi t nhin liu, nu lng khng kh s dng ly ng theo t l
cc phn ng ha hc th gy ra chy khng hon ton, do ngi ta thng ly d so
vi yu cu l thuyt. nh gi mc d khng kh, ngi ta dng khi nim h
s d khng kh xc nh bng cng thc sau:

0
n
L
L
n = (4.18)
Trong :
L
0
- th tch khng kh cn thit theo l thuyt t chy ht mt n v khi
lng hay th tch nhin liu [m
3
/kg hoc m
3
/m
3
].
L
n
- th tch khng kh c s dng t chy mt n v khi lng hay th
tch nhin liu[m
3
/kg hoc m
3
/m
3
].
H s khng kh d c chn cn c vo nhin liu, cu to ca thit b t,
iu kin vn hnh. Bng 4.4 cho gi tr h s khng kh d thng dng trong thc t.
Bng 4.4 H s khng kh d
Nhin liu v kiu thit b t H s d khng kh, n
Bung t than thao tc th cng 1,30 - 1,70
Bung t than c kh ha 1,20 - 1,40
t than bi 1,20 - 1,25
t kh t, m t khng c ngn la 1,03 - 1,05
t kh t, m t c ngn la 1,10 - 1,15

4.3. Tnh ton s chy ca nhin liu
Tnh ton s chy ca nhin liu nhm mc ch xc nh lng khng kh cn
thit t chy nhin liu, lng sn vt chy, thnh phn, khi lng ring ca sn
vt chy v nhit chy.
tnh ton ngi ta da vo cc gi thit sau:
- Cc cht kh c coi l kh l tng.
- Khng tnh n th tch sn vt chy do phn ha nhit.
- Th tch kh u i v iu kin tiu chun.
- Trong khng kh ch cha oxy v nit vi t l th tch: 21% O
2
v 79%N
2
.

- 70 -
4.3.1. Tnh ton s chy ca nhin liu rn v lng
dn gin trong tnh ton, mi tnh ton c tin hnh vi 100 kg nhin liu.
a) Tnh lng khng kh l thuyt cn dng t nhin liu :
- Chuyn i thnh phn nhin liu v thnh phn thng dng:
C
d
+ H
d
+ O
d
+ N
d
+ S
d
+A
d
+ W
d
= 100 %
- Tnh s kmol cc cht c trong 100 kg nhin liu:

12
C
d
;
2
H
d
;
32
O
d
;
28
N
d
;
32
S
d
v
18
W
d
(kmol)
Ring thnh phn tro (A) khng tham gia phn ng chy v khng bin thnh kh l
nn khng tnh n.
- Da vo phng trnh phn ng chy ca cc cht, tnh lng oxy cn t
chy nhin liu:

32
S
4
H
12
C
N
d d d
'
O
2
+ + = (kmol)
Do trong nhin liu c
32
O
d
kmol oxy nn lng oxy cn cung cp:

32
O
32
S
4
H
12
C
N
d d d d
O
2
+ + = (kmol) (4.19)
Vy th tch oxy cn cung cp t chy 100 kg nhin liu l:
4 , 22 .
32
O
32
S
4
H
12
C
V
d d d d
O
2

+ + = (m
3
) (4.20)
Lng nit a vo theo khng kh tnh theo kmol l:

+ + =
32
O
32
S
4
H
12
C
21
79
N
d d d d
N
2
(kmol) (4.21)

+ + =
32
O
32
S
4
H
12
C
. 762 , 3 N
d d d d
N
2
(kmol) (4.22)
Lng nit a vo theo khng kh tnh theo th tch l:
4 , 22 .
32
O
32
S
4
H
12
C
. 762 , 3 V
d d d d
O
2

+ + = (4.23)
Vy th tch khng kh cn cung cp t chy 100 kg nhin liu l:
- 71 -
4 , 22 .
32
O
32
S
4
H
12
C
. 762 , 4 V V V
d d d d
N O kk
2 2

+ + = + = (4.24)
b) Tnh lng sn vt chy l thuyt: Lng sn vt chy l thuyt gm hai phn:
+ Lng sn vt chy do nhin liu chy sinh ra:

+ + + + =
18
W
32
N
32
S
2
H
12
C
N
d d d d d
nl
SVC
(kmol) (4.25)
+ Lng kh do khng kh mang vo:

+ + = =
32
O
32
S
4
H
12
C
. 762 , 3 V N
d d d d
N
kk
svc
2
(kmol) (4.26)
Vy lng sn vt chy tng cng khi t 100 kg nhin liu l:

+ + +

+ + + + =
32
O
32
S
4
H
12
C
. 762 , 3
18
W
32
N
32
S
2
H
12
C
N
d d d d d d d d d
SVC
(kmol) (4.27)
4 , 22 .
32
O
32
S
4
H
12
C
. 762 , 3
18
W
32
N
32
S
2
H
12
C
V
d d d d d d d d d
SVC

+ + +

+ + + + = (m
3
)
(4.28)
c) Tnh lng khng kh v sn vt chy l thuyt v thc t khi t chy 1 kg nhin
liu:
- T cng thc (4.24) tnh c lng khng kh l thuyt cn t chy 1 kg nhin
liu:

100
4 , 22
.
32
O
32
S
4
H
12
C
. 762 , 4 L
d d d d
0

+ + = [m
3
/kg] (4.29)
- T cng thc (4.28) tnh c lng sn vt chy l thuyt khi t chy 1 kg nhin
liu:
100
4 , 22
.
32
O
32
S
4
H
12
C
. 762 , 3
18
W
32
N
32
S
2
H
12
C
V
d d d d d d d d d
0

+ + +

+ + + + = [m
3
/kg]
(4.30)
- Lng khng kh thc t cn t chy 1 kg nhin liu:

0 n
L . n L = [m
3
/kg] (4.31)
- Lng sn vt chy thc t sinh ra khi t chy 1 kg nhin liu:
( )
0 0 n
L . ) 1 n V V + = [m
3
/kg] (4.32)
- 72 -
Cc kt qu tnh ton thng c biu din theo bng (xem bng 4.6).
d) Tnh thnh phn sn vt chy:
100 .
N
N
X %
n
1 i
Xi
Xi
i

=
= [%] (4.33)
Trong : N
Xi
l s kmol ca thnh phn sn vt chy X
i
.
e) Tnh khi lng ring ca sn vt chy:
Khi lng ring ca sn vt chy xc nh theo cng thc:

=
=
=
n
1 i
Xi
n
1 i
Xi Xi
V
M . N
[kg/m
3
] (4.34)
Trong N
Xi
, M
Xi
, V
Xi
l s kmol, khi lng kmol v th tch ca thnh phn sn vt
chy X
i
.
e) Tnh nhit chy ca nhin liu:
Nhit chy l thuyt ca nhin liu l nhit m sn vt chy th kh c
th t ti khi t chy nhin liu trong iu kin l tng, tc l chy hon ton,
khng c tn tht, khng c phn ha nhit cng nh khng c khng kh d.
tnh ton, ngi ta gi thit nhit chy l thuyt t
o
cn tm nm trong
khong t
1
n t
2
v:
(4.35)

=
< <
C 100 t t
t t t
o
1 2
2 do 1
Khi , nhit chy l thuyt xc nh theo cng thc sau:
( )
1 1 2
1 2
1 tng
do
t t t
i i
i i
t +

= (4.36)
Trong :

=
=
n
1 i
1 t , Xi
i
1
i .
100
X %
i - nhit hm ca sn vt chy nhit t
1
, i
Xi,t1
l nhit hm ca
thnh phn X
i
nhit t
1
.

=
=
n
1 i
2 t , Xi
i
2
i .
100
X %
i - nhit hm ca sn vt chy nhit t
2
, i
Xi,t2
l nhit hm
ca thnh phn X
i
nhit t
2
.
i
tng
l nhit hm tng cng ca sn vt chy:
- 73 -

n
n kk nl H
tng
V
L i i Q
i
+ +
= [kcal/m
3
] hay [kj/m
3
] (4.37)
y i
nl
= c
nl
.t
nl
l nhit hm ca nhin liu v i
kk
= c
kk
.t
kk
l nhit hm ca
khng kh. Khi khng nung nng nhin liu v khng kh th i
nl
, i
kk
bng khng.
Trong cc tnh ton trn nhit hm ca cc cht c tra theo bng cho sn.
Nhit chy thc t ca nhin liu tnh theo cng thc sau:
do tt
t . t =
Trong l h s nhit , ph thuc loi l v dng nhin liu, tra theo bng.
Bng 4.5 Bng tra h s nhit
Loi l Dng nhin liu

L bung Kh l sinh kh 0,73 - 0,78
L bung Rn 0,66 - 0,70
L lin tc Rn 0,70 - 0,75

Di y kho st mt v d tnh ton s chy vi nhin liu l than c thnh
phn chy nh sau:
85,32%C
c
, 4,56%H
c
, 4,07%O
c
, 1,80%N
c
, 4,25%S
c
, 7,78%A
k
, 3,00%W
d
.
V h s d khng kh n = 1,25.
- i thnh phn chy sang thnh phn thng dng:
i thnh phn tro A
k
sang A
d
:
55 , 7
100
3 100
. 78 , 7
100
W 100
A A
d
k d
=

= [%]
H s th hon t thnh phn chy sang thnh phn thng dng:

( ) ( )
8945 , 0
100
3 55 , 7 100
100
W A 100
K
d d
=
+
=
+
=
Thnh phn thng dng ca nhin liu:
A
d
= 7,55 %
W
d
= 3,00 %
C
d
= 0,895 x 85,32 = 76,32 %
H
d
= 0,895 x 4,56 = 4,08 %
O
d
= 0,895 x 4,07 = 3,64 %
N
d
= 0,895 x 1,80 = 3,64 %
S
d
= 0,895 x 4,25 = 3,80 %
- 74 -
- Tnh ton xc nh lng khng kh lng v thnh phn sn vt chy cho 100 kg
nhin liu (kt qu trnh by bng 4.6).
m
3
22,4 x 36,53
8
1
8
,
2


1
0
1
6


C

n
g

k
m
o
l















3
6
,
5
3

1
0
0

4
5
,
3
4

1
0
0

N
2
k
m
o
l

2
7
,
7
8
2


T

k
h

n
g


k
h

o

0
,
0
5
9





2
7
,
8
4

7
6
,
2
2

3
4
,
8
0

7
6
,
7
5

O
2
k
m
o
l
















1
,
8
5

4
,
0
9

S
O
2
k
m
o
l





0
,
1
1
9









0
,
1
1
9

0
,
3
3

0
,
1
2

0
,
2
6

H
2
O

k
m
o
l



2
,
0
4







0
,
1
6
7



2
,
2
0
7

6
,
0
4

2
,
2
1

4
,
8
7

S

n

v

t

c
h

y

C
O
2
k
m
o
l

6
,
3
6













6
,
3
6

1
7
,
4
1

6
,
3
6

1
4
,
0
3

m
3
35,167 x 22,4
7
8
7
,
8


9
8
4
,
7


C

n
g

k
m
o
l

7,385 + 27,782
3
5
,
6
7

1
0
0

4
3
,
9
6

1
0
0

N
2
k
m
o
l

3,762 x 7,385
2
7
,
7
8

7
9
,
0

3
4
,
7
3

7
9
,
0
0

K
h

n
g

k
h

O
2
k
m
o
l

6
,
3
6
0

1
,
0
2
0

0
,
1
1
9

-
0
,
1
1
4

-

-



7
,
3
8
5

2
1
,
0
%

9
,
2
3

2
1
,
0
0

S

n
g

k
m
o
l

6
,
3
6

2
,
0
4

0
,
1
1
9

0
,
1
1
4

0
,
0
5
9

0
,
1
6
7

-



k
m
o
l

k
g

1
2

2

3
2

3
2

2
8

1
8

-


K
h

i


l

n
g

k
g

7
6
,
3
2

4
,
0
8

3
,
8

3
,
6
4

1
,
6
1

3

7
,
5
5

1
0
0


H

m


l

n
g

%

7
6
,
3
2

4
,
0
8

3
,
8

3
,
6
4

1
,
6
1

3

7
,
5
5

1
0
0

























T
h

n
h

p
h

n

(
%
)



























T
h

n
h

p
h

n

(
%
)

B

n
g

4
.
6

B

n
g

k

t

q
u

n
h

l

n
g

k
h

n
g

k
h

,

l

n
g

v

t
h

n
h

p
h

n

s

n

v

t

c
h

y

c
h
o

1
0
0

k
g

n
h
i

n

l
i

u

N
h
i

n

l
i

u

T
h

n
h


p
h

n


C



H



S



O



N



W



A

=

n

=

1

n

=

1
,
2
5



- 75 -
- Lng khng kh l thuyt:
878 , 7
100
8 , 787
L
0
= = [m
3
/kg]
- Lng khng kh thc t:
847 , 9
100
7 , 984
L
n
= = [m
3
/kg]
- Lng sn vt chy l thuyt:
182 , 8
100
2 , 818
V
0
= = [m
3
/kg]
- Lng sn vt chy thc t:
16 , 10
100
1016
L
n
= = [m
3
/kg]
- Thnh phn sn vt chy:
CO
2
14,03 %
H
2
O 4,87 %
SO
2
0,26 %
O
2
4,08 %
N
2
76,75 %
= 100 %
- Tnh khi lng ring ca sn vt chy:
Khi lng ca sn vt chy:
CO
2
6,36 . 44 = 279,84
H
2
O 2,21 . 18 = 39,73
SO
2
0,12 . 64 = 7,62
O
2
1,85 . 32 = 59,32
N
2
76,75 . 28 = 974,44
= 1360,9 kg
Khi lng ring ca sn vt chy:
34 , 1
1016
9 , 1360
= = [kg/m
3
]
- Nhit chy l thuyt ca nhin liu: Nhin liu v khng kh khng c nung
nng trc nn ta c:
- 76 -

n
d
tng
V
Q
i =
Theo cng thc Men--l-ep:
( )
d d d
d
d d
d
W H 9 6 S 25
8
O
H 6 , 344 C 8 , 80 Q + + +

+ =
Q
d
= 81.76,32 + 246.4,08 - 26.( 3,64 - 3,8) - 6.3
Q
d
= 7171 [kcal/kg]
Khi n = 1,25 c V
n
= 10,16 m
3
/kg, ta c:
9 , 705
16 , 10
7172
i
tng
= = [kcal/m
3
]
Tnh i
1
= i
1800
o
C
:
CO
2
0,1403. 1031 = 144,7 [kcal/m
3
]
H
2
O 0,0487. 819,3 = 39,90 [kcal/m
3
]
SO
2
0,0026. 1018 = 2,65 [kcal/m
3
]
O
2
0,0409. 669,1 = 27,37 [kcal/m
3
]
N
2
0,7675. 635,3 = 487,59 [kcal/m
3
]
----------------------------
i
1800
o
C
= 702,2 [kcal/m
3
]
Tnh i
2
= i
1900
o
C
:
CO
2
0,1403. 1095 = 153,6 [kcal/m
3
]
H
2
O 0,0487. 873,2 = 42,52 [kcal/m
3
]
SO
2
0,0026. 1072 = 2,79 [kcal/m
3
]
O
2
0,0409. 710,5 = 29,06 [kcal/m
3
]
N
2
0,7675. 673,2 = 516,68 [kcal/m
3
]
----------------------------
i
1900
o
C
= 744,7 [kcal/m
3
]
Nhit chy l thuyt:
( )
1 1 2
1 2
1 tng
do
t t t
i i
i i
t +

=
( ) 1809 1800 1800 1900
2 , 702 7 , 744
2 , 702 9 , 705
t
do
= +

= [
o
C]
- 77 -
Tho mn iu kin t
1
< t
o
< t
2
.
4.3.2. Tnh ton s chy ca nhin liu kh
i vi nhin liu kh, mi kmol cht kh iu kin tiu chun u c th tch
22,4 m
3
, do quan h gia cc thnh phn trong phn ng chy theo kmol tng ng
vi quan h th tch. Bi vy, cc tnh ton tin hnh theo phm trm th tch. Cc
bc tnh ton tng t vi nhin liu rn hoc lng.




- 78 -
Chng 5
Thit b t nhin liu
5.1. Thit b t nhin liu rn
t chy nhin liu, trong cc l luyn kim cng nh trong cc l cng nghip
ni chung, ngi ta s dng thit b gi l thit b t. Thit b t cn m bo t
chy nhin liu mt cch hiu qu, mt khc phi n gin v kt cu, d s dng v
sa cha.
t nhin lin rn m ch yu l than dng cc ngi ta s dng thit b t
gi l bung t. Bung t nhin liu rn c chia thnh:
+ Bung t th cng : thao tc cp than bng th cng.
+ Bung t c kh: thao tc cp than c kh ha.
5.1.1. Bung t th cng
Bung t th cng c chia thnh hai loi: bung t ghi phng v bung t
ghi nghing.
Bung t ghi phng: Cu trc ca bung t ghi phng trnh by trn hnh 5.1a.

1
2
3
5
4
6
a)
b)
c)








Hnh 5.1 S cu trc bung t ghi phng
1) Ca cht than 2) Than 3) Ghi l 4) Ca cp gi
5) Ca tho x 6) Bung cha x



Trong bung t ghi phng, than c cp vo l qua ca cht than (1), tri thnh
lp trn mt ghi (3), gi c thi vo mt di ca ghi qua ca cp gi (4) v i qua
ghi t chy than (2) to thnh kh l i sang bung lm vic ca l. X to thnh khi
t than ri xung ngn cha x (6) v nh k c tho ra ngoi qua ca tho x (5).
- 79 -
Ghi l c ch to t gang hp kim chu nhit, dng thanh ghp li vi nhau
(hnh 5.1b) hoc dng tm (hnh 5.1c). Khi than c c cc ln ngi ta s dng ghi
thanh, u im ca ghi thanh l d thay th khi b hng nhng kh khn trong lp t.
Khi than c c cc b, ngi ta s dng ghi tm, u im ca n l d lp t nhng
khi b hng phi thay c tm.
T l gia tng din tch l mt ghi v din tch ton b mt ghi gi l t l mt
ghi, t l ny i vi ghi phng thng t 15 - 30 %, tr s ln dng cho than c nh.
Bung t th cng ghi phng c cu trc n gin, thun li cho thao tc nhng
c nhc im:
+ Nhit trong bung t khng n nh do cht than theo chu k.
+ H s d khng kh ln n = 1,3 - 1,7.
+ Hn ch vic dng gi nng.
Bung t ghi nghing: i vi cc bung t c cng sut nhit ln, thun
tin cho vic cp than v nh x ngi ta dng bung t ghi nghing. Cu trc ca
kiu bung t ny c trnh by trn hnh 5.2.


7
6
5
4
3
1
2







Hnh 5.2 S bung t ghi nghing
1) Bongke cha than 2) C cu iu chnh 3) Ghi nghing
4) Ghi phng 5) Ca gi trn 6) Ca gi di 7) Ca tho x

Ghi l gm 2 phn: phn ch yu l ghi nghing (3) v mt phn l ghi phng (4).
Ghi nghing c to bi cc thanh ghi bn rng t 200 - 250 mm ghp thnh bc 70 -
100 mm, to thnh mt mt phng nghing so vi mt phng ngang mt gc t 35 -
40
o
.

- 80 -
Than c cp t bongke cha (1) ri xung ghi nghing (3) v c t chy
ch yu trn mt ghi nghing, phn than chy cha ht ri xung v tip tc chy trn
phn ghi phng. X to thnh ch yu tp trung trn phn ghi phng v ri xung
bung cha x, nh k c tho ra ngoi qua ca tho x (7). Lng than cp vo l
c iu chnh bng c cu quay ng m ca bongke thng qua cn gt (2). Gi
c cp qua ca gi trn (5) t than trn ghi nghing v qua ca gi (6) t
than trn ghi phng.
Bung t ghi nghing c u im:
+ S chy ca nhin liu xy ra lin tc v u dn nn nhit t thay i.
+ C th dng t than c nh.
+ Thao tc cp than d dng hn.
Nhc im ca bung t ghi nghing l kt cu cng knh, lp t kh khn.
5.1.2. Bung t c kh
Trong bung t c kh, vic cp than v tho x ra ngoi c c kh ha hon
ton. Trong cc bung t loi ny, than c cp t di ln nh c cu xon ti hoc
cp t trn xung bng kh nn, bng c cu quay kiu cnh gt.
Trn hnh 5.3 trnh by s bung t cp than t di ln bng xon ti.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Hnh 5.3 S bung t c kh cp than t di ln bng xon ti
1) Bongke cha than 2) C cu cp than 3) Xon ti
4) Ghi l hnh phu 5) Ghi cha x 6) Bung gi 7) Bung cha x









Than t bongke cha (1) c c cu cp a vo xon ti (3) v c y ln
cao hn mt ghi hnh phu (4), cn gi c cp vo bung gi (6) v qua cc l mt
ghi i ln t chy than. X to thnh trong qu trnh chy ln xung ghi cha x v ri
xung bung cha (7).
- 81 -
Trong bung t c kh cp than t pha trn bng cnh gt, ngi ta dng c cu
quay kiu cnh gt, than t bongke ri vo bung cp c cc cnh gt tung ln mt
ghi. Lng than cp c iu chnh bi tc quay cnh gt.
Trong bung t c kh cp than t pha trn bng kh nn, ngi ta dng kh nn
y than tung ln mt ghi, lng than cp c iu chnh bng cch thay i p sut
kh nn.
Bung t c kh ci thin iu kin lao ng cho ngi thao tc, nhng kt cu
phc tp, gi thnh cao, ch thch hp vi l c cng sut nhit ln.
5.1.3. Tnh ton bung t
a) Chn kiu bung t
Khi thit k bung t, cn cn c vo c im ca nhin liu, cng sut nhit
ca l chn kiu bung t thch hp. Nguyn tc chung chn kiu bung t:
+ Nu bung t c cng sut nhit nh th nn dng bung t th cng, i vi
l cng sut nhit ln nn dng bung t c kh.
+ Nu than c c cc nh hoc d v vn dng bung t ghi tm phng hoc
dng ghi nghing khi cng sut nhit tng i ln. Than c c cc trung bnh v ln
s dng bung t ghi thanh.
+ Nu than c hm lng cht bc ln cn chn chiu cao bung t ln.
+ Khi din tch mt ghi ln nn chia bung t thnh mt s bung thun tin
cho thao tc cp than v nh x.
b) Tnh cc kch thc c bn ca bung t
- Xc nh din tch mt ghi:
Din tch mt ghi c xc nh theo cng thc sau:

R
B
F = [m
2
] (5.1)
Hoc:
r
Q . B . 28 , 0
F
d
= [m
2
] (5.2)
Trong :
B - lng nhin liu t trong mt gi [kg/h].
Q
d
- nhit tr thp ca nhin liu [j/kg].
R - cng chy ca ghi l [kg/m
2
.h].
r - cng nhit ca ghi l [W/m
2
].
- 82 -
Gi tr ca R, r chn theo bng (bng 5.1).
Bng 5.1 Cng chy v cng nhit ca ghi l
r .10
-3
Dng
nhin liu
Kiu
bung t
R
kg/m
2
.h Kcal/m
2
.h W/m
2
Than ci Ghi th cng 200 - 300 400 - 1 500 465 - 1 744
Than bn Ghi th cng 200 - 400 600 - 1 200 697 - 1 395
Than Ghi th cng 70 - 120 300 - 1 500 349 - 1 744
Than antraxit Ghi th cng 100 - 120 400 - 1 500 465 - 1 744

- Chn t l mt ghi v cc kch thc c bn ca ghi: Cn c vo loi than, c ht
ca than chn t l mt ghi, tnh din tch mt ghi, xc nh hnh dng v kch thc
ca mt ghi.
Bng 5.2 Quan h gia loi than v t l mt ghi
Loi than T l mt ghi f/F (%)
Than , than nu 25 - 30
Than ci, than bn 15 - 20
Than gy, than antraxit 10 - 15

- Xc nh th tch bung t: Th tch bung t ph thuc loi than v kiu l,
c xc nh theo cng thc sau:

q
B . Q
V
d
= [m
3
] (5.3)
Trong :
Q
d
- nhit tr thp ca nhin liu, [j/kg].
B - lng than cn t trong mt gi, [kg/h].
q - mt nhit th tch ca bung t, [W/m
3
], gi tr chn theo bng 5.3.
- Tnh chiu cao ca bung t:
Chiu cao bung t xc nh theo cng thc:

F
V
H = [m] (5.4)
Trong : V- th tch bung t [m
3
].
F - din tch mt ghi [m
2
].
- 83 -
Bng 5.3 Mt nhit th tch ca bung t
Bung t l nung Bung t l sy
Loi nhin liu
kcal/m
3
.h W/m
3
kcal/m
3
.h W/m
3
Than ci, than bn 300 - 400 348 - 465 200 - 250 232 - 290
Than 230 - 450 290 - 523 250 - 300 290 - 348
Mazut 250 - 500 290 - 581 200 - 300 232 - 348
Nhin liu kh 200 - 350 230 - 407 200 - 250 232 - 290

- Xc nh kch thc bung t: kch thc bung t c chn cn c cc yu t
sau:
+ Din tch mt ghi v s bung t.
+ Kiu bung t v iu kin thao tc.
+ Tng quan gia bung t v bung l, yu cu v b tr th xy.
Theo quy c kch thc bung t nm dc theo chiu chuyn ng ca kh l
t bung t sang bung l l chiu di (hoc chiu su bung t), kch thc cn li
gi l chiu ngang.
i vi bung t th cng, chiu di bung t khng c chn qu ln gy
kh khn cho thao tc cht than v nh x, cn chiu ngang chn sao cho t l gia
chiu ngang v chiu di nm trong khong 1 - 1,3. Nu t l gia chiu ngang v chiu
di ln hn, tch bung t thnh hai bung t k tip nhau theo chiu ngang.
i vi bung t c kh thng chn kch thc chiu ngang v chiu di xp
x nhau. Trng hp khng gy tr ngi cho vic b tr cc c cu c kh v khng nh
hng n iu kin lm vic ca l c th chn chiu di ln hn chiu ngang.
i vi cc l c nhit cao, bung t thng b tr cnh bung l, khi chn
kch thc bung t cn xem xt tng quan vi kch bung l sao cho b tr cc th
xy v thi cng thun li.
- Tnh tn tht p sut ca khng kh i qua ghi v lp than.
Do ma st, thay i tc , thay i hng chuyn ng v nhiu yu t khc, tn
tht p sut ca khng kh i qua ghi v lp than kh ln. Tn tht ny c xc nh
theo cc cng thc thc nghim.
i vi bung t ghi phng t than ci:
- 84 -

2
2
2
tt
CO %
12
.
F . 400
B
3 h

= [mmH
2
O] (5.5)
Bung t ghi phng t than bn:

2
2
2
tt
CO %
10
.
F . 350
B
. 4 h

= [mmH
2
O] (5.6)
Bung t ghi phng t than antraxit:

2
tt
F . 150
B
m h

= [mmH
2
O] (5.7)
Trong :
B - lng nhin liu cn t trong mt gi [kg/h].
F - din tch mt ghi [m
2
].
%CO
2
- hm lng CO
2
trong khi l [%].
m - h s ph thuc hm lng tro ca than m = 25 - 50.
Trong thc t tn tht p sut qua ghi vo khong 90 - 120 mmH
2
O, nu tnh c
tn tht do lp than th p sut gi di ghi cn khong 100 - 120 mmH
2
O. i vi cc
bung t nhit cao, t than t cht bc, mun cho than chy hon ton th p sut
gi di ghi cn tng ln, vo khong 120 - 140 mmH
2
O.
5.2. Thit b t nhin liu bi
5.2.1. Khi nim v t nhin liu bi
Khi t nhin liu rn, nu c ht qu b, s dng bung t thng thng, tn
tht nhin liu ln (do lt qua mt ghi), ng thi qu trnh t gp nhiu kh khn v
tr lc khng kh qua lp than ln. gii quyt vn ny, ngi ta chuyn sang t
dng bi.
Khi t than bi, than c nghin nh thnh ht c kch thc t 0,05 - 0,07
mm, dng khng kh nn thi vo bung t to thnh dng hn hp bi than v khng
kh. Do din tch tip xc ca than v khng kh ln, cc ht than c xo trn mnh
vi khng kh nn cc phn ng chy xy ra vi tc ln. ng thi, khi chy do b
nung nng mnh v cht bc thot ra nhanh, cc ht than b cc ho v vn thnh ht
nh nn nhin liu chy cng nhanh v trit hn, lm tng hiu qu t nhin liu.
Phng php t nhin liu bi cng c hiu qu khi hm lng cht bc trong than
cng ln, do thng ng dng vi cc loi than c hm lng cht bc t 20 - 30 %.
- 85 -
5.2.2. Cc thit b t nhin liu bi
t nhin liu bi, ngi ta ngi ta s dng bung t ring kiu xicln hoc
t trc tip trong bung l.
a) Bung t kiu xicln
S cu trc ca bung t kiu xicln trnh by trn hnh 5.4.
Bung t kiu xicln c dng ng hnh tr, ng knh t 1 - 2 m, th tch t 10
- 15 m
3
, v l lm bng thp, bn trong c m mt lp hn hp vt liu chu la
dy 30 - 50 mm.

2 3
1






Hnh 5.4 Bung t than bi kiu xicln
1) Ca cp khng kh t 1 2)Ca cp than bi 3) Ca cp khng kh t 2

Khi t, than bi c khng kh nn phun vo bung t theo hng tip tuyn
vi thnh bung t to thnh dng xoy v b t chy. Lng khng kh t 1 dng
phun bi than to thnh hn hp chim khong 20% lng khng kh cn thit
t nhin liu, tc phun khong 20 - 25 m/s, khng kh cn li c nung nng
trc n khong 400
o
C v phun vo l vi tc khong 80 - 100 m/s.
b) t than bi trc tip trong bung l
S t thit b t nhin liu trc tip trong bung l trnh by trn hnh 5.5.
Than bi t bong ke cha (1) qua xon ti cp (2) cng vi khng kh t 1 c
cp vo m phun (3) phun vo bung l v c t chy to thnh ngn la r rt
ngay trong bung l. T l khng kh t 1, tu thuc vo loi than, chim t 20 - 50
%, tc dng hn hp khi ra khi ming phun khong 20 - 40 m/s. Tc phun ca
khng kh t 2 chn ln hn tc dng hn hp khng kh t mt + bi than.
Trong trng hp nung nng trc khng kh, nhit nung khng kh t 1 khng
qu 150
o
C, nhit nung khng kh t 2 khng qu 300 - 400
o
C. H s d khng kh
n =1,15 - 1,25
- 86 -

3
2
1








Hnh 5.5 t than bi trc tip trong l
1) Bongke cha than bi 2) Xon ti cp liu 3) M phun
Bng 5.4 Lng khng kh t 1 v tc bt la ca hn hp bi than
Lng khng kh t 1 Tc bt la
Loi than
% m/s
Cht bc 30%, tro 5% 50 0 - 12
Cht bc 30%, tro 15% 40 10 - 11
Cht bc 20%, tro 5% 30 6 - 7
Cht bc 15%, tro 5% 25 3 - 4
Cht bc 15%, tro 15% 20 2 - 3

t nhin liu bi c u im: than chy tt, n nh, h s d khng kh nh, s
dng c than vn nhng c nhc im sn vt chy cha nhiu bi.
5.3. Thit b t nhin liu lng
t nhin liu lng ngi ta dng thit b t gi l m phun. Theo p sut
lm vic, cc m phun c chia ra:
+ M phun p sut thp: p sut cht bin bi nh hn p sut ti hn.
+ M phun p sut cao: p sut cht bin bi ln hn p sut ti hn.
5.3.1. M phun p sut thp
Trong m phun p sut thp, cht bin bi l khng kh c p sut t 300 - 800
mmH
2
O, tc cht bin bi khi ra khi ming phun t 50 - 80 m/s.
Trn hnh 5.6 trnh by s cu to ca mt s loi m phun p sut thp.
Trong m phun hnh 5.6a, du phun ra t ng (1) gp dng khng kh trong ng (2) b
bin thnh bi du cng vi khng kh phun ra khi ming phun (4) v c t chy.
- 87 -
Khng kh vo m phun c p sut khong 500mmH
2
O, tc t 70 - 80 m/s. Kiu m
phun ny c kt cu n gin nhng lun lun phi gi cho m phun lm vic cng
sut.


1
2
3
4
4
2
1





a) b)

Hnh 5.6 S m phun p sut thp
1) ng dn du 2) ng dn khng kh
3) Vt chnh du 4) Ming m phun


Trong m phun hnh 5.6b, du chuyn ng trong ng (1), khng kh chuyn
ng trong ng dn (2). Khi du phun ra khi ming ng phun b khng kh nh ti
thnh bi du to thnh hn hp i ra khi ming ng phun. Lu lng du c iu
chnh bi vt iu chnh (3), cn lng khng kh c iu chnh nh thay i khe h
gia ng phun du v ming m phun, p sut du t 500 - 1.000 mmH
2
O, p sut
khng kh t 300 - 700 mmH
2
O. Nh c cu iu chnh, loi m t ny c th lm
vic vi cng sut gim ti 40 - 50%.
5.3.2. M phun p sut cao
Trong m phun p sut cao, cht bin bi l khng kh nn c p sut t 4 - 6 at
hoc hi nc c p sut t 5 - 15 at , tc hn hp ra khi ming m phun t ti
330 m/s hoc ln hn.


3
1
2




Hnh 5.7 M phun p sut cao
1) ng dn du 2) ng dn cht bin bi 3) ng dn khng kh
- 88 -
Trong m t hnh 5.7, du c dn vo ng (1), cht bin bi c dn v ng
(2), cn khng kh t nhin liu c dn vo qua ng (3). Khi nhit thng, tc
ca khng kh bin bi ra khi ming ng phun t t 300 - 320 m/s, nu nung
nng trc n 200 - 300
o
C, tc c th t ti 500 - 530 m/s. Lng cht bin bi
nu l khng kh nn cn 0,6 - 0,8 m
3
/kg, nu l hi nc cn 0,4 - 0,6 kg hi/kg.
Vi loi m t ny, nu kch thc nh th chiu di ngn la khon 2,5 - 4 m,
nu kch thc ln c th ti 6 - 7 m.

3
5





2
4
1
3



Hnh 5.8 S cu to m phun p sut cao
1) ng dn du 2) ng dn cht bin bi
3) ng loe La- van 4) Bung hn hp 5) ng dn khng kh

Vi m phun hnh 5.8, trn phn u ca ng phun c lp thm ng loe La-van
(3), nh ng loe ny tc cht bin bi t ti 750 m/s hoc cao hn. Nh vy cht
lng bin bi tt hn v chiu di ngn la c th t ti 8 - 10 m. Loi m phun ny
c cng sut t 250 - 2.500 kg/h, lng cht bin bi 180 - 1.900 kg/h i vi khng
kh nn v 25 - 1250 kg/h i vi hi nc.
5.3.3. Tnh ton m phun
Vic tnh ton m phun nhm xc nh kch thc cc ng ng dn v kch
thc ming ra ca du, ca khng kh t tnh ton cc thng s khc hoc chn m
t c sn.
a) Tnh ton m phun p sut thp
Thng s ban u:
+ Loi nhin liu.
- 89 -
+ Lng tiu hao nhin liu G
1
[kg/s].
+ p sut khng kh trong ng dn trc m phun p
0
[N/m
2
].
+ Nhit khng kh t
2

[
o
C].
+ Lng khng kh cn t chy hon ton du G
2
[kg/kg].
+ p sut mi trng l p
mt
[N/m
2
].







d
1
d
2
Hnh 5.9 S tnh ton m phun p sut thp
- Tnh p sut cn thit ca khng kh:
p

= p
mt
+ p
t
Trong p
t
p sut tnh ti ming ra, xc nh theo cng thc:
p
t
= k.p
0
Vi k l h s tn tht trong ng dn thng ly k =0,9.
- Tc khng kh khi ra khi ming phun:

=
d
mt
2 2
p
p
1 T . R . 2 [m/s] (5.8)
Trong :
R - hng s kh, R = 288 [Nm/kg.
o
K].
T
2
- nhit ban u ca khng kh, [
o
K].
- Tit din ming ra ca khng kh:

2 2
2
2
.
G
F

= [m
2
]
Trong
2
l khi lng ring ca khng kh [kg/m
3
] c xc nh theo cng:

2
d
2
T . R
p
= [kg/m
3
]
- Tit din ming ra ca ng phun du:
- 90 -

1 1
1
1
.
G
F

= [m
2
]
Trong :

1
- tc ca du, i vi m phun p sut thp chn
1
= 1m/s.

1
- khi lng ring ca du [kg/m
3
].
- ng knh ming ra ca ng dn du:

=
1
1
F . 4
d [m] (5.9)
- Tit din ngoi ca ming ng phun du: Khi chiu dy thnh ng l , tit din
ngoi ca ng dn du:

( )
4
2 d .
F
2
1
n 1
+
= [m
2
]
- ng knh ming ra ca ng dn khng kh:

( )

+
=
n 1 2
2
F F . 4
d [m] (5.10)
- Tc ca hn hp bi du v khng kh c xc nh theo cng thc:

( )
+
+ +
=
1
E 1 .
u 2 1
hh

Trong
2 2
mt 2
u
.
p p
E

= , tiu chun -le, vi p

2
l p sut tnh trong dng chy ca cht
bin bi.
- sut tiu hao cht bin bi [kg/kg].
- Kim tra kch thc ht du:

( )

+


=
1
.
.
. 12
d
2
2

Trong :
+ . ( )
1 u 2
E 1 + =
+ - sc cng b mt ca du [N/m
2
], thng = 0,032 N/m
2
.
- 91 -
Sau khi tnh c cc kch thc ch yu ca m phun, da vo tc cho php
ca khng kh
kk
(
kk
= 10 - 15 m/s) v tc cho php ca du
d
(
d
= 0,2 - 0,8
m/s) trong ng dn tnh tit din v ng knh ca ng dn.
b) Tnh ton m phun p sut cao
Thng s ban u:
+ Loi nhin liu.
+ Lng tiu hao nhin liu G
1
[kg/s].
+ p sut khng kh trong ng dn trc m phun p

[N/m
2
].
+ Nhit khng kh t
2

[
o
C].
+ Lng tiu hao khng kh nn

[kg/kg].
+ p sut mi trng l p
mt
[N/m
2
].
+ Ch s on nhit ca khng kh k = c
p
/c
v
.
S tnh ton trnh by trn hnh 5.10.

1 2
0

D
1
0 1 2
d
1
D
2





Hnh 5.10 S tnh ton m phun cao p c lp ng loe La-van

- Tnh cc thng s ti tit din ti hn (0-0):
Xc nh p sut tnh tit din ti hn ca ng phun La-van:

1 k
k
d
th
1 k
2 1
p
p

+
=

=
Trong l h s ph thuc k c th tra theo gin (hnh 5.11).
+ Nhit ti hn ca khng kh xc nh theo cng thc:

1 k
2
T T
d th
+
= [
o
C]
+ Khi lng ring ca khng kh ti tit din ti hn:
- 92 -

th
th
th
T . R
p
= [kg/m
3
]

1,65
1,7
1,75
1,8
1,85
1,9
1,95
2
1,05 1,15 1,25 1,35 1,45 1,5






k


Hnh 5.11 S ph thuc ca h s vo k

Tc khng kh ti tit din ti hn:

d th
T . R .
1 k
k
. 2
+
= [m/s] (5.11)
+ Tit din ti hn ca ng phun La-van:

th th
th
th
. . 3600
G
F

= (5.12)
Trong : G
th
= G
2
=
1
G . [kg/s].
- Tnh cc thng s ca phn cui ng phun La-van (1-1):
Xc nh tiu chun tc :

+
=

=

k
1 k
d
t
2
th
d 2
p
p
1 .
1 k
1 k

Trong :

- tc ban u ca khng kh, [m/s].

p
t
- p sut tnh ca khng kh ming ra ca ng [N/m
2
], c th ly p
t
= 1,1.p
mt
.
Tnh tc ca khng kh ming ra ca ng:

th 1 . 2
. = [m/s]
Tnh khi lng ring ca khng kh cui ng La-van:

1 . 2
t
1 . 2
T . R
p
= [kg/m
3
]
- 93 -
Tit din cui ca ng La-van:

1 . 2
th th
1
.
F
F

= (5.13)
Tnh kch thc ng dn du:
+ Tit din ming ra ng phun du:

1 1
1
1
G
f

= [m
2
] (5.14)
Trong
1
- tc du trong ng dn, thng chn
1
= 5 - 10 m/s.
+ ng knh trong ca ng dn du ti ming ra:

=
1
1
f . 4
d (5.15)
+ ng knh ngoi ca ng dn du ti ming ra:
+ = 2 d d
1 1 n
(5.16)
+ Tit din ngoi ca ng dn du ti ming ra:

4
d .
f
2
1 n
1 n

=
Tnh ng knh trong ca ng phun La-van:

( )

+
=
1 n 1
1
f F . 4
D [m] (5.17)
Tnh ng knh ng dn du ti tit din ti hn:

=
th 2
1 0 n
F . 4
D d [m] (5.18)
Chiu di ng phun La-van:

2
tg . 2
d d
L
1 n 0 n

= (5.19)
Trong = 5 - 10
o
l gc m ca ng phun La-van.
- Tnh cc thng s ca ng hn hp:
Xc nh tiu chun -le i vi khng kh ti phn cui ng phun La-van (1-1):

2
1 . 2 1 . 2
d t
u
.
p p
E


=
Tc chuyn ng ca hn hp:
- 94 -

( )
+
+ +
=
1
E 1 .
u 1 . 2 1
hh
(5.20)
Xc nh nhit ca hn hp:

2 1
1
0
1 . 2 2 1 1
hh
c . c
G
U
t . c t . c
t
+

+
=
Trong :
t
1
- nhit nung nng trc du [
o
C].
t
2.1
- nhit khng kh cui ng La-van [
o
C].
c
1
, c
2
- nhit dung trung bnh ca du v khng kh [j/kg.].
U
0
- gim ng nng ca cht bin bi, xc nh theo cng thc:

( ) [ ]
2
E 1
.
1
. G U
1 u 1 . 2
1 0
+
+

= [N.m/s]
Khi lng ring khng kh khi ra khi ming phun:

hh
mt
kk
T . R
p
= [kg/m
3
] (5.21)
- Tit din ra ca ng hn hp (tit din 2-2):
Coi lu lng th tch ca du khng ng k, c th tnh tit din ming ra ca
ng hn hp:

hh
kk
2
V
F

= [m
2
]
Trong V
kk
l lu lng th tch ca khng kh ti ming ra,
kk
2
kk
G
V

= .
ng knh ming ra ca ng hn hp:

=
2
2
F . 4
D [m] (5.22)
Chiu di ng hn hp:
Khi chn gc m ca ng hn hp cng gc m ca ng phun La-van, chiu di
ng hn hp xc nh theo cng thc:

2
tg . 2
D D
L
1 2
hh

= (5.23)
- 95 -
ng knh ht bi du:

( )

+


=
1
.
.
. 12
d
2
2

5.4. Thit b t nhin liu kh
t nhin liu kh ngi ta s dng thit b gi l m t.
Theo c im ho trn kh t v khng kh, ngi ta chia m t thnh:
+ M t c s ha trn trc (m t t ht).
+ M t khng c s ha trn trc (m t lng ng).
Trong m t c s ha trn trc, kh t v khng kh c ha trn trc
trong m t v phun vo bung l thc hin qu trnh chy. Trong m t khng
c s ha trn trc, kh t v khng kh c phun vo bung l cha c ha trn,
s ha trn ch yu xy ra trong bung l.
5.4.1. M t t ht
M t t ht c dng nhiu trong cc l cng sut nh v trung bnh, t cc
loi kh t nhit tr khng cao. u im ca loi m t ny l:
+ Ho trn kh t v khng kh tt, to iu kin t chy hon ton nhin liu
vi h s d khng kh nh.
+ Khng kh t b r r, c th dng thit b trao i nhit gm.
Tuy nhin loi m t ny c nhc im:
+ Phm vi iu chnh cng sut hp.
+ Kh t phi c p sut ln, nhit nung khng kh c gii hn.
+ Kch thc m t ln.
Theo cu to, m t t ht c chia thnh hai loi:
+ M t t ht mt ng dn.
+ M t t ht hai ng dn.
a) M t t ht mt ng dn
S cu to m t t ht mt ng dn trnh by trn hnh 5.12.
Trong m t mt ng dn, kh t c p sut cao qua ng dn (1) phun ra u
ming phun vi tc ln, to nn vng chn khng xung quanh ming ng phun, ht
khng kh t bn ngoi vo qua khe h (3). Kh t v khng kh tip tc c ha trn
trong ng (4), qua ng khuch tn (5) v ming m t vo bung l thc hin qu
- 96 -
trnh chy. Lng khng kh c iu chnh nh thay i khe h (3) khi dch chuyn
c cu (2). Tc hn hp ming ra m t t 20 - 30 m/s.

6
1
2
4 5
3

Hnh 5.12 M t t ht mt ng dn
1) ng dn kh t 2) C cu iu chnh 3) ng dn khng kh
4) ng hn hp 5) ng loe 6) Ming m t

M t t ht mt ng dn c cu to n gin, d lp t nhng cng sut nhit
khng ln, thng dng cho l c nh.
b) M t t ht hai ng dn
S cu to m t t ht hai ng dn trnh by trn hnh 5.13.

2

3
4
1
5

Hnh 5.13 M t t ht hai ng dn
1) ng dn kh t 2) ng dn khng kh
3) ng hn hp 4) ng loe 5) Nc lm ngui



Trong m t t ht hai ng dn, kh t c p sut cao qua ng dn (1) phun
ra u ming phun vi tc ln, to nn vng chn khng xung quanh ming ng
phun, ht khng kh c p sut d t ng dn (2) vo dng kh t. Kh t v khng
kh tip tc c ha trn trong ng (3), qua ng khuch tn (4) v ming m t vo
bung l thc hin qu trnh chy.
M t t ht hai ng dn c cng sut nhit ln nhng kt cu phc tp, thng
dng cho l c ln.
- 97 -
5.4.2. M t lng ng
M t lng ng c dng nhiu trong cc l t kh c nhit tr cao, nht l cc
l cn tp trung nhit thc hin mt qu trnh cng ngh vi s m t khng nhiu.
M t loi ny c u im:
+ Phm vi iu chnh cng sut rng.
+ Kch thc nh gn.
+ C th lm vic vi kh t v khng kh nung nng trc c nhit cao.
+ Ngn la ko di v vng nhit cao cch xa ming m t v tng l.
Nhc im:
+ H s tiu hao khng kh ln, lm gim nhit chy ca nhin liu v tng
hm lng ni t trong sn vt chy.
+ Phi c c cu iu chnh t l kh t v khng kh.
+ Tn hao khng kh trn ng dn ln.
Theo cu to, m t lng ng c chia ra:
+ M t lng ng thng thng.
+ M t lng ng c dng xoy.
a) M t lng ng thng thng
Cc m t lng ng thng thng (hnh 5.14) c hai ng dn, ng (1) dn kh
t, ng (2) dn khng kh. S ho trn kh t v khng kh xy ra nh s va p ca
dng khng kh vi kh t. S ha trn ca m t loi ny khng tt nn ngn la
ko di. Tc kh t ra khi ming phun khong 80 - 100 m/s, t l gia tc
khng kh v kh t khong 1:3 n 1:2. Khi cng sut m t nh, kt cu m t c
dng hnh 5.14a, cn khi cng sut ln c dng hnh 5.14b.


2 2
1
3
1
a)
b)

Hnh 5.14 M t lng ng khng c to xoy
1) ng dn kh 2) ng dn khng kh 3) Ca quan st

- 98 -
b) M t lng ng c dng xoy
tng hiu qu ha trn, ngi ta s dng m t lng ng c cu to c bit
(hnh 5.15). Trong m t, trn ng dn khng kh c lp cc cnh to xoy (3) nh
dng khng kh ra khi m phun khng chuyn ng thng m chuyn ng xoy.
Do khng kh chuyn ng xoy, s ha trn ca kh t v khng kh xy ra tt hn,
nhin liu chy nhanh hn v ngn la ngn hn.


2
1
3

Hnh 5.15 M t lng ng c to xoy
1) ng dn kh 2) ng dn khng kh 3) Cnh to xoy

5.4.3. Tnh ton m t
Vic tnh ton m t nhm xc nh hai thng s ch yu l ming phun kh t
v kch thc ng dn khng kh. Trn c s hai thng s trn c th xc nh cc
kch thc khc ca m t hoc chn m t c kch thc tng t.
a) Tnh m t t ht
S tnh ton m t t ht trnh by trn hnh 5.16.

'
1
F
F
3
F
2
F
1
3
3
2
2
1
1
0
0






Hnh 5.16 S tnh ton m t t ht

- C s tnh ton:
Da trn phng trnh xc nh chn khng cn thit u ng hn hp:
- 99 -

2
1 1
2
1 1
f . A f
.
p
=

(5.24)
Trong :
l chn khng c ch, xc nh theo cng thc:

p
( )
0
0
2 hh hh tt 0 k
1
. f . . .
2
1
p p P p
+

+ + =

(5.25)
p
k
- p sut mi trng ni dng phun phun vo [N/m
2
].
p
0
- p sut mi trng ni dng phun xut pht [N/m
2
].
tt
p

- tng tn tht p sut trong ng dn khng kh n tit din 0-0 v tn

tht trong ng hn hp [N/m
2
].

hh
- khi lng ring hn hp cui ng hn hp [kg/m
3
].

hh
- tc hn hp cui ng hn hp [m/s].
2
1
1
F
F
f = - t s gia tit din ming ra ng phun kh t v tit din ng hn hp.
2
'
1
2
F
F
f = - t s gia tit din ming ra ng phun khng kh v tit din ng hn
hp.
3
2
3
F
F
f = - t s gia tit din u v cui ng loe.

0
- bi s th tch phun iu kin tiu chun:

02
01
0
. n

=
Vi n h s d khng kh [kg/kg],
01
,
02
khi lng ring kh t v khng kh
iu kin tiu chun [kg/m
3
].
+ A h s xc nh theo cng thc:
( )

+ + + =

01
hh 0 2
2
c
2
2
hh
2
01
02 2
3
01
hh 0
01
02
2
0
1
hh
. f .
2
k 1
f k .
T
T
. . 2 k . f . . 2 1 1
T
T
1 A
(5.26)
Trong :

0
0
1
k
+

.
- 100 -
T
hh
, T
1
, T
2
l nhit ca hn hp, kh t v khng kh [
o
K].
k
c
h s tr lc trn ng dn khng kh t tit din 0-0 n tit din 1-1.
- h s phc hi trong ng loe:
( )
2
3
2
3
f 1 f 1 =
- h s tr lc ca ng loe.

0hh
- khi lng ring hn hp iu kin tiu chun:

0
01
02
0
hh 0
1
. 1
+

+
= [kg/m
3
]
Nhit hn hp T
hh
xc nh theo cng thc:

0
1
2
1
2
0
1
hh
1
T
T
.
c
c
. 1
T
T
+
+
=
c
1
, c
2
- nhit dung kh t v khng kh [kj/kg.].
Trn c s cng thc (5.26), trng hp cho trc bi s th tch phun
0
v cc
thng s vt l ca kh t, khng kh, ta tnh c ng nng yu cu ca kh t.
Trng hp cho trc kch thc ng phun c th kim tra c iu kin lm vic ca
m t.
- Thit k m t lm vic ch ti u:
Thit k m t lm vic ch ti u nhm xc nh kch thc ca ng hn
hp v tit din ht vo ca kh phun sao cho m bo bi s phun cho trc vi lng
tiu hao ng nng ca kh phun l cc tiu.
Gii phng trnh (5.26) khi s tiu hao ng nng ca kh phun cc tiu, ta nhn
c t s cc tit din:

+ =

0
u ti
2
c
u ti
'
1
A
1 F
F
k 1
2 F
F
(5.27)
Trong :
( )

+ + + =

01
hh 0
c
2
1
2
01
02 2
3
01
hh 0
01
02
2
0
1
hh
0
.
k 1
1
. k .
T
T
. k . f . . 2 1 1
T
T
1 A (5.28)
- 101 -
Khi khng c ng loe f
3
= 1 v = 0:
( ) .
k 1
1
. k .
T
T
. k . . 2 1 1
T
T
1 A
c
2
1
2
01
02
01
hh 0
01
02
2
0
1
hh
0

+ + + =

(5.29)
Tiu hao ng nng cc tiu xc nh theo cng thc:

0
u ti
1
2
u ti
2
1 . 1
A . 2
F
F
2
p
=

(5.30)
T cc cng thc (5.27) n (5.30) ta c th xc nh c cc thng s ca m
t lm vic vi ch ti u.
- Thit k m t lm vic ch bnh thng
Khi thit k theo ch lm vic ti u, kch thc m t nhn c thng ln.
Trong trng hp p sut d d tr ca kh t c th iu chnh c ngi ta thit k
m t lm vic ch bnh thng.
m t lm vic bnh thng theo bi s th tch phun cho trc, t l cc tit
din m phun phi tha mn iu kin:

+
=

u
1
2
1
u
E . B 2 1 1
B
F
F
f
1
1 E . B 2
(5.31)
Trong :
l diu kin c hin tng t ht xy ra. 1 E . B 2
u

( )

+ + + =

01
hh 0 2
2
c
2
2
hh
2
01
02
01
02
2
0
1
hh
. f
2
k 1
f . k .
T
T
. 2 k . . 2 1 1
T
T
1 B
(5.32)

( )
2
1 1
tt 0 k
2
1 1
c
u
.
p p p
.
p
E

+
=

=

(5.33)
T phng trnh (5.32) ta nhn thy khi khng c ng loe = 0 th B t cc i.
Khi lp thm ng loe, th vi ng loe c cng ln th B cng nh, iu kin t ht
cng d dng tha mn. Tuy nhin vic lp thm ng loe thng lm cho kt cu m
t thm phc tp nn ch s dng khi thc s cn thit.
b) Tnh m t lng ng
i vi m t lng ng, khi tnh ton thit k ngi ta chia ra ba trng hp:
- 102 -
+ M t p sut thp: p sut kh t trc m t nh, c th b qua s thay
i khi lng ring ca kh.
+ M t p sut trung bnh: lm vic vi p sut trung bnh, khi lng ring
kh thay i ng k.
+ M t p sut cao: lm vic vi p sut cao, khi lng ring kh thay i
ln.
Trn thc t, ngi ta tha nhn m t lm vic vi p sut thp khi tc phun
ca kh
k
nh hn 40% tc ti hn
th
(
k
<0,4
th
), trung bnh khi
k
= (0,4 -
1,0)
th
v cao khi
k
>
th
. Trong
th
xc nh theo cng thc sau:

k th
T . R .
1 k
k
. 2
+
= (5.34)
Trong :
k - ch s on nhit, k =c
p
/c
v
.
T
k
- nhit ca kh, [
o
K].
R - hng s kh, R=8319/M [N.m/kg.].
M - khi lng mol ca kh.
Vic tnh ton ch yu xc nh u phun kh ca m t, trn c s chn tip
cc kch thc khc theo quan h vi kch thc u phun hoc chn cc m t c
sn.
- Tnh u ng phun kh p sut thp
S tnh ton u phun kh p sut thp trnh by trn hnh 5.17.

0
1

d
0
d
1
1
l
0




Hnh 5.17 S tnh u phun kh p sut thp

Xt hai tit din 1-1 v 0-0, ta c phng trnh Becnuly i vi kh khng b nn:

+

=

+
tt
2
k k
2
1 k
u
h
2
.
2
.
p (5.35)
Trong :
- 103 -
p
u
- p sut d ca kh trc m t N/m
2
.

1
- tc chuyn ng ca kh trong ng dn trc m t (ti tit din 1- 1).

k
- tc chuyn ng ca kh khi ra khi ming u phun (ti tit din 0- 0)

k
- khi lng ring ca kh [kg/m
3
].
- tng tn tht p sut ca kh trong m t, [N/m

tt
h
2
]:

4
1
4
0 k
2
k
2
1
tt
d
d
.
2
.
2
h

=

(5.36)
- h s tn tht p sut trong m t, xc nh theo cng thc:

1
cb
d
l
. + = (5.37)

cb
- h s tn tht cc b.
- h s ma st.
l - chiu di ng dn kh [m].
Thay cc i lng trn vo phng trnh (5.34) nhn c cng thc xc nh
tc kh khi ra khi ng phun:

( )

+
=
4
1
4
0
k
u
k
d
d
. 1 1
p 2
[m/s] (5.38)
ng knh ming phun c xc nh theo cng thc:

k k
k
0
. .
G . 4
d

= [m] (5.39)
Trng hp ng knh ng dn kh chn khi thit k tho mn iu kin 2
d
d
0
1
c
th b qua tn tht trong ng dn, khi c th xc nh tc kh khi ra khi ng
phun theo cng thc:

k
u
k
p . 2

= m/s (5.40)
- Tnh u ng phun kh p sut trung bnh
Tc kh ra khi ming ng phun: Khi lm vic vi p sut trung bnh, phi tnh
n s thay i khi lng ring ca kh t trong khi chuyn ng.
- 104 -
Trong trng hp ny, tc kh ra khi u phun xc nh theo cng thc:

=

k
1 k
d
mt
d k
p
p
1 T . R .
1 k
k
. 2 (5.41)
Trong :
P
mt
- p sut ca mi trng ni dng kh phun vo, [N/m
2
].
P

- p sut tnh ban u ca kh [N/m

2
].
k - ch s on nhit, k =c
p
/c
v
.
T
k
- nhit ca kh, [
o
K].
R - hng s kh, R=8319/M [N.m/kg.]
M - khi lng mol ca kh.
Khi lng ring ca kh ming ra ca u phun xc nh t cng thc:

( )
2
G
G
1 k 1 1
U .
1 k
k 1
1
1
2
th
k 2
2
1
k

+ +
=
+

(5.42)
Trong :
G
k
- lu lng khi lng qua ming ng phun [kg/s].
G
th
- lu lng khi lng ti hn (ng vi khi kh chuyn ng t tc ti
hn)[kg/s].

th . 0 . th th
F G = [kg/s]

th
- khi lng ring ti hn:

2
1 k
.
1 th
+
= [kg/m
3
]
th
- tc ti hn ca kh khi chuyn ng:
k th
T . R .
1 k
k
. 2
+
= [m/s]
th
k
U

= , h s tc .
1
- khi lng ring ca kh t khi vo ng phun, [kg/m
3
].
Tc ti hn ly bng tc lan truyn ca m thanh trong mi trng.
- 105 -
ng knh ming ra ng phun:

k k
k
0
. .
G . 4
d

= [m] (5.43)
- Tnh u ng phun kh p sut cao
Tc kh khi ra khi ming ng phun:

k th
T . R .
1 k
k
. 2
+
= [m/s] (5.44)
Khi lng ring ca kh ming ra:

2
1 k
.
T . R
p
k
th
k
+
= [kg/m
3
] (5.45)
Trong : p
th
l p sut ti hn, xc nh theo cng thc:

1 k
k
d th
1 k
2
. p p

+
= [N/m
2
]. (5.46)
p sut tnh nh nht trc u ng phun, ni xut hin tc ti hn xc nh theo
cng thc:

1 k
k
mt
t 0
1 k
2
p
p

+
= [N/m
2
] (5.47)
ng knh ming ra ng phun:

k k
k
0
. .
G . 4
d

= [m] (5.48)
- 106 -
Chng 6
Vt liu xy, th xy v khung l
6.1. Vt liu xy l
xy l luyn kim, ngoi vic s dng nhng vt liu xy dng thng dng nh
st thp, xi mng, ct, si ... cn dng mt lng rt ln vt liu chuyn dng l vt
liu chu la v vt liu cch nhit. Trong phn ny ch yu cp ti mt s vn
chung v tnh cht ca cc loi vt liu chu la, cch nhit thng dng, kch thc
hnh hc ca mt s vt phm ph bin dng trong xy l.
6.1.1. Yu cu chung i vi vt liu chu la
Vt liu chu la l nhng vt liu c kh nng lm vic lu di nhit trn
1000
o
C m vn gia c bn c hc v hnh dng hnh hc. Nhn chung, vt liu
chu la s dng xy l cn m bo cc yu cu sau:
+ chu nng trn 1580
o
C.
+ C bn c hc nhit trn 1000
o
C.
+ C kh nng chu c s dao ng ca nhit .
+ Bn v mt ha hc i vi cc cht tip xc trong qu trnh lm vic.
+ C tnh n nh v th tch v hnh dng khi nhit cao.
+ C th sn xut hng lot vi gi thnh phi chng.
+ m bo mt s tnh cht nhit vt l cn thit theo yu cu cng ngh.
6.1.2. Mt s tnh cht c bn ca vt liu chu la
Cht lng ca vt liu chu la c nh gi qua cc tnh cht nhit vt l v
cc tnh cht s dng.
a) Tnh cht nhit vt l
- xp: xp ca vt liu chu la l t s gia tng th tch l rng cha trong
khi vt liu v th tch ca khi.
100 .
V
v
f

= [%] (6.1)
Trong :
v - tng th tch l rng trong khi vt liu [m
3
].
V- th tch khi vt liu [m
3
].
- Khi lng th tch: l khi lng ca mt n v th tch k c l rng [kg/m
3
]:
- 107 -

V
G
v
= [kg/m
3
] (6.2)
Trong :
G - khi lng khi vt liu k c l rng [kg].
V- th tch khi vt liu [m
3
].
- thm kh: c trng cho kh nng cho kh i qua ca vt liu, c xc nh
theo cng thc:

p . . F
L . V
K
k

= [lt/m.h.mmH
2
O] (6.3)
Trong :
V
k
- lng kh thm qua khi vt liu [lt].
F - din tch b mt kh thm qua [m
2
].
- thi gian kh thm qua[h].
p - chnh lch p sut gia hai b mt kh i qua [mmH
2
O].
L - chiu dy khi vt liu m kh i qua [m].
- ht nc: c trng cho kh nng cha nc ca vt liu, c xc nh theo
cng thc:
100 .
G
G G
W
1
1 2

= [%] (6.4)
Trong :
G
1
, G
2
l khi lng ca khi vt liu khi kh v khi bo ha nc [kg].
Khi bo ho nc, bn c hc ca vt liu b gim ng k, mc gim bn c
hc c nh gi qua h s bin mm:

k
bh
E

= (6.5)
Trong :
- bn c hc khi trng thi bo ha nc [N/m
bh

2
].
- bn c hc khi trng thi kh [N/m
k

2
].
- bc m: c trng cho kh nng cho lng m trong vt liu thot ra ngoi.
- 108 -
- Nhit dung: l i lng c gi tr bng lng nhit cn thit nng nhit mt
n v khi lng vt liu ln mt n v. Nhit dung ca vt liu thay i khi nhit
thay i, s ph thuc ny c dng:
t . b a c
t
+ = [kj/kg.] (6.6)
Trong : a, b l cc h s ph thuc vt liu.
- dn nhit: c trng cho kh nng truyn nhit bng dn nhit ca vt liu,
c nh gi qua h s dn nhit . H s dn nhit ca vt liu chu la thay i theo
nhit :
[W/m.] (6.7) t .
0 t
+ =
Trong :

0
,
t
- l h s dn nhit ca vt liu
o
C v t
o
C.
- h s ph thuc vt liu.
- dn in: c trng cho kh nng dn in ca vt liu, c gi tr bng nghch
o ca in tr sut:

r
1

= [m/]
nhit thng, phn ln vt liu chu la khng dn in, nhng khi nhit cao
in tr ca chng gin r rt nn vi cc l c nhit cao cn quan tm n vn
ny. S ph thuc ca in tr vt liu vo nhit c dng:
B
T
A
R lg + = (6.8)
Trong A, B l cc h s ph thuc vt liu.
b) Cc tnh cht s dng
- chu nng: c trng cho kh nng chu c tc ng ca nhit cao m
khng b bin mm hoc chy lng. chu nng c nh gi qua mu th hnh
thp bng cch nung mu th cng vi cc mu chun bit trc chu nng.
Nhit m ti mu th hnh thp gc xung chm y l cng vi mt mu chun
c gi l chu nng ca vt liu.
- bn nhit: c trng cho kh nng chu c tc ng ca s thay i nhit
trong qu trnh lm vic, c nh gi bng mu th. Ngi ta nung nng v lm
ngui lin tc mu th theo mt chu trnh chun khi s ln nung nng v ngui mu
- 109 -
cho n khi khi lng mu gim i 20% so vi ban u c gi l bn nhit ca
vt liu.
- cng v bn c hc nhit cao: l cng v bn ca vt liu xc
nh iu kin nhit cao, thng thng ngi ta xc nh cng v bn nn l
hai ch tiu quan trng khi s dng.
- Tnh n nh th tch: c trng cho kh nng gi nguyn th tch khi chu tc
ng ca ti trng c hc hoc nhit thay i, c nh gi qua co (hoc
gin n) ca vt liu. co hoc gin n th tch ca vt liu chu la c khng ch
di 1%.
- bn v mt ha hc: c trng cho kh nng chng li s ph hy vt liu do
cc phn ng ha hc vi cc cht trong mi trng tip xc.
Cc tnh cht trn l nhng tnh cht chung ca vt liu chu la, trong thc t
khng c loi vt liu chu la no tho mn ng thi cc yu cu trn, do ty iu
kin s dng ngi ta la chn loi vt liu thch hp v phng din s dng cng nh
phng din kinh t.
6.1.3. Vt liu chu la thng dng
a) Vt phm inat: l vt phm chu la cha khong cht thch anh SiO
2
>93%.
Tnh cht ca vt phm i-nat:
+ chu nng t 1600 - 1710
o
C.
+ Bn vi mi trng axit.
+ Gin n nhit ln.
+ bn nhit thp.
b) Vt phm samt: l vt phm chu la cha t 30 - 45 % Al
2
O
3
.
Tnh cht ca vt phm sa-mt:
+ chu nng 1610 - 1730
o
C.
+ C tnh axit yu.
+ bn nhit tng i ln (10 - 50 ln).
+ Gin n nhit ln.
c) Vt phm alumin cao: l vt phm chu la c hm lng Al
2
O
3
t 46 - 100%.
Tnh cht:
+ chu nng cao v ph thuc hm lng Al
2
O
3
.
+ Bn vi c mi trng kim v mi trng axit.
- 110 -
+ bn c hc v bn nhit cao (trn 100 ln).
d) Vt phm bn axit: l vt phm chu la cha 15 - 30 % Al
2
O
3
v > 65 % SiO
2
.
Tnh cht:
+ chu nng 1610 - 1700
o
C.
+ Bn vi mi trng axit.
+ Bn nhit thp.
e) Vt phm manhdit: l vt phm chu la cha 90 - 96 % MgO.
Tnh cht:
+ chu nng cao, trn 2000
o
C.
+ Bn vi mi trng kim.
+ Bn nhit thp.
+ Gin n nhit ln.
+ Gim cht lng mnh khi b m.
g) Vt phm crmit: l vt phm chu la cha 80 - 90 % crmit, 10 - 12 %
manhdit v 7 - 10 % dumit.
Tnh cht:
+ chu nng 1900
o
C.
+ C tnh trung ho, bn vi c mi trng axit v mi trng kim.
+ Bn nhit thp (3 - 5 ln).
h) Vt phm crmit - ma nhdit: l vt phm chu la cha 30 - 70 % crmit v 70 -
30 % manhdit. Tnh cht tng t manhdit nhng cht lng cao hn.
i) Vt phm cacbon: Gm cc loi: cacbrun, graphit, cc bon.
- Vt phm cacbrun: vt phm sn xut t bt SiC c cht dnh kt l t st chu la
v silicat st.
Tnh cht:
+ chu nng cao, trn 2000
o
C.
+ bn nhit cao.
+ Tnh chng mi mn v bn c hc tt.
+ Dn in, dn nhit tt.
+ Khi nhit trn 1300
o
C d b oxy ha v b kim n mn.
- Vt phm graphit: c sn xut t hn hp 20 - 60 % graphit, 30 - 40 % t st
chu la v 10 - 40 % samt.

- 111 -
Tnh cht:
+ chu nng > 2000
o
C.
+ bn nhit tt.
+ H s gin n nhit nh.
+ Dn nhit tt.
+ Bn vi mi trng x v kim loi lng.
- Vt phm cacbon: thnh phn ch yu l cac bon, cha 80 - 90 %C.
+ chu nng cao > 2500
o
C.
+ bn nhit tt.
+ Dn in v dn nhit tt.
+ H s gin n nhit nh.
6.1.4. Vt liu cch nhit
Vt liu cch nhit dng trong l luyn kim gm hai nhm:
+ Vt liu cch nhit thin nhin: iatmit, inphurit, aming.
+ Vt liu cch nhit nhn to: vt phm chu la nh, x bng ...
a) Vt liu cch nhit thin nhin
- iatmit, inphurit c thnh phn ch yu l SiO
2
nhng c xp rt ln do
dn nhit km, h s dn nhit 0,014 - 0,06 W/m..
- Aming: thnh phn chnh l silicat manh ngm nc, h s dn nhit khong
0,15 W/m..
b) Vt liu cch nhit nhn to
- Vt phm chu la nh: c thnh phn tng t cc vt phm chu la cng loi
nhng c xp ln ( 50 - 80 %), do khi lng th tch b (0,27 - 1,3 kg/m
3
) v
dn nhit km, h s dn nhit 0,11 - 0,81 W/m.. chu nng ca vt phm cch
nhit thp hn chu nng ca vt phm chu la cng loi.
- X bng: c sn xut t x luyn kim dng si, c xp ln, cch nhit v chu
nng tt.
6.1.5. Cc th gch xy l
xy l, ngi ta s dng cc th gch chu la v cch nhit sn xut theo
hnh dng v kch thc c tiu chun ha. Trn hnh 6.1 gii thiu mt s th gch
xy thng dng.

- 112 -


















a
c
b
d
d
c
a
c
b
a
b
c)
b)
a)
d
e
a
b
c
d
c
b
a
e
b
d
f
c a
g)
e)
d)
Hnh 6.1 Hnh dng v kch thc mt s loi gch quy chun
a) Gch thng b) Gch vt nm c) Gch vt ng
d) Gch chn vm e) Gch vm cu g) Gch vm treo
- Gch thng: dng xy tng thng, y l hoc phi hp vi gch vt xy vm
v tng cong, kch thc ph bin l 230x113x65.
Gch vt nm: dng xy tng cong hoc vm l c chiu dy mng, kch thc
ph bin l 230x113x65/55 hoc 230x113x65/45
- Gch vt ng: dng xy tng cong hoc vm l c chiu dy ln, kch thc
ph bin l 230x113x65/55 hoc 230x113x65/45.
- Gch chn vm: dng xy chn vm cong, kch thc ph bin l
230x113x135/56/37.
- Gch vm treo: dng xy vm l phng bng mc treo, kch thc ph bin l
300x276x260/100/75/30.
Khi chn gch xy l nn dng cc loi gch tiu chun c ch to hng lot
v d kim. Trong trng hp cn dng cc loi gch phi tiu chun cng nn a v
gn vi dng gch tiu chun vic ch to cng d dng hn.

- 113 -
6.2. Th xy l
6.2.1. Khi nim chung
a) Cp xy
Lp gch chu la trong cc l luyn kim (cn gi l lp lt) l b phn trng yu
nht ca l. Cht lng xy lp ny nh hng trc tip n tui th lm vic v cc
ch tiu kinh t, k thut ca l. Bi vy, ty vo th xy v iu kin lm vic ca th
xy, ngi ta chn mc cn thn khi xy khc nhau. Theo mc cn thn khi xy
ngi ta phn ra nm cp xy.
Bng 6.1. Cc cp xy gch chu la
Cp xy Yu cu khi xy Chiu dy mch xy (mm) Loi va xy
I Xy c bit cn thn
1
II Xy cn thn
2
Bt mn kh
hay va lng
III Xy tng i cn thn
3
IV Xy thng thng
4
Va nho
V Xy gch 5 - 10 Va c

- Cp xy I v II: dng xy cc l nu chy kim loi hoc nu chy cc vt liu
phi kim. Cc th xy tip xc vi kim loi lng, x hoc yu cu kn kh th dng cp
xy I. i vi cc cp xy I v II, m bo mch xy nh cn chn gch c cng
kch thc v b mt bng phng (i khi phi mi gch trc). Khi xy va lng,
nhng gch vo va lng ri t vo lp xy, trng hp gch cn xy kh (nh gch
manhdit) th dng bt mn in y vo cc khe h gia cc vin gch xy.
- Cp xy III: dng ph bin khi xy cc th xy ca l nung, l sy ... tin hnh vi
va nho.
- Cp xy IV: dng khi xy nhng b phn khng quan trng c nhit lm vic
thp ca l, lp lt cc ng ng dn bng phng php xy y hoc xy p vi va
nho.
- Cp xy V: dng khi xy cc th xy gch .
b) Mch nhit
Trong qu trnh lm vic, cc th xy chu tc ng ca s thay i nhit gy
ra s gin n nhit. th xy khng b ph hy khi gin n ngi ta b tr trong th
- 114 -
xy cc khe gin n nhit gi l mch nhit. S lng v kch thc mch nhit c
chn da vo h s gin n nhit ca gch v kch thc ca th xy. Chiu dy mch
nhit tnh cho mt mt chiu di th xy ng vi cc loi gch khc nhau cho bng
6.2.
Bng 6.2. Gi tr trung bnh ca mch nhit
Th xy gch
Chiu dy mch nhit cho 1 m
chiu di th xy (mm)
Samt 5 - 6
inat 12
Manhdit 12 - 14
iatmit 5 - 6





















1
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
b)
a)
d)
c)
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
f)
e)
Hnh 6.2. Cch t mch nhit trong cc th xy
a) Tng thng b) Tng nhiu lp gch khc loi
c) Gc tng thng d) Vm l e) Tng cong f) y l
1) Mch nhit 2) Gch
- 115 -
Phng php b tr mch nhit trong th xy ph thuc cu trc th xy v c
hai cch: b tr mch nhit tp trung v b tr mch nhit phn tn. Trn hnh 6.2 trnh
by cch b tr mch nhit trong mt s th xy thng gp.
i vi cc tng thng, thng b tr mch nhit phn tn nh hnh 6.2a. Khi
tng nhiu lp xy bng cc loi gch khc nhau mch nhit nh hnh 6.2b. i
vi nc l khi chiu di 5 mt mch nhit tp trung hai u, cn khi > 5 mt,
ngoi mch nhit hai u cn t thm mt mch nhit gia (hnh 6.2d). i vi
cc tng cong, mch nhit t tp trung pha ngoi st v l (hnh 6.2e)
th xy y, i vi cc loi gch t gin n nh manhdit hay crmit
mch nhit phn tn trong th xy. y l c chiu di di 3 mt, gch t gin n th
mch nhit t tp trung hai u, khi chiu di > 3 mt th mch nhit t trong th
xy nh tng l (hnh 6.2 f).
6.2.2. Cu trc ca cc th xy
Cc th xy trong l luyn kim c th xy bng nhiu loi gch khc nhau v
chiu dy th xy c th ln hoc b, khi xy ngi ta c th t vin gch ng, nm
hoc nghing. Theo quy c, vi vin gch tiu chun 230x113x65, th khi xy nm
chiu dy lp gch l 65 mm, khi xy nghing chiu dy lp gch l 113 mm v khi
xy ng chiu dy lp gch l 230 mm.
a) Th xy tng
Th xy tng thng: xy tng thng s dng gch tiu chun thng thng.
Tng l thng gm hai lp, lp lt xy bng gch chu la, lp cch nhit xy bng
gch (hoc vt liu bt, vn, tm) cch nhit. Nu coi chiu dy tng bng chiu di
vin gch tiu chun (230 mm) l mt th chiu dy lp gch chu nhit c th chn: 1;
1,5 ; 2; 2,5 v 3. Chiu dy lp cch nhit xy bng gch t 113 - 350 mm, vi lp
cch nhit vt liu bt, vn hoc tm cch nhit th dy t 30 - 100 mm.
Khi xy tng thng (hnh 6.3), cc vin gch c xy nm theo hng, trong
mt hng mch va khng dc trng nhau. Mch va gia cc hng k tip cng
khng c trng nhau. Nguyn tc khng trng mch va cng p dng c cc gc
tng v nhng ch tng giao nhau.
xy lch mch ngi ta thng dng cc gch hnh c chiu di bng 1/2
hoc 3/4 vin gch tiu chun. Khi tng gm hai lp gch khc nhau, tng lin kt
- 116 -
gia hai lp, khi xy lp trong c 5 n 8 hng gch (theo chiu cao tng) lp trong
xy cha ra lp ngoi 1/2 vin gch.














i vi tng cong, ty theo cong ca tng, s dng ton b gch vt tiu
chun hoc kt hp gch vt vi gch thng. Khi xy, mch va trong mt hng cng
nh gia hai lp k tip phi lch nhau.
i vi cc tng c lp cch nhit bng bt hoc vt liu vn, pha ngoi phi
c v bng kim loi.
b)
a)
b)
a)
Hnh 6.3 Th xy tng thng
a) Hng di b) Hng trn
b) Th xy y
Th xy y c hai dng: y phng v y cong.
i vi y phng c xy bng gch tiu chun trc tip trn mng l hoc
trn cc tm thp c dm pha di. Chiu dy th xy y ph thuc iu kin lm
vic ca l, nu l l nung, l sy chiu dy t 1 - 4 vin gch, nu l l nu chy chiu
dy c th ti 4 - 8 vin gch. Th xy y thng gm ba lp: lp di cng l lp
cch nhit xy bng gch samt nh, gch iatmit hoc gch . Tip theo l lp m
xy bng gch samt mc thp v trn cng l lp lm vic xy bng gch chu la
mc cao. Lp cch nhit thng xy nm, lp m xy nm hoc nghing, cn lp lm
vic xy nghing hoc ng.

- 117 -








Khi xy th xy y, cn thc hin nguyn tc bt cho mch. i vi cc hng
trong mt lp, bt cho mch bng cc t lch nhau, cn i vi hai lp k tip bt
cho mch bng cch t lch gch hoc xoay gch i mt gc 90
o
(hnh 6.4b) hay 45
o

(hnh 6.4c). Khi xoay gch 45
o
ngi ta gi l xy theo kiu nhnh thng.
i vi cc y cong c th xy bng gch (hnh 6.5a) hoc dng lp m bng
hn hp vt liu chu la kt hp vi cht dnh kt (hnh 6.5b).








Hnh 6.4. Th xy y phng
1) Lp cch nhit 2) Lp m, 3) Lp lm vic
c)
a)
b)
{
{
{
1
2
3

Hnh 6.5 Th xy y cong
a) Xy bng gch b) Lp m bng vt liu chu la
c) Th xy nc
Th xy nc chia lm hai dng: nc thng v nc cong. nc l cong, vm l c
cong nht nh, do khi gch dn n nhit, nc l vn gi c n nh cao
khng gy sp nc l. Nc l thng, mt trong l mt phng nn tnh n nh ca kt
cu thp hn. Tu theo iu kin lm vic ca l, nc c kin to bng gch hoc
bng cc tm b tng chu nhit c sn.
i vi th xy nc thng, khi nhit lm vic cao, s dng gch treo, dng
mc kim loi mc ln cc dm pha trn nc l. i vi cc l nhit thp, nc l
c to hnh bng cc tm b tng chu nhit c sn ghp li.
- 118 -
i vi nc cong, nc l c kin to bng cch xy gch hoc treo gch bng
mc treo to thnh vm cun c gc tm nht nh. Tu theo kch thc ca nc, gc
tm c ly theo quy nh: 38, 45, 56, 60, 74, 106 v 180
o
.
Th xy nc thng gm hai lp: lp trong l gch chu la, lp ngoi l lp cch
nhit. i vi cc l luyn thp c nhit cao, lp gch chu la c th dy ti 400 -
500 mm v khng c lp cch nhit.
xy nc cong phi dng mi khun bng g hoc kim loi c to hnh theo
cun ca nc c dng nh hnh 6.6.












Khi xy nc cong c th tin hnh theo hai cch: xy theo vng hoc xy bt
cho mch. Khi xy theo vng, gch c xy thnh tng vng theo cung vm (hnh
6.7a). Gch c xy bt u t gch chn vm ln nh vm. to p cn thit
gia cc vin gch ngi ta t cc vin gch kha. Vi vm nc c dy cung < 3m ti
nh vm t mt vin gch kha, vi dy cung > 3m t 2 - 3 vin gch kha, khi t
2 - 3 vin gch kha b tr sao cho khong cch gia cch vin gch kha bng nhau.
Khi xy bt cho mch (hnh 6.7b), gch c xy theo tng hng dc theo gch
chn vm, cc vin gch gia cc hng lch mch 1/2 hoc 3/4 vin. Cch xy bt cho
mch, lin kt gia cc vin gch tt hn nhng khi thay th sa cha kh khn hn
khi xy cun vng. Trong qu trnh xy, tng t nh khi xy cun vng, cng t cc
vin gch kho to nn gia cc vin gch.

2
3
4
Hnh 6.6 S t khun xy nc
1) Ct khun 2) Tng l 3) Gch chn vm 4) Khun
- 119 -















cc nc vm c nhit lm vic cao, kch thc vm rng hoc cu trc
phc tp s dng vm gch treo. Khi xy nc treo, gch c treo thnh tng nhm
nh cc mc treo kim loi lin kt vi x pha trn nc l. Gch treo c th xp kh
hoc xy vi va. i vi nhng vm n gin, gch treo bt u t nh i xung hai
pha chn vm. nhng ch vm c cu trc phc tp dng gch hnh c bit, khi
xy vm bt u treo gch t nhng v tr ny v khai trin dn ra xung quanh.
Trong cc l luyn thp nc l c dng chm cu th phi dng gch xy vm
cu, xy thnh tng vng khp kn ng tm v bt u xy t chn vm ln nh.
b) a)
Hnh 6.7 Phng php xy nc
a) Xy cun vm b) Xy bt cho mch
d) Th xy ca
cc l luyn kim thng c hai loi ca: ca thao tc v ca quan st. Ca thao
tc thng c kch thc ln, cn ca quan st c kch thc nh. Hnh dng v kch
thc ca c tiu chun ha (bng 6.4).
Ca thng gm hai b phn: b phn khung kim loi t st vo tng l lm
tng cng vng ca ca l v b phn np ca c th ng m theo yu cu trong
qu trnh chy l.
i vi th xy ca, vi cc ca kch thc ln (hnh 6.8a), phn di c dng
hnh ch nht, phn trn xy cun vm bng gch vt, nh c vin gch kho. Vi
- 120 -
cc ca kch thc nh (chiu rng B < 450 mm) phn trn dng gch xy bc to
thnh vm ca (hnh 6.8b).
Bng 6.4 Kch thc tiu chun ca ca l
Chiu rng
B (mm)
cao
f (mm)
cao
n (mm)
Chiu cao ca H
(mm)
240 30 5 170 240 - -
350 45 5 190 250 320 390
470 60 5 290 340 400 470
580 80 5 220 290 369 425
700 95 5 240 370 519 800
810 110 5 270 390 519 800
930 125 5 270 400 670 950
1050 140 5 280 550 830 1100
1160 155 5 300 570 840 1250
1400 190 5 330 600 1010 1420
1510 205 5 350 750 1160 1670
1840 235 5 580 780 1190 1740
1970 265 5 410 950 1360 1770
2200 295 5 440 980 1390 1800














n
f
a)
B
H
b)
Hnh 6.8 Cu trc ca l
a) Xy cun vm b) Xy bc
- 121 -
e) Th xy cng khi
Cng khi l b phn quan trng trong h thng thot khi, trong cc l luyn
kim phn ln cng khi c t ngm, khong cch gia nh cng khi v mt t t
nht >300 mm.
Cu trc th xy cng khi nh hnh 6.9, tit din c dng hnh ch nht ng,
nh xy cun vm, nu chiu rng cung vm nh th gc tm ly bng 180
o
, chiu
rng cung vm ln th ly bng 60
o
. Kch thc cng khi c tiu chun ha, chn
theo bng 6.5.
Cng khi thng c hai lp: lp trong gch chu la, lp ngoi gch cch nhit
hoc gch . nhng ni c nc ngm, bn ngoi cng khi c tng b tng bo
v chng thm nc.
Bng 6.5 Kch thc tiu chun ca tit din cng khi
Gc tm = 60
o
Gc tm = 180
o
Chiu
ngang
B (mm)
Chiu cao
H (mm)
Tit din
F (m
2
)
Chu vi
C (m)
Chiu cao
H (mm)
Tit din F
(m
2
)
Chu vi
C (m)
470 540 0,25 1,13 640 0,23 2,08
580 560 0,3 2,15 700 0,38 2,31
580 700 0,38 2,54 830 0,44 2,57
700 710 0,48 2,66 890 0,57 2,88
810 900 0,61 3,02 950 0,70 3,74
810 930 0.72 3,41 1150 0,80 3,87
930 1010 0,90 3,76 1210 0,94 3,88
1050 1100 1,11 4,12 1410 1,36 4,45
1280 1260 1,64 4,80 1520 1,77 5,05
1400 1420 1,90 5,33 1720 2,20 6,05
1510 1500 2,17 5,69 1840 2,53 8,65
1630 1550 2,56 6,19 2040 3,04 7,64





- 122 -












B
H
1
3
1
2
2
3
a)
b)
Hnh 6.9 Cu trc cng khi
a) Ni khng c nc ngm b) Ni c nc ngm
1) Gch chu la 2) Gch cch nhit hoc gch 3) B tng
6.2.3. Tnh ton gch xy nc l
xy nc vm thng s dng phi hp gch vt v gch thng tiu chun.
tnh ton lng gch xy, cn c vo dy cung vm l (S), chn gc tm () v tra
bng xc nh chiu cao cung (f).
Bng 6.6 Quan h gia gc tm () v dy cung (B), chiu cao cung (f)
Gc tm
38 45 56 60 74 106 180
T s f/S 1:12 1:10 1:8 1:7,5 1:6 1:4 1:2
T s S/R 0,651 0,756 0,939 1 1,204 1,597 2

S tnh lng gch xy cung vm trnh by trn hnh 6.10.

S
R
f
c
d
s
a
c
b
d
Hnh 6.10 S tnh gch xy vm
- 123 -
a) Tnh cho mt vng cung nc l:
- Lng gch xy cn thit xy mt vng cung nc l:
( )
( ) +
+
=
c 180
s R
n [vin] (6.9)
Trong :
R - Bn knh trong ca vm l [mm].
s - chiu dy gch nc l [mm].
c - cnh ln ca vin gch vt [mm].
- chiu dy mch va [mm].
- gc tm ca vm [mm].
- lch chiu di gia cung ngoi v cung trong ca vm:

180
. s .
l
c

= [mm]
- S lng gch vt cn dng:
g
c
v
l
l
n

= [vin] (6.10)
Trong : l chnh lch dy hai u vin gch vt [mm]. d c l
g
=
- S lng gch thng cn dng:
v t
n n n = [vin] (6.11)
b) Tnh cho ton b nc l:
- Tng lng gch thng cn dng:
+
=
a
L
. n N
t t
(6.12)
Trong :
L - chiu di nc [mm].
a- b rng vin gch [mm].
- Tng lng gch vt cn dng:
+
=
a
L
. n N
v v
(6.13)


- 124 -
6.3. Khung l
gi cho kch thc, hnh dng ca l n nh trong qu trnh l lm vic
cng nh di tc ng ca ti trng bn thn cc th xy, ngi ta s dng b phn
gi l khung l. i vi cc l c kt cu n gin khung l c kt cu dng khung
gm c: ct tr, dm v cc thanh ging ch to bng thp hnh lin kt vi nhau.
i vi cc l kt cu phc tp, hnh dng khung l rt khc nhau ph thuc kt cu l,
ngoi khung l cn c v l bng kim loi.
6.3.1. Kt cu ca khung l
i vi khung l n gin, theo phng php lin kt c chia thnh ba loi:
- Khung l lin kt ng (hnh 6.11).
- Khung l lin kt tnh (hnh 6.12).
- Khung l lin kt hn hp (hnh 6.13).
a) Khung l lin kt ng












Trong khung l lin kt ng (hnh 6.11), cc thanh ging trn (1) v di (2)
lin kt vi tr (3) bng lin kt bu lng, cc ai c c th xit vo hoc ni ra khi th
xy co gin di tc ng nhit.
Khi s dng khung l lin kt ng, khng cn t mch nhit trong cc th xy,
do n gin cho khu xy l. Tuy nhin, trong qu trnh l lm vic phi thng
xuyn iu chnh ai c, gy kh khn cho vic vn hnh l, nht l khi kch thc l
ln.
6
5
4
3
2
1
Hnh 6.11 Khung l lin kt ng
1) Ct tr 2) Dm chn vm 3) Dm di
4) Thanh ging trn 5) Thanh ging di 6) ai c
- 125 -
b) Khung l lin kt tnh
khung l lin kt tnh, cc thanh ging c hn hoc tn cht vi ct tr (hnh
6.12), kch thc khung l hu nh n nh khi l lm vic. i vi phn di ct tr
c th c nh bng cch chn c nh ln nn b tng ca l. Do khung l n nh,
khng th iu chnh theo s co gin ca l, nn khi xy l phi t mch nhit trong
cc th xy.










S dng khung l lin kt tnh, trong qu trnh vn hnh l khng phi iu
chnh khung l, nn hin nay c s dng rt ph bin trong cc l c kch thc ln
v c trong cc l c kch thc nh.
1
2
4
3
Hnh 6.12 Khung l lin tnh
1) Ct tr 2) Dm chn vm 3) Dm di 4) Thanh ging trn
c) Khung l lin kt hn hp
Khung l lin kt hn hp (hnh 6.13), pha trn lin kt ng cn pha di lin
kt tnh.









5
4
3
2
1
Hnh 6.13 Khung l lin hn hp
1) Ct tr 2) Dm chn vm 3) Dm di 4) Thanh ging trn 5) ai c
- 126 -
Dng loi khung l ny khng cn mch nhit pha trn ca l, cn phn di
phi t mch nhit. Loi khung l ny kt hp c u im ca hai loi trn nn
cng c s dng rng ri trong cc l luyn kim
6.3.2. Tnh ton khung l
Vic tnh khung l nhm xc nh lc tc dng ln khung l, xc nh cc thng
s cn thit chn cc chi tit chnh ca khung l.
a) Tnh lc tc dng ln dm chn vm v khung l
S tnh ton trnh by trn hnh 6.14.


`






Vic tnh lc tc dng ln khung l c thc hin cho mt bc ct, gm on
dm chn vm v hai ct nm hai u on dm .
R
R
tb
N

H
f
S
s
P
Hnh 6.14 S tnh lc tc dng ln dm chn vm
- Chiu di trung bnh ca cung vm nc:

180
R
L
tb
ctb

= [m] (6.14)
Trong :

2
s
R R
tb
+ = , bn knh trung bnh ca cung vm nc [m].
- Trng lng gch nc ng vi mt bc ct:
a . . s . L Q
ctb
= [kG] (6.15)
Trong :
a - bc ct (khong cch gia hai ct lin tip) [m].
s - chiu dy nc [m].
- trng lng ring ca gch [kG/m
3
].
- Lc thng ng tc dng ln gch chn vm:
- 127 -

2
Q
H = [kG] (6.16)
- Lc ngang tc dng ln gch chn vm:

f
S
.
4
H
P = [kG] (6.17)
Trong :
S - chiu rng vm nc [m].
f - chiu cao vm nc [m].
T hnh 6.14 ta c:

=
4
tg
2
1
S
f

Thay vo cng thc 6.17, nhn c:

=
4
tg 2
H
P [kG] (6.18)
- Lc ngang thc t tc dng ln dm chn vm khi l lm vic:
[kG] (6.19) P . k P
tt
=
Trong k l h s xt n nh hng ca s gin n ca th xy khi l lm vic, ph
thuc nhit nc l ly theo bng 6.7.
Bng 6.7 Gi tr ca h s k ph thuc nhit nc l
Nhit nc l
o
C k
< 900 2,0
900 - 1200 2,5
> 1200 3,0

b) Tnh dm chn vm
Coi dm chn vm chu lc tc dng phn b u v dm c hai im ta ti ct
l, khi m men un cc i tc dng ln dm chn vm:

8
a . P
M
t d
max
= [kG.cm] (6.20)
Trong :
P
t
- lc ngang thc t [kG].
- 128 -
a - bc ct [cm].
M men chng un cn thit ca dm:

[ ]
k
d
max d
u
M
W

= [cm
3
] (6.21)
Trong l bn ko cho php ca thp lm dm chn vm, ly theo bng 6.8. [
k
]
Bng 6.8 Gi tr ca h s k ph thuc nhit nc l
Mc thp
[ ]
k
, kg/cm
2
CT31, CT38 1200
C20 1330
C25 1500
C45 2200

Bit c m men chng un cn thit ca dm, tra bng chn thp hnh c
.
d
u u
W W >
c) Tnh ct khung l
- M men un cc i tc dng ln ct tr:
Lc tc dng ln ct tr chnh l lc do dm chn vm truyn ra, do m men
un cc i tc dng ln ct tr:

2 1
2 1 t c
max
h h
h . h . P
M
+
= (kG.cm) (6.22)
Trong :
P
t
- lc ngang thc t [kG].
h
1
, h
2
- khong cch t dm chn vm n thanh ging trn v di [cm].
- M men chng un cn thit ca ct tr:

[ ]
k
c
max c
u
M
W

= [cm
3
] (6.23)
Sau khi xc nh c tra bng chn thp hnh (ch U hoc ch I) c .
c
u
W
c
u u
W W >
d) Tnh thanh ging
Cc thanh ging thng l thp trn, c tnh theo bn ko v coi nhit
nung nng thanh ging khng qu 200
o
C.
- 129 -
- Lc ko tc dng ln thanh ging trn:

2 1
2 t
1
h h
h . P
P
+
= [kG] (6.24)
- Tit din cn thit ca thanh ging trn:

[ ]
k
1
1
P
F

= [cm
2
] (6.25)
- Lc ko tc dng ln thanh ging di:

2 1
1 t
2
h h
h . P
P
+
= [kG] (6.26)
- Tit din cn thit ca thanh ging di:

[ ]
k
2
2
P
F

= [cm
2
] (6.27)
Sau khi tnh c tit din cc thanh ging tra bng chn thp hnh (thp trn) c tit
din ln hn tit din cn thit.
- 130 -
Chng 7
H thng thot khi, cp gi
v thit b tn dng nhit khi l

7.1. H thng thot khi
7.1.1. Cu trc ca h thng thot khi
Thng thng h thng thot khi cho l bao gm cc knh khi, cng khi v
ng khi lm nhim v dn sn phm chy t l ra ngoi tri.
Cu trc ca h thng thot khi rt a dng ph thuc cu trc l v v tr t h
thng thot khi. Thng thng cc l c cng sut nh hoc khng dng thit b trao
i nhit, hoc dng thit b trao i nhit hnh kim, thit b ng nhn kiu ng thng,
ngi ta b tr h thng khi ngay pha trn nc l. Nhng l c cng sut trung bnh
v ln, c thit b hon nhit, thit b trao i nhit bng gm ... thng b tr h thng
thot khi i chm di nn phn xng. Cch b tr h thng thot khi i chm c u
im gii phng c mt bng quanh l, thun tin cho vn hnh l nhng gy kh
khn v tn km trong xy dng.
a s cc l luyn kim, do mc ch s dng nhit trong l, thng b tr cc
knh khi dn khi t bung l qua y hoc tng i xung pha di v tp trung
vo cng khi ti ng khi. Trn hnh 7.1 trnh by cu trc in hnh ca mt h
thng thot khi ca l nung lin tc.









Knh khi thng c tit din ch nht, lm nhim v dn khi t khng gian l
ti cng khi. Ming knh khi c th b tr trn y l hoc trn tng ty theo yu
cu cng ngh. Khi b tr ming knh khi trn y, khong cch gia cch knh
2
3
4
6
A
A
5
1
A -A
Hnh 7.1 S h thng thot khi l nung lin tc
1) Khng gian l 2) Knh khi 3) Cng khi
4)Thit b trao i nhit 5) Van 6) ng khi
- 131 -
khng c nh hn mt vin gch m bo bn ca th xy, ng thi kch
thc tit din cn chn sao cho khng vt nung ri xung knh. Khi b tr knh
trn tng l th chiu dy tng l (khng k chiu rng knh) phi ln hn 460 mm.
Cng khi thng c tit din ch nht ng, nh cun vm, t ngm di t,
khong cch ti thiu t nh cng khi ti mt nn 300mm. Nhng ni c nc
ngm cng khi c t trong lp b tng chng thm, khi cn cch nhit tt
khng lm cho b tng b ph hy. Trn ng dn khi l c th t thit b trao i
nhit (thng l phn cng khi) v t van iu chnh lng khi l i ra ng khi.
ng khi l b phn to sc ht a sn phm chy t bung l thi ra mi
trng. Ty theo cng sut l v nhit kh thi c th s dng ng khi xy gch,
ng khi kim loi hoc ng khi bng b tng chu nhit.
Khi thit k h thng thot khi cn lu cc nguyn tc sau:
- B tr cc knh khi sao cho khi l t bung l vo cc knh u nhau
khng c gc cht.
- ng dn khi cng ngn, cng thng cng tt, hn ch cc gc ngot, gp
khc, cc v tr t m, t thu t ngt lm tng tr lc trn ng dn, ng thi
m bo thun tin cho vic xy th xy.
- Nhng ni c nhiu l t gn nhau nn b tr h thng thot khi c chung
mt ng khi gim chi ph xy dng.
7.1.2. Tnh h thng thot khi
a) Tnh lng kh l i vo knh
Lng kh l khi bt u vo knh khi:

= . V BV V
0 n A
[m
3
/h] (7.1)
Trong d:
B - lng tiu hao nhin liu [m
3
/h] hoc [kg/h].
V
n
- lng sn phm chy khi t chy mt n v nhin liu [m
3
/kg] hoc
[m
3
/m
3
].
- tng lng kh l mt qua ca thao tc v ca quan st [m

. V
0
3
/h].
i vi ca ng

> 4 3
B
H
:
- 132 -
t 1
V
V
t
0
+
= (7.2)
( )
k kk t
gH 2 BH
3
2
V =
i vi ca nm

> 4 3
H
B
:

t 1
V
V
'
t
0
+
= (7.3)
( )
k kk
'
t
gH 2 BH V =
l h s thi gian m ca:

f
G 3600
mP
= (7.4)
Vi m l thi gian ra mt phi [s], P nng sut l [kg/h], G
f
khi lng mt
phi[kg].
b) Tnh tit din knh khi
Din tch tit din knh khi xc nh theo cng thc sau:

N . W . 3600
V
F
k
A
k
= [m
2
] (7.5)
Trong :
W
k
- tc kh l i trong knh , chn trong khong 1 - 2 m/s.
N - s knh.
Knh khi c tit din ch nht nn ta c:
b . a F
k
=
Bit F
k
ta xc nh c cc kch thc a v b.
c) Tnh din tch tit din cng khi
C
A
C
W . 3600
V
F = [m
2
] (7.6)
Trong : W
c
- tc kh l i trong cng, chn trong khong 1,5 - 3 m/s.
Da vo tit din F
c
tra bng chn cng khi c tit din F F
c
.
7.1.3. Tnh tr lc trn ng dn khi
Tng tn tht p sut h thng thot khi xc nh theo cng thc:
- 133 -


+ =
hh cb ms tt
h h h h (7.7)
Trong :
h
ms
- tng tn tht do ma st trn ng dn.
h
cb
- tng tn tht cc b trn dng dn.
h
hh
- tng tn tht hnh hc trn ng dn.
a) Tnh tn tht ma st
Tn tht ma st trn ng dn xc nh theo cng thc:

0
i , k
i
i
n
1 i
2
k 0 k 0
i ms
T
T
D
L
.
2
W
. h

=

=
(
i , k k 0
i
i
n
1 i
2
k 0
i ms
t 1 .
D
L
.
2
W
. h + =

=
) (7.8)
Trong :

i
- h s ma st trn on th i.

0k
, W
0k
- khi lng ring v tc kh l iu kin tiu chun [kg/m
3
] v
[m/s].
L
i
, D
i
- chiu di v ng knh thy lc ca on kho st.

i
i
i
C
F 4
D =
Vi F
i
[m
2
] v C
i
[m] l din tch tit din v chu vi ca dng chy ti on kho
st.
T
0
- nhit iu kin tiu chun
o
K.
ki T
-
nhit trung bnh trn on th i:

2
T T
T
ki ) 1 i ( k
ki
+
=


Vi
i i ) 1 i ( k ki
l . T T T =

- gim nhit trn mt n v chiu di ng dn[
i
T
o
K/m].
b) Tnh tn tht cc b
Tn tht p sut do tr lc cc b xc nh theo cng thc:


=

=
n
1 i
0
i , k
2
k 0 k 0
i cb
T
T
.
2
W
. h
- 134 -
(

=
+ =
n
1 i
i , k k 0
2
k 0
i cb
t 1 .
2
W
. h ) (7.9)
Trong :

i
- h s tr lc cc b ti mt ct i.
T
k,i
- nhit ti mt ct i.
c) Tnh tn tht hnh hc
Tn tht hnh hc xut hin khi kh l nh hn khng kh bao quanh chuyn
ng t trn xung di hoc khi kh l nng hn chuyn ng t di ln trn. Cng
thc xc nh tn tht do tr lc hnh hc khi kh l nh hn khng kh bao quanh
chuyn ng t trn xung di:


=

=
n
1 i i , k
0
ok
i , kk
0
okk i hh
T
T
T
T
gH h
(7.10) (

=
=
n
1 i
i , k i , kk i hh
gH h )
Trong :
H
i
- cao ca on knh kho st [m].
- khi lng ring khng kh v kh l iu kin tiu chun [kg/m
, kk 0

k 0

3
].
i , kk T , i , k T - nhit trung bnh ca khng kh v kh l trn on kho st [
o
K].
Trong trng hp ngc li, kh l nh i ln hoc kh l nng i xung, ct p
hnh hc gim tn tht p trn ng dn (h
hh
mang du m).
7.1.4. Tnh ng khi
Thit k ng khi nhm mc ch xc nh chiu cao ng khi v cc thng s c
bn ca ng khi sao cho m bo lc ht ca ng khi ln hn tr lc trn ng dn
ca h thng thot khi. S dng phng trnh Becnuly ta nhn c quan h gia p
sut m chn ng khi vi chiu cao ca n, nhit sn phm chy v cc tn tht
nng lng khi sn phm chy chuyn ng trong ng khi:
( )
] m / N [
T
T
.
2
W
d
H
.
T
T
.
2
W
T
T
.
2
W W
.
T
T
T
T
Hg p
2
0
2 , k
2
k 0
tb 0
k
2
k 0
0
k
2
1 , k 0
2
2 , k 0
k 0
k
0
k 0
kk
0
kk 0
2 , k 0 k 0

=
(7.11)
Trong :
- 135 -
p - p sut m cn to ra chn ng khi [N/m
2
]:
(7.12)

=
tt
h . k p
Vi k = 1,2 - 1,3 l h s k n s tng tr lc khi knh dn b bm bi v kh
nng cng ha qu trnh.

tt
h - tng tn tht trn ng dn n chn ng khi [N/m
2
].
T phng trnh (7.11) v (7.12), nhn c cng thc xc nh chiu cao ng
khi:

( )
tb 0
k
2
k 0
k
0
k 0
kk
0
kk 0
0
2 , k
2
k 0
0
k
2
1 , k 0
2
2 , k 0
k 0 tt
d
1
.
T
T
.
2
W
T
T
T
T
g
T
T
.
2
W
T
T
.
2
W W
. h . k
H
k 0
2 , k 0
+

+
=

[m] (7.13)
Trong :
, : khi lng ring khi l v khng kh iu kin tiu chun [kg/m
k 0

kk 0

3
].
, , l tc khi l ti chn, nh ng khi iu kin tiu chun
[m/s].
1 , k 0
W
2 , k 0
W
k 0 W l tc trung bnh ca khi l trong ng khi iu kin tiu chun:

2
W W
W
2 , k 0 1 , k 0
k 0
+
=

420 P (m)
- nhit khng kh xung quanh [
kk
T
o
K].

2
T T
T
2 , k 1 , k
k
+
= - nhit trung bnh ca khi
l trong ng khi [
o
K].
, T - nhit khi l chn v nh n
1 , k
T
2 , k
g
khi [
o
K].
- h s ma st trong ng khi.
- ng knh trong trung bnh ca ng khi:
tb
d

2
d d
d
2 1
tb
+
=
Vi d
1
, d
2
ng knh trong chn v nh ng
khi [m].
100
150
200
250
t
k
= 450
o
C
350
380

340

300
260

220
180

140

100

60
20

20 60 60 80 H (m)

Hnh 7.2 Biu
chn chiu cao s b ca
ng khi



- 136 -
Cc thng s trong cng thc (7.13) c xc nh sau:
Nhit kh l ti ming ng khi:
sb 1 , k 2 , k
H . t T T =
k T - nhit trung bnh ca khi l trong ng khi [
o
K].
Vi t l gim nhit trung bnh ca khi l ng vi 1 m chiu cao ng khi
[
o
C/m], l chiu cao ng khi s b, chn theo gin hnh 7.2.
sb
H
ng knh ra ca ming ng khi:

2 , k 0
k
2
w .
V 4
d

= [m] (7.14)

i vi ngkhi xy bng gch th d
2
800mm.
ng knh chn ng khi bng gch v b tng chn:

2 1
d 5 , 1 d =
Tc kh l ti ming ng khi chn 3 - 4 m/s.
2 , k 0
W
Chiu cao ng khi H tnh c t cng thc 7.13 nm trong khong %
th khng phi tnh li. Trng hp H < 16 m, ly H = 16 m m bo iu kin v
sinh mi trng.
10 H
sb

7.2. H thng cp gi v kh t
7.2.1. Cu trc h thng cp gi
H thng cp gi gm thit b cp gi (qut gi) v cc ng dn gi lm nhim v
dn khng khi t thit b cp gi n thit b t nhin liu. Trong trng hp dng gi
nng, c thm ng dn khng kh i qua thit b trao i nhit trc khi n thit b
t. Trn hnh 7.3 trnh by cu trc ca h thng cp gi ca mt l nung lin tc s
dng gi nng.
Cc ng dn gi c lm bng thp ng hn, chiu dy thnh ng t 3 - 6 mm.
Nu ng dn gi nng m nhit t
kk
< 500
o
C bn ngoi c bc cch nhit, cn khi t
kk

> 500
o
C th ngoi lp bc cch nhit, bn trong ng cn phi lt gch chu la mc
thp.
i vi cc l dng nhin liu kh, ngoi cc ng dn gi cn c h thng ng
dn kh t. Cc ng dn kh t cng ch to bng cc ng thp hn, chiu dy thnh
- 137 -
ng t 5 - 8 mm, bn ngoi bc cch nhit nu t
k
<500
o
C v lt gch bn trong v bc
cch nhit bn ngoi nu t
k
> 500
o
C.










Khi thit k h thng cp gi cn lu :
1
2
3
4
5
5
Hnh 7.3 S cp gi cho l nung lin tc
1) Qut gi 2) ng dn gi lnh 3) ng dn gi nng
4) ng dn gi pha long khi l 5)Thit b t
- B tr ng dn kh sao cho chiu di ng dn cng ngn cng tt, hn ch
gp khc v cc tr lc cc b khc lm tng tn tht p sut trn ng dn, ng thi
khng gy tr ngi cho vic i li v thao tc xung quanh l.
- Khi trong phn xng c nhiu l gn nhau th c th thit k mt h thng
cp gi chung cho cc l.
- Tnh ton tr lc trn ng dn chn qut gi cn tnh cho nhnh c tn
tht ln nht.
7.2.2. Tnh kch thc ng ng dn gi v kh t
- Din tch tit din ng dn gi:

i , kk
i , kk
i , kk
W . 3600
V
F = (m
2
) (7.15)
Trong :
i , kk
V - lu lng gi qua tit din on ng kho st [m
3
/h].
i , kk
W - tc gi qua tit din on ng kho st [m/s], chn theo bng 7.1.
- ng knh ng dn:

=
i , kk
i , kk
F . 4
d (m) (7.16)

- 138 -
Bng 7.1 Tc gi v kh t trong ng dn
Dch th W [m/s]
Khng kh lnh 8 - 12
Khng kh nng 4 - 6
Kh t lnh, p sut thp:
- ng thng
- ng c hnh phc tp

12
6
Kh t nng, p sut thp: 4 - 6

7.2.3. Tnh tn tht p sut trn ng dn gi
Tng tn tht trn ng dn gi xc nh theo cng thc tng t trong phn
thit k h thng thot khi nhng lu cc thng s thit k (nh gim nhit ,
h s tr lc ) c chn theo khng kh hoc kh t.
Tng tn tht:

+ =
hh cb ms tt
h h h h (7.17)
Tn tht ma st:
(
i , kk kk 0
i
i
n
1 i
2
kk 0
i ms
t 1 .
D
L
.
2
W
. h + =

=
) (7.18)
Tn tht cc b:
(

=
+ =
n
1 i
i , kk kk 0
2
kk 0
i cb
t 1 .
2
W
. h ) (7.19)
i vi l dng nhin liu rn, tr lc trn ng dn gi phi k n tr lc qua
ghi l h
g
.
7.3. Thit b tn dng nhit khi l
7.3.1. Phn loi
tn dng nhit khi thi, trong cc l luyn kim thng s sng cc thit b
thu hi nhit nung nng khng kh hoc kh t.
Theo nguyn tc lm vic ngi ta chia cc thit b thu hi nhit thnh hai loi:
- Thit b trao i nhit: hot ng lin tc, ch nhit n nh, khng kh
v khi cng i qua thit b.
- 139 -
- Thit b hon nhit: hot ng theo chu k, ch nhit khng n nh,
khng kh v khi l i qua thit b trong nhng khong thi gian khc nhau.
Di y ch yu kho st thit b trao i nhit.
7.3.2. Thit b trao i nhit
Thit b trao i nhit c hai loi: thit b trao i nhit kiu gm ch to bng
vt liu phi kim (samt hoc cac b run) v thit b trao i nhit kim loi c ch to
bng kim loi (gang xm, thp cc bon thp, thp hp kim chu nhit ). Ph bin l
thit b trao i nhit kim loi.
Theo cu to thit b trao i nhit kim loi c chia ra lm hai loi: loi ng
kim loi nhn v loi ng c gai.
Loi ng nhn c ch to t cc ng thp nhn c ng knh trong d = 15 -
100 mm, chiu dy thnh ng t 3 - 5 mm. Cc ng c b tr thnh chm ng theo
kiu bn c hoc so le, khng kh i trong ng cn khi l i ngoi ng. Nhit khi
l thng khng c vt qu 500
o
C.
Loi ny c kt cu n gin, d ch to v lp t, h s truyn nhit vo khong
15 - 25 Kcal/m
2
.h..














Loi ng mt c gai c ch to t gang chu nhit cha 1,5 - 30 %Cr, c gai hai
mt hoc c gai mt trong, mt ngoi nhn. Do b mt c gai, nn loi ny c h s
KK lnh KK lnh KK nng KK nng
b)
a)
Hnh 7.2 S cu to thit b trao i nhit kim loi
a) ng trn b) ng c gai
- 140 -
truyn nhit ln, khong 80 - 100 Kcal/m
2
.h., nhng kt cu phc tp, kh lp t v
lng khng kh r ln.
7.3.3. Tnh ton thit b trao i nhit
Mc ch tnh ton thit b trao i nhit l xc nh b mt trao i nhit cn
thit ca thit b.
Khi ch nhit n nh, lng nhit truyn t khi l qua thnh ca thit b n
khng kh xc nh theo cng thc sau:
[Kcal/h] hoc [W] F . t . K Q
tb
=

tb
t . K
Q
F

= [m
2
] (7.20)
Lng nhit Q cn truyn t khi l n khng kh:
( ) ( ) = = . t . C t . C V t . C t . C V Q
d
k
d
k
c
k
c
k k
d
kk
d
kk
c
kk
c
kk kk
(7.21)
Trong :
V
kk
- lng khng kh cn nung nng [m
3
/h].
V
k
- lng khi l i qua thit b [m
3
/h].
- h s s dng nhit ca thit b 0,85 - 0,90.
, v , l nhit dung ring ca khng kh v khi l trc khi vo v
sau khi ra khi thit b.
d
kk
C
c
kk
C
d
k
C
c
k
C
d
kk
t , v , l nhit ca khng kh v kh l trc khi vo v sau khi ra
khi thit b.
c
kk
t
d
k
t
c
k
t
K - h s truyn nhit t khi n khng kh:
Khi tng phng:
kk k
1 S 1
1
K

= (7.22)
Khi tng hnh tr:
2 kk 1
2
1 k
r .
1
r
r
.
1
r .
1
1
K

= (7.22)
- 141 -
Hiu s nhit trung bnh
tb
t xc nh ph thuc nhit u v cui, hng
chuyn ng ca khi v khng kh. Trn hnh 7.3 trnh by mt s trng hp thng
dng v biu nhit s dng tnh
tb
t .

















Hiu s nhit trung bnh trong thit b xc nh theo nhit trung bnh
logarit:

c
d
c d
tb
t
t
lg . 3 , 2
t t
t

= (6.23)
Trong :
- hiu s nhit ti u khi vo:
d
t
Thun dng:
d
kk
d
k d
t t t =
Nghch dng:
c
kk
d
k d
t t t =
- hiu s nhit ti u khi ra:
c
t
Thun dng:
c
kk
c
k c
t t t =
KK
K
KK
K
KK
Giao nhau Ngc dng
Thun dng
K
KK
KK
K
K
Chnh giao thun dng Chnh giao ngc dng
t
k
t
kk
t
o
C
L (m)
t
k
t
kk
d
k
t
d
kk
t
kk
t
d
k
t
kk
t
c
kk
t
d
c
k
t
c
k
t
c
t
o
C
L (m)
Thun dng Ngc dng
Hnh 7.3 Phn loi chuyn ng khi l v khng kh
- 142 -
Nghch dng:
d
kk
c
k c
t t t =
Sau khi tnh c F
k
, tra bng chn loi ng trao i nhit, s lng ng v b tr
s lng ng trong mt hng v s hng cn thit m bo b mt trao i nhit ca
thit b ln hn hoc bng gi tr tnh c.




























- 143 -


Ti liu tham kho
1. Phm Vn Tr, Dng c Hng, Nguyn Cng Cn: L cng nghip . i hc
Bch khoa H ni - 1996.
2. B mn Luyn kim: Nguyn l l luyn kim. i hc Bch khoa H ni - 1968.
3. E.I. Kazanxev: Prmslenni petchi. NXB Metalurghi , Moskva - 1975.
4. H.E. Xentruk, H. Dzmakin: Teplvi ratrit plachennx petchi dlia nagrepva i
teplbrabtki metala. NXB Minxk -1974.























- 144 -



- 145 -
Mc lc
Chng 1. Khi nim v cc c trng c bn 5
1.1. Khi nim 5
1.2. Phn loi
1.2.1. Phn loi theo ngun nhit s dng 6
1.2.2. Phn loi theo c im cng ngh 6
1.2.3. Phn loi theo ch cng tc nhit 7
1.2.4. Phn loi theo kt cu 8
1.3. Cc c trng c bn ca l
1.3.1. Ch nhit ca l 8
1.3.2. Ch nhit ca l 9
1.3.3. Cng sut nhit ca l 9
1.3.4. Nng sut ca l 9
1.3.5. Cc hiu sut ca l 9
1.3.6. Sut tiu hao nhin liu tiu chun 11
Chng 2. Cng tc nhit ca l 12
2.1. Ch lm vic bc x 12
2.1.1. Mt s khi nim v nh lut c bn v truyn nhit bc x 12
2.1.2. Ch lm vic bc x phn b u 18
2.1.3. Ch lm vic bc x trc tip 19
2.1.4. Ch lm vic bc x gin tip 21
2.1.5. Tnh ton trao i nhit bc x 22
2.2. Ch lm vic i lu 25
2.2.1. Mt s khi nim v nh lut c bn v truyn nhit i lu 26
2.2.2. Ch i lu t nhin 28
2.2.3. Ch i lu cng bc 29
2.2.4. Trao i nhit i lu trong cht lng 31
2.2.5. Chn nhin liu v phng php t 32
2.2.6. Lnh vc ng dng 32
2.3. Ch lm vic theo lp 32
2.3.1. Khi nim v phn loi 32
2.3.2. Ch lp cht 34
- 145 -
2.3.3. Ch lp si 36
2.3.4. Ch lp l lng 40
2.3.5. Chn nhin liu v phng php t 41
Chng 3. Nung kim loi 43
3.1. Khi nim chung 43
3.1.1. Mc ch ca qu trnh nung 43
3.1.2. Cc hin tng xy ra khi nung kim loi 43
3.1.3. Ch nung khi nung kim loi 44
3.2. Tnh ton thi gian nung 45
3.2.1. Cc iu kin gii hn khi nung 45
3.2.2. Phng php tnh 46
3.3. V d tnh thi gian nung 53
Chng 4. Nhin liu v s chy ca nhin liu 57
4.1. Nhin liu 57
4.1.1. Khi nim chung 57
4.1.2. Cc loi nhin liu 57
4.1.3. Thnh phn ca nhin liu 62
4.1.4. Nhit tr ca nhin liu 64
4.2. S chy ca nhin liu 65
4.2.1. S chy ca nhin liu rn 65
4.2.2. S chy ca nhin liu lng 66
4.2.3. S chy ca nhin liu kh 68
4.2.4. Khi nim v chy hon ton, khng hon ton v h s d khng kh 69
4.3. Tnh ton s chy ca nhin liu 70
4.3.1. Tnh ton s chy ca nhin liu rn v lng 71
4.3.2. Tnh ton s chy ca nhin liu kh 78
Chng 5. Thit b t nhin liu 79
5.1. Thit b t nhin liu rn 79
5.1.1. Bung t th cng 79
5.1.2 Bung t c kh 81
5.1.3 Tnh ton bung t 82
5.2. Thit b t nhin liu bi 85
- 146 -
5.2.1. Khi nim v t nhin liu bi 85
5.2.2 Cc thit b t nhin liu bi 86
5.3. Thit b t nhin liu lng 87
5.3.1. M phun p sut thp 87
5.3.2. M phun p sut cao 88
5.3.3. Tnh ton m phun 89
5.4. Thit b t nhin liu kh 96
5.4.1. M t t ht 96
5.4.2. M t lng ng 98
5.4.3. Tnh ton m t 99
Chng 6. Vt liu xy, th xy v khung l 107
6.1. Vt liu xy l 107
6.1.1. Yu cu chung i vi vt liu chu la 107
6.1.2. Mt s tnh cht c bn ca vt liu chu la 107
6.1.3. Vt liu chu la thng dng 110
6.1.4. Vt liu cch nhit 112
6.1.5. Cc th gch xy 112
6.2. Th xy l 114
6.2.1. Khi nim chung 114
6.2.2. Cu trc ca cc th xy 116
6.2.3. Tnh ton gch xy nc l 123
6.3. Khung l 125
6.3.1. Kt cu khung l 125
6.3.2. Tnh ton khung l 127
Chng 7. H thng thot khi, cp gi v thit b tn dng nhit khi l 131
7.1. H thng thot khi 131
7.1.1. Cu trc ca h thng thot khi 131
7.1.2. Tnh ton kch thc h thng thot khi 132
7.1.3. Tnh tn tht p sut trn ng dn khi 133
7.1.4. Tnh ng hki 135
7.2. H thng cp gi v kh t 137
7.2.1. Cu trc ca h thng cp gi 137
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7.2.2. Tnh kch thc ng ng dn gi v kh t 138
7.2.3 Tnh tn tht p sut trn ng dn gi 139
7.3. Thit b tn dng nhit khi l 139
7.3.1 Phn loi 139
7.3.2. Thit b trao i nhit 140
7.3.3. Tnh ton thit b trao i nhit 141
Ti liu tham kho 144
Mc lc 145















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