Dai So Tuyen Tinh

I S TUYN TNH
PGS. TS M Vinh Quang

Ngy 11 thng 10 nm 2004
M u
Trong cc k thi tuyn sinh sau i hc, i s tuyn tnh l mn c bn, l mn thi bt
buc i vi mi th sinh thi vo sau i hc ngnh ton - c th l cc chuyn ngnh : PPGD,
i s, Gii tch, Hnh hc.
Cc bi vit ny nhm cung cp cho cc bn c mt cch c h thng v chn lc cc kin
thc v k nng c bn nht ca mn hc i s tuyn tnh vi mc ch gip nhng ngi
d thi cc k tuyn sinh sau i hc ngnh ton c c s chun b ch ng, tch cc nht.
V l cc bi n tp vi s tit hn ch nn cc kin thc trnh by s c chn lc v
bm st theo cng n tp vo sau i hc. Tuy nhin, d dng hn cho bn c th t
cc vn c th thay i. Cng chnh bi cc l do trn cc bi vit ny khng th thay th
mt gio trnh i s tuyn tnh hon chnh. Bn c quan tm c th tham kho thm mt
s sch vit v i s tuyn tnh, chng hn :
1. Nguyn Vit ng - L Th Thin Hng ...
Ton cao cp Tp 2 - Nxb Gio dc 1998
2. Jean - Marie Monier.
i s 1 - Nxb Gio dc 2000
3. Ng Thc Lanh
i s tuyn tnh - Nxb i hc v Trung hc chuyn nghip 1970
4. Bi Tng Tr.
i s tuyn tnh.
5. M Vinh Quang
Bi tp i s tuyn tnh.
Bi 1: NH THC
hiu c phn ny, ngi c cnphi nm c khi nim v ma trn v cc php
ton trn ma trn (php cng, tr, nhn hai ma trn). Cc khi nim trn kh n gin, ngi
c c th d dng tm c trong cc sch dn trn.
1
1 nh ngha nh thc
1.1 nh thc cp 2, 3
Cho A l ma trn vung cp 2 :
A =
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
nh thc (cp 2) ca A l mt s, k hiu det A (hoc |A|) xc nh nh sau :

det A =
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
= a
11
a
22
a
12
a
21
(1)
Cho A l ma trn vung cp 3 :
A =
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
nh thc (cp 3) ca A l mt s k hiu det A (hoc |A|), xc nh nh sau : det A =
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
= a
11
a
22
a
33
+a
12
a
23
a
31
+a
13
a
21
a
32
a
13
a
22
a
31
a
11
a
23
a
32
a
12
a
21
a
33
(2)
Cng thc khai trin ( 2 ) thng uc nh theo quy tc Sarrus nh sau :
V d :
1 2 3
1 2 1
1 0 4
= [(1)(2).4 +2.1.(1) +1.0.3] [3.(2).(1) +1.0.(1) +2.1.4] = 8

Nu ta k hiu S
n
l tp hp cc php th bc n th cc cng thc ( 1 ) v ( 2 ) c th
vit li nh sau :
det A =
fS
2
s(f)a
1f(1)
a
2f(2)
v det A =
fS
3
s(f)a
1f(1)
a
2f(2)
a
3f(3)
T gi cho ta cch nh ngha nh thc cp n nh sau.
2
1.2 nh thc cp n
Cho A l ma trn vung cp n :
A =
a
11
a
12
a
1n
a
21
a
22
a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
a
nn
nh thc ( cp n) ca ma trn A l mt s, k hiu det A (hoc |A|), xc nh nh sau :

det A =
a
11
a
12
a
1n
a
21
a
22
a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
a
nn
fS
n
s(f)a
1f(1)
a
2f(2)
...a
nf(n)
(3)
Chc chn l i vi mt s bn c, (nht l bn c khng tho v php th) nh ngha
nh thc tng i kh hnh dung. Tuy nhin, rt may l khi lm vic vi nh thc, (k c
khi tnh nh thc) nh ngha trn him khi c s dng m ta ch yu s dng cc tnh
cht ca nh thc. Bi vy, bn c nu cha c thi gian c th tm b qua nh ngha
trn v cn phi nm vng cc tnh cht sau ca nh thc.
2 Cc tnh cht ca nh thc
2.1 Tnh cht 1
nh thc khng thay i qua php chuyn v, tc l : det A
t
= detA (A
t
: ma trn chuyn
v ca ma trn A)
V d :

1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
1 4 7
2 5 8
3 6 9
Ch : T tnh cht ny, mt mnh v nh thc nu ng vi dng th cng ng vi

ct v ngc li.
2.2 Tnh cht 2
Nu ta i ch hai dng bt k (hoc 2 ct bt k) ca nh thc th nh thc i du.
V d :
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
7 8 9
4 5 6
1 2 3
3
2.3 Tnh cht 3
Nu tt c cc phn t ca mt dng (hoc mt ct) ca nh thc uc nhn vi th
nh thc mi bng nh thc ban u nhn vi .
V d :

1 2 3
4 2 6
6 4 9
= 2
1 2 3
2 1 3
6 4 9
Ch : T tnh cht ny ta c nu A l ma trn vung cp n th det (A) =

n
det A
2.4 Tnh cht 4
Cho A l ma trn vung cp n. Gi s dng th i ca ma trn A c th biu din dui
dng : a
ij
= a
ij
+ a
ij
vi j = 1, 2, ..., n. Khi ta c :
det A =
... ... ... ...

a
i1
+ a
i1
a
i2
+ a
i2
... a
in
+ a
in
... ... ... ...
=
=
... ... ... ...

a
i1
a
i2
... a
in
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...

a
i1
a
i2
... a
in
... ... ... ...
Trong cc dng cn li ca 3 nh thc 2 v l hon ton nh nhau v chnh l cc dng

cn li ca ma trn A. Tt nhin ta cng c kt qu tng t i vi ct.
V d :

1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
1 2 3
6 5 4
7 8 9
1 2 3
2 0 2
7 8 9
Ch : Cc tnh cht 2, 3, 4 chnh l tnh a tuyn tnh thay phin ca nh thc.

T cc tnh cht trn, d dng suy ra cc tnh cht sau ca nh thc :
2.5 Tnh cht 5
nh thc s bng 0 nu :
1. C hai dng (hai ct) bng nhau hoc t l.
2. C mt dng (mt ct) l t hp tuyn tnh ca cc dng khc (ct khc).
2.6 Tnh cht 6
nh thc s khng thay i nu :
1. Nhn mt dng (mt ct) vi mt s bt k ri cng vo dng khc (ct khc).
2. Cng vo mt dng (mt ct) mt t hp tuyn tnh ca cc dng khc (ct khc)
4
V d :

1 1 1 0
2 1 3 2
1 0 1 2
3 1 2 4
1 1 1 0
0 1 5 2
0 1 0 2
0 4 1 4
(L do: nhn dngmtvi (2) cng vo dng 2, nhn dng mt vi 1 cng vo dng 3, nhn
dngmtvi 3 cng vo dng 4).
tnh nh thc, ngoi vic s dng cc tnh cht trn ca nh thc ta cn rt hay s
dng nh l Laplace di y.
3 nh l Laplace
3.1 nh thc con v phn b i s
Cho A l ma trn vung cp n, k l s t nhin 1 k n. Cc phn t nm trn giao ca
k dng bt k, k ct bt k ca A lm thnh mt ma trn vung cp k ca A. nh thc ca
ma trn ny gi l mt nh thc con cp k ca ma trn A.
c bit, cho trc 1 i, j n, nu ta xa i dng i, ct j ca A ta s c ma trn con
cp n 1 ca A, k hiu l M
ij
. Khi , A
ij
= (1)
i+j
det M
ij
c gi l phn b i s ca
phn t (A)
ij
. ((A)
ij
l phn t nm hng i, ct j ca ma trn A)
3.2 nh l Laplace
Cho A l ma trn vung cp n :
A =
a
11
a
12
... a
1j
... a
1n
a
21
a
22
... a
2j
... a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
i1
a
i2
... a
ij
... a
in
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
... a
nj
... a
nn
Khi ta c :
1. Khai trin nh thc theo dng i
det A = a
i1
.A
i1
+ a
i2
.A
i2
+ ... + a
in
.A
in
=
n
k=1
a
ik
.A
ik
2. Khai trin nh thc theo ct j
det A = a
1j
.A
1j
+ a
2j
.A
2j
+ ... + a
nj
.A
nj
=
n
k=1
a
kj
.A
kj
T nh l Laplace, ta c th chng minh c 2 tnh cht quan trng sau ca nh thc :
5
3.3 Tnh cht 1
Nu A l ma trn tam gic trn, (hoc tam gic di) th det A bng tch ca tt c cc
phn t trn ng cho chnh, tc l :
a
11
0 0 ... 0
a
21
a
22
0 ... 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
a
n3
... a
nn
= a
11
.a
22
...a
nn
3.4 Tnh cht 2
Nu A, B l cc ma trn vung cp n th det(AB) = det Adet B
4 Cc v d v p dng
Nh c nh l Laplace, tnh mt nh thc cp cao (cp > 3) ta c th khai trin nh
thc theo mt dng hoc mt ct bt k a v tnh cc nh thc cp b hn. C nh vy
sau mt s ln s a c v vic tnh cc nh thc cp 2, 3. Tuy nhin, trong thc t nu
lm nh vy th s lng php tnh kh ln. Bi vy ta lm nh sau th s lng php tnh s
gim i nhiu :
1. Chn dng (ct) c nhiu s 0 nht khai trin nh thc theo dng (ct) .
2. S dng tnh cht 2.6 bin i nh thc sao cho dng chn (ct chn) tr thnh
dng (ct) ch c mt s khc 0.
3. Khai trin nh thc theo dng (ct) . Khi vic tnh mt nh thc cp n quy v
vic tnh mt nh thc cp n1. Tip tc lp li qu trnh trn cho nh thc cp n1,
cui cng ta s dn v vic tnh nh thc cp 2, 3.
V d 1
Tnh

1 0 1 1 2
0 1 1 2 1
1 2 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 2
1 1 1 1 1
Ta chn ct 2 khai trin nhng trc khi khai trin, ta bin i nh thc nh sau :
nhn dng 2 vi (-2) cng vo dng 3. Nhn dng 2 vi (-1) cng vo dng 5. nh thc cho
s bng (Tnh cht 2.6)
1 0 1 1 2
0 1 1 2 1
1 0 1 4 3
1 0 1 0 2
1 0 0 1 2
Khai trin theo ct 2

=
1 1 1 2
1 1 4 3
1 1 0 2
1 0 1 2
6
tnh nh thc cp 4, ta li chn dng 4 khai trin, trc khi khai trin ta li bin
i nh thc nh sau : nhn ct 1 vi (-1) ri cng vo ct 3, nhn ct 1 vi 2 ri cng vo
ct 4. nh thc cho s bng :
1 1 2 4
1 1 5 5
1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
(Khai trin theo dng 4)

= (1).(1)
5
1 2 4
1 5 5
1 1 0
= 1
V d 2 Gii phng trnh
1 x x 1 x + 2
0 0 x
2
1 0
x 1 x x 2
0 0 x
5
+ 1 x
100
= 0
Gii :
V T
(Khai trin theo dng 2 )
= (1)
5
(x
2
1)
1 x x + 2
x 1 x 2
0 0 x
100
(Khai trin theo dng 3)

= (1 x
2
).x
100
1 x
x 1
= (1 x
2
)
2
.x
100
Vy phng trnh cho tng ng vi (1 x
2
)
2
.x
100
= 0 x = 0, x = 1
Bi Tp
1. Tnh
trong , , , l cc nghim ca phng trnh :x

3
+ px + q = 0
2. Gii phng trnh :
1 x x
2
x
3
1 2 4 8
1 3 9 27
1 4 16 64
= 0
3. Chng minh :
a
1
+ b
1
b
1
+ c
1
c
1
+ a
1
a
2
+ b
2
b
2
+ c
2
c
2
+ a
2
a
3
+ b
3
b
3
+ c
3
c
3
+ a
3
= 0
4. Chng minh :
a
2
(a + 1)
2
(a + 2)
2
(a + 3)
2
b
2
(b + 1)
2
(b + 2)
2
(b + 3)
2
c
2
(c + 1)
2
(c + 2)
2
(c + 3)
2
d
2
(d + 1)
2
(d + 2)
2
(d + 3)
2
= 0
7
I S TUYN TNH
Ti liu n thi cao hc nm 2005
Phin bn chnh sa
Bi 2 : Cc Phng Php Tnh nh
Thc Cp n
nh thc c nh ngha kh phc tp, do khi tnh cc nh thc cp cao (cp ln
hn 3) ngi ta hu nh khng s dng nh ngha nh thc m s dng cc tnh cht ca
nh thc v thng dng cc phng php sau.
1 Phng php bin i nh thc v dng tam gic
S dng cc php bin i s cp trn dng (ct) ca ma trn v cc tnh cht ca nh
thc bin i ma trn ca nh thc v dng tam gic. nh thc sau cng s bng tch ca
cc phn t thuc ng cho chnh (theo tnh cht 3.3).
V d 1.1: Tnh nh thc cp n (n 2) sau y:
D =
1 2 2 . . . 2
2 2 2 . . . 2
2 2 3 . . . 2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 2 2 . . . n
Bi gii: Nhn dng (2) vi (1) ri cng vo dng (3), (4), . . . , (n). Ta c
D =
1 2 2 . . . 2
2 2 2 . . . 2
0 0 1 . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 0 . . . n 2
(1)
=
1 2 2 . . . 2
0 2 2 . . . 2
0 0 1 . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 0 . . . n 2
= (2)(n 2)!
(1): nhn dng (1) vi (2) cng vo dng (2).
1
V d 1.2: Tnh nh thc cp n
D =
a b b . . . b
b a b . . . b
b b a . . . b
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b b b . . . a
Bi gii: u tin cng cc ct (2), (3),. . . , (n) vo ct (1). Sau nhn dng (1) vi (1)
cng vo cc dng (2), (3),. . . , (n). Ta c:
D =
a + (n 1)b b b . . . b
a + (n 1)b a b . . . b
a + (n 1)b b a . . . b
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a + (n 1)b b b . . . a
a + (n 1)b b b . . . b
0 a b 0 . . . 0
0 0 a b . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 0 . . . a b
=
_
a + (n 1)b
_
(a b)
n1
2 Phng php qui np
p dng cc tnh cht ca nh thc, bin i, khai trin nh thc theo dng hoc theo
ct biu din nh thc cn tnh qua cc nh thc cp b hn nhng c cng dng. T
ta s nhn c cng thc truy hi.
S dng cng thc truy hi v tnh trc tip cc nh thc cng dng cp 1, cp 2, . . . ,
suy ra nh thc cn tnh.
V d 2.1: Tnh nh thc
D
n
=
1 + a
1
b
1
a
1
b
2
. . . a
1
b
n
a
2
b
1
1 + a
2
b
2
. . . a
2
b
n
. . . . . . . . . . . .
a
n
b
1
a
n
b
2
. . . 1 + a
n
b
n
Bi gii: S dng tnh cht 2.4, tch nh thc theo ct n, ta c:

D
n
=
1 + a
1
b
1
. . . a
1
b
n1
0
a
2
b
1
. . . a
2
b
n1
0
. . . . . . . . . . . .
a
n1
b
1
. . . 1 + a
n1
b
n1
0
a
n
b
1
. . . a
n
b
n1
1
1 + a
1
b
1
. . . a
1
b
n1
a
1
b
n
a
2
b
1
. . . a
2
b
n1
a
2
b
n
. . . . . . . . . . . .
a
n1
b
1
. . . 1 + a
n1
b
n1
a
n1
b
n
a
n
b
1
. . . a
n
b
n1
a
n
b
n
1 + a
1
b
1
. . . a
1
b
n1
0
a
2
b
1
. . . a
2
b
n1
0
. . . . . . . . . . . .
a
n1
b
1
. . . 1 + a
n1
b
n1
0
a
n
b
1
. . . a
n
b
n1
1
+ b
n
1 + a
1
b
1
. . . a
1
b
n1
a
1
a
2
b
1
. . . a
2
b
n1
a
2
. . . . . . . . . . . .
a
n1
b
1
. . . 1 + a
n1
b
n1
a
n1
a
n
b
1
. . . a
n
b
n1
a
n
Khai trin nh thc u theo ct (n) ta s c nh thc u bng D

n1
.
Nhn ct (n) ca nh thc th hai ln lt vi (b
i
) ri cng vo ct i (i = 1, 2, . . . , n1).
2
Ta c:
D
n
= D
n1
+ b
n
1 0 . . . 0 a
1
0 1 . . . 0 a
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 . . . 1 a
n1
0 0 . . . 0 a
n
= D
n1
+ a
n
b
n
Vy ta c cng thc truy hi D
n
= D
n1
+ a
n
b
n
. V cng thc trn ng vi mi n nn ta c
D
n
= D
n1
+ a
n
b
n
=
_
D
n2
+ a
n1
b
n1
_
+ a
n
b
n
= = D
1
+ a
2
b
2
+ a
3
b
3
+ + a
n
b
n
V D
1
= a
1
b
1
+ 1 nn cui cng ta c
D
n
= 1 + a
1
b
1
+ a
2
b
2
+ a
3
b
3
+ + a
n
b
n
V d 2.2: Cho a, b R, a = b. Tnh nh thc cp n
D
n
=
a + b ab 0 . . . 0 0
1 a + b ab . . . 0 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 0 . . . a + b ab
0 0 0 . . . 0 a + b
Bi gii: Khai trin nh thc theo dng u, ta c:

D
n
= (a + b)D
n1
ab
1 ab 0 . . . 0 0
0 a + b ab . . . 0 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 0 . . . a + b ab
0 0 0 . . . 0 a + b
Tip tc khai trin nh thc sau theo ct (1) ta c cng thc:

D
n
= (a + b)D
n1
abD
n2
vi n 3 ()
Do :
D
n
aD
n1
= b(D
n1
aD
n2
)
Cng thc ny ng vi mi n 3 nn ta c
D
n
aD
n1
= b(D
n1
aD
n2
) = b
2
(D
n2
aD
n3
) = = b
n2
(D
2
aD
1
)
Tnh ton trc tip ta c D
2
= a
2
+ b
2
+ ab v D
1
= a + b do D
2
aD
1
= b
2
. Bi vy
D
n
aD
n1
= b
n
(1)
Tip tc, t cng thc () ta li c D
n
bD
n1
= a(D
n1
bD
n2
). Do cng thc ny ng
vi mi n 3 nn tng t nh trn ta li c
D
n
bD
n1
= a(D
n1
bD
n2
) = a
2
(D
n3
bD
n4
)
= = a
n2
(D
2
bD
1
) = a
n
v D
2
bD
1
= a
2
Vy ta c
D
n
bD
n1
= a
n
(2)
Kh D
n1
t trong (1) v (2) ta s c kt qu
D
n
=
a
n+1
b
n+1
a b
3
3 Phng php biu din nh thc thnh tng cc nh
thc
Nhiu nh thc cp n c th tnh c d dng bng cc tch nh thc (theo cc dng
hoc theo cc ct) thnh tng ca cc nh thc cng cp. Cc nh thc mi ny thng bng
0 hoc tnh c d dng.
V d 3.1: Ta s tnh nh thc D
n
trong V d 2.1 bng phng php ny.
Bi gii: Mi ct ca D
n
c vit thnh tng ca 2 ct m ta k hiu l ct loi (1) v loi
(2) nh sau:
D
n
=
1 + a
1
b
1
0 + a
1
b
2
. . . 0 + a
1
b
n
0 + a
2
b
1
1 + a
2
b
2
. . . 0 + a
2
b
n
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
0 + a
n
b
1
0 + a
n
b
2
. . . 1 + a
n
b
n
(1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2)

S dng tnh cht 2.4 ca nh thc, ta ln lt tch cc ct ca nh thc. Sau n ln tch ta
c D
n
l tng ca 2
n
nh thc cp n. Ct th i ca cc nh thc ny chnh l ct loi (1)
hoc loi (2) ca ct th i ca nh thc ban u D
n
. Ta chia 2
n
nh thc ny thnh ba dng
nh sau:
Dng 1: Bao gm cc nh thc c t 2 ct loi (2) tr ln. V cc ct loi (2) t l nn tt
c cc nh thc loi ny c gi tr bng 0.
Dng 2: Bao gm cc nh thc c ng mt ct loi (2), cn cc ct khc l loi (1). Gi
s ct i l loi (2) ta c nh thc l
D
n,i
=
1 0 . . . a
1
b
i
. . . 0
0 1 . . . a
2
b
i
. . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 . . . a
n
b
i
. . . 1
= a
i
b
i
ct i
(khai trin theo ct i). C tt c n nh thc dng 2 (ng vi i = 1, 2, . . . , n) v tng ca tt
c cc nh thc dng 2 l
n
i=1
a
i
b
i
Dng 3: Bao gm cc nh thc khng c ct loi (2), nn tt c cc ct u l loi (1) v
do c ng mt nh thc dng 3 l
1 0 . . . 0
0 1 . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 . . . 1
= 1
Vy D
n
bng tng ca tt c cc nh thc ba dng trn v bng
n
i=1
a
i
b
i
+ 1
4
Nhn xt: Tt c cc nh thc m cc ct (dng) c th biu din di dng tng 2 ct (2
dng) trong cc ct loi (2) (dng loi (2)) t l vi nhau u c th tnh c d dng bng
phng php 3 vi cch trnh by ging ht nh trn.
4 Phng php biu din nh thc thnh tch cc nh
thc
Gi s ta cn tnh nh thc D cp n. Ta biu din ma trn tng ng A ca D thnh tch
cc ma trn vung cp n n gin hn: A = B.C. Khi ta c
D = det A = det(B.C) = det B. det C
vi cc nh thc det B, det C tnh c d dng nn D tnh c.
V d 4.1: Tnh nh thc cp n (n 2) sau
D =
1 + x
1
y
1
1 + x
1
y
2
. . . 1 + x
1
y
n
1 + x
2
y
1
1 + x
2
y
2
. . . 1 + x
2
y
n
. . . . . . . . . . . .
1 + x
n
y
1
1 + x
n
y
2
. . . 1 + x
n
y
n
Bi gii: Vi n 2 ta c:
A =
_
_
1 + x
1
y
1
1 + x
1
y
2
. . . 1 + x
1
y
n
1 + x
2
y
1
1 + x
2
y
2
. . . 1 + x
2
y
n
. . . . . . . . . . . .
1 + x
n
y
1
1 + x
n
y
2
. . . 1 + x
n
y
n
_
_
=
_
_
1 x
1
0 . . . 0
1 x
2
0 . . . 0
1 x
3
0 . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 x
n
0 . . . 0
_
_
. .
B
_
_
1 1 . . . 1
y
1
y
2
. . . y
n
0 0 . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 . . . 0
_
_
. .
C
Bi vy:
D = det A = det B. det C =
_
0 nu n > 2
(x
2
x
1
)(y
2
y
1
) nu n = 2
V d 4.2: Tnh nh thc cp n (n 2)
D =
sin 2
1
sin(
1
+
2
) . . . sin(
1
+
n
)
sin(
2
+
1
) sin 2
2
) . . . sin(
2
+
n
)
. . . . . . . . . . . .
sin(
n
+
1
) sin(
n
+
2
) . . . sin 2
n
5
Bi gii: Vi n 2 ta c:
A =
_
_
sin 2
1
sin(
1
+
2
) . . . sin(
1
+
n
)
sin(
2
+
1
) sin 2
2
. . . sin(
2
+
n
)
. . . . . . . . . . . .
sin(
n
+
1
) sin(
n
+
2
) . . . sin 2
n
_
_
=
_
_
sin
1
cos
1
0 . . . 0
sin
2
cos
2
0 . . . 0
sin
3
cos
3
0 . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
sin
n
cos
n
0 . . . 0
_
_
. .
B
_
_
cos
1
cos
2
. . . cos
n
sin
1
sin
2
. . . sin
n
0 0 . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 . . . 0
_
_
. .
C
Bi vy:
D = det A = det B. det C =
_
0 nu n > 2
sin
2
(
1

2
) nu n = 2
Bi Tp
Tnh cc nh thc cp n sau:
6.
1 + a
1
a
2
a
3
. . . a
n
a
1
1 + a
2
a
3
. . . a
n
a
1
a
2
1 + a
3
. . . a
n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a
1
a
2
a
3
. . . 1 + a
n
7.
0 1 1 . . . 1
1 0 x . . . x
1 x 0 . . . x
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 x x . . . 0
8.
5 3 0 0 . . . 0 0
2 5 3 0 . . . 0 0
0 2 5 3 . . . 0 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 0 0 . . . 2 5
9.
a
1
x . . . x
x a
2
. . . x
. . . . . . . . . . . .
x x . . . a
n
10.
a
1
+ b
1
a
1
+ b
2
. . . a
1
+ b
n
a
2
+ b
1
a
2
+ b
2
. . . a
2
+ b
n
. . . . . . . . . . . .
a
n
+ b
1
a
n
+ b
2
. . . a
n
+ b
n
6
11.
cos(
1

1
) cos(
1

2
) . . . cos(
1

n
)
cos(
2

1
) cos(
2

2
) . . . cos(
2

n
)
. . . . . . . . . . . .
cos(
n

1
) cos(
n

2
) . . . cos(
n

n
)
Tnh cc nh thc cp 2n sau

12.
a 0 . . . 0 0 0 . . . b
0 a . . . 0 0 0 . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 . . . a b 0 . . . 0
0 0 . . . b a 0 . . . 0
0 0 . . . 0 0 a . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b 0 . . . 0 0 0 . . . a
(ng cho chnh l a, ng cho ph l b, tt c cc v tr cn li l 0)

13.
a
1
0 . . . 0 b
1
0 . . . 0
0 a
2
. . . 0 0 b
2
. . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 . . . a
n
0 0 . . . b
n
c
1
0 . . . 0 d
1
0 . . . 0
0 c
2
. . . 0 0 d
2
. . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 . . . c
n
0 0 . . . d
n
7
I S TUYN TNH
Phin bn chnh sa
Bi 3 : Gii Bi Tp nh Thc
1. Tnh
trong , , l cc nghim ca phng trnh :x

3
+px+q = 0
Gii :
Theo nh l Viet ta c + + = 0
Cng ct (1), ct (2) vo ct (3) ta c:
+ +
+ +
+ +
0
0
0
= 0
2. Gii phng trnh
1 x x
2
x
3
1 2 4 8
1 3 9 27
1 4 16 64
Gii :
1
Khai trin nh thc v tri theo dng u, ta s c v tri l mt a thc
bc 3 ca x, k hiu l f(x). Ta c f(2) = 0 v khi nh thc v tri c
2 dng u bng nhau. Tng t f(3) = 0, f(4) = 0. V f(x) l a thc bc
3, c 3 nghim l 2, 3, 4 nn phng trnh trn c nghim l 2, 3, 4.
3. Chng minh
a
1
+ b
1
b
1
+ c
1
c
1
+ a
1
a
2
+ b
2
b
2
+ c
2
c
2
+ a
2
a
3
+ b
3
b
3
+ c
3
c
3
+ a
3
= 0
Gii :
Nhn ct (2) vi (-1), ct (3) vi 1 ri cng vo ct (1), ta c:
V T =
2a
1
b
1
+ c
1
c
1
+ a
1
2a
2
b
2
+ c
2
c
2
+ a
2
2a
3
b
3
+ c
3
c
3
+ a
3
= 2
a
1
b
1
+ c
1
c
1
+ a
1
a
2
b
2
+ c
2
c
2
+ a
2
a
3
b
3
+ c
3
c
3
+ a
3
(1)
= 2
a
1
b
1
+ c
1
c
1
a
2
b
2
+ c
2
c
2
a
3
b
3
+ c
3
c
3
(2)
= 2
a
1
b
1
c
1
a
2
b
2
c
2
a
3
b
3
c
3
Gii thch:
(1) : nhn ct (1) vi (-1) cng vo ct (3)
(2) : nhn ct (3) vi (-1) cng vo ct (2)
4. Chng minh
a
2
(a + 1)
2
(a + 2)
2
(a + 3)
2
b
2
(b + 1)
2
(b + 2)
2
(b + 3)
2
c
2
(c + 1)
2
(c + 2)
2
(c + 3)
2
d
2
(d + 1)
2
(d + 2)
2
(d + 3)
2
= 0
Gii :
V T
(1)
=
a
2
(a + 1)
2
2a + 3 6a + 9
b
2
(b + 1)
2
2b + 3 6b + 9
c
2
(c + 1)
2
2c + 3 6c + 9
d
2
(d + 1)
2
2d + 3 6d + 9
(2)
= 0
Gii thch:
(1) : Nhn ct (1) vi (-1) cng vo ct (4), nhn ct (2) vi (-1) cng vo ct (3)
(2) : nh thc c 2 ct t l
2
5. Tnh nh thc
1 + a
1
a
2
a
3
. . . a
n
a
1
1 + a
2
a
3
. . . a
n
a
1
a
2
1 + a
3
. . . a
n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
1
a
2
a
3
. . . 1 + a
n
Gii :
V T
(1)
=
1 + a
1
+ . . . + a
n
a
2
a
3
. . . a
n
1 + a
1
+ . . . + a
n
1 + a
2
a
3
. . . a
n
1 + a
1
+ . . . + a
n
a
2
1 + a
3
. . . a
n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 + a
1
+ . . . a
n
a
2
a
3
. . . 1 + a
n
(2)
=
1 + a
1
+ . . . + a
n
a
2
a
3
. . . a
n
0 1 0 . . . 0
0 0 1 . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 . . . 1
= 1 + a
1
+ . . . + a
n
Gii thch:
(1): Cng cc ct (2), (3),. . . , (n) vo ct (1)
(2): Nhn dng (1) vi (-1) ri cng vo cc dng (2), (3), . . . , (n)
6. Tnh nh thc
0 1 1 . . . 1
1 0 x . . . x
1 x 0 . . . x
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 x x . . . 0
Gii :
Vi x = 0
V T
(1)
=
0 1 1 . . . 1
1 x 0 . . . 0
1 0 x . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 0 0 . . . x
(2)
=
n 1
x
1 1 . . . 1
0 x 0 . . . 0
0 0 x . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 . . . x
3
=
n 1
x
(x)
n1
= (1)
n1
(n 1)x
n2
(n 2)
Gii thch:
(1): Nhn dng (1) vi (-x) cng vo dng (2), (3), . . . , (n)
(2): Nhn ct (2), (3), . . . , (n) vi
1
x
ri cng tt c vo ct (1)
D thy khi x = 0, p s trn vn ng do tnh lin tc ca nh thc.
7. Tnh nh thc
D
n
=
5 3 0 0 . . . 0 0
2 5 3 0 . . . 0 0
0 2 5 3 . . . 0 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 0 . . . 5 3
0 0 0 0 . . . 2 5
Gii :
Khai trin nh thc theo dng u ta c :
D
n
= 5D
n1
3
2 3 0 . . . 0 0
0 5 3 . . . 0 0
0 2 5 . . . 0 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 . . . 5 3
0 0 0 . . . 2 5
Tip tc khai trin nh thc theo ct (1) ta c cng thc truy hi :

D
n
= 5D
n1
6D
n2
(*) (n 3)
T (*) ta c :
D
n
2D
n1
= 3(D
n1
2D
n2
)
Do cng thc ng vi mi n 3 nn ta c:
D
n
2D
n1
= 3(D
n1
2D
n2
) = 3
2
(D
n2
2D
n3
) = . . . = 3
n2
(D
2
2D
1
)
Tnh ton trc tip ta c D
2
= 19, D
1
= 5 nn D
2
2D
1
= 9. Bi vy ta c:
D
n
2D
n1
= 3
n
(1)
Mt khc, cng t cng thc (*) ta c:
D
n
3D
n1
= 2(D
n1
3D
n2
)
4
Tng t nh trn ta c:
D
n
3D
n1
= 2(D
n1
3D
n2
) = 2
2
(D
n2
3D
n3
) = . . . = 2
n2
(D
2
3D
1
) = 2
n
Vy ta c:
D
n
3D
n1
= 2
n
(2)
Kh D
n1
t trong (1) v (2) ta c:
D
n
= 3
n+1
2
n+1
(Bn c c th so snh cch gii bi ny vi cch gii v d 4)
8. Tnh nh thc
D =
a
1
x . . . x
x a
2
. . . x
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x x . . . a
n
Gii :
nh thc ny c th tnh bng phng php biu din nh thc thnh tng
cc nh thc. Trc ht ta vit nh thc di dng:
D =
a
1
x + x 0 + x . . . 0 + x
0 + x a
2
x + x . . . 0 + x
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 + x 0 + x . . . a
n
x + x
(1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2)

Ln lt tch cc ct ca nh thc, sau n ln tch ta c nh thc D bng
tng ca 2
n
nh thc cp n. Ct th i ca cc nh thc ny chnh l ct
loi (1) hoc loi (2) ca ct th i ca nh thc ban u D. Chia 2
n
nh
thc ny thnh 3 dng nh sau:
Dng 1: Bao gm cc nh thc c t 2 ct loi (2) tr ln. V cc ct
loi (2) bng nhau nn tt c cc nh thc dng ny u bng 0.
Dng 2: Bao gm cc nh thc c ng mt ct loi (2), cn cc ct
khc l loi (1).
5
Gi s ct i l loi (2). Ta c nh thc l:
D
i
=
a
1
x 0 . . . x . . . 0
0 a
2
x . . . x . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . x . . . a
n
x
cti
(1)
= x(a
1
x) . . . (a
i1
x)(a
i+1
x) . . . (a
n
x) =
x
n
k=1
(a
k
x)
a
i
x
((1) khai trin nh thc theo ct i)
C tt c n nh thc dng 2 (ng vi i = 1, 2, . . . , n) v tng ca tt c cc
nh thc dng 2 l:
x(a
1
x) . . . (a
n
x)
_
1
a
1
x
+ . . . +
1
a
n
x
_
Dng 3: Bao gm cc nh thc khng c ct loi (2), nn tt c cc ct
u l loi (1). V do c ng 1 nh thc dng (3) l:
a
1
x 0 . . . 0
0 a
2
x . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . a
n
x
= (a
1
x) . . . (a
n
x)
Vy D bng tng ca tt c cc nh thc ca 3 dng trn v bng:
x(a
1
x) . . . (a
n
x)
_
1
x
+
1
a
1
x
+ . . . +
1
a
n
x
_
9. Tnh

a
1
+ b
1
a
1
+ b
2
. . . a
1
+ b
n
a
2
+ b
1
a
2
+ b
2
. . . a
2
+ b
n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n
+ b
1
a
n
+ b
3
. . . a
n
+ b
n
= 0
Gii :
6
nh thc ny c th c tnh bng phng php biu din nh thc thnh
tng cc nh thc vi cch gii tng t nh bi 8. Chi tit ca cch gii
ny xin dnh cho bn c. y chng ti a ra mt cch tnh na da
vo phng php biu din nh thc thnh tch cc nh thc. Vi n 2
ta c:
A =
_
_
a
1
+ b
1
a
1
+ b
2
. . . a
1
+ b
n
a
2
+ b
1
a
2
+ b
2
. . . a
2
+ b
n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n
+ b
1
a
n
+ b
3
. . . a
n
+ b
n
_
_
=
_
_
a
1
1 0 . . . 0
a
2
1 0 . . . 0
a
3
1 0 . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n
1 0 . . . 0
_
_
. .
B
_
_
1 1 . . . 1
b
1
b
2
. . . b
n
0 0 . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . 0
_
_
. .
C
Bi vy, ta c:
D = detA = det(BC) = detB.detC =
_
0 nu n > 2
(a
1
a
2
)(b
2
a
1
) nu n = 2
10. Tnh

cos(
1

1
) cos(
1

2
) . . . cos(
1

n
)
cos(
2

1
) cos(
2

2
) . . . cos(
2

n
)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
cos(
n

1
) cos(
n

2
) . . . cos(
n

n
)
tnh nh thc ny ta dng phng php biu din nh thc thnh tch
cc nh thc. Vi n 2 ta c:
A =
_
_
cos(
1

1
) cos(
1

2
) . . . cos(
1

n
)
cos(
2

1
) cos(
2

2
) . . . cos(
2

n
)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
cos(
n

1
) cos(
n

2
) . . . cos(
n

n
)
_
_
=
_
_
cos
1
sin
1
0 . . . 0
cos
2
sin
2
0 . . . 0
cos
3
sin
3
0 . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
cos
n
sin
n
0 . . . 0
_
_
. .
B
_
_
cos
1
cos
2
. . . cos
n
sin
1
sin
2
. . . sin
n
0 0 . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . 0
_
_
. .
C
Bi vy ta c:
D = detA = det(BC) = detB.detC =
_
0 nu n > 2
sin(
2

1
). sin(
2

1
) nu n = 2
7
11. Tnh nh thc cp 2n
D
2n
=
a 0 . . . 0 0 0 0 . . . 0 b
0 a . . . 0 0 0 0 . . . b 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . a 0 0 b . . . 0 0
0 0 . . . 0 a b 0 . . . 0 0
0 0 . . . 0 b a 0 . . . 0 0
0 0 . . . b 0 0 a . . . 0 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 b . . . 0 0 0 0 . . . a 0
b 0 . . . 0 0 0 0 . . . 0 a
2n2n
(1)
(2)
(n 1)
(n)
(n + 1)
(n + 2)
(2n 1)
(2n)
Gii :
Xt khi a = 0
- Nhn dng (1) vi
b
a
cng vo dng (2n)
- Nhn dng (2) vi
b
a
cng vo dng (2n-1)
.....................................................................
- Nhn dng (n) vi
b
a
cng vo dng (n+1)
Ta c :
D
2n
=
a 0 . . . 0 0 0 0 . . . 0 b
0 a . . . 0 0 0 0 . . . b 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . a 0 0 b . . . 0 0
0 0 . . . 0 a b 0 . . . 0 0
0 0 . . . 0 0
a
2
b
2
a
0 . . . 0 0
0 0 . . . b 0 0
a
2
b
2
a
. . . 0 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . 0 0 0 0 . . .
a
2
b
2
a
0
0 0 . . . 0 0 0 0 . . . 0
a
2
b
2
a
= (a
2
b
2
)
n
Khi a = 0, do tnh lin tc ca nh thc cng thc trn vn ng. Vy ta
c: D
2n
= (a
2
b
2
)
n
8
Ch : Khai trin nh thc theo dng (1), sau khai trin cc nh thc
cp (2n1) va nhn c theo dng (2n1). Ta s c cng thc truy hi:
D
2n
= (a
2
b
2
)D
2(n1)
Do cng thc trn ng vi mi n 2 nn :
D
2n
= (a
2
b
2
)D
2(n1)
= (a
2
b
2
)
2
D
2(n2)
= . . . = (a
2
b
2
)
n1
D
2
= (a
2
b
2
)
n
(Chi tit ca cch lm ny xin dnh cho bn c).
12. Tnh nh thc cp 2n
D
2n
=
a
1
0 . . . 0
.
.
. b
1
0 . . . 0
0 a
2
. . . 0
.
.
. 0 b
2
. . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . a
n
.
.
. 0 0 . . . b
n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c
1
0 . . . 0
.
.
. d
1
0 . . . 0
0 c
2
. . . 0
.
.
. 0 d
2
. . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . c
n
.
.
. 0 0 . . . d
n
(1)
(2)
(n)
(n + 1)
(n + 2)
(2n)
Xt khi a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
u khc 0 :
- Nhn dng (1) vi
c
1
a
1
ri cng vo dng (n + 1)
- Nhn dng (2) vi
c
2
a
2
ri cng vo dng (n + 2)
.............................................................................
- Nhn dng (n) vi
c
n
a
n
ri cng vo dng (2n)
9
Ta c :
D
2n
=
a
1
0 . . . 0
.
.
. b
1
0 . . . 0
0 a
2
. . . 0
.
.
. 0 b
2
. . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . a
n
.
.
. 0 0 . . . b
n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 . . . 0
.
.
.
a
1
d
1
b
1
c
1
a
1
0 . . . 0
0 0 . . . 0
.
.
. 0
a
2
d
2
b
2
c
2
a
2
. . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . 0
.
.
. 0 0 . . .
a
n
d
n
b
n
c
n
a
n
= (a
1
d
1
b
1
c
1
) . . . (a
n
d
n
b
n
c
n
) =
n
i=1
(a
i
d
i
b
i
c
i
)
Khi cc a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
bng 0, do tnh lin tc ca nh thc cng thc trn
vn ng.
Vy ta c :
D
2n
=
n
i=1
(a
i
d
i
b
i
c
i
)
Ch : Khai trin nh thc theo dng th n, sau khai trin cc nh
thc cp 2n 1 va nhn c theo dng (2n 1) ta s c cng thc truy
hi:
D
2n
= (a
n
d
n
b
n
c
n
)D
2(n1)
n 2
Do , ta c:
D
2n
= (a
n
d
n
b
n
c
n
)D
2(n1)
= (a
n
d
n
b
n
c
n
)(a
n1
d
n1
b
n1
c
n1
)D
2(n2)
= . . . = (a
n
d
n
b
n
c
n
) . . . (a
2
d
2
b
2
c
2
)D
1
=
n
i=1
(a
i
d
i
b
i
c
i
)
(Chi tit ca cch ny xin dnh cho bn c)
1
1
Ngi nh my : Nguyn Ngc Quyn
10
I S TUYN TNH
Phin bn chnh sa
PGS TS M Vinh Quang
Hng Ca Ma Trn
Cng vi nh thc, ma trn (c bit l hng ca ma trn) l cc cng c c bn gii quyt
cc bi ton v h phng trnh tuyn tnh ni ring v i s tuyn tnh ni chung. Bi vit
ny s gii thiu nh ngha, cc tnh cht c bn ca hng ma trn, v hai phng php c
bn tnh hng ca ma trn.
1 nh ngha v cc tnh cht c bn
Trc ht, cn nh li khi nim nh thc con cp k ca mt ma trn. Cho A l ma trn
cp mn; k l s t nhin 1 k min{m, n}. Chn ra k dng, k ct bt k ca A. Cc phn
t thuc giao ca k dng, k ct ny to thnh ma trn vung cp k, gi l ma trn con cp k
ca ma trn A. nh thc ca ma trn con cp k ny gi l mt nh thc con cp k ca A.
1.1 nh ngha hng ca ma trn
Cho A l ma trn cp mn khc khng.
Hng ca ma trn A l s t nhin r, 1 r min{m, n} tha mn cc iu kin sau:
1. Tn ti t nht mt nh thc con cp r ca ma trn A khc 0.
2. Mi nh thc con cp ln hn r (nu c) ca ma trn A u bng 0.
Ni cch khc, hng ca ma trn A = O chnh l cp cao nht ca cc nh thc con khc
khng ca ma trn A.
Hng ca ma trn A k hiu l r(A) hoc rank(A).
Qui c: hng ca ma trn khng O l 0.
1.2 Cc tnh cht c bn v hng ca ma trn
1.2.1 Tnh cht 1
Hng ca ma trn khng thay i qua php chuyn v, tc l rank A
t
= rank A.
1
1.2.2 Tnh cht 2
Nu A l ma trn vung cp n th
rank A = n det A = 0
rank A < n det A = 0
Nu xy ra trng hp u, ta ni A l ma trn vung khng suy bin. Nu xy ra trng
hp th hai, ta ni A l ma trn vung suy bin.
1.2.3 Tnh cht 3
Nu A, B l cc ma trn cng cp th
rank(A +B) rank A + rank B
1.2.4 Tnh cht 4
Cho A, B l cc ma trn sao cho tn ti tch AB. Khi
1. rank(AB) min{rank A, rank B}
2. Nu A l ma trn vung khng suy bin th rank(AB) = rank B.
2 Tm hng ca ma trn bng phng php nh thc
2.1 T nh ngha hng ca ma trn ta c th suy ra ngay thut ton sau y tm hng
ca ma trn A cp mn (A = O)
Bc 1
Tm mt nh thc con cp k khc 0 ca A. S k cng ln cng tt. Gi s nh thc con
cp k khc khng l D
k
.
Bc 2
Xt tt c cc nh thc con cp k + 1 ca A cha nh thc D
k
. Xy ra 3 kh nng sau
1. Khng c mt nh thc con cp k + 1 no ca A. Kh nng ny xy ra khi v ch khi
k = min{m, n}. Khi rank A = k = min{m, n}. Thut ton kt thc.
2. Tt c cc nh thc con cp k + 1 ca A cha nh thc con D
k
u bng 0. Khi
rank A = k. Thut ton kt thc.
3. Tn ti mt nh thc con cp k + 1 ca A l D
k+1
cha nh thc con D
k
khc 0. Khi
lp li bc 2 vi D
k+1
thay cho D
k
. V c tip tc nh vy cho n khi xy ra trng
hp (1) hoc (2) th thut ton kt thc.
2
2.2 V d
Tm hng ca ma trn
A =
_
_
1 2 2 1 4
1 1 1 1 3
1 3 3 2 2
2 1 1 0 1
_
_
Gii
u tin ta thy A c nh thc con cp 2, D
2
=
1 2
1 1
= 3 = 0 (nh thc ny c
to thnh bi 2 dng u, 2 ct u ca A)
Xt cc nh thc con cp 3 ca A cha D
2
, ta thy c nh thc con cp 3 khc 0. l
nh thc
D
3
=
1 2 1
1 1 1
1 3 2
= 1 = 0
(nh thc ny c thnh bi cc dng 1, 2, 3, cc ct 1, 2, 4 ca A)
Tip tc, xt cc nh thc con cp 4 ca A cha D
3
. C tt c 2 nh thc nh vy, l
D
4,1
=
1 2 2 1
1 1 1 1
1 3 3 2
2 1 1 0
v
D
4,2
=
1 2 1 4
1 1 1 3
1 3 2 2
2 1 0 1
C 2 nh thc ny u bng 0. Do rank A = 3.

Ch . C th nhn xt dng (4) ca ma trn A l t hp tuyn tnh ca dng (1) v
dng (2); dng (4) = dng (1) - dng (2), nn d dng thy c D
4,1
= 0, D
4,2
= 0.
Vic tm hng ca ma trn bng nh thc nh trn phi tnh ton kh phc tp nn trong
thc t ngi ta t s dng m ngi ta thng s dng phng php tm hng ca ma trn
bng cc php bin i s cp sau y.
3 Tm hng ca ma trn bng phng php s dng cc
php bin i s cp (phng php Gauss)
Trc khi gii thiu phng php ny, ta cn nh li mt s khi nim sau
3.1 Ma trn bc thang
3.1.1 nh ngha
Ma trn A cp mn khc khng gi l mt ma trn bc thang nu tn ti s t nhin r,
1 r min{m, n} tha cc iu kin sau:
3
1. r dng u ca A khc khng. Cc dng t th r + 1 tr i (nu c) u bng 0.
2. Xt dng th k vi 1 k r. Nu (A)
ki
k
l phn t u tin bn tri (tnh t tri sang
phi) khc 0 ca dng k th ta phi c i
1
< i
2
< < i
r
.
Cc phn t (A)
ki
k
gi l cc phn t c nh du ca ma trn A. Cc ct cha cc
phn t c nh du (cc ct i
1
, i
2
, . . . , i
r
) gi l ct nh du ca ma trn A. Nh vy,
iu kin (2) c th pht biu li nh sau: Nu i t dng trn xung di th cc phn t nh
du phi li dn v pha phi. V nh vy, ma trn bc thang c dng nh sau:
i
1
i
2
i
r
A =
_
_
0 . . . 0 (A)
1 i
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 . . . 0 0 . . . 0 (A)
2 i
2
. . . . . . . . . . . .

(A)
r i
r

0 . . . 0 0 . . . 0 0 . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . 0

0 . . . 0 0 . . . 0 0 . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . 0
_
_
(1)
(2)
(r)
(r + 1)
(m)
Ta c nhn xt quan trng sau:
Nu A l ma trn bc thang th s r trong nh ngha chnh l rank A.
Tht vy, c th ch ra mt nh thc con cp r ca A khc 0 chnh l nh thc D
r
to
bi r dng u v r ct nh du i
1
, i
2
, . . . , i
r
.
D
r
=
(A)
1 i
1

0 (A)
2 i
2

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 (A)
r i
r
= (A)
1 i
1
(A)
2 i
2
. . . (A)
r i
r
= 0
Ngoi ra, cc nh thc con cp r + 1 ca A u to bi r + 1 dng no nn c t nht
mt dng bng khng. Do , chng u bng 0.
3.1.2 V d v cc ma trn bc thang
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1
2 0 0 3 4 0
0 0 0 3
4 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 2
3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
B =
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1
2 0 0 3 4
0 0 0 0 3
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 4
1
0 0 0 0 0 0 5
_
_
_
_
_
_
Cc ma trn A, B u l cc ma trn bc thang, v ta c rank A = 4 (bng s dng khc
khng ca A), rank B = 5 (bng s dng khc khng ca B).
4
3.2 Php bin i s cp trn ma trn
Ba php bin i sau gi l php bin i s cp trn cc dng ca ma trn:
1. i ch 2 dng cho nhau.
2. Nhn mt dng cho mt s khc 0.
3. Nhn mt dng cho mt s bt k ri cng vo dng khc.
Tng t, bng cch thay dng thnh ct, ta c 3 php bin i s cp trn cc ct ca
ma trn.
3.3 Tm hng ca ma trn bng phng php s dng cc php bin
i s cp
Ni dung ca phng php ny da trn hai nhn xt kh n gin sau
1. Cc php bin i s cp khng lm thay i hng ca ma trn.
2. Mt ma trn khc O bt k u c th a v dng bc thang sau mt s hu hn cc
php bin i s cp trn dng.
Nh vy, mun tm hng ca ma trn A, ta dng cc php bin i s cp a A v
dng bc thang, do nhn xt (1), hng ca A bng hng ca ma trn bc thang, v ta bit
hng ca ma trn bc thang chnh bng s dng khc khng ca n.
Cn lu bn c rng: k nng a mt ma trn v dng bc thang bng cc php bin
i s cp l mt k nng c bn, n cn thit khng ch trong vic tm hng ca ma trn m
cn cn gii nhiu bi ton khc ca i s tuyn tnh.
Sau y, chng ti xin a ra mt thut ton a mt ma trn v dng bc thang bng
cc php bin i s cp:
Xt ma trn
A =
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
a
1n
a
21
a
22
a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
a
mn
_
_
_
_
_
3.3.1 Bc 1
Bng cch i ch 2 dng cho nhau (nu cn), ta lun c th gi s a
11
= 0.
Nhn dng (1) vi
a
21
a
11
, cng vo dng (2),
Nhn dng (1) vi
a
31
a
11
, cng vo dng (3),
.
.
.
Nhn dng (1) vi
a
n1
a
11
, cng vo dng (n).
Ta nhn c ma trn
5
A
1
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
a
1n
0 b
22
b
2n
0 b
32
b
3n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 b
m2
b
mn
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Ch . Nu ton b ct 1 bng 0 (a
11
= 0, a
21
= 0, . . . , a
n1
= 0 th ta c th b qua ct 1
m thc hin bc 1 vi ct k tip.
3.3.2 Bc 2
Xt ma trn
B =
_
_
_
_
_
b
22
b
2n
b
32
b
3n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
b
m2
b
mn
_
_
_
_
_
Nu B = O hoc B c dng bc thang th A
1
l ma trn bc thang, thut ton kt thc.
Trong trng hp ngc li, tip tc lp li bc 1 cho ma trn B.
Cn ch rng ma trn B c t hn ma trn A 1 dng v 1 ct. Do , sau mt s hu
hn bc lp, B s l ma trn khng hoc ma trn bc thang. Khi , thun ton s kt thc.
3.4 V d
3.4.1 V d 1
Tm hng ca ma trn
A =
_
_
_
_
0 1 3 4 6
1 3 4 5 2
3 5 2 3 4
2 3 5 6 4
_
_
_
_
Gii
A
d
1
d
2
_
_
_
_
1 3 4 5 2
0 1 3 4 6
3 5 2 3 4
2 3 5 6 4
_
_
_
_
d
3
3d
1
+d
3
d
4
2d
1
+d
4
_
_
_
_
1 3 4 5 2
0 1 3 4 6
0 4 10 12 2
0 3 13 16 8
_
_
_
_
d
3
4d
2
+d
3
d
4
3
d
2+d
4
_
_
_
_
1 3 4 5 2
0 1 3 4 6
0 0 22 28 26
0 0 22 28 26
_
_
_
_
d
4
d
1
+d
4
_
_
_
_
1 3 4 5 2
0 1 3 4 6
0 0 22 28 26
0 0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
Vy rank A = 3
6
3.4.2 V d 2
Tm hng ca ma trn vung cp n
B =
_
_
_
_
_
a 1 1 1
1 a 1 1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 1 1 a
_
_
_
_
_
Gii
B
c
1
c
1
+c
2
++c
n
_
_
_
_
_
a +n 1 1 1 1
a +n 1 a 1 1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a +n 1 1 a a
_
_
_
_
_
d
2
=d
2
d
1
d
3
=d
3
d
1
d
n
=d
n
d
1
_
_
_
_
_
a +n 1 1 1 1
0 a 1 0 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 a 1
_
_
_
_
_
= C
Xy ra 3 trng hp sau:
1. a = 1 n, a = 1, khi ma trn C l ma trn bc thang v rank B = rank C = n
2. a = 1, khi ma trn C l ma trn bc thang v rank B = rank C = 1
3. a = 1 n, khi
C =
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 1 1
0 n 0 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 n
_
_
_
_
_
Do , C khng l ma trn bc thang nhng c nh thc con cp n 1 khc khng,
l nh thc con to bi n 1 dng cui, n 1 ct cui
D
n1
=
n 0 0
0 n 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 n
= (n)
n1
= 0
v det C = 0
Do , rank C = n 1 Bi vy, rank B = n 1.
7
BI TP
Tm hng ca cc ma trn sau
13.
_
_
_
_
4 3 5 2 3
8 6 7 4 2
4 3 8 2 7
8 6 1 4 6
_
_
_
_
14.
_
_
_
_
3 1 3 2 5
5 3 2 3 4
1 3 5 0 7
7 5 1 4 1
_
_
_
_
15.
_
_
_
_
2 1 2 1 2 1
1 2 1 2 1 2
3 4 3 4 3 4
5 5 6 7 5 5
_
_
_
_
16.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
2 1 1 1
1 3 1 1
1 1 4 1
1 1 1 5
1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
17.
_
_
_
_
3 1 1 4
a 4 10 1
1 7 17 3
2 2 4 3
_
_
_
_
18.
_
_
_
_
1 2 1 1 1
a 1 1 1 1
1 a 0 1 1
1 2 2 1 1
_
_
_
_
Tm hng ca cc ma trn vung cp n
19.
_
_
_
_
_
1 +a a a
a 1 +a a
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
a a 1 +a
_
_
_
_
_
20.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 1 1
1 0 x x
1 x 0 x
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 x x 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
8
21.
_
_
_
_
_
a b b
b a b
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
b b a
_
_
_
_
_
9
I S TUYN TNH
GII BI TP HNG CA MA TRN
Phin bn chnh sa
PGS TS M Vinh Quang
13) Tm hng ca ma trn:
A =
4 3 5 2 3
8 6 7 4 2
4 3 8 2 7
8 6 1 4 6
Gii:
A
d2(2)d1+d2
d3d1+d3
d4(2)d1+d4
4 3 5 2 3
0 0 3 0 4
0 0 3 0 4
0 0 9 0 12
d3d2+d3
d4(3)d2+d4
4 3 5 2 3
0 0 3 0 4
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
Vy rank A = 3 .
A =
3 1 3 2 5
5 3 2 3 4
1 3 5 0 7
7 5 1 4 1
Gii:
A
i dng
1 3 5 0 7
3 1 3 2 5
5 3 2 3 4
7 5 1 4 1
d2 - 3d1 + d2
d35d1+d3
d42d1+d4
1 3 5 0 7
0 8 12 2 16
0 12 23 3 31
0 16 34 4 48
d3
3
2
d2 + d3
d47d1+d4
1 3 5 0 7
0 8 12 2 16
0 0 5 0 7
0 0 10 0 16
d42d3+d4
1 3 5 0 7
0 8 12 2 16
0 0 5 0 7
0 16 0 0 2
Vy rank A = 4 .
1
A =
2 1 2 1 2 1
1 2 1 2 1 2
3 4 3 4 3 4
5 5 6 7 5 5
Gii
A
d1d2
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 1 2 1 2 1
3 4 3 4 3 4
5 5 6 7 5 5
d22d1+d2
d33d1+d3
d45d1+d4
1 2 1 2 1 2
0 3 0 3 0 3
0 2 0 2 0 2
0 5 1 3 0 5
d2
1
3
d2
1 2 1 2 1 2
0 1 0 1 0 1
0 2 0 2 0 2
0 5 1 3 0 5
d32d2+d3
d45d2+d4
1 2 1 2 1 2
0 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 2 0 0
d3d4
1 2 1 2 1 2
0 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 2 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
Vy rank A = 3 .
A =
2 1 1 1
1 3 1 1
1 1 4 1
1 1 1 5
1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
Gii:
A
i dng
1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1
1 3 1 1
1 1 4 1
1 1 1 5
1 2 3 4
d22d1+d2
d3d1+d4
d4d1+d4
d5d1+d5
d6d1+d6
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1
0 2 0 0
0 0 3 0
0 0 0 4
0 1 2 3
d32d2+d3
d6d2+d6
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 2 2
0 0 3 0
0 0 0 4
0 0 1 2
d3d6
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 2
0 0 3 0
0 0 0 4
0 0 2 2
2
d43d3+d4
d62d3+d6
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 2
0 0 0 6
0 0 0 4
0 0 0 2
d5
2
3
d4+d5
d6
1
3
d4+d6
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 2
0 0 0 6
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
Vy rank A = 4 .
17) Tm hng ca ma trn :
A =
3 1 1 4
a 4 10 1
1 7 17 3
2 2 4 3
Gii:
A
i ct
1 1 4 3
4 10 1 a
7 17 3 1
2 4 3 2
d24d1+d2
d37d1+d3
d42d1+d4
1 1 4 3
0 6 0 a 12
0 10 25 20
0 2 5 4
i dng
1 1 4 3
0 2 5 4
0 6 0 a 12
0 10 15 20
d33d2+d3
d45d2+d4
1 1 4 3
0 2 5 4
0 0 15 a
0 0 0 0
Vy rank A = 3. Vi mi a.
A =
1 2 1 1 1
a 1 1 1 1
1 a 0 1 1
1 2 2 1 1
Gii:
A
i ct
1 1 1 1 2
1 1 1 a 1
1 1 0 1 a
1 1 2 1 2
d2d1+d2
d3d1+d3
d4d1+d4
1 1 1 1 2
0 2 2 a 1 1
0 2 1 2 a 2
0 0 1 2 0
d3d2+d3
1 1 1 1 2
0 2 2 a 1 1
0 0 1 a + 1 a 1
0 0 1 2 0
d4d3+d4
1 1 1 1 2
0 2 2 a 1 1
0 0 1 a + 1 a 1
0 0 0 a 1 1 a
Vy : nu a = 1 th rank A = 4 .
3
. nu a = 1 th rank A = 3 .
A =
1 + a a . . . a
a 1 + a . . . a
. . . . . . . . . . . .
a a . . . 1 + a
Gii:
A
c1c1+c2+...+cn
1 + na a . . . a
1 + na 1 + a . . . a
. . . . . . . . . . . .
1 + na a . . . 1 + a
d2d1+d2
.....................
dnd1+dn
1 + na a . . . a
0 1 . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 . . . 1
Nu a =
1
n
. Khi 1 + na = 0 v rank A = n .
Nu a =
1
n
. Khi 1 + na = 0 v rank A = n 1 v c nh thc con cp n 1 gm n 1
dng cui, ct cui .
D
n1
1 0 . . . 0
1 1 . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 . . . 1
= 1 = 0
Cn nh thc cp n bng 0 .
20) Tm hng ca ma trn (n 2 )
A =
0 1 1 . . . 1
1 0 x . . . x
1 x 0 . . . x
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 x x . . . 0
Gii:
Nu x = 0 :
A
c1xc1
d1xd1
0 x x . . . x
x 0 x . . . x
x x 0 . . . x
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
x x x . . . 0
c1c1+c2+...+cn
(n 1)x x x . . . x
(n 1)x 0 x . . . x
(n 1)x x 0 . . . x
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(n 1)x x x . . . 0
d2d1+d2
d3d1+d3
.....................
dnd1+dn
(n 1)x x x . . . x
0 x 0 . . . 0
0 0 x . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 0 . . . x
Vy rank A = n
4
Nu x = 0
A =
0 1 1 . . . 1
1 0 0 . . . 0
1 0 0 . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 0 0 . . . 0
d3d2+d3
...................
dnd2+dn
0 1 1 . . . 1
1 0 0 . . . 0
0 0 0 . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 0 . . . 0
rankA = 2.
Vy
rankA = n nu x = 0
rankA = 2 nu x = 0
21) Tm hng ca ma trn vung cp n:
A =
a b b . . . b
b a b . . . b
b b a . . . b
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b b b . . . a
Gii:
A
c1c1+c2+...+cn
a + (n 1)b b b . . . b
a + (n 1)b a b . . . b
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a + (n 1)b b b . . . a
d2d1+d2
d3d1+d3
.....................
dnd1+dn
a + (n 1)b b b . . . b
0 a b 0 . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 0 . . . 0
1. Nu a = (1 n)b, a = b th rankA = n
2. a = b = 0 th rankA = 1
a = b = 0 th rankA = 0
3. a = (n 1)b = 0 th rankA = n 1
V c nh thc con cp n 1 (b dng u, ct u)
a b 0 . . . 0
0 a b . . . 0
. . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 . . . a b
= (a b)
n1
= 0
Cn nh thc cp n bng 0.
5
I S TUYN TNH
MA TRN KH NGHCH
Phin bn chnh sa
PGS TS M Vinh Quang
1 Ma trn kh nghch
1.1 Cc khi nim c bn
Cho A l ma trn vung cp n, ma trn A gi l ma trn kh nghch nu tn ti ma trn
B vung cp n sao cho
AB = BA = E
n
(1)
(E
n
l ma trn n v cp n)
Nu A l ma trn kh nghch th ma trn B tha iu kin (1) l duy nht, v B gi l ma
trn nghch o (ma trn ngc) ca ma trn A, k hiu l A
1
.
Vy ta lun c: A.A
1
= A
1
.A = E
n
1.2 Cc tnh cht
1. A kh nghch A khng suy bin (det A = 0)
2. Nu A, B kh nghch th AB cng kh nghch v (AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
3. (A
t
)
1
= (A
1
)
t
1.3 Cc phng php tm ma trn nghch o
1.3.1 Phng php tm ma trn nghch o nh nh thc
Trc ht, ta nh li phn b i s ca mt phn t. Cho A l ma trn vung cp n,
nu ta b i dng i, ct j ca A, ta c ma trn con cp n 1 ca A, k hiu M
ij
. Khi
A
ij
= (1)
i+j
det M
ij
gi l phn b i s ca phn t nm dng i, ct j ca ma trn A.
Ma trn
P
A
=
_
_
_
_
_
A
11
A
21
A
n1
A
12
A
22
A
n2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
A
1n
A
2n
A
nn
_
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
A
11
A
12
A
1n
A
21
A
22
A
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
A
n1
A
n2
A
nn
_
_
_
_
_
t
gi l ma trn ph hp ca ma trn A.
1
Ta c cng thc sau y tm ma trn nghch o ca A.
Cho A l ma trn vung cp n.
Nu det A = 0 th A khng kh nghch (tc l A khng c ma trn nghch o).
Nu det A = 0 th A kh nghch v
A
1
=
1
det A
P
A
V d. Tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn
A =
_
_
1 2 1
0 1 1
1 2 3
_
_
Gii
Ta c
det A =
1 2 1
0 1 1
1 2 3
= 2 = 0
Vy A kh nghch.
Tm ma trn ph hp P
A
ca A. Ta c:
A
11
= (1)
1+1
1 1
2 3
= 1
A
12
= (1)
1+2
0 1
1 3
= 1
A
13
= (1)
1+3
0 1
1 2
= 1
A
21
= (1)
2+1
2 1
2 3
= 4
A
22
= (1)
2+2
1 1
1 3
= 2
A
23
= (1)
2+3
1 2
1 2
= 0
A
31
= (1)
3+1
2 1
1 1
= 1
A
32
= (1)
3+2
1 1
0 1
= 1
A
33
= (1)
3+3
1 2
0 1
= 1
Vy
P
A
=
_
_
1 4 1
1 2 1
1 0 1
_
_
2
v do
A
1
=
1
2
_
_
1 4 1
1 2 1
1 0 1
_
_
=
_
_
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
0
1
2
_
_
Nhn xt. Nu s dng nh thc tm ma trn nghch o ca mt ma trn vung cp
n, ta phi tnh mt nh thc cp n v n
2
nh thc cp n 1. Vic tnh ton nh vy kh
phc tp khi n > 3.
Bi vy, ta thng p dng phng php ny khi n 3. Khi n 3, ta thng s dng cc
phng php di y.
1.3.2 Phng php tm ma trn nghch o bng cch da vo cc php bin i
s cp (phng php Gauss)
tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn A vung cp n, ta lp ma trn cp n 2n
[A| E
n
]
(E
n
l ma trn n v cp n)
[A| E
n
] =
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
a
1n
a
21
a
22
a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
a
nn
1 0 0
0 1 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
Sau , dng cc php bin i s cp trn dng a ma trn [A| E
n
] v dng [E
n
| B]. Khi
, B chnh l ma trn nghch o ca A, B = A
1
.
Ch . Nu trong qu trnh bin i, nu khi bn tri xut hin dng gm ton s 0 th
ma trn A khng kh nghch.
A =
_
_
_
_
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
_
_
_
_
Gii
[A| E
4
] =
_
_
_
_
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_

d
1
d
1
+d
2
+d
3
+d
4
_
_
_
_
3 3 3 3
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
d
1
1
3
d
1
_
_
_
_
1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
d
2
d
1
+d
2
d
3
d
1
+d
3
d
4
d
1
+d
4
_
_
_
_
1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
2
3

1
3

1
3
1
3

1
3
2
3

1
3
1
3

1
3

1
3
2
3
_
_
_
_
3
d
1
d
1
+d
2
+d
3
+d
4
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
2
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
2
3

1
3

1
3
1
3

1
3
2
3

1
3
1
3

1
3

1
3
2
3
_
_
_
_
d
2
d
2
d
4
d
4
d
3
d
3
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
2
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3

2
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3

2
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3

2
3
_
_
_
_
Vy
A
1
=
_
_
_
_
2
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3

2
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3

2
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3

2
3
_
_
_
_
1.3.3 Phng php tm ma trn nghch o bng cch gii h phng trnh
Cho ma trn vung cp n
A =
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
a
1n
a
21
a
22
a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
a
nn
_
_
_
_
_
tm ma trn nghch o A
1
, ta lp h
_
_
a
11
x
1
+a
12
x
2
+ +a
1n
x
n
= y
1
a
21
x
1
+a
22
x
2
+ +a
2n
x
n
= y
2
.
.
.
a
n1
x
1
+a
n2
x
2
+ +a
nn
x
n
= y
n
(2)
trong x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
l n, y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
l cc tham s.
* Nu vi mi tham s y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
, h phng trnh tuyn tnh (2) lun c nghim duy
nht:
_
_
x
1
= b
11
y
1
+b
12
y
2
+ +b
1n
y
n
x
2
= b
21
y
1
+b
22
y
2
+ +b
2n
y
n
.
.
.
x
n
= b
n1
y
1
+b
n2
y
2
+ +b
nn
y
n
th
A
1
=
_
_
_
_
_
b
11
b
12
b
1n
b
21
b
22
b
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
b
n1
b
n2
b
nn
_
_
_
_
_
* Nu tn ti y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
h phng trnh tuyn tnh (2) v nghim hoc v s nghim
th ma trn A khng kh nghch.
4
A =
_
_
_
_
a 1 1 1
1 a 1 1
1 1 a 1
1 1 1 a
_
_
_
_
Gii
Lp h
_
_
ax
1
+x
2
+x
3
+x
4
= y
1
(1)
x
1
+ax
2
+x
3
+x
4
= y
2
(2)
x
1
+x
2
+ax
3
+x
4
= y
3
(3)
x
1
+x
2
+x
3
+ax
4
= y
4
(4)
Ta gii h trn, cng 2 v ta c
(a + 3)(x
1
+x
2
+x
3
+x
4
) = y
1
+y
2
+y
3
+y
4
()
1. Nu a = 3, chn cc tham s y
1
, y
2
, y
3
, y
4
sao cho y
1
+y
2
+y
3
+y
4
= 0. Khi (*) v
nghim, do h v nghim, bi vy A khng kh nghch.
2. a = 3, t (*) ta c
x
1
+x
2
+x
3
+x
4
=
1
a + 3
(y
1
+y
2
+y
3
+y
4
) ()
Ly (1), (2), (3), (4) tr cho (**), ta c
(a 1)x
1
=
1
a + 3
((a + 2)y
1
y
2
y
3
y
4
)
(a 1)x
2
=
1
a + 3
(y
1
+ (a + 2)y
2
y
3
y
4
)
(a 1)x
3
=
1
a + 3
(y
1
y
2
+ (a + 2)y
3
y
4
)
(a 1)x
4
=
1
a + 3
(y
1
y
2
y
3
+ (a + 2)y
4
)
(a) Nu a = 1, ta c th chn tham s y
1
, y
2
, y
3
, y
4
(a + 2)y
1
y
2
y
3
y
4
khc 0.
Khi h v nghim v do A khng kh nghch.
(b) Nu a = 1, ta c
x
1
=
1
(a 1)(a + 3)
((a + 2)y
1
y
2
y
3
y
4
)
x
2
=
1
(a 1)(a + 3)
(y
1
+ (a + 2)y
2
y
3
y
4
)
x
3
=
1
(a 1)(a + 3)
(y
1
y
2
+ (a + 2)y
3
y
4
)
5
x
4
=
1
(a 1)(a + 3)
(y
1
y
2
y
3
+ (a + 2)y
4
)
Do
A
1
=
1
(a 1)(a + 3)
_
_
_
_
a + 2 1 1 1
1 a + 2 1 1
1 1 a + 2 1
1 1 1 a + 2
_
_
_
_
Tm li:
Nu a = 3, a = 1 th ma trn A khng kh nghch.
Nu a = 3, a = 1, ma trn nghch o A
1
c xc nh bi cng thc trn.
6
BI TP
Tm ma trn nghch o ca cc ma trn sau
22.
_
_
1 0 3
2 1 1
3 2 2
_
_
23.
_
_
1 3 2
2 1 3
3 2 1
_
_
24.
_
_
_
_
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
_
_
_
_
25.
_
_
_
_
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
_
_
_
_
Tm ma trn nghch o ca cc ma trn vung cp n
26.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
27.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 +a 1 1 1
1 1 +a 1 1
1 1 1 +a 1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 1 1 1 +a
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
7
I S TUYN TNH
Phin bn cha chnh sa
PGS TS. M Vinh Quang
H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH
1 Cc khi nim c bn
1.1 nh ngha
H phng trnh dng:
_
_
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ + a
1n
x
n
= b
1
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ + a
2n
x
n
= b
2
. . . . . .
a
m1
x
1
+ a
m2
x
2
+ + a
mn
x
n
= b
m
(1)
trong x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
l cc n, a
ij
, b
j
R l cc hng s, gi l h phng trnh tuyn tnh
(m phng trnh, n n).
Ma trn
A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
. . . . . . . . . . . .
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
_
_
gi l ma trn cc h s ca h (1).
Ma trn
A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
b
1
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
b
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
b
m
_
_
gi l ma trn cc h s m rng ca h (1). Mt h phng trnh hon ton xc nh khi ta
bit ma trn cc h s m rng ca n.
Ct
_
_
b
1
b
2
.
.
.
b
m
_
_
1
gi l ct t do ca h (1).
Ch rng, h phng trnh (1) c th cho di dng ma trn nh sau
A
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
=
_
_
b
1
b
2
.
.
.
b
m
_
_
trong A l ma trn cc h s ca h (1).
Nhn xt: Nu ta thc hin cc php bin i s cp trn cc dng ca mt h phng trnh
tuyn tnh ta c h mi tng ng vi h cho.
1.2 Mt vi h phng trnh c bit
a. H Cramer
H phng trnh tuyn tnh (1) gi l h Cramer nu m = n (tc l s phng trnh bng s
n) v ma trn cc h s A l khng suy bin (det A = 0).
b. H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht
H phng trnh tuyn tnh (1) gi l h thun nht nu ct t do ca h bng 0, tc l
b
1
= b
2
= = b
m
= 0.
2 Cc phng php gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh
2.1 Phng php Cramer
Ni dung ca phng php ny cng chnh l nh l sau y:
nh l 1 (Cramer) Cho h Cramer
_
_
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ + a
1n
x
n
= b
1
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ + a
2n
x
n
= b
2
. . . . . .
a
n1
x
1
+ a
n2
x
2
+ + a
nn
x
n
= b
n
(2)
trong
A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
. . . . . . . . . . . .
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nn
_
_
l ma trn cc h s.
H Cramer lun c nghim duy nht c cho bi cng thc
x
i
=
det A
i
det A
2
trong A
i
chnh l ma trn thu c t ma trn A bng cch thay ct i ca A bng ct t do
_
_
b
1
b
2
.
.
.
b
n
_
_
V d 1: Gii h phng trnh:
_
_
ax
1
+ bx
2
= c
cx
2
+ ax
3
= b
cx
1
+ bx
3
= a
trong a, b, c l ba s khc 0.
Gii: Ta c:
det A =
a b 0
0 c a
c 0 b
= 2abc = 0
nn h trn l h Cramer. Hn na
det A
1
=
c b 0
b c a
a 0 b
=
_
a
2
b
2
+ c
2
_
b
det A
2
=
a c 0
0 b a
c a b
=
_
a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
_
a
v
det A
3
=
a b c
0 c b
c 0 a
=
_
a
2
+ b
2
c
2
_
c
Do , h c nghim duy nht:
x
1
=
det A
1
det A
=
a
2
b
2
+ c
2
2ac
, x
2
=
det A
2
det A
=
a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
2bc
, x
3
=
det A
3
det A
=
a
2
+ b
2
c
2
2ab
2.2 S dng phng php bin i s cp (phng php Gauss)
gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut
Ni dung c bn ca phng php ny da trn nh l quan trong sau v nghim ca mt h
phng trnh tuyn tnh.
nh l 2 (nh l Cronecker-Capelly) Cho h phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut (1), A
v A ln lt l ma trn cc h s v ma trn cc h s m rng. Khi :
1. Nu rank A < rank A th h (1) v nghim.
2. Nu rank A = rank A = r th h (1) c nghim. Hn na:
(a) Nu r = n th h (1) c nghim duy nht.
3
(b) Nu r < n th h (1) c v s nghim ph thuc vo n r tham s.
Ta c thut ton sau gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh:
Lp ma trn cc h s m rng A. Bng cc php bin i s cp trn dng a ma trn A
v dng bc thang. Ma trn bc thang cui cng c dng:
A C =
_
_
0 . . . c
1i
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c
1n
d
1
0 . . . 0 . . . c
2i
2
. . . . . . . . . c
2n
d
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 . . . 0 . . . . . . c
ri
r
. . . c
rn
d
r
0 . . . 0 . . . 0 . . . 0 . . . 0 d
r+1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 . . . 0 . . . 0 . . . 0 . . . 0 d
m
_
_
H phng trnh tng ng vi ma trn C tng ng vi h ban u. Do
1. Nu tn ti t nht d
i
vi r + 1 i m khc 0 th h v nghim.
2. Nu d
r+1
= d
r+2
= = d
m
= 0 th h c nghim. Khi cc ct i
1
, i
2
, . . . , i
r
(l cc
ct c nh du *) gi li bn tri v cc x
i
1
, x
i
2
, . . . , x
i
r
l cc n cn cc ct cn li
chuyn sang bn phi, cc n x
k
ng vi cc ct ny s tr thnh tham s. Vy ta c
n r tham s v h cho tng ng vi h
_
_
c
1i
1
c
1i
2
. . . c
1i
r
d
1
(x
k
)
0 c
2i
2
. . . c
2i
r
d
2
(x
k
)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 0 . . . c
ri
r
d
r
(x
k
)
_
_
(3)
trong d
i
(x
k
) l cc hm tuyn tnh ca x
k
vi k = i
1
, i
2
, . . . , i
r
. H phng trnh (3) l
h phng trnh dng tam gic, ta c th d dng gii c bng phng php th dn
t di ln, tc l tnh ln lt x
r
, x
r1
, . . . , x
1
.
Ch : Nu trong qu trnh bin i xut hin 1 dng m bn tri bng 0 cn bn phi khc
0 th ta c th kt lun h v nghim m khng cn phi lm tip.
_
_
x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 2x
4
+ x
5
= 1
2x
1
+ 4x
2
+ x
3
+ 3x
4
= 3
3x
1
+ 6x
2
+ 2x
3
+ 3x
4
+ x
5
= m
x
1
+ 2x
2
+ x
3
+ x
5
= 2m8
Gii:
A =
_
_
1 2 0 2 1 1
2 4 1 3 0 3
3 6 2 3 1 m
1 2 1 0 1 2m8
_
_
d
2
(2)d
1
+d
2
d
3
(3)d
1
+d
3
d
4
(1)d
1
+d
4
_
_
1 2 0 2 1 1
0 0 1 1 2 1
0 0 2 3 2 m3
0 0 1 2 0 2m9
_
_
d
3
(2)d
2
+d
3
d
4
(1)d
2
+d
4
_
_
1 2 0 2 1 1
0 0 1 1 2 1
0 0 0 1 2 m5
0 0 0 1 2 2m10
_
_
d
4
(1)d
3
+d
4
_
1 2 0 2 1 1
0 0 1 1 2 1
0 0 0 1 2 m5
0 0 0 0 0 m5
_
_
4
* Nu m = 5 h phng trnh v nghim.
* Nu m = 5, h cho tng ng vi
_
_
1
2 0 2 1 1
0 0 1
1 2 1
0 0 0 1
2 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
_
_
Trng hp ny h c v s nghim ph thuc vo 2 tham s l x
2
v x
5
. Chuyn ct 2 v
ct 5 sang bn phi, h c dng
_
_
_
x
1
+ 2x
4
= 1 2x
2
2x
5
x
3
x
4
= 1 + 2x
5
x
4
= 2x
5
Gii t di ln ta s c
x
4
= 2x
5
x
3
= x
4
+ 2x
5
+ 1 = 4x
5
+ 1
x
1
= 1 2x
2
2x
5
2x
4
= 2x
2
5x
5
+ 1
Tm li, trong trng hp ny nghim ca h l
_
_
x
1
= 2a 5b + 1
x
2
= a
x
3
= 4b + 1
x
4
= 2b
x
5
= b
a, b ty .
_
_
x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ mx
4
= 1
x
1
+ x
2
+ mx
3
+ x
4
= 1
x
1
+ mx
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= 1
mx
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= 1
Gii:
A =
_
_
1 1 1 m 1
1 1 m 1 1
1 m 1 1 1
m 1 1 1 1
_
_
d
2
(1)d
1
+d
2
d
3
(1)d
1
+d
3
d
4
(m)d
1
+d
4
_
_
1 1 1 m 1
0 0 m1 1 m 0
0 m1 0 1 m 0
0 1 m 1 m 1 m
2
1 m
d
2
d
3
_
1 1 1 m 1
0 m1 0 1 m 0
0 0 m1 1 m 0
0 1 m 1 m 1 m
2
1 m
_
_
d
4
d
2
+d
3
+d
4
_
1 1 1 m 1
0 m1 0 1 m 0
0 0 m1 1 m 0
0 0 0 3 2mm
2
1 m
_
_
= C
5
Ch rng 3 2mm
2
= (1 m)(m + 3). Bi vy:
1) m = 1, khi
C =
_
_
1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
_
_
H c v s nghim ph thuc vo 3 tham s x
2
, x
3
, x
4
. Nghim l
_
_
x
1
= 1 a b c
x
2
= a
x
3
= b
x
4
= c
2) m = 3, khi
C =
_
_
1 1 1 3 1
0 4 0 4 0
0 0 4 4 0
0 0 0 0 4
_
_
H v nghim.
3) m = 1 v m = 3, h c nghim duy nht
x
4
=
1 m
3 2mm
2
=
1
m + 3
x
3
= x
4
=
1
m + 3
, x
2
= x
4
=
1
m + 3
x
1
= 1 x
2
x
3
mx
4
=
1
m + 3
Vy: x
1
= x
2
= x
3
= x
4
=
1
m+3
.
Tm li:
m = 1 h c v s nghim;
m = 3 h v nghim;
m = 1, 3, h c mt nghim duy nht x
1
= x
2
= x
3
= x
4
=
1
m+3
.
Bi tp
Gii v bin lun cc h sau:
27.
_
_
2x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= 1
x
1
+ 2x
2
x
3
+ 4x
4
= 2
x
1
+ 7x
2
4x
3
+ 11x
4
= m
4x
1
+ 8x
2
4x
3
+ 16x
4
= m + 1
28.
_
_
2x
1
x
2
+ x
3
2x
4
+ 3x
5
= 3
x
1
+ x
2
x
3
x
4
+ x
5
= 1
3x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
3x
4
+ 4x
5
= 6
5x
1
+ 2x
3
5x
4
+ 7x
5
= 9 m
6
29.
_
_
mx
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
= 1
x
1
+ mx
2
+ x
3
= 1
x
1
+ x
2
+ mx
3
= 1
30.
_
_
mx
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= 1
x
1
+ mx
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= 1
x
1
+ x
2
+ mx
3
+ x
4
= 1
31. Cho a
ij
l cc s nguyn. Gii h:
_
_
1
2
x
1
= a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ + a
1n
x
n
1
2
x
2
= a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ + a
2n
x
n
. . .
1
2
x
n
= a
n1
x
1
+ a
n2
x
2
+ + a
nn
x
n
32. Gii h phng trnh:
_
_
x
1
+ x
2
+ + x
n
= 1
x
1
+ 2x
2
+ + 2
n1
x
n
= 1
x
1
+ 3x
2
+ + 3
n1
x
n
= 1
. . .
x
1
+ nx
2
+ + n
n1
x
n
= 1
33. Chng minh rng h phng trnh:
_
_
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ + a
1n
x
n
= 0
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ + a
2n
x
n
= 0

a
n1
x
1
+ a
n2
x
2
+ + a
nn
x
n
= 0
trong a
ij
= a
ji
v n l, c nghim khc 0.
7
I S TUYN TNH
8. Gii bi tp v ma trn nghch o
Phin bn chnh sa
PGS TS M Vinh Quang
Bi 21. Tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn
A =
_
_
1 0 3
2 1 1
3 2 2
_
_
Gii
Cch 1. S dng phng php nh thc
Ta c: det A = 2 + 12 9 2 = 3
A
11
=
1 1
2 2
= 0 A
21
=
0 3
2 2
= 6 A
31
=
0 3
1 1
= 3
A
12
=
2 1
3 2
= 1 A
22
=
1 3
3 2
= 7 A
32
=
1 3
2 1
= 5
A
13
=
2 1
3 2
= 1 A
23
=
1 0
3 2
= 2 A
33
=
1 0
2 1
= 1
Vy
A
1
=
1
3
_
_
_
0 6 3
1 7 5
1 2 1
_
_
_
Cch 2. S dng phng php bin i s cp
Xt ma trn
A =
_
_
_
1 0 3
2 1 1
3 2 2
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
_
d
2
2d
1
+d
2
d
3
3d
1
+d
3
_
_
_
1 0 3
0 1 5
0 2 7
1 0 0
2 1 0
3 0 1
_
_
_
d
3
=2d
2
+d
3
_
_
_
1 0 3
0 1 5
0 0 3
1 0 0
2 1 0
1 2 1
_
_
_
d
3
=
1
3
d
3
_
_
_
1 0 3
0 1 5
0 0 1
1 0 0
2 1 0
1
3

2
3
1
3
_
_
_
1
_
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 2 1
1
3

7
3
5
3
1
3

2
3
1
3
_
_
_
Vy
A
1
=
_
_
_
0 2 1
1
3

7
3
5
3
1
3

2
3
1
3
_
_
_
A =
_
_
_
1 3 2
2 1 3
3 2 1
_
_
_
Gii
Ta s dng phng php nh thc.
Ta c det A = 1 + 27 + 8 6 6 6 = 18
A
11
=
1 3
2 1
= 5 A
21
=
3 2
2 1
= 1 A
31
=
3 2
1 3
= 7
A
12
=
2 3
3 1
= 7 A
22
=
1 2
3 1
= 5 A
32
=
1 2
2 3
= 1
A
13
=
2 1
3 2
= 1 A
23
=
1 3
3 2
= 7 A
33
=
1 3
2 1
= 5
Vy
A
1
=
1
18
_
_
_
5 1 7
7 5 1
1 7 5
_
_
_
(Bn c cng c th s dng phng php bin i s cp gii bi ny)
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
Gii
Ta s dng phng php 3.
2
Xt h
_
_
x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= y
1
(1)
x
1
x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= y
2
(2)
x
1
+ x
2
x
3
+ x
4
= y
3
(3)
x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
x
4
= y
4
(4)
(1) + (2) + (3) + (4) = x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
=
1
2
(y
1
+ y
2
+ y
3
+ y
4
) ()
() (1) = x
1
=
1
4
(y
1
+ y
2
+ y
3
+ y
4
)
() (2) = x
2
=
1
4
(y
1
y
2
+ y
3
+ y
4
)
() (3) = x
3
=
1
4
(y
1
+ y
2
y
3
+ y
4
)
() (4) = x
4
=
1
4
(y
1
+ y
2
+ y
3
y
4
)
Vy
A
1
=
1
4
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
Gii
S dng phng php 3.
Xt h
_
_
x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= y
1
(1)
x
1
+ x
3
+ x
4
= y
2
(2)
x
1
x
2
+ x
4
= y
3
(3)
x
1
x
2
x
3
= y
4
(4)
(1) + (2) (3) + (4) = x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= y
1
+ y
2
y
3
+ y
4
()
(1) () = x
1
= y
2
+ y
3
y
4
() (2) = x
2
= y
1
y
3
+ y
4
(4) = x
3
= x
1
x
2
y
4
= y
1
+ y
2
y
4
(3) = x
4
= x
1
+ x
2
+ y
3
= y
1
y
2
+ y
3
3
Vy
A
1
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
nn
Gii
S dng phng php 3.
Xt h
_
_
x
1
+ x
2
+ + x
n
= y
1
(1)
x
2
+ + x
n
= y
2
(2)
.
.
.
x
n1
+ x
n
= y
n1
(n 1)
x
n
= y
n
(n)
(1) (2) = x
1
= y
1
y
2
(2) (3) = x
2
= y
2
y
3
.
.
.
(n 1) (n) = x
n1
= y
n1
y
n
(n) = x
n
= y
n
Vy
A
1
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
4
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 + a 1 1 1
1 1 + a 1 1
1 1 1 + a 1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 1 1 1 + a
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Gii
S dng phng php 3.
Xt h
_
_
(1 + a)x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ + x
n
= y
1
(1)
x
1
+ (1 + a)x
2
+ x
3
+ + x
n
= y
2
(2)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ + (1 + a)x
n
= y
n
(n)
Ly (1) + (2) + + (n), ta c
(n + a)(x
1
+ x
2
+ + x
n
) = y
1
+ y
2
+ + y
n
1. Nu a = n, ta c th chn tham s y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
tha y
1
+ + y
n
= 0. Khi h v
nghim v do ma trn A khng kh nghch.
2. Nu a = n, khi ta c
x
1
+ x
2
+ + x
n
=
1
n + a
(y
1
+ + y
n
) ()
(1) () = ax
1
=
1
n + a
((n + a 1)y
1
y
2
y
n
)
(a) Nu a = 0, ta c th chn tham s y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
phng trnh trn v nghim.
Do h v nghim v ma trn A khng kh nghch.
(b) Nu a = 0, ta c
x
1
=
1
a(n + a)
((n + a 1)y
1
y
2
y
n
)
(2) () = x
2
=
1
a(n + a)
(y
1
(n + a 1)y
2
y
3
y
n
)
.
.
.
(n) () = x
n
=
1
a(n + a)
(y
1
y
2
y
3
(n + a 1)y
n
)
Vy
A
1
=
1
a(n + a)
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
n + a 1 1 1 1
1 n + a 1 1 1
1 1 n + a 1 1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 1 1 n + a 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
nn
5
I S TUYN TNH
Phin bn chnh sa
PGS TS M Vinh Quang
9. Gii Bi Tp V H Phng Trnh
Tuyn Tnh
27) Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh
_
_
2x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= 1
x
1
+ 2x
2
x
3
+ 4x
4
= 2
x
1
+ 7x
2
4x
3
+ 11x
4
= m
4x
1
+ 8x
2
4x
3
+ 16x
4
= m + 1
Gii: Lp ma trn cc h s m rng A v dng cc php bin i s cp trn dng a ma
trn A v dng bc thang. Nhn xt rng h ban u tng ng vi h c ma trn cc h s
m rng l ma trn bc thang sau cng. C th ta c
A =
_
_
2 1 1 1 1
1 2 1 4 2
1 7 4 11 m
4 8 4 16 m + 1
_
_
d
1
d
2
_
1 2 1 4 2
2 1 1 1 1
1 7 4 11 m
4 8 4 16 m + 1
_
_
d
2
2d
1
+d
2
d
3
d
1
+d
3
d
4
4d
1
+d
4
_
_
1 2 1 4 2
0 3 3 7 3
0 5 3 7 m2
0 0 0 0 m7
_
_
d
2
2d
2
+d
3
d
3
d
2
_
_
1 2 1 4 2
0 1 3 7 m8
0 3 3 7 3
0 0 0 0 m7
_
_
d
3
3d
2
+d
3
_
1 2 1 4 2
0 1 3 7 m8
0 0 6 14 3m + 21
0 0 0 0 m7
_
_
Nu m = 7 th h v nghim
Nu m = 7 h tng ng vi
_
_
1
2 1 4 2
0 1
3 7 m8
0 0 6
14 0
0 0 0 0 0
_
_
1
h c v s nghim ph thuc mt tham s l x
4
. Ta c
x
3
=
7
3
x
4
, x
2
= 3x
3
7x
4
+ 1 = 1
x
1
= 2 2x
2
+ x
3
4x
4
=
7
3
x
4
4x
4
=
5
3
x
4
Vy, trong trng hp ny, nghim ca h l
_
_
x
1
= 5a
x
2
= 1
x
3
= 7a
x
4
= 3a
(a R)
28) Gii h phng trnh:
_
_
2x
1
x
2
+ x
3
2x
4
+ 3x
5
= 3
x
1
+ x
2
x
3
x
4
+ x
5
= 1
3x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
3x
4
+ 4x
5
= 6
5x
1
+ 2x
3
5x
4
+ 7x
5
= 9 m
Gii: Lp ma trn cc h s m rng
A =
_
_
2 1 1 2 3 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 1 1 3 7 6
5 0 2 5 4 9 m
_
_
d
1
d
2
_
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 2 3 3
3 1 1 3 7 6
5 0 2 5 4 9 m
_
_
d
2
2d
1
+d
2
d
3
3d
1
+d
3
d
4
5d
1
+d
4
_
_
1 1 1 1 1 1
0 3 3 0 1 1
0 2 4 0 1 2
0 5 7 0 2 4 m
_
_
d
2
d
2
d
3
_
1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1
0 2 4 0 1 2
0 5 7 0 2 4 m
_
_
d
3
2d
2
+d
3
d
4
=5d
2
+d
4
_
_
1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1
0 0 6 0 1 0
0 0 12 0 2 9 m
_
_
d
4
2d
3
+d
4
_
1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1
0 0 6 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 9 m
_
_
Nu m = 9 th h v nghim.
Nu m = 9 th h c dng
_
_
1
1 1 1 1 1
0 1
1 0 0 1
0 0 6
0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
_
_
rank A = rank A = 3 nn h c v s nghim ph thuc 2 tham s l x
4
, x
5
, ta c
x
3
=
1
6
x
5
x
2
= x
3
+ 1 =
1
6
x
5
+ 1
x
1
= x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
x + 5 + 1
=
1
6
x
5
1
1
6
x
5
+ x
4
x
5
+ 1 =
4
3
x
5
+ x
4
2
Vy, trong trng hp ny nghim ca h l
_
_
x
1
= a 8b
x
2
= b + 1
x
3
= b
x
4
= a
x
5
= 6b
a, b R
29) Gii v bin lun h phng trnh
_
_
mx
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
= 1
x
1
+ mx
2
+ x
3
= m
x
1
+ x
2
+ mx
3
= m
2
A =
_
_
m 1 1 1
1 m 1 m
1 1 m m
2
_
_

_
_
1 1 m m
2
1 m 1 m
m 1 1 1
_
_
_
_
1 1 m m
2
0 m1 1 m mm
2
0 1 m 1 m
2
1 m
3
_
_
_
_
1 1 m m
2
0 m1 1 m mm
2
0 0 2 mm
2
1 + mm
2
m
3
_
_
Ch rng 2 mm
2
= (2 + m)(1 m). Ta c
m = 1, h tr thnh
A =
_
_
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
_
_
rank A = rank A = 1 nn h c v s nghim ph thuc hai tham s x
1
, x
2
. Nghim l
_
_
x
1
= 1 a b
x
2
= a
x
3
= b
a, b R
m = 2, h tr thnh
_
_
1 1 2 4
0 3 3 6
0 0 0 3
_
_
h v nghim
m = 1, m = 2, h c nghim duy nht
_
_
x
3
=
1 + mm
2
m
3
(2 + m)(1 m)
=
m
2
+ 2m + 1
m + 2
x
2
= x
3
m =
m
2
+ 2m + 1
m + 2
m =
1
m + 2
x
1
= m
2
x
2
mx
3
=
m
3
+ 2m
2
1 m(m
2
+ 2m + 1)
m + 2
=
m1
m + 2
3
30) Gii v bin lun h phng trnh
_
_
mx
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= 1
x
1
+ mx
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= 1
x
1
+ x
2
+ mx
3
+ x
4
= 1
A =
_
_
m 1 1 1 1
1 m 1 1 1
1 1 m 1 1
_
_
d
1
d
3
_
_
1 1 m 1 1
1 m 1 1 1
m 1 1 1 1
_
_
d
2
d
1
+d
2
d
3
md
1
+d
3
_
_
1 1 m 1 1
0 m1 1 m 0 0
0 1 m 1 m
2
1 m 1 m
_
_
d
3
d
2
+d
3
_
_
1 1 m 1 1
0 m1 1 m 0 0
0 0 2 mm
2
1 m 1 m
_
_
()
Ch rng 2 mm
2
= (1 m)(2 + m). Ta c cc kh nng sau
m = 1 h tr thnh
_
_
1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
_
_
rank A = rank A = 1, trng hp ny h c v s nghim ph thuc ba tham s x
2
, x
3
, x
4
.
Nghim ca h l
_
_
x
1
= 1 a b c
x
2
= a
x
3
= b
x
4
= c
a, b, c R
m = 2 h tr thnh
_
_
1
1 2 1 1
0 3
3 0 0
0 0 0 3
3
_
_
Ta c rank A = rank A = 3 nn h c v s nghim ph thuc mt tham s l x
3
. Ta c
x
4
= 1, 3x
2
= 3x
3
x
2
= x
3
x
1
= x
2
+ 2x
3
x
4
+ 1 = x
3
Trong trng hp ny nghim ca h l
_
_
x
1
= a
x
2
= a
x
3
= a
x
4
= 1
a R
m = 1, 2. Khi , t () ta thy h c v s nghim ph thuc tham s x
4
v m. Ta c
(2 mm
2
)x
3
= (1 m) (1 m)x
4
x
3
=
(1 m) (1 m)x
4
(2 mm
2
)
=
1 x
4
m + 2
(m1)x
2
= (m1)x
3
x
2
= x
3
x
1
= 1 x
2
mx
3
x
4
=
(m + 2) (1 x
4
) m(1 x
4
) (m + 2)x
4
m + 2
=
1 x
4
m + 2
4
Vy, trong trng hp ny h c nghim l
_
_
x
1
=
1 a
m + 2
x
2
=
1 a
m + 2
x
3
=
1 a
m + 2
x
4
= a
31) Cho a
ij
l cc s nguyn, gii h
_
_
1
2
x
1
= a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ + a
1n
x
n
1
2
x
2
= a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ + a
2n
x
n
. . .
1
2
x
n
= a
n1
x
1
+ a
n2
x
2
+ + a
nn
x
n
Gii: H phng trnh cho tng ng vi
_
_
(2a
11
1) x
1
+ 2a
12
x
2
+ + 2a
1n
x
n
= 0
2a
21
x
1
+ (2a
22
1) x
2
+ + 2a
2n
x
n
= 0
. . .
2a
n1
x
1
+ 2a
n2
x
2
+ + (2a
nn
1) x
n
= 0
Gi ma trn cc h s ca h phng trnh trn l A
n
, ta c
det A
n
=
2a
11
1 2a
12
. . . 2a
1n
2a
21
2a
22
1 . . . 2a
2n
. . . . . . . . . . . .
2a
n1
2a
n2
. . . 2a
nn
1
Ch rng a
ij
l cc s nguyn nn cc phn b i s ca (A
n
)
ij
cng l cc s nguyn, do
nu khai trin nh thc theo dng cui ta s c
det A
n
= 2k + (2a
nn
1)
2a
11
1 2a
12
. . . 2a
1,n1
2a
21
2a
22
1 . . . 2a
2,n1
. . . . . . . . . . . .
2a
n1,1
2a
n1,2
. . . 2a
n1,n1
1
= 2k + (2a
nn
1) det A
n1
= 2k + 2a
nn
det A
n1
det A
n1
= 2l det A
n1
Do , det A
n
+ det A
n1
= 2l l s chn, Suy ra det A
n
v det A
n1
c cng tnh chn l
vi mi n, m det A
1
= 2a
11
1 l s l nn det A
n
l s l v do det A
n
= 0 (v 0 l s
chn). V h phng trnh c det A
n
= 0 nn h trn l h Cramer v c nghim duy nht l
x
1
= x
2
= = x
n
= 0.
5
32) Gii h phng trnh
_
_
x
1
+ x
2
+ + x
n
= 1
x
1
+ 2x
2
+ + 2
n1
x
n
= 1
x
1
+ 3x
2
+ + 3
n1
x
n
= 1
. . .
x
1
+ nx
2
+ + n
n1
x
n
= 1
Gii: Gi s x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
l nghim ca h phng trnh cho. Xt a thc
f(X) = x
n
X
n1
+ x
n1
X
n2
+ + x
2
X + x
1
1 = 0
V x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
l nghim ca h nn X = 1, 2, . . . , n l cc nghim ca a thc trn. V f(X)
c bc n 1 m li c n nghim phn bit nn f(X) 0 (f(X) l a thc khng), do
ta c x
n
= x
n1
= = x
2
= 0, x
1
= 1. Vy h phng trnh cho c nghim duy nht
x
1
= 1, x
2
= x
3
= = x
n
= 0.
33) Chng minh h phng trnh
_
_
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ + a
1n
x
n
= 0
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ + a
2n
x
n
= 0

a
n1
x
1
+ a
n2
x
2
+ + a
nn
x
n
= 0
trong a
ij
= a
ji
v n l, c nghim khng tm thng.
Gii: Gi A l ma trn cc h s, theo gi thit (A)
ij
= (A)
ji
do A = A
t
. Do tnh cht
nh thc det A = det A
t
nn ta c
det A = det(A
t
) = (1)
n
det A
t
= (1)
n
det A = det A( do n l)
Bi vy suy ra det A = det A hay det A = 0, tc l rank A = r < n. Theo nh l Cronecker-
Capelly h c v s nghim (ph thuc n r tham s) do h c nghim khc (0, 0, . . . , 0).
6
I S C BN
(N THI THC S TON HC)
Bi 10. Khng gian vect
PGS TS M Vinh Quang
1 Cc khi nim c bn
1.1 nh ngha khng gian vect
K hiu R l tp cc s thc, V l tp ty khc . V gi l khng gian vect (trn R)
(mi phn t ca V gi l mt vect) nu trong V c 2 php ton:
Php cng 2 vect, tc l vi mi cp vect , V xc nh c mt vect tng
+ V .
Php nhn v hng mt s vi mt vect, tc l vi mi a R v vect V xc nh
c mt vect tch a V .
Ngoi ra, php cng v php nhn trn phi tha mn 8 iu kin sau:
1. Php cng kt hp; vi mi , , V :
( +) + = + ( +)
2. Php cng giao hon, vi mi , V :
+ = +
3. Php cng c vect-khng, tn ti vect O V (vect-khng) c tnh cht:
+O = O + = vi mi V
4. C vect i, vi mi vect V , tn ti vect V (vect i ca ) c tnh cht:
+ () = () + = O
5. Php nhn phn phi vi php cng, vi mi a R v cc vect , V :
a( +) = a +a
6. Php nhn phn phi vi php cng, vi mi s thc a, b R, mi vect V :
(a +b) = a +b
7. Php nhn kt hp. Vi mi a, b R, vi mi vect V :
(ab) = a(b)
1
8. 1. = vi mi vect V
Nh vy, kim tra tp hp V cng vi 2 php ton cng v nhn v hng c phi l
khng gian vect hay khng, ta phi kim tra xem chng c tha mn 8 iu kin trn hay
khng. Bn c c th d dng t kim tra cc v d sau.
1.2 Cc v d v khng gian vect
1. V = R
n
= {(a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
)|a
i
R} vi:
- Php cng: = (a
1
, . . . , a
n
) R
n
, = (b
1
, . . . , b
n
) R
n
:
+ = (a
1
+b
1
, . . . , a
n
+b
n
) R
n
- Php nhn v hng: vi mi a R, a. = a(a
1
, . . . , a
n
) = (aa
1
, . . . , aa
n
)
th V l mt khng gian vect.
2. V = M
mn
(R) - tp cc ma trn cp mn vi h s thc - vi php cng l php cng 2
ma trn, php nhn v hng l php nhn mt s thc vi mt ma trn, l mt khng
gian vect.
3. R[x] - tp cc a thc vi h s thc - vi php cng l php cng hai a thc, php nhn
v hng l php nhn mt s vi mt a thc, l khng gian vect.
4. R
+
l tp cc s thc dng. Trong R
+
ta nh ngha php cng v php nhn v hng.
- Php cng: vi mi , R
+
, =
- Php nhn v hng: vi mi a R, R
+
: a =
a
Khi , (R
+
, , ) l mt khng gian vect vi vect-khng l 1, vect i ca vect l
vect
1
1.3 Cc tnh cht c bn

1. Vect O v vect i () l duy nht.
2. Php cng c lut gin c: vi mi , , V , nu + = + th =
3. 0. = O, vi mi V ,
a.O = O, vi mi a R,
(1). = vi mi V
4. Nu a. = O th a = 0 hoc = O
5. Nu = O th a = b a = b
6. (a) = a() = (a) vi mi a R, V
2
2 c lp tuyn tnh, ph thuc tuyn tnh
2.1 Cc khi nim c bn
Cho V l khng gian vect,
1
, . . . ,
n
l mt h vect ca V .
H vect
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
gi l h vect ph thuc tuyn tnh (PTTT) nu tn ti cc s
thc a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
khng ng thi bng 0 sao cho
a
1
1
+ +a
n
n
= O
tc l phng trnh vect x
1
1
+ +x
n
n
= O c nghim khc (0, . . . , 0)
H vect
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
gi l h vect c lp tuyn tnh (LTT) nu n khng ph thuc
tuyn tnh, ni cch khc h
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
LTT khi v ch khi: nu a
1
1
+ +a
n
n
= O
vi a
i
R th a
i
= 0 vi mi i, tc l phng trnh vect x
1
1
+ + x
n
n
= O c
nghim duy nht l (0, . . . , 0)
V d. Trong R
4
cho h vect
1
= (1, 0, 1, 1),
2
= (0, 1, 2, 3),
3
= (1, 2, 3, 4). H trn
LTT hay PTTT?
Gii. Xt h phng trnh vect
x
1
1
+x
2
2
+x
3
3
= O
_
x
1
+x
3
= 0
x
2
+ 2x
3
= 0
x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 3x
3
= 0
x
1
+ 3x
2
+ 3x
3
= 0
Ma trn cc h s ca h trn l A =
_
_
_
_
1 0 1
0 1 2
1 2 3
1 3 4
_
_
_
_
D thy rank A = 3 nn h trn c nghim duy nht (0, 0, 0). Vy h vect trn c lp
tuyn tnh.
Nhn xt. xt h m vect
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
LTT hay PTTT trong R
n
, ta lp ma trn A
vi cc ct l cc vect
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
ri tm rank A. Nu rank A = m (s vect) th h LTT,
nu rank A < m th h PTTT.
Vect V gi l biu th tuyn tnh (BTTT) c qua h vect
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
nu tn
ti cc s a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
R sao cho = a
1
1
+ a
2
2
+ + a
n
n
(tc l phng trnh
vect x
1
1
+x
2
2
+ +x
n
n
= c nghim)
2.2 Cc tnh cht c bn
1. H chc vect-khng lun PTTT.
2. H gm 1 vect PTTT khi v ch khi vect bng O, h gm 2 vect PTTT khi v ch
khi 2 vect t l.
3. Nu mt h LTT th mi h con ca n cng LTT.
4. H vect
1
, . . . ,
n
PTTT khi v ch khi c mt vect trong h biu th tuyn tnh c
qua cc vect cn li ca h.
5. Nu h
1
, . . . ,
n
LTT th h vect
1
, . . . ,
n
, LTT khi v ch khi khng biu th
tuyn tnh c qua h
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
.
3
3 Hng ca mt h vect
3.1 H vect tng ng
Trong khng gian vect V cho hai h vect:
()
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
()
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
Ta ni h () biu th tuyn tnh c qua h () nu mi vect ca h () u biu th
tuyn tnh c qua h ().
Ta ni h () tng ng vi h () (k hiu () ()) nu h () biu th tuyn tnh
c qua h () v ngc li.
T nh ngha, ta c ngay quan h l mt quan h tng ng.
3.2 H con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca mt h vect
Trong khng gian vect V cho h vect ()
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
. H con
i
1
,
i
2
, . . . ,
i
k
ca h
() gi l h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h () nu
i
1
,
i
2
, . . . ,
i
k
c lp tuyn tnh
v mi vect
i
ca h () u biu th tuyn tnh c qua h con
i
1
,
i
2
, . . . ,
i
k
T nh ngha, ta c ngay h con c lp tuyn tnh ca mt h vect tng ng vi h
vect .
3.3 B c bn v s c lp tuyn tnh
Trong khng gian vect V cho hai h vect
()
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
()
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
Nu h () c lp tuyn tnh v biu th tuyn tnh c qua h () th m n, v ta c
th thay m vect ca h () bng cc vect
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
ca h () c h mi tng
ng vi h ().
T b c bn, ta c ngay hai h vect LTT tng ng th c s vect bng nhau.
3.4 Hng ca h vect
Trong khng gian vect V , cho h vect ()
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
H () c th c nhiu h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i khc nhau. Tuy nhin tt c cc
h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h () u tng ng vi nhau (v chng cng tng
ng vi h ()). Do , theo b c bn, tt c cc h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i u
c s vect bng nhau. S gi l hng ca h vect
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
; k hiu rank{
1
, . . . ,
m
}
Nh vy ta c
rank{
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
} = S vect ca h con c lp tuyn tnh ca h
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
3.5 Cch tm hng, h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca mt h
vect
Trong R
n
cho h vect
1
= (a
11
, a
12
, . . . , a
1n
)
2
= (a
21
, a
22
, . . . , a
2n
)
...................................
4
m
= (a
m1
, a
m2
, . . . , a
mn
)
tm hng, h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca ca h
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
ta lm nh sau:
Lp ma trn A l ma trn dng ca cc vect
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
A =
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
_
_
_
_
_
Bng cc php bin i s cp trn dng, a ma trn A v dng bc thang. Khi :
rank{
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
} = rank A
H con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
bao gm cc vect ng vi cc
dng khc khng ca ma trn bc thang.
V d. Trong R
5
cho h vect
1
= (3, 2, 0, 1, 4)
2
= (4, 1, 0, 2, 3)
3
= (3, 1, 1, 0, 1)
4
= (1, 0, 1, 2, 2)
Tm mt h con c lp tuyn tnh v hng ca h vect trn.
Gii
A =
_
_
_
_
3 2 0 1 4
4 1 0 2 3
3 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 2 2
_
_
_
_
1
2
3
4
_
_
_
_
1 0 1 2 2
4 1 0 2 3
3 1 1 0 1
3 2 0 1 4
_
_
_
_
4
2
3
1
_
_
_
_
1 0 1 2 2
0 1 4 6 5
0 1 4 6 5
0 2 3 5 2
_
_
_
_
4
2
3
1
_
_
_
_
1 0 1 2 2
0 1 4 6 5
0 0 5 7 8
0 0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
4
2
1
3
rank A = 3
Do , rank{
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
} = 3
H con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
l {
1
,
2
,
4
}.
5
Bi tp
1. Xt xem R
2
c l khng gian vect hay khng? vi php cng v php nhn v hng
sau:
(a
1
, a
2
) + (b
1
, b
2
) = (a
1
+b
1
, a
2
+b
2
)
a(a
1
, a
2
) = (aa
1
, 0)
2. Chng minh rng mt khng gian vect hoc ch c mt vect, hoc c v s vect.
3. Xt s c lp tuyn tnh v ph thuc tuyn tnh. Tm hng v h con c lp tuyn
tnh ti i ca cc h sau:
(a)
1
= (1, 0, 1, 0),
2
= (1, 2, 1, 1),
3
= (3, 2, 3, 2),
4
= (1, 1, 2, 1)
(b)
1
= (1, 0, 0, 1),
2
= (2, 1, 1, 0),
3
= (1, 1, 1, 1),
4
= (1, 2, 3, 4),
5
= (0, 1, 2, 3)
4. Cho h vect
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
LTT trong khng gian vect V . Chng minh:
(a) H vect
1
=
1
,
2
=
1
+
2
, . . . ,
m
=
1
+
2
+ +
m
cng LTT.
(b) H vect
1
= a
11
1
+a
12
2
+ +a
1m
2
= a
21
1
+a
22
2
+ +a
2m
m
....................................................
m
= a
m1
1
+a
m2
2
+ +a
mm
m
c lp tuyn tnh khi v ch khi det A = 0, trong
A =
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1m
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2m
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mm
_
_
_
_
_
5. H vect
1
, . . . ,
m
biu th tuyn tnh c qua h vect
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
. Chng minh
rng:
rank{
1
, . . . ,
m
} rank{
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
}
6. Cho hai h vect cng hng. H u biu th tuyn tnh c qua h sau. Chng minh
hai h vect cho tng ng.
7. Trong R
4
cho h vect:
u
1
= (1, 1, 1, 1), u
2
= (2, 3, 1, 0), u
3
= (1, 1, 1, 1)
Tm iu kin cn v vect u = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) biu th tuyn tnh c qua h
u
1
, u
2
, u
3
.
6
I S C BN
Bi 11. C S, S Chiu
Ca Khng Gian Vect
PGS TS M Vinh Quang
1. C s
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
l mt h vect ca V .
H vect
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
gi l h sinh ca V nu mi vect V u biu th tuyn
tnh c qua h
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
.
H vect
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
gi l mt c s ca khng gian vect V nu n l h sinh ca
V v l h c lp tuyn tnh.
T nh ngha, hai c s bt k ca V u tng ng v c lp tuyn tnh. Do ,
theo nh l c bn chng c s vect bng nhau. S gi l s chiu V , k hiu l
dimV . Vy theo nh ngha:
dimV = s vect ca mt c s bt k ca V
Khng gian vect c c s gm hu hn vect gi l khng gian vect hu hn chiu.
Khng gian vect khc khng, khng c c s gm hu hn vvect gi l khng gian
vect v hn chiu. i s tuyn tnh ch yu xt cc khng gian vect hu hn chiu.
2. Cc v d
V d 1. Khng gian R
n
, xt cc vect:
e
1
= (1, 0, ..., 0)
e
2
= (0, 1, ..., 0)
....................
e
3
= (0, 0, ..., 1)
D dng kim tra e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
l c s ca R
n
, gi l c s chnh tc ca R
n
v ta c
dimR
n
= n
V d 2. Trong khng gian vect cc ma trn cp mn h s thc M
mn
(R).
1
Ta xt h vect {E
ij
}, trong :
E
ij
=
_
_
0
.
.
. 0
. . . 1 . . . . . .
0
.
.
. 0
_
_
hng i,
1 i m
1 j n
ct j
l c s ca M
mn
(R) v do ta c dimM
mn
(R) = mn
V d 3. R
n
[x] l tp cc a thc vi h s thc c bc n vi cc php ton thng
thng l mt khng gian vect. H vect 1, x, x
2
, . . . , x
n
l mt c s ca R
n
[x] v ta c
dimR
n
[x] = n + 1
3. Tnh cht c bn ca khng gian vect hu hn chiu
Cho V l khng gian vect hu hn chiu, dimV = n. Khi :
(a) Mi h vect c nhiu hn n vect u ph thuc tuyn tnh
(b) Mi h c n vect c lp tuyn tnh u l c s ca V
(c) Mi h c n vect l h sinh ca V u l c s ca V
(d) Mi h c lp tuyn tnh, c k vect u c th b sung tm n k vect c
c s ca V
Ch rng t tnh cht (b), (c) nu bit dimV = n th chng minh mt h n vect l
c s ca V ta ch cn chng minh h l h c lp tuyn tnh hoc h l h sinh.
4. Ta ca vect trong c s.
(a) nh ngha
Cho V l khng gian vect n chiu (dimV = n)
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
l c s ca V .
Vi x V , khi x vit c duy nht di dng:
x = a
1
1
+ a
2
2
+ . . . + a
n
n
, a
i
R
B s (a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
) gi l ta ca x trong c s (), k hiu:
x
/
()
= (a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
)
Hoc:
[x]
/
()
=
_
_
a
1
a
2
.
.
.
a
n
_
_
(b) Ma trn i c s, cng thc i ta
Trong khng gian vect V cho 2 c s:
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
()
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
()
2
Khi , cc vect
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
vit c duy nht di dng:
_
1
= a
11
1
+ a
12
2
+ . . . + a
n1
2
= a
21
1
+ a
22
2
+ . . . + a
n2
n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
n
= a
n1
1
+ a
2n
2
+ . . . + a
nn
n
Ma trn cc h s chuyn v:
T
=
_
_
a
11
a
21
. . . a
n1
a
12
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
1n
a
2n
. . . a
nn
_
_
gi l ma trn i c s t () sang ()
T nh ngha, ta c ngay T
l ma trn kh nghch v T
= T
1
(c) Cng thc i ta

Cho V l khng gian vect, x V , v cc c s ca V l:
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
()
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
()
Gi s:
x
/
()
= (x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) ,
x
/
()
= (y
1
, y
2
, ..., y
n
)
Khi ta c:
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
= T
_
y
1
y
2
.
.
.
y
n
_
_
hay vit mt cch ngn gn:
[x]
/
()
= T
[x]
/
()
Cng thc trn cho php tnh ta ca vect x trong c s () theo ta ca
vect x trong c s ().
5. Mt s v d
V d 1. Trong R
3
cho 2 c s:
1
= (1, 1, 1),
2
= (1, 2, 1),
3
= (1, 3, 2) ()
1
= (1, 0, 1),
2
= (1, 1, 0),
3
= (0, 1, 1) ()
(a) Tm ma trn i c s t () sang ().
(b) Vit cng thc tnh ta ca vect x trong c s () theo ta ca x trong c
s ().
Gii:
3
(a) Gi s:
1
= a
1
1
+ a
2
2
+ a
3
3
(1)
2
= b
1
1
+ b
2
2
+ b
3
3
(2)
3
= c
1
1
+ c
2
2
+ c
3
3
(3)
Khi theo nh ngha
T
=
_
_
a
1
b
1
c
1
a
2
b
2
c
2
a
3
b
3
c
3
_
_
tm a
i
, b
i
, c
i
ta phi gii cc phng trnh vect (1), (2), (3).
Phng trnh (1) tng ng vi h:
_
_
_
a
1
a
2
+ a
3
= 1
a
1
+ 2a
2
+ 3a
3
= 0
a
1
+ a
2
+ 2a
3
= 1
_
_
_
b
1
b
2
+ b
3
= 1
b
1
+ 2b
2
+ 3b
3
= 1
b
1
+ b
2
+ 2b
3
= 0
_
_
_
c
1
c
2
+ c
3
= 0
c
1
+ 2c
2
+ 3c
3
= 1
c
1
+ c
2
+ 2c
3
= 1
gii 3 h trn, ta dng phng php Gauss. Ma trn cc h s m rng:
_
_
1 1 1
1 2 3
1 1 2
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
_
_
_
_
1 1 1
0 3 2
0 2 1
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
_
_
_
_
1 1 1
0 1 1
0 0 1
1
1
2
1
1
3
0
0
1
_
_
H 1) a
3
= 2, a
2
= 1 a
3
= 1, a
1
= a
2
a
3
+ 1 = 4
H 2) b
3
= 3, b
2
= 1 b
3
= 2, b
1
= b
2
b
3
+ 1 = 4
H 3) c
3
= 1, c
2
= c
3
= 1, c
1
= c
2
c
3
= 2
Vy ma trn i c s t () sang () l:
T
=
_
_
4 4 2
1 2 1
2 3 1
_
_
(b) Gi s
x
/
()
= (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) ,
x
/
()
= (y
1
, y
2
, y
3
)
Cng thc tnh ta ca vect x trong c s () theo ta ca x trong c s ()
l:
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
_
_
4 4 2
1 2 1
2 3 1
_
_
_
_
y
1
y
2
y
3
_
_
hay
x
1
= 4y
1
4y
2
+ 2y
3
x
2
= y
1
2y
2
+ y
3
x
3
= 2y
1
+ 3y
2
y
3
4
V d 2.
Trong R
n
[x] cho 2 c s:
u
1
= 1, u
2
= x, u
3
= x
2
, . . . , u
n+1
= x
n
(U)
v
1
= 1, v
2
= x a, v
3
= (x a)
2
, . . . , v
n+1
= (x a)
n
(V )
trong a l hng s.
(a) Tm ma trn i c s t (U) sang (V )
(b) Tm ma trn i c s t (V ) sang (U)
Gii
(a) Ta c:
v
k+1
= (x a)
k
= C
0
k
(a)
k
+ C
1
k
(a)
k1
x + . . . + C
k
k
x
k
= C
0
k
(a)
k
u
1
+ C
1
k
(a)
k1
u
2
+ . . . + C
k
k
u
k+1
+ 0u
k+2
+ . . . + 0u
n+1
ln lt cho k = 0, 1, . . . , n ta c:
T
UV
=
_
_
C
0
0
C
0
1
(a) . . . C
0
k
(a)
k
. . . C
0
n
(a)
n
0 C
1
1
. . . C
1
k
(a)
k1
. . . C
1
n
(a)
n1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . .
.
.
. . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
C
k
k
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . . 0 . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . 0 . . . C
n
n
_
_
(b) Ta c
u
k+1
= x
k
= [(x a) + a]
k
= C
0
k
a
k
+ C
1
k
a
k1
x + . . . + C
k
k
x
k
= C
0
k
a
k
v
1
+ C
1
k
a
k1
v
2
+ . . . + C
k
k
v
k+1
+ 0v
k+2
+ . . . + 0v
n+1
ln lt cho k = 0, 1, . . . , n ta c:
T
UV
=
_
_
C
0
0
C
0
1
a . . . C
0
k
a
k
. . . C
0
n
a
n
0 C
1
1
. . . C
1
k
a
k1
. . . C
1
n
a
n1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . .
.
.
. . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
C
k
k
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . . 0 . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . 0 . . . C
n
n
_
_
5
BI TP
1. Trong R
3
[x] cho cc vect:
u
1
= x
3
+ 2x
2
+ x + 1
u
2
= 2x
3
+ x
2
x + 1
u
3
= 3x
3
+ 3x
2
x + 2
Tm iu kin vect u = ax
3
+bx
2
+cx +d biu th tuyn tnh c qua h u
1
, u
2
, u
3
.
2. Trong R
3
cho cc h vect:
u
1
= (1, 2, 1), u
2
= (2, 2, 1), u
3
= (3, 2, 2) (U)
v
1
= (1, 1, 1), v
2
= (1, 1, 0), v
3
= (1, 0, 0) (V )
(a) Chng minh rng (U), (V ) l cc c s ca R
(b) Tm cc ma trn i c s t (U) sang (V ) v t (V ) sang (U)
3. Trong R
2
cho cc c s (), (), ()
Bit:
T
=
_
1 1
2 1
_
, T
=
_
3 1
2 1
_
v c s ():
1
= (1, 1),
2
= (1, 0)
Tm c s ()
4. Cho R
+
+
ta nh ngha 2 php ton
x, y R
+
x y = xy
a R
+
, x R
+
a x = x
a
Bit rng (R
+
, , ) l khng gian vect. Tm c s, s chiu ca khng gian
5. V =
__
a b
b a
_
sao cho a, b R
_
Bit rng V cng vi php cng hai ma trn v php nhn 1 s vi 1 ma trn l mt
khng gian vect. Tm c s v s chiu ca V .
1
1
nh my: NGUYN NGC QUYN, Ngy: 12/03/2005
6
I S C BN
Bi 12. Khng gian vect con
PGS TS M Vinh Quang
1 nh ngha v cc v d
1.1 nh ngha
Cho V l khng gian vect. Tp con U (khc rng) ca V gi l khng gian vect con ca
V nu cc php ton cng v php ton nhn v hng ca V thu hp trn U l cc php ton
trong U, ng thi U cng vi cc php ton lm thnh mt khng gian vect.
T nh ngha khng gian vect con, ta d dng c c kt qu di y.
1.2 Tiu chun ca khng gian vect con
Tp con U (khc rng) ca khng gian vect V l khng gian vect con ca V khi v ch
khi:
1. Vi mi , U, ta c: + U
2. Vi mi U, ta c U
Nh vy, vic kim tra tp con U ca V c l khng gian vect con hay khng kh n
gin: ta ch vic kim tra xem U c cc tnh cht 1 v 2 hay khng. Bn c c th vn dng
tiu chun trn t kim tra cc v d sau.
1.3 Cc v d
1.3.1 V d 1
Tp {0} ch gm vect-khng l khng gian vect con ca V .
Tp V cng l khng gian vect con ca V .
Cc khng gian con {0}, V gi l cc khng gian vect con tm thng ca V .
1.3.2 v d 2
A = {(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) | x
1
+x
2
+ +x
n
= 0} R
n
l khng gian con ca R
n
.
B = {(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) | x
1
+ x
2
+ + x
n
0} R
n
khng l khng gian con ca R
n
, c th
d dng kim tra B khng c tnh cht 2.
1
1.3.3 V d 3
Tp R
n
[x] gm a thc khng v cc a thc h s thc c bc n l khng gian con ca
R[x].
Tp cc a thc h s thc bc n khng l khng gian con ca R[x] v c 2 iu kin 1 v
2 u khng c tha mn.
1.3.4 V d 4
Tp T
n
(R) cc ma trn tam gic trn cp n l khng gian con ca khng gian M
n
(R) cc
ma trn vung cp n.
1.4 S chiu ca khng gian con
Lin quan n s chiu ca khng gian vect con, ta c nh l sau:
Nu U l khng gian vect con ca V th dimU dimV v dimU = dimV U = V .
Chng minh
Gi s
1
, . . . ,
m
l c s ca U;
1
, . . . ,
n
l c s ca V . V U V nn h vect () biu
th tuyn tnh c qua h (). Do theo b c bn, ta c m n, tc l dimU dimV .
Nu dimU = dimV = n th
1
, . . . ,
n
l h c lp tuyn tnh c ng n = dimV vect
nn
1
, . . . ,
n
l c s ca V . Do U = V
2 Mt s cc khng gian con
2.1 Khng gian giao v khng gian tng
Dng tiu chun khng gian vect con, ta c th d dng chng minh c cc kt qu sau:
Nu A, B l cc khng gian vect con ca V th A B l khng gian vect con ca V .
Tng qut, giao ca mt h ty cc khng gian vect con ca V l khng gian vect
con ca V .
Cho A, B l cc khng gian vect con ca V , ta nh ngha:
A +B := {x = + | A, B} V
(x A +B x = + vi A, B)
Khi , A+B l khng gian vect con ca V gi l khng gian tng ca cc khng gian
con A v B.
Lin quan n s chiu ca khng gian giao v khng gian tng ta c nh l sau.
nh l. Nu A, B l cc khng gian con ca khng gian vect V (hu hn chiu) th:
dim(A +B) = dimA + dimB dim(A +B)
Chng minh. Gi s
1
, . . . ,
r
l c s ca A B (dimA B = r). V
1
, . . . ,
r
l
h vect c lp tuyn tnh ca A nn ta c th b sung thm cc vct c h vect
1
, . . . ,
r
,
1
, . . . ,
s
l c s ca A (dimA = r +s).
Tng tc, ta c th b sung thm cc vect c h vect
1
, . . . ,
r
,
1
, . . . ,
t
l c
s ca B (dimB = r +t).
Ta chng minh h vect
1
, . . . ,
r
,
1
, . . . ,
s
,
1
, . . . ,
t
l c s ca A +B. Tht vy:
2

1
, . . . ,
r
,
1
, . . . ,
s
,
1
, . . . ,
t
l h sinh v: vi mi x A + B, ta c x = y + z vi
y A, z B.
V y A nn y = a
1
1
+ +a
r
r
+b
1
1
+ +b
s
s
V z B nn z = a
1
+ +a
r
+c
1
1
+ +c
t
t
trong a
i
, a
i
, b
j
, c
k
R.
Khi , x = (a
1
+a
1
)
1
+ + (a
r
+a
r
)
r
+b
1
1
+ +b
s
s
+c
1
1
+c
t
t
Vy h trn l h sinh ca A +B.

1
, . . . ,
r
,
1
, . . . ,
s
,
1
, . . . ,
t
l h vect c lp tuyn tnh.
Gi s a
1
1
+ +a
r
r
+b
1
1
+ +b
s
s
+c
1
1
+ +c
t
t
= 0 (1)
trong a
i
, b
j
, c
k
R.
Xt vect x = a
1
1
+ +a
r
r
+b
1
1
+ +b
s
s
= c
1
1
c
t
t
(2)
V
1
, . . . ,
r
,
1
, . . . ,
s
l c s ca A nn x A. Mt khc,
1
, . . . ,
t
B nn x B.
Do x A B. Bi vy, x = a
1
+ +a
r
(3) vi a
i
R.
T (2) v (3) ta c:
(a
1
a
1
)
1
+ + (a
r
a
r
)
r
+b
1
1
+ +b
s
s
= 0
V
1
, . . . ,
r
,
1
, . . . ,
s
c lp tuyn tnh nn b
1
= b
2
= = b
s
= 0.
Thay vo (1) ta c:
a
1
1
+ +a
r
r
+c
1
1
+ +c
t
t
= 0
Do , a
1
= = a
r
= c
1
= = c
t
= 0
Vy h trn c lp tuyn tnh
Nh vy, ta chng minh c h vect
1
, . . . ,
r
,
1
, . . . ,
s
,
1
, . . . ,
t
l c s ca A+B.
Do :
dim(A +B) = r +s +t
= (r +s) + (r +t) r
= dimA + dimB dim(A B)
2.2 Khng gian con sinh bi mt h vect
1
, . . . ,
n
l h vect ca V . Ta nh ngha:
1
, . . . ,
n
:= {x = a
1
1
+a
2
2
+ +a
n
n
| a
i
R} V
(x V Tn ti a
i
R x = a
1
1
+ +a
n
n
)
Dng tiu chun khng gian vect con, ta c ngay
1
, . . . ,
n
l khng gian vect con ca
V . Khng gian con ny gi l khng gian con ca V sinh bi h vect
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
(hay cn
gi l bao tuyn tnh ca h vect
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
).
T nh ngha, ta c:
1
, . . . ,
n
chnh l mt h sinh ca khng gian vect con
1
, . . . ,
n
.
Bi vy, mi h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h
1
, . . . ,
n
u l h sinh, do l c s
ca khng gian vect con
1
, . . . ,
n
.
3
2.3 Khng gian con cc nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh
thun nht
Cho h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht m phng trnh, n n.
_
_
a
11
x
1
+a
12
x
2
+ +a
1n
x
n
= 0
.
.
.
a
m1
x
1
+a
m2
x
2
+ +a
mn
x
n
= 0
(I)
Mi nghim ca h (I) c th xem l mt vect trong khng gian R
n
. Dng tiu chun
khng gian vect con c th d dng chng minh tp nghim N ca h phng trnh tuyn
tnh thun nht (I) l khng gian vect con ca R
n
. Khng gian con ny gi l khng gian con
cc nghim ca h (I).
Nu ta k hiu r = rank A th s chiu ca khng gian con cc nghim ca h (I): dimN =
n r. C s ca khng gian nghim N ca h (I) ta gi l h nghim c bn ca h (I).
tm h nghim c bn ca h (I) (c s ca khng gian nghim N), ta lm nh sau:
Gii h phng trnh (I), h c nghim tng qut ph thuc n r tham s.
Gi s cc tham s l x
i
1
, . . . , x
i
nr
.
Cho x
i
1
= 1, x
i
2
= 0, . . . , x
i
nr
= 0, tc l (x
i
1
, x
i
2
, . . . , x
i
nr
) = (1, 0, . . . , 0). Tnh cc x
i
cn li theo cng thc nghim tng qut, ta s c mt nghim ca h (I) k hiu l
1
.
Tng t vi (x
i
1
, x
i
2
, x
i
3
, . . . , x
i
nr
) = (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0) . . . (x
i
1
, x
i
2
, . . . , x
i
nr
) = (0, 0, . . . , 1),
ta s thu c cc nghim
2
, . . . ,
nr
.
Khi ,
1
,
2
, . . . ,
nr
l c s ca N (l h nghim c bn ca h (I)).
Bn c s thy r qu trnh trn thng qua v d c th sau:
V d. Tm c s ca khng gian nghim N ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht
_
_
x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 2x
4
+x
5
= 0
2x
1
+ 4x
2
+x
3
+ 3x
4
= 0
3x
1
+ 6x
2
+ 2x
3
+ 3x
4
+x
5
= 0
x
1
+ 2x
2
+x
3
+x
5
= 0
Gii. u tin ta gii h cho.
Bin i ma trn cc h s m rng:
A =
_
_
1 2 0 2 1
2 4 1 3 0
3 6 2 3 1
1 2 1 0 1
0
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
1 2 0 2 1
0 0 1 1 2
0 0 2 3 2
0 0 1 2 0
0
0
0
0
_
_
1 2 0 2 1
0 0 1 1 2
0 0 0 1 2
0 0 0 1 2
0
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
1
2 0 2 1
0 0 1
1 2
0 0 0 1
2
0 0 0 0 0
0
0
0
0
_
_
rank A = 3, h c v s nghim ph thuc hai tham s l x
2
, x
5
. Ta c:
x
4
= 2x
5
x
3
= x
4
+ 2x
5
= 4x
5
x
1
= 2x
2
2x
4
x
5
= 2x
2
5x
5
4
Vy nghim tng qut ca h l:
_
_
x
1
= 2x
2
5x
5
x
3
= 4x
5
x
4
= 2x
5
x
2
, x
5
ty
Chn x
2
= 1, x
5
= 0, ta s c x
1
= 2, x
3
= 0, x
4
= 0, ta c vect
1
= (2, 1, 0, 0, 0).
Chn x
2
= 0, x
5
= 1, ta s c x
1
= 5, x
3
= 4, x
4
= 2, ta c vect
2
= (5, 0, 4, 2, 1).
Vy c s ca khng gian nghim N ca h trn l h {
1
,
2
}, N =
1
,
2
, dimN = 2.
2.4 Mt vi nhn xt
Cho A v B l cc khng gian vect con ca V . Nu A =
1
, . . . ,
m
, B =
1
, . . . ,
n
th A +B =
1
, . . . ,
m
,
1
, . . . ,
n
.
Tht vy, v A A + B, B A + B nn cc vect
i
,
j
A + B, v do ta c
1
, . . . ,
m
,
1
, . . . ,
n
A +B
Ngc li, nu x A + B th x = y + z trong y A, z B. Ta c y A nn
y = a
1
1
+ +a
m
m
, ng thi z B nn z = b
1
1
+ +b
n
n
, vi a
i
, b
j
R.
Bi vy, x = y +z = a
1
1
+ +a
m
m
+b
1
1
+ +b
n
n
A +B.
T nhn xt trn ta c ch sau:
Nu A =
1
, . . . ,
m
, B =
1
, . . . ,
n
th
1
, . . . ,
m
,
1
, . . . ,
n
l mt h sinh ca A+B
v do h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h vect
1
, . . . ,
m
,
1
, . . . ,
n
l c s ca A+B.
* Nu A l khng gian vect con ca khng gian vect hu hn chiu V th A lun c th
vit di dng A =
1
, . . . ,
m
.
Tht vy, gi s
1
, . . . ,
m
l mt c s (hoc h sinh) bt k ca A th ta c ngay
A =
1
, . . . ,
m
.
* Nu A l khng gian vect con ca khng gian R
n
th A c th xem nh khng gian
nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht c n n no .
Tht vy, gi s
1
, . . . ,
m
l c s ca A th A =
1
, . . . ,
m
. Vect x = (a
1
, . . . , a
n
) A
khi v ch khi phng trnh vect x = x
1
1
+ +x
m
m
(x
i
R) c nghim, khi v ch khi
x = (a
1
, . . . , a
n
) l nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht no . Bn c c th
thy r iu ny qua v d sau.
V d. Trong R
4
cho cc vect
1
= (1, 1, 0, 1),
2
= (1, 1, 1, 0),
3
= (2, 0, 1, 1) v cho
khng gian con A =
1
,
2
,
3
.
Tm mt iu kin cn v vect x = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) A.
Gii. Vect x A khi v ch khi phng trnh (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) = x
1
1
+ x
2
2
+ x
3
3
c
nghim, ngha l h phng trnh
_
_
1 1 2
1 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
4
_
_
()
c nghim.
Bin i h (*):
5
()
_
_
1 1 2
0 2 2
0 1 1
0 1 1
a
1
a
1
+a
2
a
3
a
1
+a
4
_
_

_
_
1 1 2
0 2 2
0 0 0
0 0 0
a
1
a
3
a
1
+a
2
2a
3
a
1
+a
3
+a
4
_
_
H (*) c nghim khi v ch khi
_
a
1
+a
2
2a
3
= 0
a
1
+a
3
+a
4
= 0
Do , iu kin cn v vect x = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) A l:
_
a
1
+a
2
2a
3
= 0
a
1
+a
3
+a
4
= 0
V do , A chnh l khng gian nghim ca h phng trnh:
_
x
1
+x
2
2x
3
= 0
x
1
+x
3
+x
4
= 0
6
Bi tp
13. Cho A, B l cc khng gian vect con ca khng gian vect V . Chng minh rng A B
l khng gian vect con ca V khi v ch khi A B hoc B A.
14. Cho V l khng gian vect v A l khng gian vect con ca V . Chng minh rng tn
ti khng gian vect con B ca V sao cho A +B = V , A B = {0}.
15. Trong R
4
cho cc vect: u
1
= (1, 1, 0, 0), u
2
= (1, 1, 1, 1), u
3
= (0, 1, 0, 1), u
4
=
(1, 2, 1, 2) v E = u
1
, u
2
, u
3
, u
4
.
(a) Tm mt c s v s chiu ca E.
(b) Tm mt iu kin cn v vect x = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) E.
(c) Cho vect v
1
= (1, a
3
, a, 1), v
2
= (1, b, b
3
, 1), v
3
= (ab + 1, ab, 0, 1). Tm a, b v
1
,
v
2
, v
3
l c s ca E.
16. Trong R
4
cho cc khng gian con:
U = (2, 0, 1, 1), (1, 1, 1, 1), (0, 2, 1, 1)
V =
_
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
)
_
x
1
x
3
x
4
= 0
x
2
x
3
+x
4
= 0
_
(a) Tm c s, s chiu ca cc khng gian vect U, V , U +V .
(b) Tm c s, s chiu ca khng gian vect con U V .
17. Cho U l khng gian vect con ca V . Bit rng dimU = m < dimV = n. Chng minh:
(a) C c s ca V khng cha vect no ca U.
(b) C c s ca V cha ng k vect ca U (0 k m).
18. Cho A, B l cc ma trn cp mn (A, B M
mn
(R)). Chng minh:
rank(A +B) rank A + rank B
7
I S C BN
Bi 13. Bi tp v khng gian vct
PGS TS M Vinh Quang
1. Xt xem R
2
c l khng gian vct hay khng vi php cng v php nhn v hng sau:
(a
1
, a
2
) + (b
1
, b
2
) = (a
1
+ b
1
, a
2
+ b
2
)
a
(a
1
, a
2
) = (aa
1
, 0)
Gii. Bn c c th kim tra trc tip rng 7 iu kin u ca khng gian vct u
tha mn, ring iu kin th 8 khng tha mn v vi = (1, 1), khi : 1
= 1
(1, 1) =
(1, 0) = .
Vy R
2
vi cc php ton trn khng l khng gian vct v khng tha mn iu kin
8.
2. Chng minh rng mt khng gian vct hoc ch c mt vct, hoc c v s vct.
Gii. Gi s V l khng gian vct v V c nhiu hn 1 vct, ta chng minh V cha
v s vct. Tht vy, v V c nhiu hn mt vct nn tn ti vct V , = 0. Khi
, V cha cc vct a vi a R. Mt khc:
a, b R, a = b (a b) = 0
a b = 0 ( v = 0)
a = b
Bi vy c v s cc vct dng a, a R, do V cha v s vct.
3. Xt s LTT, PTTT. Tm hng v h con LTT ti i ca cc h vct sau:
a
1
= (1, 0, 1, 0),
2
= (1, 2, 1, 1),
3
= (3, 2, 3, 2),
4
= (1, 1, 2, 1)
b
1
= (1, 0, 0, 1),
2
= (2, 1, 1, 0),
3
= (1, 1, 1, 1),
4
= (1, 2, 3, 4),
5
= (0, 1, 2, 3).
Gii. a. Lp ma trn A tng ng v tm hng ca ma trn A:
1
A =
_
_
1 0 1 0
1 2 1 1
3 2 3 2
1 1 2 1
_
_

_
_
1 0 1 0
0 2 2 1
0 2 6 2
0 1 3 1
_
_

_
_
1 0 1 0
0 1 3 1
0 2 2 1
0 2 6 2
_
_
1 0 1 0
0 1 3 1
0 0 4 1
0 0 0 0
_
_
Vy rankA = 3, t hn s vct, nn h trn l h PTTT. V 3 dng khc khng ca
ma trn ng vi cc vct
1
,
4
,
2
, nn h con LTT ti i ca
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
l
1
,
4
,
2
v rank{
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
} = 3.
b. Gii tng t cu a., bn c t gii.
4. Cho h vct
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
LTT trong khng gian vct V . Chng minh
a. H vct
1
=
1
,
2
=
1
+
2
, . . .,
m
=
1
+
2
+ . . . +
m
cng LTT.
b. H vct:
1
= a
11
1
+ . . . +a
1m
2
= a
21
1
+ . . . +a
2m
m
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
m
= a
m1
1
+ . . . +a
mm
m
LTT khi v ch khi detA = 0, trong
A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1m
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2m
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mm
_
_
Gii. a. Gi s b
1
1
+ b
2
2
+ . . . + b
m
m
= 0 vi b
i
R
b
1
1
+ b
2
(
1
+
2
) + . . . + b
m
(
1
+ . . . +
m
) = 0
(b
1
+ . . . + b
m
)
1
+ (b
2
+ . . . + b
m
)
2
+ . . . + b
m
m
= 0
V
1
, . . . ,
m
LTT nn ta c:
_
_
b
1
+ b
2
+ . . . +b
m1
+b
m
= 0
b
2
+ . . . +b
m1
+b
m
= 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
b
m1
+b
m
= 0
b
m
= 0
Suy ngc t di ln, ta c: b
m
= b
m1
= . . . = b
1
= 0.
Vy
1
, . . . ,
m
LTT.
b Gi s c
1
1
+ c
2
2
+ . . . + c
m
m
= 0 vi c
j
R
(a
11
c
1
+a21c
2
+. . . +a
m1
c
m
)
1
+(a
12
c
1
+a
22
c
2
+. . . +a
m2
c
m
)
2
+. . . +(a
1m
c
1
+
a
2m
c
2
+ . . . + a
mm
c
m
)
m
= 0
2
_
a
11
c
1
+ a
21
c
2
+ . . . + a
m1
c
m
= 0
a
12
c
1
+ a
22
c
2
+ . . . + a
m2
c
m
= 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
1m
c
1
+ a
2m
c
2
+ . . . + a
mm
c
m
= 0
() H vct
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
LTT khi v ch khi h phng trnh tuyn tnh () c nghim duy nht (0, 0, . . . , 0)
khi v ch khi ma trn cc h s ca h () khng suy bin khi v ch khi detA = 0.
5. H vct
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
biu th tuyn tnh c qua h vct
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
. Chng minh
rank{
1
, . . . ,
m
} rank{
1
, . . . ,
n
}.
Gii. Gi s
i
1
, . . . ,
i
k
v
j
1
, . . . ,
j
l
ln lt l h con LTT ti i ca cc h vct
1
, . . . ,
m
v
1
, . . . ,
n
. V h
1
, . . . ,
m
biu th tuyn tnh c qua h
1
, . . . ,
n
nn
h
i
1
, . . . ,
i
k
j
1
, . . . ,
j
l
, mt khc h
i
1
, . . . ,
i
k
c lp
tuyn tnh nn theo B c bn ta c k l tc l rank{
1
, . . . ,
m
} rank{
1
, . . . ,
n
}.
6. Cho 2 h vct cng hng, h u biu th tuyn tnh c qua h sau. Chng minh 2 h
vct tng ng.
Gii. Gi s
1
, . . . ,
m
(),
1
, . . . ,
n
() tha mn ra. V hai h vct cng hng
nn ta c th gi s rank() = rank() = k, ng thi
i
1
, . . . ,
i
k
v
j
1
, . . . ,
j
k
ln
lt l h con LTT ti i ca cc h vct () v (). V h () biu th tuyn tnh
c qua h () nn h
i
1
, . . . ,
i
k
j
1
, . . . ,
j
k
, li do h
i
1
, . . . ,
i
k
LTT nn theo B c bn, ta c th thay k vct
i
1
, . . . ,
i
k
, cho k vct
j
1
, . . . ,
j
k
c h vct mi
i
1
, . . . ,
i
k
tng ng vi h vct
j
1
, . . . ,
j
k
, tc l
i
1
, . . . ,
i
k
tng ng vi
j
1
, . . . ,
j
k
. Mt khc,
i
1
, . . . ,
i
k
tng ng vi h (),
j
1
, . . . ,
j
k
tng ng vi h (), do ta c h () tng ng vi h ().
7. Trong R
4
cho h vct
u
1
= (1, 1, 1, 1), u
2
= (2, 3, 1, 0), u
3
= (1, 1, 1, 1)
Tm iu kin cn v h vct u = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) biu th tuyn tnh c qua h
u
1
, u
2
, u
3
.
Gii. Vct u biu th tuyn tnh c qua h u
1
, u
2
, u
3
khi v ch khi phng trnh
u = y
1
u
1
+ y
2
u
2
+ y
3
u
3
c nghim khi v ch khi h sau c nghim:
_
_
1 2 1 x
1
1 3 1 x
2
1 1 1 x
3
1 0 1 x
4
_
_

_
_
1 2 1 x
1
0 1 0 x
1
+ x
2
0 3 2 x
1
+ x
3
0 3 2 x
1
+ x
4
_
_
1 2 1 x
1
0 1 0 x
1
+ x
2
0 0 2 4x
1
+ 3x
2
+ x
3
0 0 2 3x
1
+ 2x
2
+ x
4
_
_

_
_
1 2 1 x
1
0 1 0 x
1
+ x
2
0 0 2 4x
1
+ 3x
2
+ x
3
0 0 0 x
1
x
2
x
3
+ x
4
_
_
Do h c nghim khi v ch khi x
1
x
2
x
3
+x
4
= 0. Bi vy vct u = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
)
biu th tuyn tnh c qua u
1
, u
2
, u
3
khi v ch khi x
1
x
2
x
3
+ x
4
= 0.
3
8. Trong R
3
[x] cho cc h vct:
u
1
= x
3
+ 2x
2
+ x + 1
u
2
= 2x
3
+ x
2
x + 1
u
3
= 3x
3
+ 3x
2
x + 2
Tm iu kin vct u = ax
3
+bx
2
+cx +d biu th tuyn tnh c qua h u
1
, u
2
, u
3
.
Gii. Cch gii bi ny tng t nh bi tp 7. Chi tit cch gii xin dnh cho bn
c.
9. Trong R
3
cho cc h vct:
u
1
= (1, 2, 1), u
2
= (2, 2, 1), u
3
= (3, 2, 2) (U)
v
1
= (1, 1, 1), u
2
= (1, 1, 0), v
3
= (1, 0, 0) (V )
a. Chng minh (U), (V ) l c s ca R
3
b. Tm cc ma trn i c s t (U) sang (V ) v t (V ) sang (U).
Gii. a. Lp ma trn U m cc dng ca U l cc vct u
1
, u
2
, u
3
U =
_
_
1 2 1
2 2 1
3 2 2
_
_
, ta c detU = 2 = 0.
Do h vct u
1
, u
2
, u
3
c lp tuyn tnh v dimR
3
= 3 nn u
1
, u
2
, u
3
l c s ca
R
3
. Tng t v
1
, v
2
, v
3
l c s ca R
3
.
b. Gii tng t nh v d 1, bi 11, sau y l chi tit cch gii:
tm ma trn T
UV
ta gii 3 h sau:
_
_
1 2 3 1 1 1
2 2 2 1 1 0
1 1 2 1 0 0
_
_

_
_
1 2 3 1 1 1
0 6 4 1 1 2
0 1 1 0 1 1
_
_
_
_
1 2 3 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 1
0 6 4 1 1 2
_
_

_
_
1 2 3 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 2 1 5 4
_
_
H 1: a
3
=
1
2
, a
2
= a
3
=
1
2
, a
1
= 1 2a
2
3a
3
=
3
2
H 2: b
3
=
5
2
, b
2
= 1 a
3
=
3
2
, b
1
= 1 2b
2
3b
3
=
7
2
H 3: c
3
= 2, c
2
= 1 c
3
= 1, c
1
= 1 2c
2
c
3
= 3
Vy T
UV
=
_
_
a
1
b
1
c
1
a
2
b
2
c
2
a
3
b
3
c
3
_
_
=
_
_
3
2
7
2
3
1
2
3
2
1
1
2
5
2
2
_
_
Vic tm ma trn T
V U
xin dnh cho bn c.
10. Trong R
2
cho cc c s (), (), (). Bit T
=
_
1 1
2 1
_
, T
=
_
3 1
2 1
_
v c s
() :
1
= (1, 1),
2
= (1, 0). Tm c s ().
4
Gii. u tin ta tm c s ():
Do T
=
_
3 1
2 1
_
nn
1
= 3
1
+ 2
2
= (5, 3),
2
=
1
+
2
= (2, 1). Mt khc ta c
T
=
_
1 1
2 1
_
nn T
= T
1
=
_
1 1
2 1
_
do :
1
=
1
+ 2
2
= (1, 1)
2
=
1

2
= (3, 2)
Vy c s () =
1
= (1, 1),
2
= (3, 2).
11. Cho R
+
+
ta nh ngha 2 php ton
(a) x, y R
+
: x y = xy
(b) a R, x R
+
: a x = x
a
Bit rng, (R
+
, , ) l KGVT. Tm c s, s chiu ca KGVT R
+
.
Gii. Vi mi vct x R
+
ta c:
x 1 = x.1 = x do vct khng trong KGVT R
+
l 1.
Vi mi vc t R
+
, khc vct khng (tc l = 1) ta chng minh {} l h
sinh ca R
+
. Tht vy x R
+
ta c: x =
log
x
= (log
x) = a trong
a = log
x R. Vy x lun biu th tuyn tnh c qua h gm 1 vct {}.

Mt khc v khc vct khng nn h {} l h vct c lp tuyn tnh. Vy dim
R
+
= 1 v c s ca R
+
l h gm 1 vct {} vi l s thc dng, khc 1.
12. Cho V =
__
a b
b a
_
, a, b R
_
bit rng V cng vi php cng 2 ma trn v php nhn 1 s vi ma trn l KGVT.
Tm c s, s chiu ca V .
Gii. Xt 2 vct trong V :
A
1
=
_
1 0
0 1
_
, A
2
=
_
0 1
1 0
_
Khi , vi mi vct X =
_
a b
b a
_
V ta lun c X = a.A
1
+ b.A
2
. Vy {A
1
, A
2
} l
1 h sinh ca V .
Mt khc, vi mi a, b R ta c
a.A
1
+ b.A
2
= 0 a.A
1
+ b.A
2
=
_
0 0
0 0
_

_
a b
b a
_
=
_
0 0
0 0
_
a = 0, b = 0
do h vct {A
1
, A
2
} c lp tuyn tnh.
Vy {A
1
, A
2
} l c s ca V v dim V = 2
1
1
nh my: LM HU PHC, Ngy: 15/02/2006
5
I S C BN
Bi 14. Bi tp v khng gian vct (tip theo)
PGS TS M Vinh Quang
13. Cho A, B l cc KGVT con ca KGVT V . Chng minh rng A B l KGVT con ca
KGVT V khi v ch khi A B hoc B A.
Gii. Nu A B hoc B A th A B = B hoc A B = A nn A B l KGVT con
ca V .
Ngc li, gi s A B l KGVT con ca V nhng A B v B A. Khi tn
ti x A, x B v y B, y A. Ta chng minh x + y A B. Tht vy, nu
z = x +y AB th z A, hoc z B, do y = z x A hoc x = z y B. iu
ny tri vi cch chn x, y. Vy x + y A B. Nh vy, tn ti x, y A B nhng
x +y A B, do A B khng l KGVT con ca V (!). Mu thun chng t A B
hoc B A.
14. Cho V l KGVT, A l KGVT con ca V . Chng minh tn ti KGVT con B ca V sao
cho A +B = V v A B = {0}
Gii. Gi s
1
, . . . ,
k
l mt c s trong A, khi
1
, . . . ,
k
l h vct c lp tuyn
tnh trong V , do ta c th b sung thm cc vct, c h vct
1
, . . . ,
k
,
k+1
, . . . ,
n
l c s ca V . t B =
k+1
, . . . ,
n
. Khi , v A =
1
, . . . ,
k
nn A + B =
1
, . . . ,
k
,
k+1
, . . . ,
n
= V . Mt khc, nu x A B, th tn ti cc s a
i
, b
j
R
sao cho
x = a
1
1
+. . . +a
k
k
v x = b
k+1
k+1
+. . . +b
n
n
do a
1
1
+. . . +a
k
k
b
k+1
k+1
. . . b
n
n
= 0, v h vct {
1
, . . . ,
n
} LTT nn
a
i
= 0, b
j
= 0, do x = 0. Vy, A B = {0}.
15. Trong R
4
cho cc vct: u
1
= (1, 1, 0, 0), u
2
= (1, 1, 1, 1), u
3
= (0, 1, 0, 1), u
4
=
(1, 2, 1, 2) v E = u
1
, u
2
, u
3
, u
4
.
a. Tm c s, s chiu ca E.
b. Tm mt iu kin cn v vct x = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) E.
c Cho v
1
= (1, a
3
, a, 1), v
2
= (1, b, b
3
, 1), v
3
= (ab + 1, ab, 0, 1). Tm a, b v
1
, v
2
, v
3
l
c s ca E.
1
Gii. a. tm c s, s chiu ca E, ta tm h con LTT ti i ca h sinh u
1
, u
2
, u
3
, u
4
ca E. Lp v bin i ma trn:
A =
_
_
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1
1 2 1 2
_
_
1
2
3
4
_
1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 2
_
_
1
2
3
4
_
1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 1 2
_
_
1
2
3
4
_
1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1
_
_
1
2
3
4
_
1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0
_
_
1
2
3
4
Ma trn bc thang sau cng bc 3, v 3 dng khc khng ng vi cc vct u
1
, u
3
, u
2
.
Do , dimE = 3 v c s ca E l h {u
1
, u
2
, u
3
} v E = u
1
, u
2
, u
3
.
b. x = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) E khi v ch khi phng trnh vct x = x
1
1
+ x
2
2
+ x
3
3
c
nghim. Phng trnh vct trn tng ng vi h sau:
_
_
1 1 0 a
1
1 1 1 a
2
0 1 0 a
3
0 1 1 a
4
_
_

_
_
1 1 0 a
1
0 0 1 a
1
+a
2
0 1 0 a
3
0 1 1 a
4
_
_
1 1 0 a
1
0 1 0 a
3
0 0 1 a
1
+a
2
0 1 1 a
4
_
_

_
_
1 1 0 a
1
0 1 0 a
3
0 0 1 a
1
+a
2
0 0 1 a
3
+a
4
_
_
1 1 0 a
1
0 1 0 a
3
0 0 1 a
1
+a
2
0 0 0 a
1
+a
2
a
3
+a
4
_
_
Nh vy, h c nghim khi v ch khi a
1
+a
2
a
3
+a
4
= 0.
Vy x = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) E a
1
+a
3
= a
2
+a
4
.
c. V dimE = 3 nn {v
1
, v
2
, v
3
} l c s ca E khi v ch khi v
1
, v
2
, v
3
E v
{v
1
, v
2
, v
3
} LTT. Do cu b., v
1
E 1 +a = a
3
+1 a = 0, 1, 1, v
2
E
1 +b
3
= 1 +b b = 0, 1, 1. Xt cc trng hp c th xy ra:
a = 0 hoc b = 0, khi v
1
= v
2
hoc v
2
= v
3
, h {v
1
, v
2
, v
3
} ph thuc tuyn
tnh nn khng l c s ca E.
a = b th v
1
= v
2
nn h {v
1
, v
2
, v
3
} khng l c s ca E.
Cn li 2 kh nng l a = 1, b = 1 hoc a = 1, b = 1, kim tra trc tip ta
thy h {v
1
, v
2
, v
3
} LTT, do l c s ca E.
16. Trong R
4
cho cc KGVT con
U = (2, 0, 1, 1), (1, 1, 1, 1), (0, 2, 1, 1)
V =
_
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
)
x
1
x
3
x
4
= 0
x
2
x
3
+x
4
= 0
_
2
a. Tm c s, s chiu ca cc KGVT con U, V, U +V .
b. Tm c s, s chiu ca KGVT con U V
Gii. a. D thy c s ca U l cc vct
1
= (2, 0, 1, 1),
2
= (1, 1, 1, 1) v do
U =
1
,
2
.
Khng gian con V chnh l khng gian nghim ca h
_
x
1
x
3
x
4
= 0
x
2
x
3
+x
4
= 0
,
bi vy c s ca V l h nghim c bn ca h trn. H trn c v s nghim
ph thuc 2 tham s x
3
, x
4
. Nghim tng qut l
_
x
1
= x
3
+x
4
x
2
= x
3
x
4
, do h
nghim c bn l:
1
= (1, 1, 1, 0),
2
= (1, 1, 0, 1). Vy, c s ca V l
1
,
2
v dimV = 2, V =
1
,
2
.
V U =
1
,
2
, V =
1
,
2
nn U + V =
1
,
2
,
1
,
2
, do h con c
lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h {
1
,
2
,
1
,
2
} l c s ca U +V . Tnh ton trc
tip ta c kt qu dim(U +V ) = 3 v {
1
,
2
,
1
} l mt c s ca U +V .
b. tm c s ca UV , ta cn tm iu kin cn v vct x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) U.
Tng t bi tp 15., x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) U khi v ch khi phng trnh vct
x = a
1
1
+a
2
2
c nghim, phng trnh ny tng ng vi h sau:
_
_
2 1 x
1
0 1 x
2
1 1 x
3
1 1 x
4
_
_

_
_
1 1 x
4
0 1 x
2
1 1 x
3
2 1 x
1
_
_
1 1 x
4
0 1 x
2
0 0 x
4
+x
3
0 1 x
1
2x
4
_
_

_
_
1 1 x
4
0 1 x
2
0 0 x
3
x
4
0 0 x
1
+x
2
2x
4
_
_
Vy vct x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) U
_
x
3
x
4
= 0
x
1
+x
2
2x
4
= 0
.
Do , (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) U V
_
_
x
3
x
4
= 0
x
1
+x
2
2x
4
= 0
x
1
x
3
x
4
= 0
x
2
x
3
+x
4
= 0
()
Nh vy U V chnh l khng gian nghim ca h () v do c s ca U V
chnh l h nghim c bn ca h (). Vic gii v tm h nghim c bn ca h ()
xin dnh cho bn c. Kt qu h nghim c bn ca () l vct = (2, 0, 1, 1), do
dim(U V ) = 1. C s ca U V l vct .
17. Cho U l khng gian vct con ca V . Bit dimU = m < dimV = n. Chng minh
a. C c s ca V khng cha vct no ca U.
b. C c s ca V cha ng k vct c lp tuyn tnh ca U. (0 k m).
Gii. a. u tin ta chng minh c c s ca V cha ng m vct ca U. Tht vy,
gi s
1
, . . . ,
m
l c s ca U,
1
, . . . ,
n
l c s ca V . V
1
, . . . ,
m
LTT v
1
, . . . ,
n
nn theo b c bn v h vct LTT
ta c th thay m vct
1
, . . . ,
m
cho m vct ca h
1
, . . . ,
n
c h mi l
3
h
1
, . . . ,
m
,
m+1
, . . . ,
n
() tng ng vi h (). V () l c s ca V nn h
() cng l c s ca V . C s () c ng m vct thuc U l
1
, . . . ,
m
. Tht vy,
nu c
k
U (k = m + 1, . . . , n) th
k
biu th tuyn tnh c qua
1
, . . . ,
m
,
do h
1
, . . . ,
m
,
m+1
, . . . ,
n
PTTT, tri vi h () l c s ca V .
Tip tc ta chng minh c c s ca V khng cha vct no ca U:
V h vct () LTT nn bng cch kim tra trc tip, ta c h
1
+
1
,
2
+
2
, . . . ,
m
+
n
,
m+1
, . . . ,
n
cng l h LTT, do l c s ca V . V
i

U,
n
U nn
i
+
n
U, do h vct trn chnh l c s ca V khng cha
vct no ca U.
b. Gi s v
1
, . . . , v
n
l c s ca V khng cha vct no ca U v gi s u
1
, . . . , u
k
l h
vct LTT ca U. V u
1
, . . . , u
k
biu th tuyn tnh c qua v
1
, . . . , v
n
nn theo
b c bn v h vct LTT, ta c th thay k vct u
1
, . . . , u
k
cho k vct ca
h v
1
, . . . , v
n
c h mi u
1
, . . . , u
k
, v
k+1
, . . . , v
n
chnh l c s ca V cha ng
k vct ca U.
18. Cho A, B l cc ma trn cp mn. (A, B M
mn
(R). Chng minh
rank(A+B) rankA+ rankB
Gii. Gi s A =
_
_
a
11
. . . a
1n
a
21
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
. . . a
mn
_
_
; B =
_
_
b
11
. . . b
1n
b
21
. . . b
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
b
m1
. . . b
mn
_
_
.
Ta t
1
= (a
11
, . . . , a
1n
),
2
= (a
21
, . . . , a
2n
), . . . ,
m
= (a
m1
, . . . , a
mn
) l cc vct dng
ca A, khi rankA = rank{
1
, . . . ,
m
}.
Tng t ta t:
1
= (b
11
, . . . , b
1n
),
2
= (b
21
, . . . , b
2n
), . . . ,
m
= (b
m1
, . . . , b
mn
) l cc
vct dng ca B, khi rankB = rank{
1
, . . . ,
m
}.
Cc vct dng ca ma trn A+Bchnh l cc vct
1
+
1
, . . . ,
m
+
m
v rank(A+B) =
rank{
1
+
1
,
2
+
2
, . . . ,
m
+
m
}. Vy ta cn chng minh:
rank{
1
+
1
, . . . ,
m
+
m
} rank{
1
, . . . ,
m
} + rank{
1
, . . . ,
m
}
Gi s
i
1
, . . . ,
i
k
l h con LTT ti i ca h
1
, . . . ,
m
(do , rank{
1
, . . . ,
m
} =
k) v
j
1
, . . . ,
j
l
l h con LTT ti i ca h
1
, . . . ,
m
(do rank{
1
, . . . ,
m
} = l).
Khi v
i
i
1
, . . . ,
j
k
v
j
biu th tuyn tnh c qua
h
j
1
, . . . ,
j
l
nn
i
+
i
i
1
, . . . ,
i
k
,
j
1
, . . . ,
j
l
tc l h vct
1
+
1
,
2
+
2
, . . . ,
m
+
m
i
1
, . . . ,
i
k
,
j
1
, . . . ,
j
l
. Do , theo bi tp 5, ta c:
rank{
1
+
1
, . . . ,
m
+
m
} rank{
i
1
, . . . ,
i
k
,
j
1
, . . . ,
j
l
}
k +l = rank{
1
, . . . ,
m
} + rank{
1
, . . . ,
m
}
Vy rank{
1
+
1
, . . . ,
m
+
m
} rank{
1
, . . . ,
m
} + rank{
1
, . . . ,
m
}, tc l
rank(A+B) rankA+ rankB
1
1
4
I S C BN
Bi 15. nh x tuyn tnh
PGS TS M Vinh Quang
1 nh ngha v v d
1.1 nh ngha
Cho V v U l hai khng gian vct, nh x f : V U l nh x tuyn tnh nu f tha mn
2 tnh cht sau:
(i) Vi mi , V : f( + ) = f() + f()
(ii) Vi mi a R, V : f(a) = af()
Mt nh x tuyn tnh f : V V gi l mt php bin i tuyn tnh ca V .
Nh vy, kim tra nh x f : V U c l nh x tuyn tnh khng, ta cn phi kim
tra f c cc tnh cht (i) v (ii) khng. Bn c c th d dng t kim tra cc v d sau:
1.2 Cc v d
V d 1. nh x khng:
0 : V U
0() = 0
l nh x tuyn tnh.
V d 2. nh x ng nht:
i
d
: V V
i
d
() =
l nh x tuyn tnh.
V d 3. nh x o hm:
: R[x] R[x]
f(x) (f) = f
(x)
l nh x tuyn tnh.
1
V d 4. Php chiu
p : R
3
R
2
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) p(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (x
1
, x
2
)
l nh x tuyn tnh.
Dng tng qut ca mt nh x tuyn tnh f : R
m
R
n
c cho trong bi tp 1.
2 Cc tnh cht c bn ca nh x tuyn tnh
Cho U, V l cc khng gian vct, v f : V U l nh x tuyn tnh. Khi :
a. f(0
V
) = 0
U
, f() = f()
b. Vi mi a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
R,
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
V ta c
f(a
1
1
+ a
2
2
+ . . . + a
n
n
) = a
1
f(
1
) + a
2
f(
2
) + . . . + a
n
f(
n
)
c. nh x tuyn tnh bin h PTTT thnh h PTTT. Tc l nu
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
l h PTTT
trong V th f(
1
), f(
2
), . . . , f(
n
) l h PTTT trong U.
Tht vy, nu
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
l h PTTT th tn ti a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
R khng ng thi
bng khng sao cho a
1
1
+a
2
2
+. . . +a
n
n
= 0. Do f(a
1
1
+a
2
2
+. . . +a
n
n
) = f(0)
suy ra a
1
f(
1
) + a
2
f(
2
) + . . . + a
n
f(
n
) = 0 m a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
khng ng thi bng
khng nn f(
1
), f(
2
), . . . , f(
n
) PTTT.
d. nh x tuyn tnh khng lm tng hng ca mt h vct, tc l vi mi
1
, . . . ,
n
V
rank{
1
, . . . ,
n
} rank{f(
1
), . . . , f(
n
)}.
Tht vy, gi s f(
i
1
, . . . , f(
i
k
) l mt h con LTT ti i ca h {f(
1
), . . . , f(
n
)}
(do rank{f(
1
), . . . , f(
n
)} = k), theo tnh cht c., h vct
i
1
, . . . ,
i
k
LTT, do
h con LTT ti i ca h
1
, . . . ,
n
c khng t hn k vct, tc l rank{
1
, . . . ,
n
} k
= rank{f(
1
), . . . , f(
n
)}.
3 nh l c bn v s xc nh ca nh x tuyn tnh
nh l 3.1. Cho V l khng gian vct n chiu ( dimV = n),
1
, . . . ,
n
() l c s ty
ca V , U l khng gian vct ty v
1
, . . . ,
n
l h vct ty ca U. Khi tn ti duy
nht mt nh x tuyn tnh f : V U tha mn f(
i
) =
i
vi mi i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Chng minh. Tnh duy nht. Gi s c 2 nh x tuyn tnh f, g : V U tha mn iu
kin ca nh l. Khi vi mi x V x = a
1
1
+ . . . + a
n
n
, ta c
f(x) = f(a
1
1
+ . . . + a
n
n
)
= a
1
f(
1
) + . . . + a
n
f(
n
)
= a
1
g(
1
) + . . . + a
n
g(
n
)
= g(a
1
1
+ . . . + a
n
n
) = g(x)
Vy f = g.
2
S tn ti. Vi mi x V , x = a
1
1
+. . . +a
n
n
, ta nh ngha nh x f : V U, nh sau:
f(x) = a
1
1
+. . . +a
n
n
. R rng f l nh x tuyn tnh tha mn iu kin ca nh l.
T nh l ny, ta thy rng mt nh x tuyn tnh hon ton c xc nh khi bit nh
ca mt c s, v cho mt nh x tuyn tnh, ta ch cn cho nh ca mt c s l .
4 Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh
4.1 nh ngha v v d
Cho V v U l cc khng gian vct,
1
, . . . ,
n
() l c s ca V ,
1
, . . . ,
m
() l c s ca
U. V f(
i
) U nn f(
i
) biu th tuyn tnh c qua c s () nn ta c:
f(
1
) = a
11
1
+ a
12
2
+ . . . + a
1m
m
f(
2
) = a
21
1
+ a
22
2
+ . . . + a
2m
m

f(
n
) = a
n1
1
+ a
n2
2
+ . . . + a
nm
m
Ma trn
A =
a
11
a
21
. . . a
n1
a
12
a22 . . . a
n2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
1m
a
2m
. . . a
nm
gi l ma trn ca f trong cp c s (), () v k hiu l A

f/
(),()
Trng hp c bit, khi f l php bin i tuyn tnh ca V , f : V V v () () th
ma trn ca f trong cp c s (), () c gi l ma trn ca f trong c s () v k hiu l
A
f/
()
V d 1. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : R
2
R
3
f(x
1
, x
2
) = (x
1
+ 2x
2
, x
1
x
2
, x
2
)
Tm ma trn ca f trong cp c s (), () (ma trn A
f/
(),()
) vi cc c s (), () nh
sau:
() :
1
= (1, 1),
2
= (1, 0),
() :
1
= (1, 1, 1),
2
= (1, 2, 1),
3
= (1, 3, 2)
Gii. Gi s
f(
1
) = a
1
1
+ a
2
2
+ a
3
3
(1)
f(
2
) = b
1
1
+ b
2
2
+ b
3
3
(2)
Khi , theo nh ngha, ma trn ca f trong cp c s (), () l
A
f/
(),()
=
a
1
b
1
a
2
b
2
a
3
b
3
3
Ta cn gii cc phng trnh vct (1), (2) tm a
1
, a
2
, a
3
v b
1
, b
2
, b
3
. Cc phng
trnh (1), (2) tng ng vi cc h phng trnh tuyn tnh m ma trn cc h s m
rng ca chng l ma trn sau:
1 1 1 3 1
1 2 3 0 1
1 1 2 1 0
1 1 1 3 1
0 3 2 3 0
0 2 1 4 1
1 1 1 3 1
0 1 1 1 1
0 2 1 4 1
1 1 1 3 1
0 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 6 3
H 1): a
3
= 6, a
2
= 1 a
3
= 5, a
1
= 3 + a
2
a
3
= 8
H 2): b
3
= 3, b
2
= 1 b
3
= 2, b
1
= 1 + b
2
b
3
= 4
Vy A
f/
(),()
=
a
1
b
1
a
2
b
2
a
3
b
3
8 4
5 2
6 3
Nhc li rng c s chnh tc ca khng gian R

n
(k hiu (
n
)) l c s:
e
1
= (1, 0, . . . , 0), e
2
= (0, 1, . . . , 0), . . . , e
n
= (0, 0, . . . , 1) (
n
)
Bn c c th d dng kim tra v d sau:
V d 2. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : R
n
R
m
c cho bi cng thc (xem bi tp 1)
f(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) = (a
11
x
1
+ . . . + a
1n
x
n
, a
21
x
1
+ . . . + a
2n
x
n
, . . . , a
m1
x
1
+ . . . + amnx
n
)
Khi , ma trn ca f trong cp c s (
n
), (
m
) l:
A
f/
n
,
m
=
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
Chng hn, nh x tuyn tnh f : R

2
R
3
trong v d 1 c ma trn trong cp c s
(
2
), (
3
) l
A
f/
2
,
3
=
1 2
1 1
0 1
4.2 Biu thc ta ca nh x tuyn tnh

Cho U, V l cc KGVT, v
1
, . . . ,
n
(),
1
, . . . ,
m
() ln lt l cc c s ca V v U.
Cho f : V U l nh x tuyn tnh. A = A
f/
(),()
l ma trn ca f trong cp c s (), ().
Vi mi vct x V , gi s:
x/
()
= (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
), f(x)/
()
= (y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
m
)
Khi , ta c cng thc sau gi l biu thc ta ca nh x tuyn tnh f:
y
1
y
2
.
.
.
y
m
= A.
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
4
Nu ta k hiu [x]/
()
l ta ca vct x trong c s () vit theo ct, th cng thc trn c
th vit li ngn gn nh sau:
[f(x)]/
()
= A
f/
(),()
.[x]/
()
Trng hp c bit, khi f : V V l php bin i tuyn tnh,
1
, . . . ,
n
() l c s ca
V , ta c:
[f(x)]/
()
= A
f/
()
.[x]/
()
4.3 Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh trong hai cp c s khc nhau
Cho V, U l cc KGVT,
1
, . . . ,
n
() v
1
, . . . ,
n
(
) l cc c s ca V ,
1
, . . . ,
m
() v
1
, . . . ,
m
(
) l cc c s ca U. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : V U. Khi , ta c cng thc

di y cho thy s lin h gia ma trn ca f trong cp c s (
), (
) vi ma trn ca f
trong cp c s (), ():
A
f/
(
),(
)
= T
1
.A
f/
(),()
.T
trong , T
l k hiu ma trn i c s t c s () sang c s (
).
Trng hp c bit, khi f : V V l php bin i tuyn tnh v
1
, . . . ,
n
() v
1
, . . . ,
n
(
) l hai c s ca V , ta c:
A
f/
(
)
= T
1
.A
f/
()
.T
5 Ht nhn v nh
5.1 Cc khi nim c bn
Cho V, U l cc khng gian vct, f : V U l nh x tuyn tnh.
K hiu: Kerf = {x V |f(x) = 0} V
Khi , da vo tiu chun KGVT con, ta c th chng minh c Kerf l KGVT con
ca V , gi l ht nhn ca nh x tuyn tnh f.
K hiu Imf = {f(x)|x V } U
Imf cng l mt KGVT con ca U, gi l nh ca nh x tuyn tnh f.
5.2 Nhn xt
xc nh ht nhn ca nh x tuyn tnh f : V U, ta s dng biu thc ta ca
f (xem mc 2), c th:
Chn c s
1
, . . . ,
n
() v
1
, . . . ,
m
() ca V v U. Khi , ta c:
[f(x)/
()
= A
f/
(),()
.[x]/
()
5
do :
x Kerf f(x) = 0
[f(x)]/
()
=
0
0
.
.
.
0
A.[x]/
()
=
0
0
.
.
.
0
()
Nh vy, x Kerf khi v ch khi ta ca x trong c s ()
[x]/
()
)
l nghim ca
h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht () (vi A = A
f/
(),()
.)
T , tm c s ca ht nhn Kerf, ta lm nh sau: Tm ma trn ca f trong cp c
s (), () no , A = A
f/
(),()
. Gii h phng trnh A.
x
1
.
.
.
x
n
0
.
.
.
0
(), tm h
nghim ca h (). Tp tt c cc vct thuc V sao cho ta ca vct trong c s
() l nghim c bn ca h () s lm thnh mt c s ca Kerf. Trng hp c bit,
nu f : R
n
R
m
l nh x tuyn tnh v A l ma trn ca f trong cp c s chnh tc
(A = A
f/
(
n
),(
m
)
) th ht nhn ca f chnh l khng gian con cc nghim ca h phng
trnh tuyn tnh thun nht A.
x
1
.
.
.
x
n
0
.
.
.
0
v c s ca Kerf chnh l h nghim

c bn ca h trn.
Bn c s thy r cch tm Kerf qua phn bi tp.
tm nh ca nh x tuyn tnh f : V U ta da vo nhn xt sau:
Nu
1
, . . . ,
n
l h sinh ca V th f(
1
), . . . , f(
n
) l h sinh ca Imf. Tht vy, vi
mi y Imf, tn ti x V y = f(x). V x V nn tn ti a
1
, . . . , a
n
R
x = a
1
1
+ . . . + a
n
n
. Khi
y = f(x) = f(a
1
1
+ . . . + a
n
) = a
1
f(
1
) + . . . + a
n
f()
Vy, f(
1
), . . . , f(
n
) l h sinh ca Imf.
Nh vy, tm c s ca Imf, ta tm c s
1
, . . . ,
n
ca V , theo nhn xt trn,
Imf = f(
1
), . . . , f(), do h con LTT ti i ca h f(
1
), . . . , f(
n
) l c s ca
Imf
5.3 Mi lin h gia s chiu ca ht nhn v nh
nh l 5.1. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : V U. Khi , ta c: dimKer f +dimImf = dimV
Chng minh. Gi s dimV = n, dimKerf = k (k n) v gi s
1
, . . . ,
k
l c s ca Kerf.
V
1
, . . . ,
k
l h vct LTT ca V nn ta c th b sung thm n k vct c h
1
, . . . ,
k
,
k+1
, . . . ,
n
l c s ca V . Ta chng minh f(
k+1
), . . . , f(
n
) l c s ca Imf.
6
Tht vy, vi mi y Imf, tn ti x V f(x) = y, v x V nn x = a
1
1
+ . . . +
a
k
k
+ a
k+1
k+1
+ . . . + a
n
n
. Do ,
y = f(x) = a
1
f(
1
)+. . . +a
k
f(
k
)+a
k+1
f(
k+1
)+. . . +a
n
f(
n
) = a
k+1
f(
k+1
)+. . . +a
n
f(
n
)
v f(
1
) = . . . = f(
k
) = 0. iu ny chng t f(
k+1
), . . . , f(
n
) l h sinh ca Imf.
By gi, gi s
a
k+1
f(
k+1
) + . . . + a
n
f(
n
) = 0
f(a
k+1
k+1
+ . . . + a
n
n
) = 0
a
k+1
k+1
+ . . . + a
n
n
Kerf
a
k+1
k+1
+ . . . + a
n
n
= a
1
1
+ . . . + a
k
k
(v
1
, . . . ,
k
l c s ca Kerf). Do a
1
1
. . . a
k
k
+ a
k+1
k+1
+ . . . + a
n
n
= 0 suy
ra a
i
= 0 vi mi i.
Vy f(
k+1
), . . . , f(
n
) l c s LTT do l c s ca Imf nn dimImf = n k. Ta c
dimKer f + dimImf = k + (n k) = n = dimV .
S chiu ca Imf cn c gi l hng ca nh x tuyn tnh f, k hiu l rank f. S chiu
ca Ker f cn c gi l s khuyt ca nh x tuyn tnh f, k hiu l def(f). Nh vy, ta
c: rank(f) = dimImf, def(f) = dimKer f v rank(f) + def(f) = dimV
6 n cu, ton cu, ng cu
6.1 Cc khi nim c bn
Cho U, V l cc KGVT, v f : V U l nh x tuyn tnh. Khi :
f gi l n cu nu f l n nh.
f gi l ton cu nu f l ton nh.
f gi l ng cu nu f l song nh.
T nh ngha, ta c ngay tch ca cc n cu, ton cu, ng cu li l cc n cu, ton
cu, ng cu. Nu f : V U l mt ng cu th f c nh x ngc f
1
: U V cng l
mt ng cu.
Hai khng gian vct U, V gi l ng cu nu tn ti mt ng cu f : V U. D thy
rng quan h ng cu l quan h tng ng.
6.2 Cc nh l v n cu, ton cu, ng cu
nh l 6.1. Hai khng gian vct V, U ng cu vi nhau khi v ch khi dimV = dimU
nh l 6.2. Cho V, U l cc khng gian vct, dimV = dimU v f : V U l nh x tuyn
tnh. Khi , cc khng nh sau l tng ng:
(i) f l n cu
(ii) f l ton cu
(iii) f l ng cu
7
nh l 6.3. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : V U. Khi :
(i) f l n cu khi v ch khi Ker f = {0}, khi v ch khi dimImf = dimV
(ii) f l ton cu khi v ch khi Imf = U, khi v ch khi dimImf = dimU.
Nu f : V U l nh x tuyn tnh th dimImf = rank f = rank A, trong A l ma
trn ca f trong cp c s (), () bt k. Do , kim tra xem f c l n cu, ton
cu hay khng, ta tm ma trn ca f trong cp c s (), () no ri tm rank A. Nu
rank A = dimV th f l n cu, cn nu rank A = dimU th f l ton cu.
6.3 S ng cu ca khng gian cc nh x tuyn tnh v khng
gian cc ma trn
K hiu Hom(V, U) l tp cc nh x tuyn tnh f : V U. Trong Hom(V, U) ta nh ngha
hai php ton nh sau:
Php cng: f, g Hom(V, U), f + g : V U
x (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
Php nhn: a R, f Hom(V, U), (af) : V U
x (af)(x) = af(x)
khi Hom(V, U) cng vi 2 php ton trn lm thnh mt KGVT, gi l khng gian cc nh
x tuyn tnh t V n U.
iu th v l khng gian Hom(V, U) ng cu vi khng gian cc ma trn nh ng cu
trong nh l sau:
nh l 6.4. Cho V, U l cc KGVT, dimV = n, dimU = m v cho
1
, . . . ,
n
(),
1
, . . . ,
m
()
ln lt l cc c s ca V v U. Khi , nh x:
: Hom(V, U) M
m,n
(R)
f (f) = A
f/
(),()
l mt ng cu.
Nh ng cu ny, vic nghin cu cc nh x tuyn tnh dn n vic nghin cu cc ma
trn v ngc li. Bn c s thy r phn ny qua phn bi tp.
1
1
8
I S C BN
Bi 16. Vect ring - Gi tr ring ca ma trn
v ca php bin i tuyn tnh - Cho ha
PGS TS M Vinh Quang
1 Vect ring - Gi tr ring ca ma trn
1.1 Cc khi nim c bn
Cho A l ma trn vung cp n, (A M
n
(R))
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nn
Khi
a thc bc n ca bin :
P
A
() = det(A I) =
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nn
= (1)
n
n
+a
n1
n1
+ +a
1
1
+a
0
gi l a thc c trng ca ma trn A.
Cc nghim thc ca a thc a thc c trng P
A
() gi l gi tr ring ca ma trn
A.
Nu
0
l mt gi tr ring ca A th det(A
0
I) = 0. Do h phng trnh thun
nht:
(A
0
I)
x
1
.
.
.
x
n
0
.
.
.
0
(1)
1
c v s nghim. Khng gian nghim ca h (1) gi l khng gian con ring ca ma trn
A ng vi gi tr ring
0
. Cc vect khc khng l nghim ca h (1) gi l cc vect
ring ca ma trn A ng vi gi tr ring
0
. Cc vect to thnh mt c s ca khng
gian ring (tc l cc vect to thnh h nghim c bn ca h (1)) gi l cc vect ring
c lp tuyn tnh ng vi gi tr ring
0
.
1.2 V d
Tm a thc c trng, vect ring, gi tr ring ca ma trn:
A =
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Gii
Ta c P
A
=
1 1
1 1
1 1
=
3
+ 3 + 2
Vy a thc c trng ca ma trn A l P
A
() =
3
+ 3 + 2
P
A
() = 0
3
+ 3 + 2 = 0 ( + 1)
2
(2 ) = 0 = 1 (kp) , = 2.
Vy ma trn A c 2 gi tr ring l = 1, = 2.
tm vect ring ca A, ta xt hai trng hp:
ng vi gi tr ring = 1.
tm vect ring ng vi gi tr ring = 1, ta gii h:
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
0
0
0
H c v s nghim ph thuc hai tham s x

2
, x
3
. Nghim tng qut ca h l:
x
1
= a b, x
2
= a, x
3
= b. Do , khng gian con ring ca A ng vi gi tr ring
= 1 l V
1
= {(a b, a, b) | a, b R}.
Cc vect ring ca A ng vi gi tr ring = 1 l tt c cc vect c dng:
(a b, a, b) vi a
2
+b
2
= 0 (v vect ring phi khc khng).
Ta c dimV
1
= 2 v A c 2 vect ring c lp tuyn tnh ng vi gi tr ring
= 1 l
1
= (1, 1, 0),
2
= (1, 0, 1).
ng vi gi tr ring = 2.
tm vect ring ng vi gi tr ring = 2, ta gii h:
2 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 2
0
0
0
1 1 2
1 2 1
2 1 1
0
0
0
1 1 2
0 3 3
0 3 3
0
0
0
1 1 2
0 3 3
0 0 0
0
0
0
2
H c v s nghim ph thuc tham s x
3
. Nghim tng qut ca h l: x
1
= a,
x
2
= a, x
3
= a. Do , khng gian con ring ca A ng vi gi tr ring = 2 l
V
2
= {(a, a, a) | a R}.
Cc vect ring ca A ng vi gi tr ring = 2 l tt c cc vect c dng:
(a, a, a) vi a = 0.
Ta c dimV
2
= 1 v A c 1 vect ring c lp tuyn tnh ng vi gi tr ring = 2
l
3
= (1, 1, 1).
Ch rng, nu xt c hai trng hp, A c tt c 3 vect ring c lp tuyn tnh l
1
,
2
,
3
.
2 Cho ha ma trn
2.1 Ma trn ng dng
Cho A, B l cc ma trn vung cp n. Ta ni A ng dng vi B, k hiu A B, nu
tn ti ma trn T vung cp n, khng suy bin sao cho B = T
1
AT. Bn c c th d
dng kim tra rng quan h ng dng l mt quan h tng ng.
Quan h ng dng bo ton kh nhiu cc tnh cht ca ma trn, chng hn nu A B
th det A = det B, rank A = rank B, P
A
() = P
B
(), gi tr ring ca A v B l nh
nhau...
2.2 Cho ha ma trn
nh ngha. Cho A l ma trn vung cp n.
Ta ni ma trn A cho ha c nu A ng dng vi mt ma trn cho. Nh vy ma
trn A cho ha c nu tn ti ma trn T vung cp n khng suy bin sao cho T
1
AT
l ma trn cho.
Cho ha ma trn A tc l tm ma trn T vung cp n khng suy bin sao cho T
1
AT
l ma trn cho.
ngha ca vic cho ha ma trn
Nu ma trn A cho ha c th vic nghin cu cc tnh cht (bo ton qua quan h
ng dng) ca ma trn A dn n vic nghin cu cc tnh cht trn mt ma trn
cho v nh vy vn s tr nn n gin hn nhiu.
Mun bit ma trn A c cho ha c hay khng, ta c nh l sau:
nh l (iu kin cn v mt ma trn vung cho ha c)
Ma trn A vung cp n cho ha c khi v ch khi A c n vect ring c lp tuyn
tnh, khi v ch khi
k
i=1
dimV
i
= n, trong
1
, . . . ,
k
l tt c cc gi tr ring ca A.
3
2.3 Cch cho ha mt ma trn
Cho A l ma trn vung cp n. cho ha ma trn A, ta lm nh sau:
Tm cc gi tr ring v cc vect ring c lp tuyn tnh ca A. Khi xy ra mt trong
hai kh nng sau:
1. Nu tng s vect ring c lp tuyn tnh ca A b hn n (tc l
k
i=1
dimV
i
< n, trong
V
i
l khng gian con ring ng vi gi tr ring
i
) th kt lun ma trn A khng cho
ha c, tc l khng tn ti ma trn T T
1
AT l ma trn cho.
2. Nu tng s vect ring c lp tuyn tnh ca A bng n (tc l
k
i=1
dimV
i
= n th ma
trn A cho ha c. Khi ma trn T cn tm l ma trn m cc ct ca n chnh l
cc vect ring c lp tuyn tnh ca A vit theo ct, v khi
T
1
AT =
1
0 . . . 0
0
2
. . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . .
n
l ma trn cho, trong

i
chnh l gi tr ring ca A ng vi vect ring l vect ct
th i ca ma trn T.
2.4 V d
Cho ha ma trn
A =
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Gii
Trc ht tm vect ring, gi tr ring ca A.
Theo v d b), mc 1, ma trn A c hai gi tr ring l = 1, = 2 v A c ba vect
ring c lp tuyn tnh l
1
= (1, 1, 0), = (1, 0, 1) ng vi gi tr ring = 1 v
3
= (1, 1, 1) ng vi gi tr ring = 2.
Do , ta kt lun:
- Ma trn A cho ha c.
- Ma trn cn tm l:
T =
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
v
T
1
AT =
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 2
4
3 Vect ring, gi tr ring ca php bin i tuyn tnh
3.1 Cc khi nim c bn
Cho V l khng gian vect v f : V V l php bin i tuyn tnh.
Nu U l khng gian vect con bt bin ca V sao cho f(U) U th U gi l khng gian
con bt bin ca V .
Gi s U l khng gian con bt bin 1 chiu v l mt vect khc khng, thuc U (do
l c s ca U), khi v f(U) U nn f() U v f() = . T ta c nh ngha
sau:
nh ngha. Cho V l khng gian vect, f : V V l php bin i tuyn tnh ca V .
Nu ta c f() = trong V l vect khc khng v R th gi l vect ring ca
f ng vi gi tr ring .
3.2 Cch tm gi tr ring, vect ring ca php bin i tuyn tnh
Cc gi tr ring, vect ring ca php bin i tuyn tnh c s tng ng cht ch vi cc
gi tr ring, vect ring ca ma trn ca n. Ta s thy r iu qua phn trnh by di
y.
Cho V l khng gian vect n-chiu (dimV = n) v cho f : V V l php bin i tuyn
tnh. Gi s (U) : u
1
, . . . , u
n
l c s ca V v A = A
f/
(U)
l ma trn ca f trong c s (U).
Ta c biu thc ta ca f nh sau (xem bi 15):
[f()]/
(U)
= A.[]/
(U)
()
Nu l vect ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring
0
th f() =
0
f. Thay vo vo () ta c:
0
.[]/
(U)
= A.[]/
(U)
hay
[A
0
I][]/
(U)
= 0 ()
V vect khc khng nn h phng trnh () c nghim khc khng det[A
0
I] = 0

0
l gi tr ring ca A.
Nh vy,
0
l gi tr ring ca f
0
l gi tr ring ca ma trn A = A
f/
(U)
v V
l vect ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring
0
[]/
(U)
l vect ring ca A ng vi gi tr ring
0
.
T ta c quy tc tm gi tr ring v vect ring ca php bin i tuyn tnh f : V V
nh sau:
1. Bc 1. Tm ma trn ca f trong mt c s (U) : u
1
, . . . , u
n
no ca V , ngha l tm
A = A
f/
(U)
.
2. Bc 2. Tm cc gi tr ring v vect ring ca ma trn A.
3. Bc 3. Kt lun
Cc gi tr ring ca A cng chnh l gi tr ring ca f.
Nu (a
1
, . . . , a
n
) l vect ring ca A ng vi gi tr ring
0
th a
1
u
1
+ + a
n
u
n
l vect ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring
0
.
5
3.3 Vn tm c s ca V ma trn ca f trong c s l ma trn
cho
nghin cu mt php bin i tuyn tnh f : V V , ta c th qui v vic nghin cu
ma trn ca f. T dn n vic cn tm c s ma trn ca f trong c s l ma trn
cho (l ma trn kh n gin, d nghin cu). Sau y l cch tm c s nh vy:
u tin ta tm cc vect ring c lp tuyn tnh ca f. Nu f c t hn n vect ring
c lp tuyn tnh (n = dimV ) th khng c c s no ca f ma trn ca f trong c s
l ma trn cho. Nu f c n vect ring c lp tuyn tnh l () :
1
, . . . ,
n
th n vect ring
c lp tuyn tnh lm thnh c s () ca V v ma trn ca f trong c s () l ma
trn cho. C th:
A
f/
(U)
=
1
0 . . . 0
0
2
. . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . .
n
trong
i
l gi tr ring ng vi vect ring
i
(cc
i
c th bng nhau).
3.4 V d
Trong R
3
cho c s:
u
1
= (1, 1, 1), u
2
= (1, 1, 0), u
3
= (1, 0, 0)
v cho php bin i tuyn tnh f : R
3
R
3
xc nh bi:
f(u
1
) = (4, 3, 2)
f(u
2
) = (4, 3, 1)
f(u
3
) = (1, 0, 0)
Tm c s ma trn f trong c s l ma trn cho.
Gii
u tin ta tm vect ring, gi tr ring ca f. tm vect ring, gi tr ring ca f, ta
tm ma trn ca f trong mt c s no ca R
3
. Trong bi ton c th ny, tm ma trn ca
f trong c s (U) : u
1
, u
2
, u
3
l d nht. Vy:
1. Bc 1. Tm ma trn ca f trong c s (U)
Ta phi gii 3 h phng trnh sau:
H 1
1 1 1
1 1 0
1 0 0
4
3
2
a
1
= 2,
a
2
= 3 a
1
= 1,
a
3
= 4 a
1
a
2
= 1
6
H 2
1 1 1
1 1 0
1 0 0
4
3
1
b
1
= 1,
b
2
= 3 b
1
= 2,
b
3
= 4 b
1
b
2
= 1
H 3
1 1 1
1 1 0
1 0 0
1
0
0
c
1
= 0,
c
2
= c
1
= 0,
c
3
= 1 c
1
c
2
= 1
Vy A
f/
(U)
=
2 1 0
1 2 0
1 1 1
2. Bc 2. Tm gi tr ring, vect ring ca A v ca f

P
A
() =
2 1 0
1 2 0
1 1 1
= (1 )
2 1
1 2
P
A
() = (1 )[(2 )
2
1] = (1 )
2
(3 )
P
A
() = 0 = 1, = 3
Vy A c hai gi tr ring l = 1, = 3.
Suy ra f c hai gi tr ring l = 1, = 3.
Cc vect ring ca A ng vi gi tr ring = 1 l nghim ca h
1 1 0
1 1 0
1 1 0
0
0
0
1 1 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0
0
0
H c v s nghim ph thuc hai tham s x

2
, x
3
.
Nghim tng qut ca h l: x
1
= a, x
2
= a, x
3
= b.
Vect ring ca A, ng vi gi tr ring = 1, l (a, a, b), a
2
+b
2
= 0.
Trong trng hp ny, A c hai vect ring c lp tuyn tnh l
1
= (1, 1, 0) v
2
= (0, 0, 1).
Do , ng vi gi tr ring = 1, vect ring ca f l cc vect c dng
au
1
+au
2
+bu
3
= (b, 0, a)
vi a
2
+b
2
= 0.
Trong trng hp ny, f c hai vect ring c lp tuyn tnh l:
1
= u
1
+u
2
+ 0u
3
= (0, 0, 1)
2
= 0u
1
+ 0u
2
+u
3
= (1, 0, 0)
7
Cc vect ring ca A ng vi gi tr ring = 3 l nghim ca h
1 1 0
1 1 0
1 1 2
0
0
0
1 1 0
0 0 2
0 0 0
0
0
0
H c v s nghim ph thuc mt tham s x

2
.
Ta c: x
2
= a, x
3
= 0, x
1
= a
Nghim tng qut ca h l: x
1
= a, x
2
= a, x
3
= 0.
Vect ring ca A, ng vi gi tr ring = 3, l (a, a, 0), a = 0.
Trong trng hp ny, A c mt vect ring c lp tuyn tnh l
3
= (1, 1, 0).
Do , ng vi gi tr ring = 3, vect ring ca f l cc vect c dng
au
1
+au
2
+ 0u
3
= (2a, 2a, a), a = 0
Trong trng hp ny, f c mt vect ring c lp tuyn tnh l:
3
= 1u
1
+ 1u
2
+ 0u
3
= (2, 2, 1)
3. Bc 3. Kt lun
f c ba vect ring c lp tuyn tnh l cc vect
1
,
2
(ng vi = 1) v
3
(ng vi
= 3). Do ,
1
,
2
,
3
lm thnh c s ca R
3
m ma trn ca f trong c s
1
,
2
,
3
l ma trn cho. C th:
A
f/
()
=
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 3
8
Bi tp
1. (a) Cho f : R
n
R. Chng minh f l nh x tuyn tnh tn ti cc s a
1
, . . . , a
n
R
f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) = a
1
x
1
+a
2
x
2
+ +a
n
x
n
.
(b) Cho f : R
n
R
m
. Chng minh f l nh x tuyn tnh tn ti cc s a
ij
R
f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) = (a
11
x
1
+a
12
x
2
+ +a
1n
x
n
, . . . , a
m1
x
1
+a
m2
x
2
+ +a
mn
x
n
).
2. Tm cng thc ca nh x tuyn tnh f : R
3
R
3
(tm f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)) bit:
(a) f(1, 1, 2) = (1, 0, 0)
f(2, 1, 1) = (0, 1, 1)
f(2, 2, 3) = (0, 1, 0)
(b) f(1, 2, 3) = (1, 0, 1)
f(1, 1, 1) = (0, 1, 0)
f(1, 3, 4) = (1, 0, 2)
3. Trong R
3
cho 2 c s
u
1
= (1, 0, 0), u
2
= (0, 1, 1), u
3
= (1, 0, 1) (U)
v
1
= (1, 1, 0), v
2
= (0, 1, 1), v
3
= (1, 0, 1) (V )
v cho nh x tuyn tnh f : R
3
R
3
, f(u
i
) = v
i
, i = 1, 2, 3.
(a) Tm cng thc ca f.
(b) Tm cc ma trn sau: A
f/
(U)
, A
f/
(U),(V )
, A
f/
(V )
, A
f/
(V ),(U)
, A
f/(
3
)
4. Cho nh x tuyn tnh : R
n
[x] R
n
[x], p(x) p
(x).
Tm ma trn ca trong c s:
(a) 1, x, x
2
, . . . , x
n
(b) 1, (x a),
(x a)
2
2!
, . . . ,
(x a)
n
n!
5. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : R
4
R
3
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) = (x
1
x
2
+x
3
, 2x
1
+x
4
, 2x
2
+x
3
+x
4
)
Tm c s, s chiu ca Ker f, Imf.
6. Tm vect ring, gi tr ring cho ha cc ma trn sau:
(a)
1 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 1
(b)
5 1 1
1 2 2
1 2 2
9
(c)
1 2 1
2 4 2
1 2 1
(d)
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
(e)
1 3 1 2
0 1 1 3
0 0 2 5
0 0 0 2
7. Trong R
3
cho c s:
u
1
= (1, 1, 1), u
2
= (1, 2, 1), u
3
= (1, 3, 2)
3
R
3
xc nh bi
f(u
1
) = (0, 5, 3)
f(u
2
) = (2, 4, 3)
f(u
3
) = (0, 3, 2)
Tm mt c s ma trn f trong c s l ma trn cho.
8. Cho php bin i tuyn tnh : V V tha
2
= . Chng minh:
Im + Ker = V
Im Ker = {0}
9. Cho f : V V l php bin i tuyn tnh, L l khng gian vect con ca V . Chng
minh:
(a) dimL dimKer f dimf(L) dimL
(b) dimL dimf
1
(L) dimL + dimKer f
10. Cho : V W, : W U l nh x tuyn tnh. Chng minh:
(a) rank() min{rank , rank }
(b) rank() = rank dim(Ker Im)
(c) rank() rank + rank dimW
10
I S C BN
Bi 17. Gii bi tp v nh x tuyn tnh
PGS TS M Vinh Quang
1. a. Cho nh x f : R
n
R, chng minh rng f l nh x tuyn tnh khi v ch khi tn ti
cc s a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
R f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) = a
1
x
1
+a
2
x
2
+. . . +a
n
x
n
b. Cho nh x f : R
n
R
m
. Chng minh rng f l nh x tuyn tnh khi v ch khi tn
ti cc s a
ij
R
f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) = (a
11
x
1
+a
12
x
2
+. . . +a
1n
x
n
, . . . , a
m1
x
1
+a
m2
x
2
+. . . +a
mn
x
n
) ()
Gii. Ta ch gii cu b., cu a. l trng hp c bit ca cu b. khi m = 1.
Kim tra trc tip, ta thy ngay rng nu f c dng nh () th f l nh x tuyn tnh.
Ngc li, nu f l nh x tuyn tnh, ta t:
f(e
i
) = (a
1i
, a
2i
, . . . , a
mi
)
vi i = 1, 2, . . . , n, trong e
i
= (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0). Khi ta c
f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) = f(x
1
e
1
+x
2
e
2
+. . . +x
n
e
n
)
= x
1
f(e
1
) +x
2
f(e
2
) +. . . +x
n
f(e
n
)
= f(a
11
x
1
+a
12
x
2
+. . . +a
1n
x
n
, . . . , a
m1
x
1
+a
m2
x
2
+. . . +a
mn
x
n
)
2. Tm cng thc ca nh x tuyn tnh f : R
3
R
3
bit
a. f(1, 1, 2) = (1, 0, 0), f(2, 1, 1) = (0, 1, 1), f(2, 2, 3) = (0, 1, 0).
b. f(1, 2, 3) = (1, 0, 1), f(1, 1, 1) = (0, 1, 0), f(1, 3, 4) = (1, 0, 2).
Gii. a. Gi s
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = a
1
(1, 1, 2) +a
2
(2, 1, 1) +a
3
(2, 2, 3) (1)
Khi
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = a
1
(1, 0, 0) +a
2
(0, 1, 1) +a
3
(0, 1, 0) = (a
1
, a
2
a
3
, a
2
) (2)
Do , tnh f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
), ta cn tnh a
1
, a
2
, a
3
qua x
1
, x
2
, x
3
. Do cng thc (1),
a
1
, a
2
, a
3
l nghim ca h:
_
_
1 2 2 x
1
1 1 2 x
2
2 1 3 x
3
_
_

_
_
1 2 2 x
1
0 1 0 x
1
+x
2
0 3 1 2x
1
+x
3
_
_
_
_
1 2 2 x
1
0 1 0 x
1
+x
2
0 0 1 x
1
3x
2
+x
3
_
_
1
Vy:
a
3
= x
1
+ 3x
2
x
3
a
2
= x
1
x
2
a
1
= x
1
2a
2
2a
3
= x
1
2(x
1
x
2
) 2(x
1
+ 3x
2
x
3
) = x
1
4x
2
+ 2x
3
Thay vo (2), cng thc ca nh x f l:
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (x
1
4x
2
+ 2x
3
, 2x
1
4x
2
+x
3
, x
1
x
2
)
b. Gii tng t cu a., chi tit xin dnh cho bn c.
3. Trong R
3
cho 2 c s:
u
1
= (1, 0, 0), u
2
= (0, 1, 1), u
3
= (1, 0, 1) (u)
v
1
= (1, 1, 0), v
2
= (0, 1, 1), v
3
= (1, 0, 1) (v)
3
R
3
, f(u
i
) = v
i
.
a. Tm cng thc ca f.
b. Tm cc ma trn
A
f/
(u)
, A
f/
(u),(v)
, A
f/
(v)
, A
f/
(v),(u)
, A
f/
(
3
)
Gii. a. Gi s
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = a
1
u
1
+a
2
u
2
+a
3
u
3
(1)
Khi
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = f(a
1
u
1
+a
2
u
2
+a
3
u
3
)
= a
1
f(u
1
) +a
2
f(u
2
) +a
3
f(u
3
)
= a
1
(1, 1, 0) +a
2
(0, 1, 1) +a
3
(1, 0, 1)
= (a
1
+a
3
, a
1
+a
2
, a
2
+a
3
)
Vy f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (a
1
+a
3
, a
1
+a
2
, a
2
+a
3
) (2)
Ta cn tnh a
1
, a
2
, a
3
theo x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, do (1), a
1
, a
2
, a
3
l nghim ca h
_
_
1 0 1 x
1
0 1 0 x
2
0 1 1 x
3
_
_

_
_
1 0 1 x
1
0 1 0 x
2
0 0 1 x
2
+x
3
_
_
do : a
3
= x
2
+ x
3
, a
2
= x
2
, a
1
= x
1
a
3
= x
1
+ x
2
x
3
. Thay vo (2) cng thc
ca f l:
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (x
1
, x
1
+x
3
, 2x
2
+x
3
)
b. Ma trn A
f/
(u)
Ta c:
f(u
1
) = v
1
= a
1
u
1
+a
2
u
2
+a
3
u
3
(1)
f(u
2
) = v
2
= b
1
u
1
+b
2
u
2
+b
3
u
3
(2)
f(u
3
) = v
3
= c
1
u
1
+c
2
u
2
+c
3
u
3
(3)
Khi
A
f/
(u)
=
_
_
a
1
b
1
c
1
a
2
b
2
c
2
a
3
b
3
c
3
_
_
2
cc a
i
, b
i
, c
i
ln lt l nghim ca cc phng trnh vct (1), (2), (3). Mi
phng trnh (1), (2), (3) tng ng vi mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh c
cng ma trn cc h s (ch khc nhau ct t do), do , ta c th gii cng lc
3 h nh sau:
_
_
1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
_
_

_
_
1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 2 1
_
_
H 1: a
3
= 1, a
2
= 1, a
1
= 1 a
3
= 0
H 2: b
3
= 2, b
2
= 1, b
1
= b
3
= 2
H 3: c
3
= 1, c
2
= 0, c
1
= 1 c
3
= 0
Vy ma trn
A
f/
(u)
=
_
_
0 2 0
1 1 0
1 2 1
_
_
Ma trn A
f/
(u),(v)
Ta c
f(u
1
) = v
1
= 1v
1
+ 0v
2
+ 0v
3
f(u
2
) = v
2
= 0v
1
+ 1v
2
+ 0v
3
f(u
3
) = v
3
= 0v
1
+ 0v
2
+ 1v
3
Vy ma trn
A
f/
(u),(v)
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
Ma trn A
f/
(v)
p dng cu a., ta s tnh c f(v
1
), f(v
2
), f(v
3
), sau lm nh cc phn
trc. C th:
f(v
1
) = (1, 1, 2) = a
1
v
1
+a
2
v
2
+a
3
v
3
f(v
2
) = (0, 1, 3) = b
1
v
1
+b
2
v
2
+b
3
v
3
f(v
3
) = (1, 0, 1) = c
1
v
1
+c
2
v
2
+c
3
v
3
a
i
, b
i
, c
i
l nghim ca 3 h sau:
_
_
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 2 3 1
_
_

_
_
1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 2 3 1
_
_
_
_
1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 2 2 4 2
_
_
H 1: a
3
= 1, a
2
= a
3
= 1, a
1
= 1 a
3
= 0
H 2: b
3
= 2, b
2
= 1 b
3
= 1, b
1
= b
3
= 2
H 3: c
3
= 1, c
2
= 1 c
3
= 0, c
1
= 1 c
3
= 0
Vy
A
f/
(v)
=
_
_
0 2 0
1 1 0
1 2 1
_
_
3
Ma trn A
f/
(v),(u)
lm tng t.
Ma trn A
f/
(
3
)
theo cu a., cng thc ca f l
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (x
1
, x
1
+x
3
, 2x
2
+x
3
)
do ta c ngay:
A
f/
(
3
)
=
_
_
1 0 0
1 0 1
0 2 1
_
_
4. Cho nh x tuyn tnh
: R
n
[x] R
n
[x]
p(x) p
(x)
Tm ma trn ca trong c s:
a. u
o
= 1, u
1
= x, u
2
= x
2
, . . . , u
n
= x
n
b. v
o
= 1, v
1
= x a, v
2
=
(xa)
2
2!
, . . . , v
n
=
(xa)
n
n!
Gii. a. Ta c
(u
o
) = 0 = 0u
o
+ 0u
1
+. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + 0u
n
(u
1
) = 1 = 1u
o
+ 0u
1
+. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + 0u
n
(u
2
) = 2x = 0u
o
+ 2u
1
+. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + 0u
n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(u
k
) = kx
k1
= 0u
o
+ 0u
1
+. . . +ku
k1
+. . . + 0u
n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(u
n
) = nx
n1
= 0u
o
+ 0u
1
+. . . . . . . . . +nu
n1
+ 0u
n
Vy
A
f/
(u)
=
_
_
0 1 0 . . . 0 . . . 0
0 0 2 . . . 0 . . . 0
0 0 0 . . . 0 . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. k
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 . . . 0 . . . n
0 0 0 . . . 0 . . . 0
_
_
b. Li gii tng t cu a., chi tit xin dnh cho bn c.
5. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : R
4
R
3
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) = (x
1
x
2
+x
3
, 2x
1
+x
4
, 2x
2
x
3
+x
4
)
Tm c s, s chiu ca Ker f, Imf
4
Gii. (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) Ker f f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) = 0, (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) l nghim ca
h
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
+x
3
= 0
2x
1
+x
4
= 0
2x
2
+x
3
+x
4
= 0
(1)
Do , Ker f chnh l khng gian con cc nghim ca h (1) v h nghim c bn ca
h (1) chnh l mt c s ca Ker f. gii h (1), ta bin i ma trn h s m rng:
_
_
1 1 1 0 0
2 0 0 1 0
0 2 1 1 0
_
_

_
_
1 1 1 0 0
0 2 2 1 0
0 2 1 1 0
_
_
_
_
1 1 1 0 0
0 2 2 1 0
0 0 3 0 0
_
_
H c v s nghim ph thuc 1 tham s l x
4
. Ta c
x
3
= 0
x
2
=
1
2
(2x
3
x
4
) =
1
2
x
4
x
1
= x
2
x
3
= x
2
=
1
2
x
4
Vy nghim tng qut ca h l:
_
_
x
1
= a
x
2
= a
x
3
= 0
x
4
= 2a
h nghim c bn
1
= (1, 1, 0, 2), do , dimKer f = 1, c s ca Ker f l
1
= (1, 1, 0, 2).
tm c s ca Imf, ta tm nh ca c s chnh tc ca R
4
. Ta c:
f(e
1
) = (1, 2, 0), f(e
2
) = (1, 0, 2),
f(e
3
) = (1, 0, 1), f(e
4
) = (0, 1, 1)
Imf = f(e
1
), f(e
2
), f(e
3
), f(e
4
)
H con LTT ti i ca f(e
1
), f(e
2
), f(e
3
), f(e
4
) l mt c s ca Imf. Ta c
_
_
1 2 0
1 0 2
1 0 1
0 1 1
_
_
1
2
3
4
_
1 2 0
0 2 2
0 2 1
0 1 1
_
_
1
2
3
4
_
1 2 0
0 1 1
0 2 1
0 2 2
_
_
1
2
3
4
_
1 2 0
0 1 1
0 0 1
0 0 0
_
_
1
2
3
4
Vy c s ca Imf l f(e
1
), f(e
4
), f(e
3
) v dimf = 3.
5
6. Tm vect ring, gi tr ring, cho ha cc ma trn sau:
(a)
_
_
1 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 1
_
_
(b)
_
_
5 1 1
1 2 2
1 2 2
_
_
(c)
_
_
1 2 1
2 4 2
1 2 1
_
_
(d)
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
_
_
(e)
_
_
1 3 1 2
0 1 1 3
0 0 2 5
0 0 0 2
_
_
Gii. b) Tm a thc c trng:
P
A
() =
5 1 1
1 2 2
1 2 2
= (5 )(2 )
2
+ 2 + 2 (2 ) 4(5 ) (2 )
=
3
+ 9
2
18
P
A
() = 0 = 0, = 3, = 6.
Vy A c 3 gi tr ring l = 0, = 3, = 6.
Vect ring ng vi gi tr ring = 0 l cc vect nghim khc khng ca h:
_
_
5 1 1
1 2 2
1 2 2
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
1 2 2
5 1 1
1 2 2
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
1 2 2
0 11 11
0 0 0
0
0
0
_
_
H c v s nghim ph thuc mt tham s l x
3
. Ta c: x
3
= a, x
2
= a, x
1
= 0.
Nghim ca h l tt c cc vect dng (0, a, a), a R. Do , vect ring ng vi gi
tr ring = 0 l cc vect c dng (0, a, a), a = 0, dimV
0
= 1.
C s ca V
0
l
1
= (0, 1, 1).
_
_
2 1 1
1 1 2
1 2 1
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
1 2 1
1 1 2
2 1 1
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
1 2 1
0 3 3
0 3 3
0
0
0
_
_
_
_
1 2 1
0 3 3
0 0 0
0
0
0
_
_
3
.
6
Ta c: x
3
= b, x
2
= b, x
1
= 2x
2
+x
3
= b.
Nghim ca h l tt c cc vect dng (b, b, b), b R. Do , vect ring ng vi
gi tr ring = 3 l cc vect c dng (b, b, b), b = 0, dimV
3
= 1.
C s ca V
3
l
2
= (1, 1, 1).
_
_
1 1 1
1 4 2
1 2 4
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
1 1 1
0 3 3
0 3 3
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
1 1 1
0 3 3
0 0 0
0
0
0
_
_
3
.
Ta c: x
3
= c, x
2
= c, x
1
= x
2
+x
3
= 2c.
Nghim ca h l tt c cc vect dng (2c, c, c), c R. Do , vect ring ng vi
gi tr ring = 6 l cc vect c dng (2c, c, c), c = 0, dimV
6
= 1.
C s ca V
0
l
3
= (2, 1, 1).
Cho ha. Tng hp 3 trng hp trn ta thy ma trn A c 3 vect ring c lp tuyn
tnh. Do A cho ha c. Ma trn T cn tm l:
T =
_
_
0 1 2
1 1 1
1 1 1
_
_
v
T
1
AT =
_
_
0 0 0
0 3 0
0 0 6
_
_
l ma trn cho.
d) Tm a thc c trng
P
A
() =
1 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0 1
=
2
(1 )
2
P
A
() = 0 = 0, = 1.
Vy ma trn A c 2 gi tr ring l = 0, = 1.
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
0
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
1
0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0
0
0
0
_
_
H c v s nghim ph thuc hai tham s l x
2
, x
3
.
Ta c: x
2
= a, x
3
= b, x
4
= 0, x
1
= 0.
Nghim ca h l tt c cc vect dng (0, a, b, 0), a, b R. Do , vect ring ng vi
gi tr ring = 0 l cc vect c dng (0, a, b, 0), a
2
+b
2
= 0, dimV
0
= 2.
C s ca V
0
l
1
= (0, 1, 0, 0),
2
= (0, 0, 1, 0).
7
_
_
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
0
0
0
0
_
_

_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
0
0
0
0
_
_
H c v s nghim ph thuc tham s l x
4
.
Ta c: x
4
= c, x
3
= 0, x
2
= 0, x
1
= 0.
Nghim ca h l tt c cc vect dng (0, 0, 0, c), c R. Do , vect ring ng vi
gi tr ring = 1 l cc vect c dng (0, 0, 0, c), c = 0, dimV
1
= 1.
C s ca V
1
l
3
= (0, 0, 0, 1).
Cho ha. Tng hp 3 trng hp trn ta thy ma trn A ch c 3 vect ring c lp tuyn
tnh trong khi A l ma trn cp 4 nn A khng cho ha c.
7. Trong R
3
cho c s:
u
1
= (1, 1, 1), u
2
= (1, 2, 1), u
3
= (1, 3, 2)
3
R
3
xc nh bi:
f(u
1
) = (0, 5, 3)
f(u
2
) = (2, 4, 3)
f(u
3
) = (0, 3, 2)
Tm mt c s ma trn ca f trong c s l ma trn cho.
Gii. u tin ta tm ma trn ca f trong c s no ca R
3
. V cho f(u
1
), f(u
2
),
f(u
3
) nn d nht l tm ma trn ca f trong c s (u). Bn c c th d dng tm c:
A
f/
(u)
=
_
_
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
_
_
Bc tip theo, ta tm gi tr ring v vect ring ca ma trn A = A
f/
(u)
. T s tm
c gi tr ring v vect ring ca f.
Cc gi tr ring, vect ring ca ma trn A =
_
_
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
_
_
, ta tm trong phn l thuyt.
Kt qu tm tt nh sau:
A c hai gi tr ring l = 1 v = 2.
Cc vect ring ng vi gi tr ring = 1 l cc vect (a b, a, b), a
2
+ b
2
= 0.
Trng hp ny A c hai vect ring c lp tuyn tnh l
1
= (1, 1, 0),
2
=
(1, 0, 1).
Cc vect ring ng vi gi tr ring = 2 l cc vect (c, c, 0), c = 0. Trng hp ny
A c mt vect ring c lp tuyn tnh l
3
= (1, 1, 1).
T suy ra:
f c hai gi tr ring l = 1 v = 2.
Cc vect ring ng vi gi tr ring = 1 l cc vect dng (ab)u
1
+au
2
+bu
3
=
(2a, a + 2b, b), a
2
+b
2
= 0.
Trng hp ny f c hai vect ring c lp tuyn tnh l:
1
= 1.u
1
+ 1.u
2
+ 0.u
3
= (2, 1, 0)
2
= 1.u
1
+ 0.u
2
+ 1.u
3
= (0, 2, 1)
8
Cc vect ring ng vi gi tr ring = 2 l cc vect dng c.u
1
+ c.u
2
+ c.u
3
=
(c, 6c, 4c), c = 0.
Trng hp ny f c mt vect ring c lp tuyn tnh l:
3
= 1.u
1
+ 1.1.u
2
+ 1.u
3
= (1, 6, 4)
Kt lun. V f l php bin i tuyn tnh ca R
3
(dimR
3
= 3) v f c 3 vect ring c
lp tuyn tnh l
1
,
2
,
3
nn
1
,
2
,
3
() chnh l c s ca R
3
cn tm v ta c:
A
f/
()
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 2
_
_
8. Cho php bin i tuyn tnh : V V tha mn
2
= . Chng minh:
(a) Im + Ker = V
(b) Im Ker = {0}
Gii. a) Tt nhin Im + Ker V , ta cn chng minh: V Im + Ker .
Vi mi V , ta c: = () + ( ())
Tt nhin () Im, v ( ()) = ()
2
() = () () = 0. Do ,
() Ker Im + Ker , v Im + Ker = V .
b) Gi s Im Ker . Khi tn ti V () = . Theo gi thit
2
= nn
ta c: = () =
2
() = (()) = () = 0 (v Ker ).
Vy Im Ker th = 0. Do , Im Ker = {0}.
9. Cho f : V V l nh x tuyn tnh, L l khng gian vect con ca V . Chng minh:
(a) dimL dimKer f dimf(L) dimL.
(b) dimL dimf
1
(L) dimL + dimKer f.
Gii. gii bi tp 9 v bi tp 10, ta cn nh kt qu sau ( chng minh trong phn
l thuyt):
Nu : V U l nh x tuyn tnh th ta c:
dimIm + dimKer = dimV
a) Xt nh x

f : L V ,

f = f|
L
, tc l

f() = f() vi mi L.
Ta c Im

f =

f(L) = f(L), Ker

f = L Ker f.
p dng kt qu trn vi =

f, ta c:
dimIm

f + dimKer

f = dimL
Do , dimf(L) = dimIm

f dimL
v dimf(L) = dimL dimKer

f dimL dimKer f
b) t L
= f
1
(L). Khi f(L
) = L.
p dng a) vi khng gian vect con L
, ta c:
dimL
dimKer f dimf(L
) dimL
tc l
dimf
1
(L) dimKer f dimL dimf
1
(L)
9
Do :
dimL dimf
1
(L) dimL + dimKer f
10. Cho : V W, : W U l nh x tuyn tnh. Chng minh:
(a) rank() min{rank , rank }
(b) rank() = rank dim(Ker Im)
(c) rank() rank k + rank dimW
Gii. a) p dng cu a) bi 9 cho nh x tuyn tnh : W U vi L = Im = (V ) W,
ta c:
dim(V ) dim((V )) = dim()(V ) = dimIm()
Vy ta c: rank() rank (1)
Mt khc, ta c: (V ) W nn ((V )) (W), do dim(V ) dim(W), tc l:
rank rank (2).
T (1) v (2) ta c iu cn chng minh.
b) Xt nh x

: Im U,

= |
Im
, tc l

() = () vi mi Im.
Khi , Ker

= Ker Im v Im

=

(Im) = (Im) = ()(V ) = Im, tc l:
dimIm() + dim(Ker Im) = dimIm.
Do vy, rank() = rank dim(Ker Im).
c) Ta c: dimKer + dimIm = dimW nn dimKer = dimW rank .
Bi vy, theo cu b)
rank() = rank dim(Ker Im)
rank dimKer = rank (dimW rank ) = rank + rank dimW.
1
1
nh my: LM HU PHC, TRN C THUN Ngy: 09/03/2006
10
I S C BN
Bi 18. Khng gian vect Euclide
PGS TS M Vinh Quang
1 Cc khi nim c bn
1.1 Tch v hng v khng gian vect Euclide
nh ngha. Cho V l khng gian vect trn R. Mt tch v hng trn V l mt nh x
, : V V R
(, ) ,
tha cc iu kin sau: vi mi ,
1
,
2
V , V vi mi a R,
i)
1
+
2
, =
1
, +
2
,
ii) a, = a,
iii) , = ,
iv) , 0
, = 0 khi v ch khi = 0.
Ch rng, do tnh cht i), ii). Khi c nh vect V , tch v hng l mt nh x tuyn
tnh i vi bin th nht. Do tnh cht i xng (giao hon) iii), ta d dng suy ra khi c nh
V , th tch v hng l mt nh x tuyn tnh i vi bin th 2, tc l: , ,
1
,
2
V ,
a R ta c:
i) ,
1
+
2
= ,
1
+,
2
ii) , a = a,
nh ngha
Khng gian vect trn R, trong c thm mt tch v hng c gi l khng gian vect
Euclide.
Ch
T tnh cht tuyn tnh ca tch v hng theo tng bin (tnh cht i, ii, i, ii), ta d dng
c cc cng thc sau:
0, = , 0 = 0 vi mi V .
1
Gi s =
m
i=1
a
i
i
, =
n
j=1
b
j
j
th:
, =
_
m
i=1
a
i
i
,
n
j=1
b
j
j
_
= a
i
b
j
m
i=1
n
j=1
i
,
j
1.2 Cc v d
1. Cho V = R
n
, = (x
1
, . . . , x
n
), = (y
1
, . . . , y
n
) V , ta nh ngha:
, = x
1
y
1
+ + x
n
y
n
=
n
i=1
x
i
y
i
y l mt tch v hng trn R
n
v (R
n
, , ) l mt khng gian vect Euclide.
2. Cho V = C[a, b] l khng gian vect cc hm s thc lin tc trn [a, b]. Vi mi f(x),
g(x) thuc C[a, b] ta nh ngha:
f(x), g(x) =
_
b
a
f(x)g(x)dx
y l mt tch v hng trn C[a, b] v (C[a, b], , ) l mt khng gian vect Euclide.
1.3 di v gc
1. nh ngha. Cho E l khng gian vect Euclide. Vi mi vect E, di ca vect
, k hiu l , l s thc khng m, xc nh nh sau:
x =
_
x, x
2. Cc v d
(a) E = R
n
, x = (x
1
, . . . , x
n
) R
n
th x =
_
x
2
1
+ + x
2
n
(b) E = C[a, b], f(x) C[a, b] th f(x) =
_
b
a
[f(x)]
2
dx
3. Mt vi tnh cht c bn
Trong khng gian vect Euclide E, ta c:
= 0 = 0 v a R, a = |a|.
Bt ng thc Bunhiacpxki
, E, |, | .
Du ng thc xy ra khi v ch khi cc vect , ph thuc tuyn tnh.
Chng minh
Nu = 0, bt ng thc hin nhin ng.
Nu = 0 th tam thc bc hai:
f(t) = , t
2
2, t +, = t, t 0 vi mi t R.
Do ,
f
0 ,
2
, , 0 |, | .
2
Bt ng thc tam gic
, E, + +
Chng minh. p dng bt ng thc Bunhiacpxki, ta c:
+
2
= + , +
= , + 2, +,

2
+ +
2
= ( +)
2
Do , + +
Do chng minh trn, ta c:
= ( + ) + () + + = + +
Do , +
4. Gc gia hai vect
Cho E l khng gian vect Euclide. Ta gi gc gia hai vect khc khng , E
l s thc [0, ] xc nh bi:
cos =
,
.
Cn ch rng do bt ng thc Bunhiacpxki,
,
.
1 nn gc gia hai
vet khc khng , E xc nh v duy nht.
Hai vect , E gi l trc giao, k hiu nu , = 0.
Nu , = 0 th gc gia chng l =

2
Cng thc Pitago
, E, +
2
=
2
+
2
Tht vy, , E, ta c:
+
2
= + , +
= , + 2, +,
=
2
+
2
+ 2,
Do , +
2
=
2
+
2
, = 0
2 H trc giao, h trc chun, c s trc giao, c s trc
chun
2.1 Cc khi nim c bn
Ta nhc li rng hai vect , ca khng gian vect Euclide E gi l trc giao, k hiu
nu , = 0.
3
H vect
1
, . . . ,
m
E gi l h trc giao nu chng i mt trc giao, ngha l
i

j
i = j.
Mt c s ca E m l h trc giao, gi l c s trc giao ca E.
Vect E gi l trc giao vi tp con A E nu trc giao vi mi vect ca A. Khi
ta k hiu A.
H vect
1
, . . . ,
m
E gi l h trc chun nu chng l h trc giao v mi vect
i
l vect n v (ngha l di ca
i
,
i
= 1).
Nh vy, h vect
1
, . . . ,
m
El h trc chun khi v ch khi
i
,
j
=
ij
=
_
0 nu i = j
1 nu i = j
Mt c s ca E m l h trc chun, gi l c s trc chun ca E.
Nu
1
, . . . ,
m
l mt h trc giao, khng cha vect khng ca E th h:
u
1
=

1
, u
2
=

2
, . . . , u
m
=

m
l mt h trc chun ca E.
Php bin i trn ta gi l php trc chun ha mt h vect trc giao.
Nu
1
, . . . ,
m
l c s trc giao ca E th trc chun ha c s , ta s c mt c
s trc chun ca E.
Ch rng, mt h vect trc giao khng cha vect khng th c lp tuyn tnh. Chng
minh iu ny kh n gin, xin dnh cho bn c.
2.2 Trc giao ha mt h vect c lp tuyn tnh (phng php
Gram-Schmidt
Trc giao ha
Trong khng gian Euclide E cho h vect c lp tuyn tnh
1
,
2
, . . . ,
m
. Khi , h
vect:
1
=
1
2
=
2

2
,
1
1
,
1
1
.
.
.
m
=
m
m1
i=1
m
,
i
i
,
i

i
l h vect trc giao, c lp tuyn tnh trong E, v
1
, . . . ,
m
=
1
, . . . ,
m
Php chuyn t h vect

1
, . . . ,
m
sang h vect trc giao
1
, . . . ,
m
nh trn gi l
php trc giao ha h vect
1
, . . . ,
m
.
Ch
4
Nu
1
, . . . ,
m
l c s ca khng gian vect con U ca khng gian vect Euclide
E, (U =
1
, . . . ,
m
), trc giao ha h vect
1
, . . . ,
m
ta c h vect trc giao
1
, . . . ,
m
v U =
1
, . . . ,
m
=
1
, . . . ,
m
.
Do ,
1
, . . . ,
m
chnh l c s trc giao ca U.
T ch trn, mt khng gian Euclide E lun c c s trc chun.
Tht vy, tm c s trc chun ca E, u tin ta tm mt c s
1
, . . . ,
m
bt
k ca E, sau trc giao ha c s trn ta c c s trc giao
1
, . . . ,
m
ca E.
Cui cng, trc chun ha c s trc giao
1
, . . . ,
m
, ta s c c s trc chun
u
1
, . . . , u
m
ca E.
Cng lu bn c rng, trong qu trnh trc giao ha h vect
1
, . . . ,
m
, n gin
cho qu trnh tnh ton, ta c th thay vect
i
bi mt vect t l vi
i
. Sau y l
mt v d:
V d
Trong khng gian vet Euclide R
4
, cho khng gian vect con U sinh bi cc vect:
1
= (0, 1, 0, 1)
2
= (0, 1, 1, 0)
3
= (1, 1, 1, 1)
4
= (1, 2, 1, 2)
(U =
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
)
Tm mt c s trc chun ca U.
Gii
tm c s trc chun ca U, u tin ta tm mt c s ca U. H con c lp tuyn
tnh ti i ca
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
l mt c s ca U. T ta c
1
,
2
,
3
l mt c s ca
U.
Tip theo, trc giao ha h vect
1
,
2
,
3
c mt c s trc giao ca U.
Ta c:
1
=
1
= (0, 1, 0, 1)
2
=
2

2
,
1
1
,
1
1
= (0, 1, 1, 0)
1
2
(0, 1, 0, 1) =
_
0,
1
2
, 1,
1
2
_
php tnh tip theo n gin hn, ta c th chn
2
= (0, 1, 2, 1).
3
=
3
3
,
1
1
,
1
3
,
2
2
,
2
2
= (1, 1, 1, 1)
2
2
(0, 1, 0, 1)
2
6
(0, 1, 2, 1) =
_
1,
1
3
,
1
3
,
1
3
_
n gin, ta c th chn
3
= (3, 1, 1, 1).
Vy c s trc giao ca U l:
1
= (0, 1, 0, 1)
2
= (0, 1, 2, 1)
3
= (3, 1, 1, 1)
Trc chun ha c s trc giao
1
,
2
,
3
, ta c c s trc chun ca U l:
5
e
1
=
_
0,
1
2
, 0,
1
2
_
e
2
=
_
0,
1
6
,
2
6
,
1
6
_
e
3
=
_
3
2
3
,
1
2
3
,
1
2
3
,
1
2
3
_
3 Hnh chiu trc giao v ng trc giao
3.1 nh l - nh ngha
Cho E l khng gian vect Euclide, v U l khng gian vect con ca E. Khi mi vect
E u vit c duy nht di dng:
=
+
trong
U v U.
Vect
gi l hnh chiu trc giao ca vect ln U, cn =
l ng trc giao
h t xung U.
Chng minh
Gi s e
1
, . . . , e
k
l mt c s trc chun ca U. V
U nn
c dng:
= x
1
e
1
+ + x
k
e
k
Ta cn tm x
1
, . . . , x
k
=
U.
=
e
j
, j = 1, 2, . . . , k

, e
j
= 0
, e
j

, e
j
= 0
, e
j

i=1
x
i
e
i
, e
j
_
= 0
, e
j
x
j
= 0
x
j
= , e
j
Vy vect
xc nh duy nht bi
=
k
j=1
, e
j
.e
j
trong e
1
, . . . , e
k
l mt c s trc chun ca U, cn vect xc nh bi =
.
3.2 Cch tm hnh chiu trc giao
Cho khng gian vect Euclide E, v U l khng gian vect con ca E. Cho vect E.
tm hnh chiu trc giao ca vect ln U, ta c th tm bng hai cch sau:
6
1. Cch 1. Tm mt c s trc chun e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
k
ca U. Khi hnh chiu trc giao
ca
vect xc nh bi cng thc:
= , e
1
.e
1
+, e
2
.e
2
+ + +, e
k
.e
k
2. Gi s u
1
, . . . , u
k
l c s bt k ca U. V
U nn
= x
1
u
1
+ + x
k
u
k
. Ta cn
tm x
1
, . . . , x
k
vect
U.

u
j
vi j = 1, 2, . . . , k

, u
j
= , u
j
x
1
u
1
, u
j
+ x
2
u
2
, u
j
+ + x
k
u
k
, u
j
= , u
j
Ln lt cho j = 1, 2, . . . , k, ta c x
1
, . . . , x
k
l nghim ca h phng trnh sau:
_
_
u
1
, u
1
x
1
+u
2
, u
1
x
2
+ +u
k
, u
1
x
k
= , u
1
u
1
, u
2
x
1
+u
2
, u
2
x
2
+ +u
k
, u
2
x
k
= , u
2
.
.
.
u
1
, u
1
x
k
+u
2
, u
k
x
2
+ +u
k
, u
k
x
k
= , u
k
()
Nh vy, tm hnh chiu
ca ln U, ta cn tm mt c s u
1
, . . . , u
k
ca U, sau
lp h phng trnh (). Gii h () ta s c nghim duy nht (x
1
, . . . , x
k
). Khi :
= x
1
u
1
+ + x
k
u
k
.
V d
Trong khng gian Euclide R
4
cho khng gian vect con U sinh bi cc vect:
1
= (0, 1, 0, 1)
2
= (0, 1, 1, 0)
3
= (1, 1, 1, 1)
4
= (1, 2, 1, 2)
(U =
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
)
Tm hnh chiu trc giao ca vect x = (1, 1, 0, 0) ln U.
Gii
Cch 1:
u tin ta tm mt c s trc chun ca U. v d trc ta tm c mt c s trc
chun ca U l:
e
1
=
_
0,
1
2
, 0,
1
2
_
e
2
=
_
0,
1
6
,
2
6
,
1
6
_
e
3
=
_
3
2
3
,
1
2
3
,
1
2
3
,
1
2
3
_
Do , hnh chiu trc giao ca x l:
x
= x, e
1
e
1
+x, e
2
e
2
+x, e
3
e
3
=
1
2
e
1
+
1
6
e
2
+
1
3
e
3
7
=
_
1
2
,
1
2
,
1
2
,
1
2
_
Cch 2:
u tin tm mt c s ca U. D thy
1
,
2
,
3
l mt c s ca U. Sau lp h phng
trnh dng ().
Ta c:
1
,
1
= 2
2
,
1
= 1
3
,
1
= 2
x,
1
= 1
2
,
2
= 2
3
,
2
= 2
x,
2
= 1
3
,
3
= 4
x,
3
= 2
Do , h phng trnh () trong trng hp ny c dng:
_
_
_
2x
1
+ x
2
+ 2x
3
= 1
x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 2x
3
= 1
2x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 4x
3
= 2
y l h Cramer, gii h ny ta c x
1
= 0, x
2
= 0, x
3
=
1
2
. Do , hnh chiu trc giao
ca vect x l:
x
= 0
1
+ 0
2
+
1
2
3
=
_
1
2
,
1
2
,
1
2
,
1
2
_
3.3 nh ngha
Cho U l khng gian vect con ca khng gian Euclide E v l vect thuc E. Khi
gc gia hai vect v hnh chiu trc giao
cng c gi l gc gia vect v khng gian

con U.
di ca ng thng trc giao =
t n U gi l khong cch t vect

n U.
4 Php bin i trc giao v php bin i i xng
4.1 Hai khng gian Euclide ng cu
Cho hai khng gian vect Euclide E
1
vi tch v hng ,
1
v E
2
vi tch v hng ,
2
.
Ta ni E
1
ng cu vi E
2
, k hiu E
1

= E
2
nu tn ti ng cu gia hai khng gian vect
f : E
1
E
2
tha:
, E
1
, ,
1
= f(), f()
2
Quan h ng cu l mt quan h tng ng v ta c kt qu sau:
nh l. Hai khng gian Euclide ng cu khi v ch khi chng c cng s chiu.
8
Chng minh
Nu E
1

= E
2
th theo nh ngha E
1
, E
2
l cc khng gian vect ng cu nn
dimE
1
= dimE
2
.
Ngc li, gi s dimE
1
= dimE
2
= n v
1
, . . . ,
n
(),
1
, . . . ,
n
() ln lt l c
s trc chun ca E
1
v E
2
. Khi tn ti nh x tuyn tnh f : E
1
E
2
, f(
i
) =
i
,
i = 1, 2, . . . , n. V f bin c s thnh c s nn f l ng cu khng gian vect. Ta chng minh
x, y
1
= f(x), f(y)
2
.
Tht vy, x, y E
1
, ta c:
x =
n
i=1
x
i
i
y =
n
j=1
y
i
j
Khi :
x, y
1
=
x
i
i
,
y
j
j
_
1
=
i,j
x
i
y
j
i
,
j
1
=
n
i=1
x
i
y
i
f(x), f(y)
2
=
f(
x
i
,
i
), f(
y
j
j
)
_
2
=
x
i
f(
i
),
y
j
f(
j
)
_
2
=
x
i
i
),
y
j
j
_
2
=
x
i
y
j
i
,
j
2
=
n
i=1
x
i
y
i
Vy x, y
1
= f(x), f(y)
2
v E
1

= E
2
.
4.2 Php bin i trc giao
4.2.1 Ma trn trc giao
Ma trn vung A gi l ma trn trc giao nu A
1
= A
t
(A
t
: ma trn chuyn v ca A).
4.2.2 nh ngha
Cho E l khng gian vect Euclide. Mt php bin i tuyn tnh f ca E gi l php bin
i trc giao ca E nu f bo ton tch v hng, tc l:
, E, , = f(), f()
D thy, php bin i trc giao l mt song nh v:
f() = 0 f(), f() = 0 , = 0 = 0
Tnh cht c bn nht ca php bin i trc giao c cho trong nh l sau.
9
4.2.3 nh l
Cho f l php bin i tuyn tnh ca khng gian vect Euclide E. Khi cc khng nh
sau tng ng:
1. f l php bin i trc giao.
2. f bin c s trc chun ca E thnh c s trc chun ca E.
3. Ma trn ca f trong mt c s trc chun l ma trn trc giao.
Chng minh
1) 2) Gi s e
1
, . . . , e
n
l c s trc chun ca E. Khi :
e
i
, e
j
=
ij
=
_
1 nu i = j
0 nu i = j
V f l php bin i trc giao, nn:
f(e
i
), f(e
j
) = e
i
, e
j
=
ij
=
_
1 nu i = j
0 nu i = j
Do , f(e
1
), . . . , f(e
n
) l c s trc chun.
2) 3) Ma trn ca f trong c s trc chun e
1
, . . . , e
n
theo nh ngha chnh l ma trn i
c s t e
1
, . . . , e
n
sang c s trc chun f(e
1
), . . . , f(e
n
). V ma trn i c s gia hai
c s trc chun l ma trn trc giao (xem bi tp 10) nn ma trn ca f trong c s
trc chun l ma trn trc giao.
3) 1) Gi s e
1
, . . . , e
n
(e) l c s trc chun ca E v A = A
f/
(e)
l ma trn trc giao
(A
t
= A
1
).
Vi , E, = a
1
e
1
+ + a
n
e
n
, = b
1
e
1
+ + b
n
e
n
Khi ,
, = []
t
/
(e)
[]
/
(e)
= []
t
/
(e)
I[]
/
(e)
= []
t
/
(e)
A
1
A[]
/
(e)
= []
t
/
(e)
A
t
A[]
/
(e)
= (A[]
/
(e)
)
t
(A[]
/
(e)
)
= [f()]
t
/
(e)
.[f()]
/
(e)
= f(), f()
4.3 Php bin i i xng
4.3.1 nh ngha
Cho E l khng gian vect Euclide. Php bin i tuyn tnh f ca E gi l php bin i
i xng nu , E : f(), = , f().
10
4.3.2 nh l
Mt php bin i tuyn tnh ca E l php bin i i xng khi v ch khi ma trn ca
f trong mt c s trc chun l ma trn i xng.
Chng minh
Gi s f : E E l php bin i tuyn tnh, ma trn ca f trong c s trc chun
e
1
, . . . , e
n
l A = [a
ij
]. Khi :
f(e
i
) =
n
k=1
a
ki
e
k
Vi mi i, j ta c:
f(e
i
), e
j
=
k=1
a
ki
e
k
, e
j
_
=
n
k=1
a
ki
e
k
, e
j
= a
ji
e
i
, f(e
j
) =
e
i
,
n
k=1
a
kj
e
k
_
=
n
k=1
a
kj
e
i
, e
k
= a
ij
Nu f l php bin i i xng, th f(e
i
), e
j
= e
i
, f(e
j
). Do , a
ji
= a
ij
. Vy ma
trn A l ma trn i xng.
Nu ma trn A i xng, tc l a
ji
= a
ij
th f(e
i
), e
j
= e
i
, f(e
j
) i, j.
Nu =
n
i=1
x
i
e
i
, =
n
j=1
y
j
e
j
ca E th:
f(), =
x
i
f(e
i
),
y
j
e
j
_
=
i,j
x
i
y
j
f(e
i
), e
j
=
i,j
x
i
y
j
e
i
, f(e
j
)
=
x
i
e
i
,
y
j
f(e
j
)
_
= , f()
Vy f l php bin i i xng.
11
I S C BN
Bi 19. Bi tp v khng gian vct Euclide
PGS TS M Vinh Quang
1. Tm mt c s trc giao, c s trc chun ca khng gian vct con L ca R
4
trong cc
trng hp sau:
a. L =
1
,
2
,
3
vi
1
= (1, 1, 0, 0),
2
= (1, 1, 1, 1),
3
= (0, 1, 0, 1)
b. L =
1
,
2
,
3
vi
1
= (1, 2, 2, 1),
2
= (1, 1, 5, 3),
3
= (3, 2, 8, 7).
c. L =
_
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
)
_
x
1
x
2
+ x
4
= 0
x
2
x
3
x
4
= 0
_
Gii. a. D thy
1
,
2
,
3
LTT nn
1
,
2
,
3
l c s ca L. tm c s trc giao
ca L ta ch cn trc giao ha h vct
1
,
2
,
3
. Ta c:
1
=
1
2
=
2

2
,
1
1
,
1
1
= (1, 1, 1, 1)
2
2
(1, 1, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 1, 1)
3
=
3

3
,
1
1
,
1

3
,
2
2
,
2
2
= (0, 1, 0, 1)
1
2
(1, 1, 0, 0)
1
2
(0, 0, 1, 1) = (
1
2
,
1
2
,
1
2
,
1
2
)
Ta c th chn
3
= (1, 1, 1, 1). Vy, c s trc giao ca L l:
1
= (1, 1, 0, 0),
2
= (0, 0, 1, 1),
3
= (1, 1, 1, 1)
Trc chun ha c s trc giao trn, ta c c s trc chun ca L l:
e
1
= (
1
2
,
1
2
, 0, 0), e
2
= (0, 0,
1
2
,
1
2
), e
3
= (
1
2
,
1
2
,
1
2
,
1
2
)
b. Gii tng t cu a., chi tit dnh cho bn c.
c. u tin, ta tm mt c s ca L. L l khng gian nghim ca h
_
x
1
x
2
+ x
4
= 0
x
2
x
3
x
4
= 0
(1)
do c s ca L l h nghim c bn ca h (1). H (1) c v s nghim ph thuc
2 tham s x
3
, x
4
. Ta c:
x
2
= x
3
+ x
4
x
1
= x
2
x
4
= x
3
1
do , h nghim c bn ca h (1) l:
1
= (1, 1, 1, 0);
2
= (0, 1, 0, 1)
Do , c s ca L l
1
,
2
. Trc giao ha h vct
1
,
2
, ta s c c s trc giao
ca L.Ta c:
1
=
1
2
=
2

2
,
1
1
,
1
1
= (0, 1, 0, 1)
1
3
(1, 1, 1, 0) = (
1
3
,
2
3
,
1
3
, 1)
Ta c th chn
2
= (1, 2, 1, 3) v c s trc giao ca L l:
1
= (1, 1, 1, 0),
2
= (1, 2, 1, 3)
Trc chun ha c s trc giao
1
,
2
ta c c s trc chun ca L l:
e
1
= (
1
3
,
1
3
,
1
3
, 0), e
2
= (
1
15
,
2
15
,
1
15
,
3
15
)
2. Chng minh cc h vct sau l h trc giao trong R
4
. Hy b sung chng c mt c
s trc giao ca R
4
a.
1
= (1, 1, 1, 1),
2
= (1, 0, 1, 0)
b.
1
= (0, 0, 1, 1),
2
= (1, 1, 1 1)
Gii. a. V
1
,
2
= 0 nn
1
2
. b sung c mt c s trc giao ca R
4
, u tin
ta phi b sung thm 2 vct
3
,
4
ca R
4
c mt c s ca R
4
, sau ta trc
giao ha c s , ta s c c s trc giao ca R
4
, cha cc vct
1
,
2
.
C nhiu cch chn cc vct
3
,
4

1
,
2
,
3
,
4
l c s ca R
4
(chn nh
thc cp 4 tng ng l khc 0). V d ta c th chn
3
= (0, 0, 1, 0),
4
= (0, 0, 0, 1).
Khi nh thc cp 4 tng ng ca h
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
bng 1, nn h
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
LTT nn l c s ca R
4
. Trc giao ha h vct
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
.
1
=
1
2
=
2

2
,
1
1
,
1
1
=
2
0.
1
=
2
3
=
3

3
,
1
1
,
1

3
,
2
2
,
2
2
= (0, 0, 1, 0)
1
4
(1, 1, 1, 1)
1
2
(1, 0, 1, 0) = (
1
4
,
1
4
,
1
4
,
1
4
)
Ta c th chn
3
= (1, 1, 1, 1)
4
=
4

4
,
1
1
,
1

4
,
2
2
,
2

4
,
3
3
,
3
3
= (0, 0, 0, 1)
1
4
(1, 1, 1, 1)
0
2
(1, 0, 1, 0)
1
4
(1, 1, 1, 1)
= (0,
1
2
, 0,
1
2
)
Ta c th chn
4
= (0, 1, 0, 1)
2
Vy ta c th b sung thm 2 vct
3
= (1, 1, 1, 1),
4
= (0, 1, 0, 1)
c
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
l c s trc giao ca R
4
.
b. Gii tng t cu a., chi tit xin dnh cho bn c.
3. Hy tm hnh chiu trc giao v khong cch ca vct x ln khng gian con L ca R
4
vi:
a. x = (1, 1, 1, 0), L =
1
,
2
,
3
, trong
1
= (1, 1, 0, 0),
2
= (1, 1, 1, 1),
3
= (0, 1, 0, 1)
b. x = (1, 0, 1, 2), L =
_
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
)
x
1
x
2
+ x
4
= 0
x
2
x
3
+ x
4
= 0
_
Gii. a. Cch 1. u tin ta mt tm c s trc chun ca L. Theo bi 1, c s trc
chun ca L l
e
1
= (
1
2
,
1
2
, 0, 0), e
2
= (0, 0,
1
2
,
1
2
), e
3
= (
1
2
,
1
2
,
1
2
,
1
2
)
Do , hnh chiu trc giao x
ca x ln L l
x
= x, e
1
e
1
+x, e
2
e
2
+x, e
3
e
3
= 0.e
1
+
1
2
e
2
+
1
2
e
3
= (
1
4
,
1
4
,
1
4
,
3
4
)
Khong cch t vct x n L l di ca vct x x
= (
3
4
,
3
4
,
3
4
,
3
4
) do ,
d(x, L) = x x
=
36
16
=
9
4
.
Cch 2. D thy mt c s ca L l
1
,
2
,
3
v
1
,
1
= 2,
2
,
1
= 2,
3
,
1
= 1
x,
1
= 0,
2
,
2
= 4,
3
,
2
= 0,
x,
2
= 1,
3
,
3
= 2, x,
3
= 1
Do , hnh chiu x
ca x c dng
x
= x
1
1
+ x
2
2
+ x
3
3
trong x
1
, x
2
, x
3
l nghim ca h
_
_
_
2x
1
+ 2x
2
x
3
= 0
2x
1
+ 4x
2
+ 0x
3
= 1
x
1
+ 0x
2
+ 2x
3
= 1
Gii h, ta c nghim x
1
= 0, x
2
=
1
4
, x
3
=
1
2
, do
x
= 0
1
+
1
4
2
+
1
2
3
= (
1
4
,
1
4
,
1
4
,
3
4
)
v d(x, L) = x x
=
9
4
.
3
b. Cch 1. Tm mt c s trc chun ca L, theo bi 1c., l c s:
e
1
= (
1
3
,
1
3
,
1
3
, 0), e
2
= (
1
15
,
2
15
,
1
15
,
3
15
)
Do , hnh chiu trc giao x
ca x ln L l:
x
= x, e
1
.e
1
+x, e
2
.e
2
=
2
3
e
1
+
4
15
e
2
= (
6
15
,
18
15
,
6
15
,
12
15
) = (
2
5
,
6
5
,
2
5
,
4
5
)
v khong cch t x n L l:
d(x, L) = x x
=
_
_
_
_
(
3
5
,
6
5
,
3
5
,
6
5
)
_
_
_
_
=
90
25
=
18
5
Cch 2. u tin ta tm mt c s ca L. Mt c s ca L l h nghim c bn ca
h:
_
x
1
x
2
+ x
4
= 0
x
2
x
3
+ x
4
= 0
theo bi 1c., c s l
1
= (1, 1, 1, 0),
2
= (0, 1, 0, 1)
Ta c
1
,
1
= 3,
2
,
1
= 1, x,
1
= 2,
2
,
2
= 2, x,
2
= 2
Hnh chiu trc giao x
ca x ln L l vct x
= x
1
1
+x
2
2
, trong , x
1
, x
2
l
nghim ca h
_
3x
1
+ x
2
= 2
x
1
+ 2x
2
= 2
do , x
1
=
2
5
, x
2
=
4
5
.
Vy
x
=
2
5
1
+
4
5
2
= (
2
5
,
6
5
,
2
5
,
4
5
)
v d(x, L) = ||x x
|| =
18
5
.
4. Cho L l khng gian vct con ca khng gian Euclide E v x
o
E. Ta gi tp
P := L + x
o
= {x + x
o
|x L}
l mt a tp tuyn tnh ca E. Khong cch t mt vct E n a tp P, k hiu
d(, P) xc nh bi:
d(, P) = min{ u : u P}
Chng minh rng khong cch d(, P) bng di ng trc giao h t vct x
o
n
L (tc l d(, P) = d( x
o
, L).
4
Gii. Gi s hnh chiu trc giao ca x
o
ln L l , tc l x
o
= + , trong ,
L, L. Khi
d( x
o
, L) =
vi mi vct u = x
o
+ y P (tc l y L), ta c
u =
_
u, u =
_
x
o
y, x
o
y
=
_
y + , y + =
_
y
2
+
2

( y, = 0 v y L)
do min u = , du bng xy ra khi
y
2
= 0 = y = u x
o
u = x
o
+
Vy
d(, P) = min{ u} = d( x
o
, L)
du bng xy ra khi v ch khi u = x
o
+ , trong l hnh chiu trc giao ca x
o
ln L.
5. Tm khong cch t vct = (2, 1, 4, 4) n a tp P xc nh bi h phng trnh tuyn
tnh:
_
x
1
x
2
+ x
4
= 3
x
2
x
3
+ x
4
= 3
(1)
Gii. u tin ta phi vit a tp P di dng
(P) = L + x
o
= {x + x
o
| x L}
trong , L l khng gian vct con ca R
4
. V tp nghim ca h phng trnh (1) chnh
bng tp nghim h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht tng ng ca h (1) cng vi
nghim ring ca h (1), do , L chnh l khng gian con cc nghim ca h thun nht
tng ng h (1)
_
x
1
x
2
+ x
4
= 0
x
2
x
3
+ x
4
= 0
(L)
cn x
o
l nghim ring bt k ca h (1). Ta c x
o
= (1, 2, 3, 4) l nghim ca h (1)
Theo bi tp 4. d(, P) = d( x
o
, L). Vy ta cn tm khong cch t vct x
o
=
(1, 1, 1, 0) n khng gian con L cc nghim ca h
_
x
1
x
2
+ x
4
= 0
x
2
x
3
+ x
4
= 0
theo bi 3., d( x
o
, L) =
9
4
Vy, d(, P) =
9
4
6. Cho L l KGVT con ca khng gian Euclide E. K hiu:
L
= {x E| xL}
Chng minh
a. L
l KGVT con ca E. L
gi l phn b trc giao ca L.

5
b. (L
= L
c. L + L
= E, L
L = {0}
d. dimL
+ dimL = dimE
Gii. a. Kim tra trc tip da vo tiu chun khng gian vct con.
b. Gi s L, khi L
, ta c L, do . Vy L
nn (L
.
Ngc li, gi s (L
, khi L
. Hnh chiu trc giao ca ln L l
, ta
c
=
+ , L,
L
v L
nn ,
, do
0 = , =
+ , =
, +, = ,
t , = 0 nn = 0 v =
L.
c. Vi mi L, gi
l hnh chiu ca ln L, ta c:
=
+ ,
L, L
tc l L
nn L + L
. Vy L + L
= E.
Nu L
L th L
nn L, do tc l , = 0. Vy, = 0 ngha
l L
L = {0}.
d. dimL
+ dimL = dim(L
+ L) dim(L
L) = dimE dim{0} = dimE

7. Tm c s trc giao, c s trc chun ca khng gian con L
ca R
4
, bit L l cc khng
gian con di y:
a. L =
1
,
2
vi
1
= (1, 0, 1, 2),
2
= (1, 1, 0, 1)
b. L l khng gian con cc nghim ca h
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
+ x
3
x
4
= 0
2x
1
+ x
2
x
3
+ x
4
= 0
x
1
+ 2x
2
2x
3
+ 2x
4
= 0
(1)
Gii. tm c s trc giao, c s trc chun ca L
, ta tm mt c s ca L
. Sau ,
s trc giao ha, trc chun ha nh trong bi tp 1.
a. Vct
x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) L
xL
x
1
v x
2
_
x,
1
= 0
x,
2
= 0
_
x
1
x
3
+ 2x
4
= 0
x
1
+ x
2
x
4
= 0
(2)
Vy, L
chnh l khng gian nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh trn, do h

nghim c bn ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh (2) chnh l mt c s ca L
. Vic
tm c s trc giao, trc chun ca L
by gi c tin hnh ging nh trong bi

tp 1c. Cc tnh ton chi tit xin dnh cho bn c.
6
b. Vct
x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) L (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) l nghim ca h (1)
_
_
_
x,
1
= 0
x,
2
= 0
x,
3
= 0
trong
1
= (1, 1, 1, 1),
2
= (2, 1, 1, 1),
3
= (1, 2, 2, 2))
x
1
, x
2
, x
3
x
1
,
2
,
3
Nh vy x L xU =
1
,
2
,
3
, x U
tc l L = U
, do L
= U. Vy,
L
=
1
,
2
,
3
. T , mt h con LTT ti i ca h
1
,
2
,
3
l c s ca L
.
D thy
1
,
2
l c s ca L
. Vic trc giao ha, trc chun ha h vct

1
,
2

c c s trc giao, c s trc chun ca L
kh n gin (tin hnh nh bi tp

1a). Chi tit xin c dnh cho bn c.
8. Cho L
1
, L
2
l cc khng gian con ca KGVT Euclide E vi dimL
1
< dimL
2
. Chng minh
tn ti vct = 0, L
2
v trc giao vi L
1
Gii. Ta c
dimL
1
+ dimL
1
= dimL
2
+ dimL
2
= dimE (Bi tp 6)
Do dimL
1
< dimL
2
nn dimL
1
> dimL
2
Mt khc
dim(L
2
L
1
) = dimL
2
+ dimL
1
dim(L
2
+ L
1
)
> dimL
2
+ dimL
2
dim(L
2
+ L
1
)
= dimE dim(L
2
+ L
1
) 0
Vy dim(L
2
L
1
) > 0 do L
2
L
1
= {0}, nn tn ti vct L
2
L
1
, = 0. R
rng L
2
v L
1
9. Chng minh rng mi h vct trc giao khng cha vct khng u c lp tuyn tnh.
Gii. Gi s
1
, . . . ,
m
l h trc giao, khng cha vct khng (
i
= 0) ca khng gian
vct Euclide v gi s
m
j=1
a
j
j
= 0. Khi , vi mi i, ta c:
0 =
i
, 0 =
i
,
m
j=1
a
j
j
=
m
j=1
a
j
i
,
j
= a
i
i
,
i
do a
i
i
,
i
= 0 vi mi i, v
i
,
i
= 0 nn a
i
= 0, i. Vy, h
1
, . . . ,
m
l h
LTT.
10. Chng minh rng: Trong khng gian Euclide, ma trn i c s gia 2 c s trc chun l
ma trn trc giao.
Gii. Gi s
1
, . . . ,
n
() v
1
, . . . ,
n
() l c s trc chun ca khng gian Euclide
E v gi s:
j
=
n
i=1
a
ij
i
vi mi j = 1, 2, . . . , n
7
j
=
n
i=1
b
ij
i
vi mi j = 1, 2, . . . , n
Gi T l ma trn i c s t () sang () th:
T =
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nn
_
_
v T
1
=
_
_
b
11
b
12
. . . b
1n
b
21
b
22
. . . b
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
b
n1
b
n2
. . . b
nn
_
_
Ta c
k
,
l
=
k
,
n
i=1
a
il
i
=
n
i=1
a
il
k
,
i
= a
kl
Mt khc
k
,
l
=
n
i=1
b
ik
i
,
l
=
n
i=1
b
ik
i
,
l
= b
lk
Vy b
lk
= a
kl
vi mi k, l, tc l T
t
= T
1
, do , T l ma trn trc giao.
11. Cho E l KGVT Euclide. Chng minh rng php bin i tuyn tnh ca E, f : E E l
php bin i trc giao khi v ch khi f l bo ton di ca mt vct (f() = )
vi mi E
Gii. Nu f l php bin i trc giao th
E, f(), f() = ,
do f() = . chng minh chiu ngc li, ta c nhn xt: , E,
+ , + = , +, + 2,
do
, =
1
2
( +
2
2
) ()
By gi gi s f bo ton di ca vct, khi , do cng thc (), ta c
f(), f() =
1
2
(f() + f()
2
f()
2
f()
2
)
=
1
2
( +
2
2
) = ,
Vy, f l php bin i trc giao.
1
1
8

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I S TUYN TNH

PGS. TS M Vinh Quang

nh thc (cp 2) ca A l mt s, k hiu det A (hoc |A|) xc nh nh sau :

nh thc (cp 3) ca A l mt s k hiu det A (hoc |A|), xc nh nh sau : det A =

= [(1)(2).4 +2.1.(1) +1.0.3] [3.(2).(1) +1.0.(1) +2.1.4] = 8

nh thc ( cp n) ca ma trn A l mt s, k hiu det A (hoc |A|), xc nh nh sau :

Ch : T tnh cht ny, mt mnh v nh thc nu ng vi dng th cng ng vi

Ch : T tnh cht ny ta c nu A l ma trn vung cp n th det (A) =

... ... ... ...

... ... ... ...

... ... ... ...

Trong cc dng cn li ca 3 nh thc 2 v l hon ton nh nhau v chnh l cc dng

Ch : Cc tnh cht 2, 3, 4 chnh l tnh a tuyn tnh thay phin ca nh thc.

Khai trin theo ct 2

(Khai trin theo dng 4)

(Khai trin theo dng 3)

trong , , , l cc nghim ca phng trnh :x

Bi gii: S dng tnh cht 2.4, tch nh thc theo ct n, ta c:

Khai trin nh thc u theo ct (n) ta s c nh thc u bng D

Bi gii: Khai trin nh thc theo dng u, ta c:

Tip tc khai trin nh thc sau theo ct (1) ta c cng thc:

(1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2)

Tnh cc nh thc cp 2n sau

(ng cho chnh l a, ng cho ph l b, tt c cc v tr cn li l 0)

trong , , l cc nghim ca phng trnh :x

Tip tc khai trin nh thc theo ct (1) ta c cng thc truy hi :

(1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2)

C 2 nh thc ny u bng 0. Do rank A = 3.

1.3 Cc tnh cht c bn

(c) Cng thc i ta

x R. Vy x lun biu th tuyn tnh c qua h gm 1 vct {}.

gi l ma trn ca f trong cp c s (), () v k hiu l A

Nhc li rng c s chnh tc ca khng gian R

Chng hn, nh x tuyn tnh f : R

4.2 Biu thc ta ca nh x tuyn tnh

) l cc c s ca U. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : V U. Khi , ta c cng thc

l k hiu ma trn i c s t c s () sang c s (

v c s ca Kerf chnh l h nghim

H c v s nghim ph thuc hai tham s x

l ma trn cho, trong

2. Bc 2. Tm gi tr ring, vect ring ca A v ca f

H c v s nghim ph thuc hai tham s x

H c v s nghim ph thuc mt tham s x

Php chuyn t h vect

gi l hnh chiu trc giao ca vect ln U, cn =

cng c gi l gc gia vect v khng gian

t n U gi l khong cch t vect

gi l phn b trc giao ca L.

. Hnh chiu trc giao ca ln L l

L) = dimE dim{0} = dimE

chnh l khng gian nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh trn, do h

by gi c tin hnh ging nh trong bi

. Vic trc giao ha, trc chun ha h vct

kh n gin (tin hnh nh bi tp

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