0

bi ging
i s tuyn tnh
Ngi son: L Th Nguyt
1
Chng 0
tp hp v nh x
Bi 1: tp hp
I. Khi nim tp hp.
1.1. nh ngha. Thut ng tp hp c dng rng ri trong ton hc. Ta thng
ni v tp hp cc s nguyn, tp hp cc im trong mt phng, tp nghim ca
mt phng trnh,.... Tp hp l mt khi nim c bn ca ton hc, n c dng
lm c s cho cc khi nim khc nhng bn thn n khng c nh ngha qua cc
khi nim n gin hn. Ta c th hnh dung tt c nhng i tng xc nh no
hp li to thnh mt tp hp.
Khi ni v tp hp ta ch ra cc i tng c tnh cht no . Chn hn, khi ni
v tp hp cc hc sinh ca mt lp hc, cc i tng ca tp hp l hc sinh ca
lp hc , khi ni v tp hp cc s nguyn th cc i tng ca tp hp l cc s
nguyn.
Mi i tng cu thnh tp hp c gi l mt phn t ca tp hp. ch a l
mt phn t ca tp A ta vit a A(c l a thuc A). Vit a / A(c l a khng
thuc A) ngha l a khng l phn t ca tp A.
V d: chng trnh ton ph thng ta bit cc tp hp sau
a) Tp hp N cc s t nhin.
b) Tp hp Z cc s nguyn
c) Tp hp Q cc s hu t
d) Tp hp R cc s thc.
1.2 Cch m t tp hp. Mun m t mt tp hp ta phi lm r khi cho
ta mt phn t ta bit c n c thuc tp hp cho hay khng. Thng c hai
cch
1) Lit k ra tt c cc phn t ca tp hp.
2) M t tnh cht ca tp hp.
1.3 Tp rng. L tp hp khng c phn t no v c k hiu l
II. S bng nhau ca hai tp hp.
III. Cc php ton trn tp hp.
3.1 Php hp. Hp ca hai tp hp A v B l tp hp gm tt c cc phn t thuc
mt trong hai tp A hoc B, k hiu l A B.
Nh vy
A B = {x|x A hoc x B}
Tng qut
_
iI
A
i
= {x|i I : x A
i
}
3.2 Php giao. Giao ca hai tp hp A v B l tp hp tt c cc phn t ng thi
thuc A v B. K hiu l A B. Nh vy
A B = {x|x A v x B}
Tng qut

iI
A
i
= {x|i I, x A
i
}
2
3.3 Php hiu. Hiu ca hai tp hp A v B l tp hp gm tt c cc phn t thuc
A nhng khng thuc B. K hiu l A|B. Vy
A|B = {x|x A v x / B}
Nu B l con ca A th A|B c gi l phn b ca B trong A.
3.4 Tch cc. Tch cc ca hai tp hp A v B l tp tt c cc cp (a, b),
trong a A, b B. K hiu l AB. Vy
AB = {(a, b)|a A, b B}
Tng t ta c th nh ngha tch cc ca n tp hp A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
n
l
A
1
A
2
... A
n
= {(a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
)|a
1
A
1
, a
2
A
2
, ..., a
n
A
n
}
Nu A
1
= A
2
= ... = A
n
th ta vit A
n
thay cho AA... A(n ln).
3.5 Cc tnh cht.
a) A B = B A
b) A B = B A
c) A A = A
d) A A = A
e) (A B) C = A (B C)
f) (A B) C = A (B C)
g) A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
h) A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
Tnh cht phn phi
(

I
A

)
_
B =

I
(A

_
B)
(
_
I
A

B =
_
I
(A

B)
Quy tc De Morgan.
Cho A

, I l cc tp con ca tp X. Ta c
X|
_
I
A

I
(X|A

)
X|

I
A

=
_
I
(X|A

)
3
Bi 2: nh x
I. Cc khi nim c bn
1.1 nh ngha. Cho X v Y l cc tp khc rng. Mt nh x t tp X vo tp
Y l mt quy tc t tng ng mi phn t x ca tp X vi mt phn t xc nh
duy nht y ca tp Y . Khi phn t y c gi l nh ca ca phn t x qua nh
x cho.
Thng thng, nh x c k hiu bng mt ch. Thut ng "nh x f t X vo
Y m phn t x c t tng ng vi nh y = f(x) c k hiu nh sau
f : X Y
x y = f(x)
Tp hp X c gi l tp ngun hoc l min xc nh ca f. Tp hp Y c gi
l tp ch ca f.
V d: 1) Cho X = {1, 2, 3, 4}; Y = {a, b, c, d}. Khi tng ng
f : X Y
1 a
2 c
3 d
4 b
l nh x.
2) Cho X = {1, 2, 3, 4}; Y = {a, b, c, d}. Khi tng ng
g : X Y
1 a
2 a
3 d
4 b
l nh x.
3) Cho X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; Y = {a, b, c, d}. Khi tng ng
h : X Y
1 a
2 a
3 d
4 b
4
khng l nh x.
4) Cho X = {1, 2, 3, 4}; Y = {a, b, d}. Khi tng ng
k : X Y
1 a
2 a
3 d
4 b
l nh x.
5) Cho X = N tp cc s t nhin, Y = {0, 1}. Quy tc m xc nh bi
m(x) =
1 (1)
x
2
=
_
0, nu x chn
1, nu x l
l nh x.
6) Tng ng
n : R Z
x n(x) = [x]
l nh x.
1.2 nh ngha. Hai nh x f : X Y v f
1
: X
1
Y
1
c gi l bng nhau
nu X = X
1
, Y = Y
1
v vi mi x X, f(x) = f
1
(x).
Gi s f : X Y l nh x. Tp hp
f(X) = {f(x)|x X}
c gi l nh ca nh x f v c k hiu l Imf.
Nu A l tp con ca X th tp
f(A) = {f(x)|x A}
c gi l nh ca tp A qua nh x f.
Nu y Y l mt phn t c nh th tp
f
1
(y) = {x X|f(x) = y}
c gi l nghch nh ca y bi nh x f.
Nu B Y th tp hp
f
1
= {x X|f(x) B}
c gi l nghch nh ca B
1.3 n nh, ton nh, song nh.
n nh. nh x f : X Y c gi l n nh nu vi mi y Y, tp f
1
(y)
c khng qu mt phn t. Nh vy, f l n nh khi v ch khi
x
1
, x
2
X, f(x
1
) = f(x
2
) x
1
= x
2
5
hay
x
1
= x
2
f(x
1
) = f(x
2
)
Ton nh. nh x f : X Y c gi l ton nh u vi mi y Y, tp hp
f
1
(y) = . Tc l y Y, x X : f(x) = y.
Nh vy f l ton nh khi v ch khi Imf = Y.
Song nh. nh x f : X Y c gi l nu f ng thi l n nh v l ton
nh. Nh vy f l song nh nu v ch nu
vi mi y Y, !x X : f(x) = y.
Cu hi: Trong cc nh x f, g, k, m, n trn nh x no l n nh, ton nh,
song nh?
II. Tch cc nh x.
2.1 nh ngha. Cho hai nh x f : X Y, g : Y Z. Tch ca hai nh x f
v g l nh x h : x Z c nh ngha theo quy tc sau
x X, h(x) = g(f(x)).
Tch ca hai nh x f v g c k hiu l g
o
f hoc gf. Nh vy ta c
x X, (g
o
f)(x) = g(f(x)).
V d: Cho f : R R; g : R R c xc nh bi f(x) = x
2
, g(x) = x
2
+2x+8.
Khi (g
o
f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x
2
) = x
4
+ 2x
2
+ 8. v
(f
o
g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x
2
+ 2x + 8) = (x
2
+ 2x + 8)
2
.
Nh vy, ni chung g
o
f = f
o
g.
2.2 nh l. Cho cc nh x f : X Y, g : Y Z, h : Z W. Khi
h
o
(g
o
f) = (h
o
g)
o
f
2.3 nh l. Cho f : X Y, g : Y Z l cc nh x. Khi
a) Nu f v g l n nh th g
o
f l n nh.
b) Nu f v g l ton nh th g
o
f l ton nh.
c) Nu f v g l song nh th g
o
f l song nh.
III. nh x ngc.
3.1 nh ngha. Cho f : X Y l song nh. Vi mi y Y tn ti duy nht mt
phn t x sao cho f(x) = y. nh x f
1
: Y X t tng ng mi phn t y vi
nghch nh x ca n bi f c gi l nh x ngc ca f. Nh vy ta c
y Y, f
1
(y) = x f(x) = y.
Ta thy rng nh x ngc f
1
ca song nh f cng l song nh v ta c
3.2 Mnh . Nu f : X Y l song nh th
a)(f
1
)
1
= f,
b) f
o
f
1
= 1
Y
, f
1
o
f = 1
X
.
3.3 nh l. Cho nh x f : X Y . Nu tn ti nh x g : Y X sao cho
g
o
f = 1
X
, f
o
g = 1
Y
th f l song nh v g = f
1
.
3.4 nh l. Nu f : X Y, g : Y Z l song nh th g
o
f l song nh v
(g
o
f)
1
= f
1
g
1
.
6
bi tp
Bi 1: Cho cc nh x f : A B sau, nh x no l n nh, ton nh, song
nh
a) A = R, B = R, f(x) = x + 7;
b) A = R, B = R, f(x) = x
2
+ 2x 3;
c) A = [4, 9], B = [21, 96], f(x) = x
2
+ 2x 3;
d) A = R, B = (0, +), f(x) = e
x+1
;
e) A = N, B = N, f(x) = x(x + 1).
Bi 2: a)Cho nh x f : R R xc nh bi
f(x) =
2x
1 +x
2
N c n nh, ton nh? Tm nh f(R).
b) Cho nh x g : R/{0} R xc nh bi x
1
x
.
Tm nh f
o
g.
Bi 3: Xt hai nh x f : R R xc nh bi f(x) = |x|;
g : [0, +) R xc nh bi x

x
Hy so snh f
o
g v g
o
f.
Bi 4: Cho hai tp E v F v nh x f : E F.
A v B l hai tp con ca A. Chng minh
a) A B f(A) f(B);
b) f(A B) f(A) f(B);
c) f(A B) = f(A) f(B);
d) Nu f l n nh th f(A B) = f(A) f(B).
7
Chng I
Cu trc i s - s phc
Bi 1: lut hp thnh trong trn mt tp hp
I. Khi nim lut hp thnh trong.
1.2 nh ngha: Lut hp thnh trong trn tp E, hay php ton trn E, l mt
quy lut khi tc ng ln hai phn t a v b ca E s to ra mt v ch mt phn t
cng ca E.
Theo ngha nh x, lut hp thnh trong trn tp E l mt nh x t E ti E.
1.2 Tnh cht ca mt lut hp thnh trong.
Mt lut hp thnh trong () trn tp E c th c mt s tnh cht sau y.
1. Tnh kt hp. Lut hp thnh trong () trn tp E c tnh kt hp nu
a, b, c E : a (b c) = (a b) c
Vd: Php cng v php nhn trn cc tp hp N, Z, Q, R c tnh kt hp.
2. Tnh giao hon: Lut hp thnh trong () trn tp E c tnh giao hon nu
a, b : a b = b a.
Vd: Php cng v php nhn trn cc tp hp N, Z, Q, R c tnh giao hon.
3) Phn t trung ha: Lut hp thnh trong () trn tp E c tnh trung ha l e
nu e E v
a E : a e = e a = a.
Vd: Php cng v php nhn trn cc tp hp N, Z, Q, R c phn t trung ha l 0.
4) Phn t i xng: Phn t a

E c gi l phn t i ca a E nu
a a

= a

a = e.
Vd: i vi php cng trn tp hp Z, Q, R, mi phn t a u c phn t i l a.
1.3. Khi nim v cu trc i s. Mt tp c trang b mt hay nhiu lut hp
thnh trong vi nhng tnh cht xc nh to thnh mt trong nhng i tng ton
hc c gi l cu trc i s.
Sau y ta s nghin cu cc cu trc nhm, vnh, trng v c bit l trng s
phc.
8
Bi 2: cc cu trc i s
I. Cu trc Nhm.
1.1 nh ngha: Mt tp G khng rng c trang b mt lut hp thnh trong ()
c k hiu l (G, ). Cp (G, ) c gi l mt nhm nu tha mn ba tnh cht
sau
1) Php ton () c tnh kt hp.
2) Php ton () c phn t trung ha e.
3) Mi phn t ca G u c phn t i.
Ba tnh cht trn c gi l ba tin ca nhm.
Nu c thm tnh cht th t : Php ton () c tnh giao hon th nhm (G, ) c
gi l nhm giao hon hay nhm Abel.
V d: Cc cp (Z, +), (Q, +), (R, +) l nhng nhm giao hon.
1.2 Mt s tnh cht ca nhm.
Ta c cc tnh cht sau y:
1) Phn t trung ha e l duy nht.
2) Phn t i ca mt phn t a bt k l duy nht.
3) C quy tc gin c a x = a y x = y.
II. Cu trc vnh.
2.1 nh ngha: Tp A khc rng c trang b hai php ton, php ton th nht
gi l php cng, vit l +, php ton th hai gi l nhn, vit l .. B ba (A, +, .)
c gi l mt vnh nu tha mn cc tnh cht sau y.
1) Cp (A, +) l mt nhm giao hon.
2) Php nhn c tnh cht kt hp.
3) Php nhn c tnh phn phi v hai pha i vi php cng, ngha l a, b, c A
ta c
a.(b +c) = a.b +a.c
(b +c).a = b.a +c.a
Nu php nhn c tnh giao hon th ta ni vnh A c tnh cht giao hon.
Nu php nhn c phn t trung ha, k hiu l 1 th vnh A c gi l vnh c
n v.
V d: Cc vnh (Z, +, .), (Q, +, .), (R, +, .) l cc vnh c n v.
2.3 Vnh nguyn
nh ngha: Vnh (A, +, .) c gi l vnh nguyn nu c tnh cht
a.b = 0 a = 0 hoc b = 0.
V d: Cc vnh (Z, +, .), (Q, +, .), (R, +, .) l cc vnh nguyn.
Vy trong vnh nguyn ta c: iu kin cn v mt tch bng khng l mt
trong hai nhn t phi bng khng.
III. Cu trc trng.
3.1 nh ngha: Cho K l mt tp khc rng c trang b hai php ton cng (+)
v nhn (.). Ta ni b ba (K, +, .) hay K l mt trng nu tha mn c tnh cht
sau:
1) (K, +, .) l mt vnh giao hon c n v.
2) Vi mi a K, a = 0(phn t trung ha ca php +), tn ti phn t a

sao cho
a.a

= a

.a = 1, phn t a

c gi l phn t nghch o ca a.
3.2. Mt s tnh cht
9
1) Trng l mt vnh nguyn.
2) K l mt trng th K{0} l mt nhm i vi php nhn.
Bi 3: s phc
1. Tnh cht ca tp hp s thc: Trn tp hp R cc s thc ta c cc php
ton cng hai s thc v nhn hai s thc. Cc tnh cht ny c tnh cht c bn sau
y.
Vi mi s thc a
1
, a
2
, a
3
R,
1) a
1
+a
2
= a
2
+a
1
,
2) (a
1
+a
2
) +a
3
= a
1
+ (a
2
+a
3
),
3) a
1
+ 0 = a
1
,
4) a
1
+ (a
1
) = 0,
5) a
1
a
2
= a
2
a
1
,
6) (a
1
a
2
)a
3
= a
1
(a
2
a
3
),
7) a
1
.1 = a
1
,
8) a
1
.
1
a
1
= 1, (a
1
= 0),
9) a
1
(a
2
+a
3
) = a
1
a
2
+a
1
a
3
.
Cc tnh cht 1) 9) ca cc php ton cng v nhn trn R c gi l tnh cht
trng ca R v tp hp R c gi l trng s thc.
2. Xy dng trng s phc.
Nhiu bi ton trong ton hc dn n cc phng trnh i s. gii quyt cc
bi ton ny, mt trong nhng yu cu c t ra l m rng cc h thng s
cho cc phng trnh c nghim. Trong tp hp N cc s t nhin, phng trnh
x + 3 = 0 khng c nghim. gii c phng trnh ny, ngi ta m rng tp
hp N ra tp hp Z. Trong tp Z, phng trnh 3x = 1 khng c nghim. gii c
phng trnh ny, ngi ta m rng tp Z ra tp hp Q. Trong tp hp Q, phng
trnh x
2
= 3 khng c nghim. gii c phng trnh ny, ngi ta m rng tp
Q ra rp R. Khi m rng h thng s, h thng mi gi nguyn cc tnh cht ca h
thng trc v c thm cc tnh cht thun tin cho vic tnh ton.
Ta thy rng, phng trnh x
2
+ 1 = 0 khng c nghim trong tp hp cc s thc
R. V vy cn thit phi m rng h thng s R ra h thng s mi, c gi l s
phc m phng trnh x
2
+ 1 = 0 c nghim trong tp hp cc s phc.
K hiu C = R
2
= {(x, y)/x, y R}, mi phn t ca C c gi l mt s phc.
Php cng v nhn s phc.
Cho hai s phc z
1
= (x
1
, y
1
), z
2
= (x
2
, y
2
) C. Ta nh ngha php ton cng v
nhn s phc nh sau.
z
1
+z
2
= (x
1
+x
2
, y
1
+y
2
)
z
1
z
2
= (x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
, x
1
y
2
+x
2
y
1
)
c bit, (x
1
, 0) + (x
2
, 0) = (x
1
+x
2
, 0),
(x
1
, 0)(x
2
, 0) = (x
1
x
2
, 0)
Nh vy khi cng v nhn cc s phc dng (x, 0) ta c mt s phc dng (x, 0).
V vy c th ng nht s phc dng (x, 0) vi s thc x. Tc l x = (x, 0).
10
Bng cch tp s thc R c xem l tp con ca tp hp cc s phc C.
K hiu i = (0, 1) C, ta c i
2
= (0, 1)(0, 1) = (1, 0) = 1. Nh vy i
2
+1 = 0, nn
i l nghim ca phng trnh x
2
+ 1 = 0. S phc i c gi l n v o ca C.
Vi cch ng nht x = (x, 0), mt s phc z = (x, y) c vit di dng z =
(x, y) = (x, 0) + (0, y) = (x, 0) + (0, 1)(y, 0) = x + iy(). Cng thc () c gi l
dng i s ca s phc z, s thc x c gi l phn thc ca s phc z v c
k hiu l Rez, s thc y c gi l phn o ca s phc z v c k hiu l Imz.
Dng cng thc (), php cng v nhn s phc c vit li nh sau
(x
1
+iy
1
) + (x
2
+iy
2
) = (x
1
+x
2
) +i(y
1
+y
2
),
(x
1
+iy
1
)(x
2
+iy
2
) = (x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
) +i(x
1
y
2
+x
2
y
1
).
D dng chng minh c rng php cng v php nhn s phc c y cc tnh
cht ca mt trng v tp hp C c gi l trng s phc.
S phc z = x iy c gi l s phc lin hp ca s phc z = x = iy. R rng ta
c z
1
+z
2
= z
1
+z
2
, z
1
z
2
= z
1
z
2
.
Gi s z = x +iy = 0, khi x
2
+y
2
> 0, k hiu l gc xc nh bi
cos =
x
_
x
2
+y
2
, sin =
y
_
x
2
+y
2
.
Gc xc nh sai khc mt bi ca 2. N c gi l acgumen ca z v c k
hiu l argz.
Nu z = x + iy th s thc | z |=
_
x
2
+y
2
c gi l moddun ca z. Ta c ngay
bt ng thc sau
| z
1
+z
2
|| z
1
| + | z
2
| .
Vi cc k hiu trn s phc z c biu din di dng
z =| z | (cos +i sin)().
Cng thc () c gi l dng lng gic ca s phc z.
Nu z
1
=| z
1
| (cos
1
+i sin
1
), z
2
=| z
2
| (cos
2
+i sin
2
) th
z
1
z
2
=| z
1
|| z
2
| (cos(
1
+
2
) +i sin(
1
+
2
)).
Do |z
1
z
2
| = |z
1
||z
2
|, arg(z
1
z
2
) = argz
1
+ argz
2
. T y ta suy ra rng, vi n l
s nguyn th z
n
= |z|
n
(cos(n) + i sin(n)). Cng thc ny c gi l cng thc
Moivre.
S phc z
0
c gi l cn bc n ca s phc z nu z
n
0
= z. Tp hp tt c cc cn
bc n ca s phc z c k hiu l
n

z.
V ta c th suy ra
n

z = {
n
_
|z|(cos
+ 2k
n
+i sin
+ 2k
n
/k Z}
11
bi tp
1. Tnh cc biu thc sau
a) (1 +

3i)
60
, (
1 +

3i
1 i
)
20
b) (2

2 +i)
12
, (

3 +i
1 i
)
12
c) (
1 i

3
2
)
n
,
3

2 3i,

3 4i
2. Chng minh rng nu z +
1
z
= 2 cos th z
n
+
1
z
n
= 2 cos n, vi n Z.
12
Chng II
ma trn- nh thc
Bi 1: ma trn
I. Khi nim v ma trn.
Cho M l mt tp hp v m, n l cc s nguyn dng. Ta gi mt ma trn c mn
trn M l mt bng hnh ch nht
A =
_

_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
_

_
gm mn phn t ca M c xp thnh m hng v n ct. Vi 1 i m, 1 j n,
phn t a
ij
c gi l phn t hng th i, ct th j ca ma trn A hay cng gi
l phn t v tr (i, j) ca A. Ta gi i l ch s hng v j l ch s ct.
n gin ma trn A cn c vit di dng A = [a
ij
], i = 1, 2, ..., m; j = 1, 2, ..., n.
Hai ma trn A = [a
ij
] v B = [b
ij
] c gi l bng nhau nu chng cng c v
a
ij
= b
ij
vi mi i, j.
Ma trn A c n n c gi l ma trn vung cp n. Ma trn c 1 n c gi l
ma trn hng, ma trn c n 1 c gi l ma trn ct.
T y v sau ta ch xt ma trn trn trng K vi K l trng s thc R v trng
s phc C. Tuy nhin, n gin hu ht cc v d c cho trn trng s thc R.
Ma trn c mn gm mn s 0 c gi l ma trn khng. Ma trn
I = I
n
_

_
1 0 . . . 0
0 1 . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . 1
_

_
c gi l ma trn n v cp n.
II. Cc php ton trn ma trn.
2.1 Php cng
nh ngha: Cho A = [a
ij
] v B = [b
ij
] l cc ma trn c m n. Tng ca hai
ma trn A v B l ma trn C = [c
ij
] c m n, trong c
ij
= a
ij
+ b
ij
vi mi
i = 1, 2, ..., m; j = 1, 2, ..., n. K hiu l C = A+B.
V d:
_
1 2 3
3 2 1
_
+
_
4 5 6
7 8 9
_
=
_
5 7 9
10 10 10
_
T nh ngha v php ton cng ma trn, ta c cc tnh cht n gin sau.
Tnh cht: cho A, B, C l cc ma trn c mXn trn K. Khi
a) A+ (B +C) = (A+B) +C,
b) A+B = B +A,
c) A+ 0
m,n
= A
m,n
+A = A,
d) Vi A = [a
ij
], k hiu A = [a
ij
]. Khi A+ (A) = 0. Ma trn A c gi
l ma trn i ca A.
Ta c nh ngha sau.
nh ngha: Nu A, B l cc ma trn cng c th ta c AB = A+ (B)
13
2.2 Php nhn mt s vi ma trn.
nh ngha: Cho A = [a
ij
] l ma trn c mn v K. Tch ca vi A l ma
trn B = [b
ij
] c mXn v b
ij
= a
ij
vi mi i = 1, 2, ..., m; j = 1, 2, ..., n.
V d: 3
_
1 2 3
4 5 6
_
=
_
3 6 9
12 15 18
_
Ta c cc tnh cht sau y Cho A, B l cc ma trn c mn v , K. Khi
a)1.A = A,
b) ()A = (A),
c) ( +)A = A+A,
d) (A+B) = A+B.
2.3 Php nhn cc ma trn.
nh ngha: Cho A = [a
ij
] l ma trn c m n v B = [b
jk
] l ma trn c m p.
Tch ca cc ma trn A v B l ma trn C = [c
ik
] c mp, trong
c
ik
= a
i1
b
1k
+a
i2
b
2k
+... +a
in
b
nk
=
n

j=1
a
ij
b
jk
vi i = 1, 2, ..., m; k = 1, 2, ..., p. Khi ta k hiu C = AB.
Ta thy rng a
i1
, a
i2
, ..., a
in
l cc phn t hng th i ca A v cc phn t
b
ik
, b
2k
, ..., b
nk
l cc phn t ct th k ca B.
V d 1: Cho A =
_
1 2 5
0 1 1
_
; B =
_
_
1 2 3
3 2 1
1 2 2
_
_
, khi
C = AB =
_
9 12 11
1 1 1
_
V d 2: Cho A =
_
1 +i 2
1 1
_
; B =
_
1 0
4 i 1
_
. Khi
AB = A =
_
7 3i 2
5 i 1
_
; BA = A =
_
1 i 2
4 + 3i 9 2i
_
Nh vy, vi A, B l cc ma trn vung cp n th ni chung AB = BA.
Tnh cht: 1) Cho A, B, C ln lt l cc ma trn c mn, n p, p q v K.
Khi
a)A(BC) = (AB)C,
b) (AB) = (A)B = A(B),
c) AI
n
= I
m
A = A
2) Nu A, B l cc ma trn c mn, C l ma trn c n p th
(A+B)C = AC +BC.
3) Nu A l ma trn c mn, v B, C l cc ma trn c n p th
A(B +C) = AB +AC.
14
2.4 Ma trn chuyn v.
nh ngha: Cho ma trn A c mn
A =
_

_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
_

_
Ma trn
A
c
=
_

_
a
11
a
21
. . . a
m1
a
12
a
22
. . . a
m2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
1n
a
2n
. . . a
mn
_

_
c gi l ma trn chuyn v ca A.
Nh vy, nu A = [a
ij
] th A
c
= [a
ji
] vi mi i, j.
V d: Cho A =
_
1 2 3
4 5 6
_
th A
c
=
_
_
1 4
2 5
3 6
_
_
III. Cc php bin i s cp.
Cho ma trn A trn K. Cc php bin i s cp cc hng ca ma trn A l cc php
bin i sau:
1) i v tr hai hng(hai ct) ca ma trn A
_

_
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
i1
a
i2
. . . a
in
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
j1
a
j2
. . . a
jn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
_

_
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
j1
a
j2
. . . a
jn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
i1
a
i2
. . . a
in
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
_

_
2) Nhn mt hng(mt ct) ca ma trn A vi mt s = 0, tc l cc phn t ca
hng(ct) c nhn vi .

_
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
i1
a
i2
. . . a
in
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
_

_
=
_

_
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
i1
a
i2
. . . a
in
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
_

_
3) Cng vo hng(ct) th i mt bi ca hng(ct) th j ca ma trn A.
_

_
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
i1
a
i2
. . . a
in
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
j1
a
j2
. . . a
jn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
_

_
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
i1
+a
j1
a
i2
+a
j2
. . . a
in
+a
jn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
j1
a
j2
. . . a
jn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
_

_
15
Nu ma trn B nhn c t ma trn A bng cc php bin i s cp th ta ni A
tng ng vi B v k hiu A B.
By gi ta xt mt dng ma trn c bit m c gi l ma trn dng bc thang.
3.1 nh ngha: Cho ma trn A = [a
ij
] c mn.
Hng th i ca A c gi l bng khng nu tt c cc phn t ca hng bng
khng. Tc l a
ij
= 0, j = 1, 2, ..., n.
Phn t a
ij
c gi l phn t khc khng u tin ca hng th i nu a
ik
= 0, vi
mi k = 1, 2, ..., j 1 v a
ij
= 0.
Cc khi nim ct bng khng v phn t khc khng u tin khc khng ca ct
c nh ngha tng t.
Ma trn A c gi l ma trn c dng bc thang nu n c cc tnh cht sau y.
i) Nu hng th i ca A bng khng th hng th i + 1 ca A phi bng khng.
ii) Nu cc phn t khc khng u tin ca hng th i v i + 1 nm ct th j v
th k th j < k.
V d: Ma trn
_
_
1 2 5
0 1 1
0 0 1
_
_
l ma trn bc thang.
Ma trn
_
_
1 2 5
0 1 1
0 2 1
_
_
khng l ma trn bc thang.
3.2 nh l: Mi ma trn u c th chuyn v dng bc thang bng cc php bin
i s cp. Ni cch khc mi ma trn u tng ng vi mt ma trn bc thang.
Chng minh: Gi s A l ma trn c m n. Ta chng minh nh l trn bng
phng php quy np theo m.
Nu m = 1 th hin nhin A c dng bc thang.
Gi s m > 1 v nh l ng i vi mi ma trn c (m 1) hng. Nu A l ma
trn khng th n l ma trn bc thang. Gi thit A l ma trn khc khng.
Gi s j
1
l ct khc khng u tin ca A. Nh php i ch hai hng ta c th gi
thit a
1j
1
= 0. Cng vo hng th i ca A vi bi
a
i
j
1
a
1j
1
, i = 2, 3, ..., n ca hng th
nht, ma trn A c a v dng
A =
_

_
0 . . . 0 a
1j
1
a
1j
1
+1
. . . a
1n
0 . . . 0 0 b
2j
1
+1
. . . b
2n
.
.
. . . .
.
.
. . . .
.
.
. . . .
.
.
.
0 . . . 0 0 b
mj
1
+1
. . . b
mn
_

_
Ma trn
A =
_
_
b
2j
1
+1
. . . b
2n
.
.
. . . .
.
.
.
b
mj
1
+1
. . . b
mn
_
_
c m1 hng, theo gi thit quy np ma trn ny c th a v dng bc thang nh
cc php bin i s cp. Do ma trn A cng a c v dng bc thang.
V d: a ma trn sau y v dng bc thang nh cc php bin i s cp v hng.
16
A =
_
_
1 2 5
2 1 1
3 2 1
_
_
3.3 nh ngha: - Cho ma trn vung A = [a
ij
] cp n. Ma trn A c gi l ma
trn ng cho nu a
ij
= 0, vi mi i = j. Ngha l
A =
_

_
a
11
0 . . . 0
0 a
22
. . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . a
nn
_

_
- Ma trn A c gi l ma trn tam gic trn nu a
ij
= 0 vi mi i > j. Ngha l
A =
_

_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
0 a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . a
nn
_

_
. - Ma trn A c gi l ma trn tam gic di nu a
ij
= 0 vi mi i < j. Ngha l
A =
_

_
a
11
0 . . . 0
a
21
a
22
. . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nn
_

_
bi tp
Bi 1: Thc hin cc php tnh
a)
_
1
0
_
n
; b)
_
cos sin
sin cos
__
cos sin
sin cos
_
c)
_
cos sin
sin cos
_
n
d)
_
_
3 + 2i 4 5
2 3 1
3 5 +i 1
_
_
_
_
3 +i 15
1 9 2i
0 1
_
_
e)
_
_
3 2 5 0
0 1 1 2
3 2 1 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 2 5
1 5 5
2 1 1
3 2 1
_
_
_
_
+
_
_
1 4 5
3 1 2
3 0 1
_
_
Bi 2: Cho ma trn A =
_
_
1 4 5
3 1 2
3 0 1
_
_
Tnh A
3
2A+I, vi I l ma trn n v cp 3.
17
Bi 2: nh thc
I. nh thc ca ma trn vung.
Xt ma trn vung cp n
A =
_

_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nn
_

_
Nu b i hng th i v ct th j t ma trn A th ta thu c mt ma trn vung
cp n 1. Ta k hiu n l ma trn M
ij
v gi n l ma trn con ng vi phn t
a
ij
. Ta nh ngha nh thc ca ma trn mt cch quy np nh sau.
nh ngha: nh thc ca ma trn A, k hiu l det(A) hoc |A| v c nh
ngha nh sau.
A l ma trn cp 1: A = [a
11
] th det(A) = a
11
.
A l ma trn cp hai A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_
th
det(A) =

a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22

= a
11
det(M
11
) a
12
det(M
12
) = a
11
a
22
a
12
a
21
Tng qut, A l ma trn vung cp n th
det(A) =

a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nn

= a
11
det(M
1
1)a
12
det(M
12
)+. . .+(1)
n+1
a
1n
det(M
1n
)
(Ch rng a
11
, a
12
...., a
1n
l cc phn t nm hng th nht ca ma trn A.
nh thc ca ma trn cp n c gi l nh thc cp n.
V d:

1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9

= 1

5 6
8 9

4 6
7 9

+ 3

4 5
7 8

= 0
II. Tnh cht ca nh thc.
Tnh cht 1: Nu A l ma trn vung cp n v A
c
l chuyn v ca A th |A| = |A
c
|.
T tnh cht ny ta thy rng, cc tnh cht ca nh thc ng vi hng th s ng
vi ct v ngc li. Do t y v sau ta ch chng minh cc tnh cht ca nh
thc i vi hng v kt qu cng ng i vi ct.
Tnh cht 2. Nu ma trn vung cp n A

thu c t ma trn A bng cch i ch

hai hng th |A

| = |A|.
Tnh cht 3. Nu mt hng ca ma trn vung cp n bng khng th nh thc ca
ma trn bng khng.
Tnh cht 4. Nu ma trn vung A c hai hng ging nhau th |A| = 0.
Tnh cht 5. Nu ma trn A

nhn c t ma trn A bng cch nhn mt hng

vi s k th |A

| = k|A|
Tnh cht 6. Nu ma trn A c hai hng t l th nh thc |A| = 0
18
Tnh cht 7. Khi tt c cc phn t ca mt hng no ca ma trn A c dng
tng ca hai s hng th nh thc ca A c th phn tch thnh tng ca hai nh
thc. C th

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
i1
+c
i1
a
i2
+c
i2
. . . a
in
+c
in
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
j1
a
j2
. . . a
jn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
i1
a
i2
. . . a
in
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
j1
a
j2
. . . a
jn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
c
i1
c
i2
. . . c
in
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
j1
a
j2
. . . a
jn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Tnh cht 8. Cng thm vo mt hng ca ma trn A mt bi ca hng khc th

nh thc ca A khng i. C th

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
i1
+a
j1
a
i2
+a
j2
. . . a
in
+a
jn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
j1
a
j2
. . . a
jn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
i1
a
i2
. . . a
in
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
j1
a
j2
. . . a
jn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Tnh cht 9. Nu ma trn A c mt hng l t hp tuyn tnh ca cc hng khc

th nh thc ca n bng khng.
Tnh cht 10. nh thc ca ma trn tam gic bng tch cc phn t nm trn
ng cho.

a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
0 a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . a
nn

a
11
0 . . . 0
a
21
a
22
. . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nn

= a
11
a
22
....a
nn
V d 1: Tnh nh thc

1 2 3 4
2 3 4 5
3 4 5 6
4 5 6 7

HD: Chuyn ma trn cn tnh nh thc v

dng bc thang bng cc php bin i s cp v hng.
V d 2: nh thc Vandermonde l nh thc
d =

1 1 1 . . . 1
a
1
a
2
a
3
. . . a
n
a
2
1
a
2
2
a
2
3
. . . a
2
n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . .
.
.
.
a
n1
1
a
n1
2
a
n1
3
. . . a
n1
n

Bng cch quy np theo n ta c th chng minh c rng d =

1ijn
(a
j
a
i
).
Tht vy,
Vi n = 2, ta c

1 1
a
1
a
2

= a
2
a
1
.
19
Gi s n > 2 v cng thc ng trong trng hp nh thc cp n 1.
Cng vo cc hng th i ca d vi bi a
1
ca hng th i 1, 2 i n, ta c
d =

1 1 1 . . . 1
0 a
2
a
1
a
3
a
1
. . . a
n
a
1
0 a
2
2
a
1
a
2
a
2
3
a
1
a
3
. . . a
2
n
a
1
a
n
.
.
. ,
.
.
.
.
.
. . . .
.
.
.
0 a
n1
2
a
1
a
n2
2
a
n1
3
a
1
a
n2
3
. . . a
n1
n
a
1
a
n2
n

Khai trin nh thc d theo ct th nht v rt ra tha s chung ta c

d = (a
2
a
1
)(a
3
a
1
)....(a
n
a
1
)

1 1 . . . 1
a
2
a
3
. . . a
n
a
2
2
a
2
3
. . . a
2
n
.
.
.
.
.
. . . .
.
.
.
a
n2
2
a
n2
3
. . . a
n2
n

By gi dng gi thit quy np ta c

d = (a
2
a
1
)(a
3
a
1
).....(a
n
a
1
)
2ijn
(a
j
a
i
) =
1ijn
(a
j
a
i
)
II. nh thc ca tch cc ma trn vung.
nh l: nh thc ca tch cc ma trn vung bng tch cc nh thc ca cc ma
trn ny. Ngha l |AB| = |A||B|.
Ch : i vi mt nh thc cp ba ngoi nh ngha v phng php a v dng
tam gic cn c thm phng php tam gic v phng php ng cho.
bi tp
Bi 1. Tnh cc nh thc sau
a)

cos sin
sin cos

; b)

sin sin
cos cos

; c)

1 i 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 + 3i 0

Bi 2. Chng minh rng

b +c c +a a +b
b
1
+c
1
c
1
+a
1
a
1
+b
1
b
2
+c
2
c
2
+a
2
a
2
+b
2

= 2

a b c
a
1
b
1
c
1
a
2
b
2
c
2

Bi 3. Bit rng cc s 20604, 53227, 25755, 20927 v 289 chia ht cho 17. Chng
minh rng nh thc

2 0 6 0 4
5 3 2 2 7
2 5 7 5 5
2 0 9 2 7
0 0 2 8 9

chia ht cho 17.

20
Bi 4. Gii phng trnh sau
d =

1 x x
2
. . . x
n1
1 a
1
a
2
1
. . . a
n1
1
1 a
2
a
2
2
. . . a
n1
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . .
.
.
.
1 a
n1
a
n1
2 . . . a
n1
n1

= 0
Bi 5: Tnh cc nh thc
a)

2009 1 . . . 1
1 2009 . . . 1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 1 . . . 2009

; b)

1 2 3 . . . n
1 0 3 . . . n
1
2
2 0 . . . n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . .
.
.
.
1 2 3 . . . 0

;
c)

x y x +y
y x +y x
x +y x y

; d)

1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4
1 4 9 16
1 8 27 64

Bi 3: ma trn nghch o
Cho A l ma trn vung cp n, B l ma trn c n p. Mt vn c t ra
l tm ma trn X c n p tha mn phng trnh AX = B.
Khi n = p = 1 th phng trnh trn c dng ax = b vi a, b K, phng trnh ny
c nghim duy nht khi a = 0 v nghim l x =
b
a
= a
1
b.
Xt trng hp tng qut. Ta bit rng nu I l ma trn vung cp n th vi mi ma
trn X c n p, ta c IX = X. Nh vy phng trnh AX = B c nghim khi tn
ti ma trn vung A

cp n sao cho AA

= A

A = I.
nh ngha. Ma trn vung cp n c gi l ma trn c nghch o hay kh nghch
nu tn ti ma trn vung A

sao cho AA

= A

A = I. Ma trn A

c gi l ma
trn nghch o ca ma trn A.
nh l: Ma trn nghch o nu c ca mt ma trn A l duy nht v c k hiu
l A
1
.
nh ngha: Ma trn A c gi l ma trn khng suy bin nu |A| = 0.
nh l: Ma trn A vung cp n khi v ch khi n khng suy bin v ma trn nghch
o A

ca n c xc nh bi cng thc
A

=
1
|A|
_

_
A
11
A
21
. . . A
n1
A
12
a
22
. . . a
n2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
A
1n
A
2n
. . . A
nn
_

_
trong A
ij
= (1)
i+j
|M
ij
| v c gi l phn ph i s ca phn t a
ij
.
Chng minh: Nu A

l ma trn nghch o ca A th I = A

A do |A| = 0, c
21
ngha l A khng suy bin.
Ngc li, nu A khng suy bin ta xet nh thc d
kj
=

a
11
. . . a
1k
. . . a
1n
a
21
. . . a
2k
. . . a
2n
.
.
. . . .
.
.
. . . .
.
.
.
a
n1
. . . a
nk
. . . a
nn

trong a
1k
, a
2k
, ..., a
nk
nm ct th j ca nh thc d
kj
. Theo tnh cht ca nh
thc ta c
d
kj
=
_
0 nu k = j
| A | nu k = j
Khai trin nh thc d
kj
theo ct th j ta c
d
kj
= a
1k
A
ij
+a
2k
A
2j
+... +A
nk
A
nj
Nh vy a
1k
A
ij
+a
2k
A
2j
+... +A
nk
A
nj
=
_
0 nu k = j
|A| nu k = j
Tng t ta c
a
k1
A
j1
+a
k2
A
j2
+.... +A
kn
A
jn
=
_
0 nu k = j
|A| nu k = j
T y suy ra rng A

A = I. Do A

= A
1
.
V d: Tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn A =

1 2 1
4 1 3
2 1 1

Theo nh l trn,
ta tm c
A
1
=
1
6

4 3 5
2 3 7
6 3 9

H qu: Nu |A| = 0 th phng trnh AX = B c nghim duy nht X = A

1
B.
Mnh : Nu A v B l cc ma trn vung cp n khng suy bin th AB cng
khng suy bin v
(AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
HD: Ta cn chng minh:
- det(AB) = 0,
- (B
1
A
1
)(AB) = I
- (AB)(B
1
A
1
) = I.
nh l: Nu B l ma trn vung cng cp vi A sao cho BA = I(hoc AB = I)
th A kh o v B = A
1
.
bi tp
Bi 1: Tm ma trn nghch o ca cc ma trn
a)
_
_
1 2 3 + 4i
0 1 i 4
0 0 2
_
_
; b)A =
_
_
2 2 3
1 1 0
1 2 1
_
_
22
Bi 2: Cho ma trn cho
A =
_

_
a
11
0 . . . 0
0 a
22
. . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . a
nn
_

_
trong a
11
a
22
...a
nn
= 0. Chng minh rng A kh o v tm A
1
Bi 3: Chng minh rng nu A l ma trn vung tha mn A
2
3A + I = 0 th
A
1
= 3I A
Bi 4: Tm tt c cc ma trn vung cp hai
a) Bnh phng bng ma trn n v.
b) Bnh phng bng ma trn khng.
Bi 4: hng ca ma trn
I. nh ngha: Hng ca ma trn A = 0 l s r > 0 c cc tnh cht sau.
- C mt nh thc con cp r khc khng,
- Mi nh thc con cp ln hn r u bng khng.
Ta k hiu hng ca ma trn A l rank(A). Nu A = 0 th ta nh ngha rank(A) = 0.
nh thc con cp r khc khng ca A c gi l nh thc con c s ca A.
V d: Tm hng ca ma trn A =
_

_
2 4 3 0
1 2 1 4
0 1 1 3
4 7 4 4
_

_
Ma trn A c |A| = 0 v nh thc con

2 4 3
1 2 1
0 1 1

= 1 = 0.
Do hng ca ma trn A bng 3.
II Cch xc nh hng ca ma trn.
2.1 nh ngha: - Ma trn hng A = (a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
) c gi l t hp tuyn tnh
ca cc hng A
i
= (a
i1
, a
i2
, ..., a
in
); 1 i m nu c cc s
1
,
2
, ...,
m
sao cho
A =
1
A
1
+.... +
m
A
m
hay a
j
=
1
a
1j
+
2
a
2j
+... +
m
a
mj
, j = 1, 2, ..., n.
- Cc hng A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
m
c gi l ph thuc tuyn tnh nu tn ti cc s thc

1
,
2
, ...,
m
khng ng thi bng khng sao cho

1
A
1
+
2
A
2
+.... +
n
A
n
= 0().
- Cc hng A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
n
khng ph thuc tuyn tnh c gi l c lp tuyn tnh.
Tc l h thc () ch xy ra khi v ch khi
1
=
2
= .... =
n
= 0.
2.2 nh l: Cc hng A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
n
ph thuc tuyn tnh khi v ch khi c mt
trong cc hng l t hp tuyn tnh ca nhng hng cn li.
23
2.3 nh l: Cc php bin i s cp trn ma trn khng lm thay i hng ca
ma trn .
Ta thy rng nu A l ma trn bc thang c ng r hng khc khng th hng ca A
bng r.
Tht vy, nu phn t khc khng u tin ca hng th k l a
kj
k
= 0, k = 1, 2, ..., r
th j
1
< j
2
< ... < j
k
v ta c nh thc con cp r ca A l
_

_
a
1j
1
a
1j
2
. . . a
1jr
0 a
2j
2
. . . a
2jr
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . a
rjr
_

_
= a
1j
1
a
2j
2
....a
rjr
= 0
V hng th i ca A vi i > j bng khng nn mi nh thc con cp ln hn r ca
A c hng th r +1 bng khng, do dnh thc con bng khng. Do cp cao
nht ca nh thc con khc khng ca A l r nn rank(A) = r.
Thut ton tm hng ca ma trn:
B1: Dng cc php bin i s cp hng a ma trn v dng bc thang.
B2: S hng khc khng ca ma trn bc thang bng s hng khc khng ca n.
V d: 1) Tnh hng ca ma trn
_
_
1 1 1 1
1 3 2 4
1 1 4 2
_
_
2) Xc nh hng ca ma trn sau theo
a)
_
_
7 12 6
10 19 10
12 24 13
_
_
; b)
_

_
3 1 2
1 4 7 2
1 10 17 4
4 1 3 3
_

_
24
Chng III
khng gian vc t
Bi 1: khi nim khng gian vc t
I. nh ngha: Cho tp hp V = m cc phn t ca n c k hiu l
a, b, c, ... v K l trng s thc R hoc trng s phc C. Tp hp V c gi l
khng gian vc t trn K nu
a) C mt quy tc t tng ng hai phn t a, b V vi mt phn t ca V m
c k hiu l a +b v gi l php cng(hay tng) ca a v b. Tc l c nh x
V V V
(a, b) a +b
b) C mt quy tc t tng ng s K v mt phn t V vi mt phn t
ca V c k hiu l a v gi l php nhn(hay tch) v hng vi a. tc l c
nh x
K V V
(, a) a
c) Hai quy tc trn tha mn 8 tin sau
1) Vi mi a, b, c V : (a +b) +c = a + (b +c).
2) Vi mi a, b V : a +b = b +a.
3) Tn ti phn t V sao cho a V, a + = a. Phn t c gi l phn t
trung ha hay l vc t khng.
4) Vi mi phn t a V , tn ti a

V sao cho a +a

= .
5) Vi mi K, mi a, b V, (a +b) = a +b.
6) Vi mi , K, mi a V : ( +)a = a +a.
7) Vi mi , K, mi a V : ()a = (a).
8) Vi mi a V : 1.a = a.
Mi phn t ca V c gi l mt vc t, mi s trong K c gi l v hng.
V d: 1) Tp hp tt c cc vc t t do trong khng gian ba chiu vi php cng
v php nhn vc t vi mt s thc c nh ngha nh trong gio trnh hnh hc
gii tch ph thng(cng cc vc t theo quy tc hnh bnh hnh, nhn mt vc t
vi mt s thc l mt vc t m di ca n bng di ca vc t cho nhn
vi ||).
2) Cho V = {} l tp hp ch c phn t . Khi V cng vi hai php ton trn
cng l mt khng gian vc t.
3) t k
n
= {(x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
)/x
i
K, i = 1, 2, ..., n}. Ta nh ngha cc php ton nh
sau.
Vi mi x = (x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
), y = (y
1
, y
2
, ..., y
n
) K
n
, mi K
x +y = (x
1
+y
1
, x
2
+y
2
, ...., x
n
+y
n
)
x = (x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
).
R rng 8 tin v khng gian vc t ng trn K
n
vi hai quy tc cng v nhn
c nh ngha nh trn, trong vc t khng l = (0, 0, ..., 0), phn t i ca
x l x = (x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
).
25
4) K hiu M
mn
(K) l tp hp tt c cc ma trn c mn trn K vi php ton
cng cc ma trn v nhn mt s vi mt ma trn. D thy rng 8 tin v khng
gian vc t tha mn trn M
mn
(K). Do M
mn
(K) l mt khng gian vc t trn
K.
5) Gi P(R) l tp hp tt c cc a thc vi h s thc. Tc l tp hp cc a thc
c dng
a
0
+a
1
x +... +a
n
x
n
, vi a
0
, a
1
, ..., a
n
R
Ta kim chng c tp P(R) cng vi php cng a thc v php nhn mt s vi
a thc chng trnh ph thng tha mn 8 tin v khng gian vc t, trong
vc t khng l a thc 0. Do P(R) cng vi hai php ton trn to thnh mt
khng gian vc t.
II. Cc tnh cht n gin.
2.1 nh l: Trong khng gian vc t V vc t khng l duy nht v vi mi vc t
a V, vc t i a

ca a l duy nht. Vc t a

c k hiu l a.
2.2 nh l: Trong khng gian vc t V , ta c
a) Vi mi a V, 0a = ,
b) Vi mi a V, (1)a = a
2.3 nh ngha: Vi mi vc t a, b ta nh ngha a b = a + (b).
Bi 2: c s v s chiu ca khng gian vc t
I. S c lp tuyn tnh v ph thuc tuyn tnh ca h vc t.
Ta xt khng gian vc t V v h vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
V
1.1 nh ngha: Mt t hp tuyn tnh ca h vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
l mt tng c
dng
x =
1
a
1
+
2
a
2
+... +
n
a
n
V (1),
trong
1
,
2
, ...,
n
K l cc s ty . Khi ta ni vc t x c biu th tuyn
tnh qua h vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
.
1.2 nh ngha: H vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
c gi l ph thuc tuyn tnh nu tn
ti cc s
1
,
2
, ...,
n
K khng ng thi bng khng sao cho t hp tuyn tnh
(1) bng . Tc l ta c

1
a
1
+
2
a
2
+... +
n
a
n
= (2)
H vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
khng ph thuc tuyn tnh c gi l c lp tuyn tnh.
Nh vy h vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
c lp tuyn tnh nu ng thc (2) ch xy ra khi

1
=
2
= ... =
n
= 0.
1.3 nh l: H vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
trong khng gian vc t V ph thuc tuyn tnh
khi v ch khi c mt vc t l t hp tuyn tnh ca cc vc t cn li.
H qu: Cho h vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
trong khng gian vc t V .
a) Nu trong cc vc t c mt vc t khng th h l ph thuc tuyn tnh.
b) Nu c mt b phn ca h ph thuc tuyn tnh th h ph thuc tuyn tnh.
c) Nu h a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
c lp tuyn tnh th mi b phn ca n cng c lp tuyn
tnh.
26
V d: Xt khng gian vc t R
3
v h ba vc t
a
1
= (1, 2, 2); a
2
= (1, 3, 1), a
3
= (1, 1, 5).
H ba vc t ny ph thuc tuyn tnh v a
3
= 2a
1
a
2
. H con gm hai vc t a
1
, a
2
c lp tuyn tnh.
II. C s v ta .
2.1 nh ngha: H vc t E = {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
} ca khng gian vc t V c gi l
c s ca V nu
a) H vc t E c lp tuyn tnh,
b) H vc t E l h sinh ca V . Ngha l vi mi vc t x V, tn ti cc s
x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
sao cho
x = x
1
e
1
+x
2
e
2
+... +x
n
e
n
. (3)
Nu E l c s ca V th b s x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
tn ti duy nht v c gi l ta
ca vc t x i vi c s E. Tht vy
Nu (x

1
, x
2
, ..., x

n
) cng l ta ca x th
x = x

1
e
1
+x

2
e
2
+... +x

n
e
n
= x
1
e
1
+x
2
e
2
+... +x
n
e
n
Suy ra
(x

1
x
1
)e
1
+ (x

2
x
2
)e
2
+.... + (x

n
x
n
)e
n
= 0.
V h E l c s ca V nn h e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
c lp tuyn tnh v do
x

1
= x
1
; x

2
= x
2
; ...; x

n
= x
n
.
2.2 nh l: Nu (x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
), (y
1
, y
2
, ..., y
n
) tng ng l ta ca cc vc t
x, y i vi c s E = {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
} v K th
(x
1
+y
1
, x
2
+y
2
, ..., x
n
+y
n
)
,
(x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
)
tng ng l ta ca vc t x +y, x i vi c s E.
2.3 nh ngha: Trong khng gian vc t V cho h vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
m
. (4)
Gi s khng gian vc t V c c s E = {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
}. Biu din mi vc t a
i
, i =
1, 2, ..., m theo c s E, gi s ta c
a
i
= a
i1
e
1
+a
i2
e
2
+... +a
in
e
n
, i = 1, 2, ..., n.
Ma trn
A =
_

_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
nn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
_

_
27
c gi l ma trn ta ca h vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
m
i vi c s E.
Ta c kt qu sau y.
2.4 nh l: H vc t (5) c lp tuyn tnh khi cc hng ca A c lp tuyn tnh.
2.5 nh ngha: S r c gi l hng ca h vc t (4) nu hai iu kin sau y
c tha mn
a) C r vc t a
i1
, a
i2
, ..., a
ir
ca h (4) c lp tuyn tnh.
b) Mi vc t ca h (4) u c biu th tuyn tnh qua h a
i1
, a
i2
, ..., a
ir
.
Ta c kt qu
2.6 nh l: Nu V l khng gian vc t c mt c s hu hn th hng ca mt h
vc t trong V bng hng ca ma trn ca n i vi mt c s hu hn bt k ca
V .
2.7 nh l: Nu trong khong gian vc t V c mt c s gm n vc t th mi h
gm n + 1 vc t trong V u ph thuc tuyn tnh.
Chng minh: Gi s trong V c c s E = {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
}. Ta cho h vc t
a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
, a
n+1
V (5).
Gi s ma trn ca h (5) i vi c s E l
A =
_

_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
nn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
m2
. . . a
nn
a
(n+1)1
a
(n+1)2
. . . a
(n+1)n
_

_
Ma trn A c n ct nn cp ca nh thc con c s ca A khng vt qu n. Do
(n +1) hng ca A ph thuc tuyn tnh. Suy ra h vc t (5) ph thuc tuyn tnh.
2.8 H qu: Nu khng gian vc t V c mt c s gm n vc t th s vc t trong
mt c s bt k ca V cng bng n.
Chng minh: Gi s V c c s
E = {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
} v E

= {e

1
, e

2
, ..., e

m
}.
V E l c s ca V v e

1
, e

2
, ..., e

m
c lp tuyn tnh nn theo nh l 2.6 trn ta
c m n. Tng t n m. Suy ra m = n.
2.9 nh ngha: Khng gian vc t V c gi l khng gian hu hn chiu nu
tn ti mt c s trong V gm mt s hu hn vc t. S vc t trong mt c s ca
V c gi l s chiu ca V .
2.10 nh ngha: Khng gian vc t V c gi l v hn chiu nu vi mi s
nguyn dng n tn ti n vc t c lp tuyn tnh. Khi ta k hiu dimV = +.
2.11 nh l: Nu V l khng gian vc t n chiu th mi h gm n vc t c lp
tuyn tnh u l c s ca V .
Chng minh: Gi s dimV = n, E = {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
} l h vc t c lp tuyn tnh
trong V v x V . V s chiu ca V l n nn V c mt c s gm n vc t, do
theo nh l 2.6, h vc t x, e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
ph thuc tuyn tnh. Nh vy tn ti cc
s
0
,
1
, ...,
n
khng ng thi bng khng sao cho

0
x +
1
e
1
+... +
n
e
n
= . (6)
V e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
c lp tuyn tnh nn
0
= 0(?). Suy ra
x =

0
....

n

0
.
28
Nh vy x c biu th tuyn tnh qua cc vc t ca h E. Do E l c s ca V .
III. i c s v php bin i ta .
Cho V l khng gian vc t n chiu v E = {e
1
, e
2
, .., e
n
} v E

= {e

1
, e

2
, ..., e

n
} l
cc c s ca n. Biu din cc phn t e

1
, e

2
, ..., e

n
qua c s E ta c
e

1
= a
11
e
1
+a
21
e
2
+... +a
n1
e
n
e

2
= a
12
e
1
+a
22
e
2
+... +a
n2
e
n
.
.
.
e

n
= a
1n
e
1
+a
2n
e
2
+.... +a
nn
e
n
Khi ma trn
A =
_

_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
nn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nn
_

_
c gi l ma trn chuyn t c s E sang E

. V h vc t e

1
, e

2
, ..., e

n
c lp
tuyn tnh nn t nh l 2.3 suy ra rng nh thc |A| = 0. Do c ma trn nghch
o A
1
c xc nh bi
A

=
1
|A|
_

_
A
11
A
21
. . . A
n1
A
12
a
22
. . . a
n2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
A
1n
A
2n
. . . A
nn
_

_
trong A
ij
l phn ph i s ca a
ij
trong nh thc |A|. Ta c th chng minh
c A

l ma trn chuyn t c s E

sang c s E (BT).
Cho x V , gi (x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) v (x

1
, x

2
, ..., x

n
) ln lt l ta ca x i vi cc c
s E v E

. Tc l
x = x
1
e
1
+x
2
e
2
+... +x
n
e
n
= x
1
e

1
+x

2
e

2
+... +x
n
e

n
=
n

j=1
x

j
n

i=1
a
ij
e
i
=
n

i=1
(
n

j=1
a
ij
x

j
)e
i
= (
n

j=1
a
ij
x

j
)e
1
+ (
n

j=1
a
ij
x

j
)e
2
+... + (
n

j=1
a
ij
x

j
)e
n
T y suy ra
_

_
x
1
= a
11
x

1
+a
12
x

2
+... +a
1n
x

n
x
2
= a
21
x

1
+a
22
x

2
+... +a
2n
x

n
.
.
.
x
n
= a
n1
x

1
+a
n2
x

2
+... +a
nn
x

n
(7)
29
Vit di dng ma trn ta c
[x] = A[x

]
trong [x] v [x

] l cc ma trn ct
[x] =
_

_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_

_
; [x

] =
_

_
x

1
x

2
.
.
.
x

n
_

_
Cng thc (7) c gi l cng thc chuyn t ta (x

1
, x

2
, ..., x

n
) sang ta
(x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
)
bi tp
Bi 1: Xc nh t hp tuyn tnh 3a
1
+ 2a
2
4a
3
vi a
1
, a
2
, a
3
l h vc t sau
y
a) a
1
= (4, 2, 1), a
2
= (1, 2, 2), a
3
= (5, 3, 4) trong khng gian vc t R
3
.
b) a
1
=
_
2 2 1
0 3 1
_
; a
2
=
_
1 2 0
0 3 5
_
; a
3
=
_
1 2 3
4 0 1
_
trong khng gian
vct M
23
.
Bi 2: Chng minh rng nu a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
, a
n+1
l h (n + 1) vc t ph thuc tuyn
tnh trong khng gian vc t V v a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
c lp tuyn tnh th a
n+1
l t hp
tuyn tnh ca a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
.
Bi 3: Chng minh rng h vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
trong K
n
c cho sau y l c s
ca K
3
v tm ta ca vc t x K
n
i vi c s .
a) a
1
= (1, 1, 1), a
2
= (1, 1, 2), a
3
= (1, 2, 3), x = (6, 9, 14)
b) a
1
= (1, 2, 1, 2), a
2
= (2, 3, 0, 1), a
3
= (1, 2, 1, 4), a
4
= (1, 3, 1, 0), x = (7, 14, 1, 2)
Bi 4: Chng minh rng cc h vc t E, E

c cho di y l c s ca K
n
. Tm
ma trn chuyn t c s E sang c s E

v vit cng thc bin i ta .

a) E = {(1, 2, 1), (2, 3, 3), (3, 8, 2)}; E

= {(3, 5, 8), (5, 14, 13), (1, 9, 2)}.

b) E = {1, 1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2, 1), (1, 3, 2, 3)};
E

= {(1, 0, 3, 3), (2, 3, 5, 4), (2, 2, 5, 4), (2, 3, 4, 4)}

30
Bi 3: khng gian vct con
I. Cc nh ngha.
Cho khng gian vc t V v S l tp con khng rng ca V tha mn hai iu kin
a) Nu a, b S th a +b S,
b) Nu K, a S th a S.
Cc iu kin a, b cho php ta xc nh c php cng trn S v php nhn v hng
vi vc t trn S theo cc quy tc cng cc vc t v nhn v hng vi vc t nh
xc nh trn V .
Ta c th kim chng c rng 8 tin v khng gian vc t tha mn i vi cc
php ton trn S. Do S cng l mt khng gian vc t.
1.1 nh ngha: Tp con S khng rng ca khng gian vc t V tha mn hai iu
kin a), b) c gi l khng gian vc t con ca khng gian vc t V . Ngha l bn
thn S cng l khng gian vc t i vi php cng vc t v php nhn v hng
vi vc t trn V .
V d: 1) Tp hp gm mt phn t ca khng gian vc t V l khng gian con
ca V v + = v = .
2) Nu S = V th r rng S l mt khng gian con ca V .
Hai khng gian con {} v V c gi l khng gian con tm thng ca V .
3) Cho khng gian vc t K
3
v S = {(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) K
3
/x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 3x
3
= 0}. Khi
S l khng gian vc t con ca K
3
.
4) Cho V l khng gian vc t v h vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
m
trong V . Gi L(a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
m
)
l tp hp tt c cc t hp tuyn tnh ca h vc t cho, tc l tp hp tt c
cc vc t c dng
1
a
1
+
2
a
2
+... +
m
a
m
, vi
1
,
2
, ...,
m
l cc s ty . Khi
ta cng kim tra c L(a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
m
) l khng gian vc t con ca V .
Ta c nh ngha sau.
2.2 nh ngha: Khng gian vc t con L(a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
m
) ca khng gian vc t V
c gi l khng gian vc t con sinh bi h vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
m
.
V d: Quay li v d 3 phn trn ta c
x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) S x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 3x
3
= 0 x
1
= 2x
2
3x
3
Do x = x
2
(2, 1, 0) +x
3
(3, 0, 1). Suy ra
S = L(a
1
, a
2
) vi a
1
= (2, 1, 0); a
2
= (3, 0, 1).
1.3 nh l: Nu S l khng gian vc t con ca khng gian vc t V hu hn chiu
th S l khng gian vc t hu hn chiu v dimS dimV . ng thc ch xy ra khi
S = V .
Ta nhn thy rng nu E = {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
} l c s ca V th ni chung khng th
chn c s ca S l nhng vc t trong E bi v cc vc t ny c th khng thuc
S. Tuy nhin ta c iu sau y.
1.4 Mnh : Nu {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
k
} l c s ca khng gian vc t con S ca khng gian
vc t V c s chiu n th tn ti cc vc t e
k+1
, ..., e
n
V sao cho {e
1
, ..., e
k
, e
k+1
, ...e
n
}
l mt c s ca V .
Chng minh: Nu k < n th tn ti e
k+1
sao cho e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
k
, e
k+1
c lp tuyn
tnh v nu ngc li th n = k v ta c iu mu thun.
Tip tc nu k + 1 < n th tn ti e
k+2
sao cho e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
k
, e
k+1
, e
k+2
c lp tuyn
tnh v nu ngc li th n = k + 1.
31
Tip tc lp lun ny sau n k ln ta c khng nh ca mnh .
1.5 nh l: Cho h vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
m
trong khng gian vc t V . S chiu ca
khng gian vc t L(a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
m
) bng hng ca h vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
m
.
Chng minh: Gi s c k vc t c lp tuyn tnh l a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
k
v mi vc t
ca h vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
m
u c biu th tuyn tnh qua h vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
k
.
Khi mi a
i
vi i = k = 1, ..., m l t hp tuyn tnh ca a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
k
. Do mi t
hp tuyn tnh ca cc vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
m
cng l t hp tuyn tnh ca cc vc t
a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
k
. Nh vy a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
k
l c s ca L(a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
k
).
II. Giao v tng ca cc khng gian con.
2.1 nh l: Nu S
1
v S
2
l cc khng gian vc t con ca khng gian vc t V th
S = S
1
S
2
cng l khng gian vc t con ca V .
Ch : Nu S
1
, S
2
l cc khng gian con ca khng gian vc t V th ni chung
S
1
S
2
khng l khng gian con ca V .
V d: S
1
= {(x, 0)/x R}; S
2
= {(0, x)/x R} l cc khng gian vc t con ca
R
2
. Tuy nhin S
1
S
2
khng l khng gian vc t con ca R
2
v
(1, 0) S
1
; (0, 1) S
2
nhng (1, 0) + (0, 1) / S
1
S
2
.
2.2 nh ngha: Cho S
1
, S
2
l cc khng gian vc t con ca khng gian vc t V .
Tp hp tt c cc vc t ca V c dng x
1
+ x
2
, vi x
1
S
1
; x
2
S
2
c gi l
tng ca hai khng gian vc t con S
1
, S
2
v c k hiu l S
1
+S
2
.
V d: Trong v d trn ta thy S
1
+S
2
= R
2
2.3 Mnh : Nu S
1
, S
2
l cc khng gian vc t con ca khng gian vc t V th
S
1
+ S
2
l khng gian vc t con ca V . Nu S
1
, S
2
hu hn chiu th S
1
+ S
2
cng
hu hn chiu v
dim(S
1
+S
2
) = dimS
1
+dimS
2
dim(S
1
S
2
)
Chng minh: V l phn t ca S
1
v S
2
nn = + S
1
+ S
2
. Do
S
1
+S
2
= .
Nu x = x
1
+ x
2
; y = y
1
+ y
2
vi x
1
, y
1
S
2
; x
2
, y
2
S
2
v K th r rng
x +y; x S
1
+S
2
.
Do S
1
+S
2
l khng gian con ca V .
V S
1
S
2
l khng gian con ca V nn S
1
S
2
hu hn chiu. Gi s dimS
1
=
r, dimS
2
= s, dimS
1
S
2
= t. Gi {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
t
} l c s ca S
1
S
2
. V S
1
S
2
l
khng gian con ca S
1
nn c cc vc t e
t+1
, ..., e
r
S
1
sao cho
{e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
t
, e
t+1
...., e
r
}
l c s ca S
1
. V S
1
S
2
l khng gian con ca S
2
nn c cc vc t e
r+1
, ..., e
r+s+t
S
2
sao cho
{e
1
, ..., e
t
, e
r+1
, ..., r
r+st
}
l c s ca S
2
. Ta s chng minh {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
r+st
} l c s ca S
1
+S
2
. Tht vy.
Gi s c t hp tuyn tnh

1
e
1
+
2
e
2
+... +
r+st
e
r+st
=
32
t x =
1
e
1
+
2
e
2
+.... +
r
e
r
= a
r+1
e
r+1
... a
r+st
e
r+st
.
V
1
e
1
+
2
e
2
+.... +
r
e
r
S
1
; a
r+1
e
r+1
... a
r+st
e
r+st
S
2
nn x S
1
S
2
.
Do tn ti
1
,
2
, ...,
t
K sao cho
x =
1
e
1
+
2
e
2
+.... +
t
e
t
= a
r+1
e
r+1
... a
r+st
e
r+st
.
Suy ra

1
e
1
+
2
e
2
+.... +
t
e
t
+a
r+1
e
r+1
+... +a
r+st
e
r+st
= .
V {e
1
, ..., e
t
, e
r+1
, ..., r
r+st
} l c s ca S
2
nn
1
= .... =
t
= a
r+1
= .... = a
r+st
=
0. Do x = , tc l
1
e
1
+
2
e
2
+.... +
r
e
r
= .
V {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
r
} l c s ca S
1
nn
1
=
2
= ... =
r
= 0. Suy ra {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
r+st
}
c lp tuyn tnh.
- Ly x S
1
+S
2
ty , gi s x = x
1
+ x
2
; x
1
S
1
; x
2
S
2
. V {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
t
} l c
s ca S
1
nn
x
1
=
1
e
1
+
2
e
2
+.... +
r
e
r
; vi
1
,
2
, ...,
r
K.
V {e
1
, ..., e
t
, e
r+1
, ..., r
r+st
} l c s ca S
2
nn
x
2
=
1
e
1
+... +
t
e
t
+
r+1
e
r+1
+... +
r+st
e
r+st
; vi
1
, ...,
t
,
r+1
, ...
r+st
K
Suy ra
x = x
1
+x
2
= (
1
+
1
)e
1
+...+(
t
+
t
)e
t
+
t+1
e
t+1
+....+
r
e
r
+
r+1
e
r+1
+...+
r+st
e
r+st
Vy {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
r+st
} l c s ca S
1
+S
2
v do
dim(S
1
+S
2
) = dimS
1
+dimS
2
dim(S
1
S
2
).
2.4 nh ngha: Nu hai khng gian vc t con S
1
, S
2
ca khng gian vc t V tha
mn iu kin S
1
S
2
= {} th tng S
1
+S
2
c gi l tng trc tip ca S
1
v S
2
.
V d: Vi S
1
= {(x, 0)/x R}; S
2
= {(0, x)/x R} th S
1
S
2
= {} v
R
2
= S
1
+S
2
.
2.5 Mnh : Khng gian vc t V phn tch c thnh tng trc tip ca hai
khng gian con S
1
v S
2
nu v ch nu mi vc t x V u c biu din duy
nht mt cch di dng x = x
1
+ x
2
, vi x
1
S
1
; x
2
S
2
.
bi tp
Bi 1: Chng minh rng cc tp con S ca cc khng gian vc t sau y l
khng gian vc t con.
a) Tp con S ca khng gian vc t R
3
gm tt c cc vc t x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) sao cho
2x
1
+ 5x
2
3x
3
= 0.
b) Tp con S ca M
nn
gm tt c cc ma trn i xng.
c) Tp con S ca M
nn
gm tt c cc ma trn tam gic trn.
33
d) Tp con S ca khng gian vc t R
3
gm tt c cc vc t x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) sao cho
x
2
= x
1
+x
3
.
e) Tp con S ca khng gian vc t R
3
gm tt c cc vc t x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) sao cho
x
2
= x
1
+x
3
+ 1.
Bi 2: cho khng gian vc t L(a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
m
) c sinh bi h vc t a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
ca
khng gian vc t R
n
. Tm mt c s v s chiu ca n.
a) a
1
= (2, 1, 3, 1); a
2
= (1, 2, 0, 1); a
3
= (1, 1, 3, 0)
b) a
1
= (2, 0, 1, 3, 1); a
2
= (1, 1, 3, 0); a
3
= (0, 2, 1, 5, 3); a
4
= (1, 3, 2, 9, 5).
Bi 3: Xc nh s chiu ca cc khng gian con ca R
4
.
a) Cc vc t dng (a, b, c, 0).
b) Cc vc t dng (a, b, c, d) trong d = a +b v c = a b).
c)Cc vc t dng (a, b, c, d) trong a = b = c = d.
Bi 4: Tm c s v s chiu ca khng gian vc t con L(a
1
, a
2
) L(b
1
, b
2
) ca R
4
bit
a) a
1
= (1, 2, 1, 0); a
2
= (1, 1, 1, 1); b
1
= (2, 1, 0, 1); b
2
= (1, 1, 3, 7).
b) a
1
= (1, 2, 1, 2); a
2
= (3, 1, 1, 1); b
1
= (2, 5, 6, 5); b
2
= (1, 2, 7, 3).
Bi 4: nh x tuyn tnh
I. nh ngha nh x tuyn tnh v cc tnh cht n gin.
1.1 nh ngha: Cho V, V

l hai khng gian vc t ty . nh x f : V V

c gi l nh x tuyn tnh nu hai tin sau c tha mn

i) Vi mi x, y V : f(x +y) = f(x) +f(y),
ii) Vi mi K, mi x V : f(ax) = af(x).
V d: 1)Cho nh x f : R
3
R
2
xc nh bi
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (x
1
, 2x
2
x
3
).
Khi f l nh x tuyn tnh.
2) Cho V, V

l hai khng gian vc t ty . Khi nh x f : V V

xc nh bi
f(x) = vi mi x V l nh x tuyn tnh.
3) Cho V l khng gian vc t ty , S l khng gian vc t con ca V . Khi nh
x i
d
: S V ; i
d
(x) = x, vi mi x S l nh x tuyn tnh.
1.2 Mnh : Nu f : V V

l nh x tuyn tnh th
a) f(
V
) =
V
.
b) Vi mi x V : f(x) = f(x).
1.3 H qu: Nu f : V V

l nh x tuyn tnh th ta c
a) Vi mi x, y V : f(x y) = f(x) f(y).
b) Vi mi
1
,
2
, ...,
n
K, mi x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
V ta c
f(
1
x
1
+
2
x
2
+
n
x
n
) =
1
f(x
1
) +
2
f(x
n
(x
2
) +... +
n
f(x
n
).
1.4 nh l: (Cch xc nh nh x tuyn tnh)
Gi s V l khng gian vc t n chiu, V

l khng gian vc t ty . H vc t
{e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
} l c s ca V v a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
l h vc t ty trong V

. Khi tn
ti duy nht mt nh x tuyn tnh f : V V

sao cho f(e

i
) = a
i
.
34
s Chng minh: +) S tn ti:
Vi mi x V, gi s x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) l ta ca x i vi c s {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
}. Tc l
x = x
1
e
1
+x
2
e
2
+... +x
n
e
n
Ta nh ngha nh x f : V V

xc nh bi cng thc
(x) = x
1
a
1
+x
2
a
2
+.... +x
n
a
n
Khi ta c th chng minh c f l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
R rng khi x = e
i
th f(x) = a
i
, i = 1, 2, .., n.
S duy nht:
Nu g : V V

sao cho g(e

i
) = a
i
, i = 1, 2, ..., n th ta c
g(x) = g(x
1
e
2
+x
2
e
2
+.... +x
n
e
n
)
= x
1
g(e
1
) +x
2
g(e
2
) +... +x
n
g(e
n
)
= x
1
a
1
+x
2
a
2
+... +x
n
a
n
= f(x).
Do f = g. nh l c chng minh.
1.5 nh ngha: Cho f : V V

l nh x tuyn tnh.
a) Nu f l n nh th f c gi l n cu.
b) Nu f l ton nh th f c gi l ton cu.
c) Nu F l song nh th f c gi l ng cu.
1.6 nh l: Cho V, V

, V

l cc khng gian vc t. Nu f : V V

; g : V

V
l cc nh x tuyn tnh th g
o
f : V V

cng l nh x tuyn tnh.
1.7 H qu: Cho V, V

, V

l cc khng gian vc t v f : V V

, g : V

V

l cc nh x tuyn tnh. Khi

a) Nu f, g l n cu th g
o
f l n cu.
b) Nu f, g l ton cu th g
o
f l ton cu.
c) Nu f, g l ng cu th g
o
f l ng cu.
II. nh v ht nhn ca nh x tuyn tnh.
Cho V, V

l cc khng gian vc t v nh x f : V V

. Ta bit nh ca f l
tp
Imf = {f(x)/x V }
Ta nh ngha ht nhn ca f l tp hp
kerf = {x V/f(x) =
V
} = f
1
(
V
)
2.1 nh l: Nu f : V V

l nh x tuyn tnh. A l khng gian vc t con ca

V ; B l khng gian vc t con ca V

th f(A) l khng gian con ca V

v f
1
(B)
l khng gian con ca V . Ni ring nh ca nh x tuyn tnh f l khng gian vc t
con ca V

v ht nhn ca nh x f l khng gian vc t con ca V .

Mnh sau y cho ta mt tiu chun nhn bit mt nh x tuyn tnh l n
cu.
2.2 Mnh : nh x tuyn tnh f : V V

l n cu khi v ch khi ht nhn
kerf l khng gian vc t con khng ca V , tc l kerf = {
V
}
V d: nh x tuyn tnh f : R
2
R
3
xc nh bi f(x
1
, x
2
) = (2x
1
, x
1
x
2
, x
1
+x
2
)
35
c kerf = (0, 0) nn f l n cu.
2.3 nh ngha: Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : V V

, trong V, V

l cc khng
gian vc t hu hn chiu. S chiu ca Imf c gi l hng ca nh x tuyn tnh
f, s chiu ca kerf c gi l khuyt ca f.
nh l sau y ch ra mi quan h gia hng, s khuyt v s chiu ca khng gian
ngun ca nh x tuyn tnh.
2.4 nh l: Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : V V

. Khi
dimImf +dimKerf = dimV.
Chng minh: Gi s dimImf = r; dimkerf = s. Chn y
1
, y
2
, y
r
l c s ca Imf,
x
r+1
, ...x
r+s
l c s ca kerf. V y
i
Imf nn tn ti x
i
V sao cho f(x
i
) = y
i
, i =
1, 2, ..., r. Ta chng minhx
1
, x
2
, ..., x
r+s
(8) l c s ca V . Tht vy, gi s

1
x
1
+
2
x
2
+... +
r+s
x
r+s
= .
V f l nh x tuyn tnh nn

1
f(x
1
) +
2
f(x
2
) +... +
r+s
f(x
r+s
) =
V
.
Li v x
r+1
, ...x
r+s
kerf nn
f(x
r+1
) = ... = f(x
r+s
) =
V

v f(x
1
) = y
1
; ....; f(x
r
) = y
r
nn ta c

1
y
1
+
2
y
2
+... +
r
y
r
=
V

Do h y
1
, y
2
, ..., y
r
c lp tuyn tnh nn
1
= ... =
r
= 0, suy ra
a
r+1
x
r+1
+... +a
r+s
x
r+s
= .
L lun tng t suy ra a
r+1
= ... = a
r+s
= 0. Suy ra h x
1
, x
2
, ...x
r+s
c lp tuyn
tnh.
Tieps theo ta chng minh h (8) l h sinh ca V . Vi mi x V , ta c f(x) Imf.
V y
1
, y
2
, ..., y
r
l c s ca Imf nn tn ti
1
,
2
, ...,
r
K sao cho
f(x) =
1
y
1
+
2
y
2
+... +
r
y
r
= f(
1
x
1
+
2
x
2
+... +
r
x
r
)
Suy ra
f(x
1
x
1

2
x
2
...
r
x
r
) =
V

V vy x
1
x
1

2
x
2
...
r
x
r
Kerf, m x
r+1
, ..., x
r+s
l c s ca kerf nn
tn ti
r+1
, ...
r+s
K sao cho
x
1
x
1

2
x
2
...
r
x
r
=
r+1
x
r+1
+... +
r+s
x
r+s
hay x =
1
x
1
+... +
r+s
x
r+s
.
Nh vy h (8) l c s ca V . Do dimV = r +s. nh l c chng minh.
36
2.5 H qu: Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : V V

. Khi
a) f l ton nh khi v ch khi hng ca f bng s chiu ca V

.
b) f l n nh khi v ch khi hng ca f bng s chiu ca V .
2.6 nh ngha: Hai khng gian vc t V v V

c gi l ng cu nu c mt
php ng cu tuyn tnh f : V V

. Khi ta k hiu V V

.
2.7 nh l: Hai khng gian V v V

ng cu khi v ch khi s chiu ca chng
bng nhau.
Chng minh: Nu V v V

ng cu th t h qu trn suy ra dimV = dimV

.
Ngc li, gi s dimV = dimV

= n. Chn {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
} v {e

1
, e

2
, ..., e

n
} ln lt
l c s ca V v V

. Khi tn ti duy nht mt nh x tuyn tnh f : V V

sao cho f(e

i
) = e

i
, i v tn ti duy nht mt nh x tuyn tnh g : V

V sao cho
g(e

i
) = e
i
, i. Khi
(g
o
f)(e
i
) = g(f(e
i
)) = g(e

i
) = e
i
,
(f
o
g)(e

i
) = f(g(e

i
)) = f(e
i
) = e

i
vi mi i = 1, 2, ..., n. V c duy nht mt nh x tuyn tnh V V sao cho
e
i
e
i
, i = 1, 2, ..., n l nh x ng nht 1
V
nn ta c f
o
g = 1
V
. Tng t
g
o
f = 1

V
. Do f v g l cc ng cu ngc nhau. Tc l V V

. nh l c
chng minh.
III. Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh.
Cho hai khng gian vc t V, V

hu hn chiu vi dimV = n, dimV

= m v E =
{e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
}; E

= {e

1
, e

2
, ..., e

m
} ln lt l c s ca V

. Vi mi j = 1, 2, ..., n biu
din f(e
i
) qua c s E

ca V

ta c
f(e
1
) = a
11
e

1
+... +a
m1
e

m
.
f(e
2
) = a
12
e

1
+... +a
m2
e

m
.
.
.
.
f(e
n
) = e
1n
e

1
+... +e
mn
e

m
.
Ma trn
A =
_

_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
nn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
_

_
c gi l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f i vi cp c s E, E

.
Nu V V

v e
i
= e

i
, i = 1, 2, ..., n th ma trn A c gi l ma trn ca f i vi
c s E.
Cho x V v (x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) l ta ca x i vi c s E ca V . Ta tm ta
(x

1
, x

2
, ..., x

m
) l ta ca f(x) i vi c s E

. Ta c
x = x
1
e
1
+x
2
e
2
+... +x
n
e
n
.
V f l nh x tuyn tnh nn
f(x) = x
1
f(e
1
) +x
2
f(x
2
) +... +x
n
f(x
n
)
37
= x
1
(a
11
e

1
+... +a
m1
e

m
)
+x
2
(a
12
e

1
+... +a
m2
e

m
)
+.... +x
n
(e
1n
e

1
+... +e
mn
e

m
)
= (a
11
x
1
+a
12
x
2
+... +a
1n
x
n
)e

1
+(a
21
x
1
+a
22
x
2
+ ... +a
2n
x
n
)e

2
.
.
.
+(a
m1
x
1
+a
m2
x
2
+... +a
mn
x
n
)e

m
= x

1
e

1
+x

2
e

2
+... +x

n
e

n
T y suy ra
_

_
x

1
= a
11
x
1
+a
12
x
2
+... +a
1n
x
n
,
x

2
= a
21
x
1
+a
22
x
2
+... +a
2n
x
n
,
.
.
.
x

m
= a
m1
x
1
+a
m2
x
2
+... +a
mn
x
n
.
Nh vy, vit di dng ma trn ta c
_

_
x

1
x

2
.
.
.
x

m
_

_
=
_

_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
nn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
_

_
_

_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
m
_

_
K hiu
[x] =
_

_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
m
_

_
; [x

] =
_

_
x

1
x

2
.
.
.
x

m
_

_
ta c [x

] = A[x]. ng thc ny gi l biu thc ta ca nh x tuyn tnh f i

vi cp c s E, E

.
By gi cho hai khng gian vc t V, V

, cp c s E = {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
} ca V v
E

= {e

1
, e

2
, ..., e

m
} ca V

v ma trn
A =
_

_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
nn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
_

_
t
a
1
= a
11
e

1
+a
21
e

2
+... +a
m1
e

m
,
a
2
= a
12
e

1
+a
22
e

2
+... +a
m2
e

m
,
.
.
.
a
n
= a
1n
e

1
+a
2n
e

2
+... +a
mn
e

m
.
38
Khi tn ti duy nht mt nh x tuyn tnh f
A
: V V

sao cho f
A
(e
j
) = a
j
,
vi j = 1, 2, ..., n. Nh vy ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f
A
i vi cp c s E, E

chnh l ma trn A.
V d: 1)Cho nh x f : R
3
R
2
xc nh bi
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (2x
1
+ 3x
2
x
3
, x
1
x
2
+ 2x 3).
Xt cp c s chnh tc trong R
2
v R
3
. Khi ta c
f(e
1
) = (2, 1) = 2e
1
+e
2
f(e
2
) = (3, 1) = 3e
1
e
2
f(e
3
) = f(0, 0, 1) = (1, 2) = e
1
+ 2e 2.
Nh vy ma trn ca f i vi cp c s chnh tc l
A =
_
2 3 1
1 1 2
_
2) Cho khng gian vc t gm tt c cc a thc bc khng qu n vi h s thc v
anh x f : V V xc nh bi f(a
0
+a
1
x+... +a
n
x
n
) = a
1
+2a
2
x+... +na
n
x
n1
.
Ta c th kim tra c f l mt nh x tuyn tnh. Khng gian V l khng gian vc
t n + 1 chiu vi c s {1, x, x
2
, ..., x
n
}. Theo nh ngha ca f ta c
f(1) = 0,
f(x) = 1,
f(x
2
) = 2x,
.
.
.
f(x
n
) = nx
n1
Nh vy ma trn ca f i vi c s {1, x, x
2
, ..., x
n
} l
A =
_

_
0 1 0 . . . 0
0 0 2 . . . 0
0 0 0 . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 . . . n
0 0 0 . . . 0
_

_
Cho hai ma trn
A =
_

_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
nn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
_

_
; B =
_

_
b
11
b
12
. . . b
1n
b
21
b
22
. . . b
nn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
b
m1
b
m2
. . . b
mn
_

_
Gi f
A
, f
B
: V V

l cc nh x tuyn tnh t V vo V

m ma trn ca n i
vi cp c s E, E

ca V, V

tng ng l A v B. T nh ngha ma trn ca nh

39
x tuyn tnh v cch xc nh f
A
, f
B
suy ra
3.1 Mnh : Hai nh x tuyn tnh f
A
, f
B
bng nhau khi v ch khi hai ma trn A
v B bng nhau.
3.2 nh l: Cho V, V

, V

l cc khng gian vc t hu hn chiu dimV = m, dimV

=
n, dimV

= p. Chn
E = {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
m
},
E

= {e

1
, e

2
, ..., e

n
},
E

= {e

1
, e

2
, ...e

p
}
tng ng l c s ca V, V

, V

. Cho f : V V

, g : V

l cc nh x tuyn
tnh v A = [a
ij
], B = [b
kl
] l cc ma trn ca f i vi cc cp c s E, E

v E

, E.
Khi BA l ma trn ca g
o
f i vi cp c s E, E.
3.3 nh l: Nu nh x tuyn tnh f : V V

l ng cu th nh x f
1
:
V

V cng l ng cu tuyn tnh. Nu A l ma trn ca f i vi cp c s

E, E

ca V v V

th ma trn A c ma trn nghch o A

1
l ma trn ca f
1
i
vi cp c s E

, E.
bi tp
Bi 1: Chng minh rng nh x f : R
n
R
m
c cho sau y l nh x tuyn
tnh
a) f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (3x
1
+ 2x
2
x
3
, 2x
1
+ 3x
3
), (m = 2, n = 3).
b) f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (x
1
+x
2
, x
2
+ x
3
, x
3
+x
1
, x
1
+x
2
+x
3
), (n = 3, m = 4)
Bi 2: Tm nh, ht nhn v hng ca nh x tuyn tnh f : R
4
R
4
xc nh bi
a) f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) = (4x
2
+ 10x
3
+x
4
, 4x
1
+ 8x
2
+ 18x
3
+ 7x
4
, 10x
1
+ 18x
2
+ 40x
3
+
17x
4
, x
1
+ 7x
2
+ 17x
3
+ 3x
4
)
b) f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) = (2x
1
+x
2
+11x
3
+2x
4
, x
1
+4x
3
x
4
, 11x
1
+4x
2
+56x
3
+5x
4
, x
1

x
2
+ 5x
3
3x
4
)
Bi 3: Cho V, V

l cc khng gian vc t n chiu v f : V V

l nh x tuyn
tnh. Chng minh cc mnh sau tng ng
a) f l n nh,
b) f l ton nh,
c) f l song nh.
Bi 4: Chng minh rng nh x f : R
n+1
P
n
xc nh bi
f(a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
) = a
0
+a
1
x +a
2
x
2
+... +a
n
x
n
l ng cu tuyn tnh.
Bi 5: Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : R
3
R
2
xc nh bi
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (2x
1
4x
2
+ 6x
3
, 3x
1
6x
2
+ 9x
3
).
a) Tm ma trn ca f i vi cp c s
E = {(0, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0)},
40
E

= {(0, 1), (1, 1)}

b) Tm c s E

ca R
2
sao cho ma trn ca f i vi cp c s E, E

l
A =
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
_
Bi 6: Cho c s U = {(1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1)}. Tm ma trn ca nh x tuyn
tnh f : R
3
R
3
i vi c s U.
a) f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (2x
1
+x
2
, 2x
2
+x
3
, 2x
3
+x
1
).
b) f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (x
1
+x
2
x
3
, x
1
x
2
+x
3
, x
1
+x
2
+x
3
)
IV. Gi tr ring v vc t ring.
Trong phn ny ta xt mt khng gian vc t V c s chiu l n v mt c s
E = {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
} ca V .
4.1 nh ngha: S c gi l gi tr ring ca nh x tuyn tnh f : V V
nu tn ti vc t x V, x = 0 sao cho f(x) = x. Mi vc t x = 0 tha mn
f(x) = x c gi l mt vc t ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring .
Cho A l ma trn vung cp n, gi f
A
: K
n
K
n
l nh x tuyn tnh sao
cho ma trn ca n i vi c s chnh tc l A. Mi gi tr ring ca f
A
c gi
l gi tr ring ca A v mi vc t ring ca f
A
tng ng vi gi tr ring c
gi l vc t ring ca A tng ng vi gi tr ring .
V d: Xt nh x f : R
2
R
2
xc nh bi cng thc
f(x
1
, x
2
) = (2x
1
+x
2
, x
1
+ 2x
2
), (x
1
, x
2
) R
2
ta thy:
-) f l nh x tuyn tnh.
-) = 3 l gi tr ring ca f v f(1, 1) = 3(1, 1)
-) Ngoi ra f cng c gi tr ring = 1 v f(1, 1) = (1, 1).
V f l nh x tuyn tnh nn t nh ngha trn ta suy ra
4.2 Mnh : Nu x V l vc t ring ca nh x tuyn tnh f : V V th vi
mi s = 0, vc t x cng l vc t ring ca f tng ng vi gi tr ring .
By gi gi s ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f : V V i vi c s E l
A =
_

_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nn
_

_
Cho vc t x V , ta ca x i vi c s E l (x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
). Nu x l vc t ring
ca f tng ng vi gi tr ring th f(x) = x. Do ta ca f(x) i vi c
s E l (x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
). Theo biu thc ta ca nh x tuyn tnh ta c
[x] = A[x]
hay
(AI)[x] = 0, (9)
41
trong I l ma trn n v cp n. V vc t x = 0 nn [x] l nghim khc khng
ca phng trnh (9). Theo nh l Cramer ta c
|AI| = 0.
Vi A l ma trn vung ty v l bin s ma trn A I c gi l ma trn
c trng ca A. nh thc
|AI| =

a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nn

c gi l nh thc c trng ca A. Ta thy rng nh thc c trng ca A c

vit di dng
(1)
n

n
+c
1

n1
+c
2

n2
+... +c
n1
+c
n
.
Nh vy nh thc c trng ca A l mt a thc bc n theo , do n cn c
gi l a thc c trng ca ma trn vung A. Phng trnh |AI| = 0 c gi
l phng trnh c trng ca A.
Nh trn ta chng minh c rng l nghim ca phng trnh c trng ca A.
By gi ta s chng minh nu l nghim ca phng trnh c trng ca A th l
gi tr ring ca f.
Tht vy, v |AI| = 0 nn phng trnh
(AI)[x] = 0
c nghim [x] = 0. Gi s [x] = (x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
)
c
= (0, 0, ..., 0)
c
. Khi ta xt vc t
x = x
1
e
1
+ x
2
e
2
+... +x
n
e
n
V, x = . V A[x] = [x] nn f(x) = x, do l g
tr ring ca f. nh l c chng minh.
4.3 Mnh : Gi tr K l gi tr ring ca nh x tuyn tnh f : V V khi
v ch khi l nghim ca phng trnh c trng.
V d: Cho nh x f : R
3
R
3
xc nh bi cng thc
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (2x
1
x
2
+x
3
, x
1
+ 2x
2
+x
3
, x
1
+x
2
+ 2x
3
).
Khi f l nh x tuyn tnh v ma trn ca f i vi c s chnh tc l
A =
_
_
2 1 1
1 2 2
1 1 2
_
_
a thc c trng ca A l
|AI| =

2 1 1
1 2 2
1 1 2

=
3
+ 6
2
9
Phng trnh c trng
3
+ 6
2
9 = 0 c hai nghim = 0, = 3. Do f c
hai gi tr ring l 0 v 3.
42
Ta tm vc t ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring = 0. Gi x = (x
1
, x
2
, x 3) l vc t
ring cn tm, ta c
A[x] = 0.

_
2x
1
x
2
+x
3
= 0
x
1
+ 2x
2
+x
3
= 0
x
1
+x
2
+ 2x
3
= 0
Nghim ca h l x
1
= x
2
= x
3
= a = 0. Vy cc vc t ring ca f ng vi gi tr
ring = 0 l x = a(1, 1, 1), a R, a = 0. Vi = 3, x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) l gi tr ring
ca f khi v ch khi
(A3I)[x] = 0.

_
x
1
x
2
+x
3
= 0
x
1
x
2
+x
3
= 0
x
1
+x
2
x
3
= 0
H ny c nghim l x
3
= x
1
+ x
2
. Vy cc vc t ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring
= 3 l x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
1
+ x
2
) = x
1
(1, 0, 1) + x
2
(0, 1, 1), trong x
1
, x
2
khng ng
thi bng khng.
Ta gi thit rng khng gian vc t V c c s
E = {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
}
sao cho mi vc t e
j
, j = 1, 2, ..., n l vc t ring ng vi gi tr ring
j
. tc l
f(e
j
) =
j
e
j
, j = 1, 2, ..., n.
Nh vy ma trn ca f i vi c s E l ma trn cho
A =
_

1
0 0 . . . 0
0
2
0 . . . 0
0 0
3
. . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 . . .
n
_

_
By gi ta tm iu kin ma trn vung A cho c th a v ma trn ng
cho.
4.4 nh l: Nu E = {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
}; U = {u
1
, u
2
, ..., u
n
} l cc c s ca khng gian
vc t V , ma trn P = [p
ij
] l ma trn chuyn t c s E sang c s U v A, B l cc
ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f : V V tng ng vi cc c s E v U th
B = P
1
AP.
Chng minh: Ta c
u
j
=
n

k=1
p
kj
e
k
, j = 1, 2, ..., n
f(e
i
) =
n

k=1
a
ki
e
k
f(u
j
) =
n

i=1
b
ij
u
j
=
n

i=1
b
ij
n

k=1
p
kj
e
k
43
=
n

k=1
(
n

i=1
p
ki
b
ij
)e
k
, j = 1, 2, ..., n.
Mt khc ta c
f(u
i
) =
n

i=1
p
ij
f(e
i
)
=
n

i=1
p
ij
n

k=1
a
ki
e
k
=
n

k=1
(
n

i=1
a
ki
p
ij
)e
k
.
Vy ta c
n

i=1
p
ki
b
ij
=
n

i=1
a
ki
p
ij
, k = 1, 2, ..., n.
Do ta c PB = AP hay B = P
1
AP.
4.5 nh ngha: Hai ma trn A v B vung cp n c gi l ng dng nu tn
ti ma trn vung khng suy bin P sao cho B = P
1
AP.
4.6 nh l: Nu A, B l cc ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f : V V i vi
cp c s E v U th cc a thc trng |AI| v |B I| trng nhau. Tc l
|AI| = |B I|.
Chng minh: Gi P l ma trn chuyn t c s E sang c s U. Khi ta c
B = P
1
AP.
Do
B I = P
1
AP I = P
1
(AI)P.
Suy ra
|B I| = |P
1
||AI||P| = |AI|.
4.7 nh l: Nu
1
,
2
, ...,
m
l cc gi tr ring phn bit ca nh x tuyn tnh
f : V V v u
1
, u
2
, ..., u
m
l cc vc t ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring
1
,
2
, ...,
m
th h vc t u
1
, u
2
, ..., u
m
c lp tuyn tnh.
Chng minh: Bng phng php quy np theo m.
Vi m = 1, vc t ring u
1
= nn c lp tuyn tnh. Gi s m > 1 v nh l ng
vi m1. Gi s ta c

1
u
1
+
2
u
2
+... +
m
u
m
= . (10)
V f l nh x tuyn tnh nn
f(
1
u
1
+
2
u
2
+... +
m
u
m
) =
hay

1
u
1
+
2

2
u
2
+... +
m

m
u
m
= . (11)
44
Nhn hai v ca (10) vi
1
v cng vo (11) ta c

2
(
2

1
)u
2
+... +
m
(
m

1
) = .
S dng gi thit quy np ta c

2
(
2

1
) =
3
(
3

1
) = .... =
m
(
m

1
) = 0.
Suy ra
2
=
3
= ... =
m
= 0. Khi (10) tr thnh
1
u
1
= . V u
1
= nn

1
= 0. nh l c chng minh.
4.8 H qu: Nu nh x tuyn tnh f c n gi tr ring phn bit th tn ti c s
U = {u
1
, u
2
, ..., u
n
} sao cho ma trn ca f i vi c s U l ma trn ng cho.
4.9 H qu: Nu ma trn vung A cp n c n gi tr ring phn bit th tn ti ma
trn vung P cp n khng suy bin sao cho ma trn P
1
AP c dng cho. Ngha l
A ng dng vi mt ma trn cho.
V d: Cho ma trn
A =
_
_
12 4 7
17 7 11
28 10 17
_
_
Phng trnh c trng ca A l
|AI| =

12 4 7
17 7 11
28 10 17

=
3
+ 2
2
+ 2 = 0
Phng trnh ny c 3 nghim l
1
= 1,
2
= 2,
3
= 1. Nh vy A c ba gi tr
ring phn bit l 1, 2, 1.
Vc t x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) l vc t ring ca A tng ng vi gi tr ring 1 khi v ch
khi n l nghim ca h phng trnh
_
13x
1
+ 4x
2
7x
3
= 0
17x
1
+ 8x
2
11x
3
= 0
28x
1
+ 10x
2
19x
3
= 0
H phng trh ny c nghim l u
1
= (1, 2, 3).
Tng t, ta tm c u
2
= (1, 1, 2), u
3
= (1, 1, 1) ln lt l cc vc t ring ng
vi cc gi tr ring 2, 1.
Suy ra ma trn chuyn t c s chnh tc ca R
3
sang c s {u
1
, u
2
, u
3
} l
P =
_
_
1 1 1
2 1 1
3 2 1
_
_
v
P
1
=
_
_
3 1 2
5 2 3
1 1 1
_
_
; P
1
AP =
_
_
1 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 1
_
_
45
Nh vy A ng dng vi ma trn ng cho
_
_
1 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 1
_
_
bi tp
Bi 1: Tm gi tr ring v vc t ring ca cc ma trn sau
a)
_
1 2
2 1
_
; b)
_
_
0 0 1
0 1 2
0 0 1
_
_
; c)
_
_
1 1 2
4 0 4
1 1 4
_
_
; d)
_
_
2 1 2
5 3 3
1 0 2
_
_
;
e)
_
_
0 1 0
4 4 0
2 1 2
_
_
; f)
_
_
4 5 7
1 4 9
4 0 5
_
_
; g)
_
_
_
_
3 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
3 0 5 3
4 1 3 1
_
_
_
_
Bi 2 : Cho nh x f : R
3
R
3
xc nh bi
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (2x
1
+x
2
+x
3
, 2x
2
3x
3
, 4x
3
)
Tm cc vc t ring v gi tr ring ca nh x f.
Bi 3: Chng minh rng nu nh x tuyn tnh f : V V l ng cu th f v
f
1
c cng vc t ring v gi tr ring.
Bi 4: Tm c s ca R
3
sao cho ma trn ca nh x f : R
3
R
3
xc nh bi
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (2x
1
+x
2
+x+3, x
1
+2x
2
+x
3
, x
1
+x
2
+2x
3
) i vi c s c dng
cho.
46
Chng 4
h phng trnh tuyn tnh
Bi 1: M u
I. nh ngha h phng trnh tuyn tnh.
1.1 nh ngha: H phng trnh
n

j=1
a
kj
x
j
= b
k
, k = 1, 2, ..., m (1)
trong a
jk
, b
k
l cc s cho trc thuc trng K; x
j
, j = 1, 2, ..., n l cc n c
gi l mt h phng trnh tng qut.
Cc s a
kj
c gi l h s, cc s b
k
c gi l h s t do ca h phng trnh.
1.2 Dng ma trn ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh.
Cho h phng trnh tuyn tnh (1). t
A = [a
kj
], k = 1, 2, ..., m; j = 1, 2, ..., n.
ta gi A l ma trn ca h (1) hay l ma trn h s ca h (1). K hiu b l ma trn
ct
b =
_

_
b
1
b
2
.
.
.
b
m
_

_
trong b
1
, b
2
, ..., b
m
l cc h s t do. Ta gi b l ct h s t do. K hiu A l ma
trn c m(n + 1) nhn c khi b sung vo A ct th n + 1 l ct b v A c
gi l ma trn b sung ca h cho. Tc l
A =
_

_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
b
1
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
b
2
.
.
.
.
.
. . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
b
m
_

_
Ma trn ct x =
_

_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_

_
c gi l ma trn n
Khi h phng trnh tuyn tnh cho c th vit di dng ma trn
Ax = b (2)
II. Nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut. Mt nghim ca h
phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut (1) l mt b s
(
1
,
2
, ...,
n
),
j
K,
tc l mt phn t ca K
n
m khi thay cc x
j
bng
j
tng ng vo cc phng
trnh ca h ta nhn c cc ng nht thc trong K.
47
Tp hp tt c cc nghim ca mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh c gi l tp hp
nghim ca h phng trnh . Gii mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh tc l xc nh
tp hp nghim ca h phng trnh .
Hai h phng trnh tuyn tnh c cng s n c gi l tng ng nu chng c
cng tp nghim.
Ta ln lt i tm:
1) iu kin c nghim ca mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh.
2) S nghim ca mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh.
3) Phng php gii mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh.
Bi 2: cc phng php gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh
I. H phng trnh tuyn tnh vung:
1.1 H Cramer: H phng trnh tuyn tnh gm n phng trnh v n n
_

_
a
11
x
1
+a
12
x
2
+... +a
1n
x
n
= b
1
a
21
x
1
+a
22
x
2
+... +a
2n
x
n
= b
2
. . . . . . . . .
a
n1
x
1
+a
n2
x
2
+... +a
nn
x
n
= b
n
(3)
c gi l l h Cramer nu det(A) = 0.
1.2 nh l:H Cramer (3) c nghim duy nht v c tnh bi cng thc x = A
1
b
tc l
x
j
=
detA
j
detA
,
trong A
j
l ma trn suy ra t A bng cch thay ct th j bi ct v phi b.
Chng minh: V detA = 0 nn A c nghch o c xc nh bi cng thc
A
1
=
1
detA
_

_
A
11
A
21
. . . A
n1
A
12
A
22
. . . A
n2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
A
1n
A
2n
. . . A
nn
_

_
,
trong A
ij
= (1)
i+j
|M
ij
|. Do nghim ca h c dng
x = A
1
b =
1
|A|
_

_
A
11
A
21
. . . A
n1
A
12
a
22
. . . a
n2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
A
1n
A
2n
. . . A
nn
_

_
_

_
b
1
b
2
.
.
.
b
n
_

_
ngha l
x
j
=
A
1j
b
1
+A
2j
b
2
+... +A
nj
b
n
detA
=
detA
j
detA
.
V A kh nghch nn nghim ca h phng trnh l duy nht(?).
V d: Gii h phng trnh
_
x
1
+ 2x
3
= 6
3x
1
+ 4x
2
+ 6x
3
= 30
x
1
2x
2
+ 3x
3
= 8
48
1.3 Gii h phng trnh bng php bin i s cp.
Xt h phng trnh (3) c dng c bit: Dng tam gic trn.
_

_
a
11
x
1
+a
12
x
2
+... +a
1n
x
n
= b
1
a
22
x
2
+.... +a
2n
x
n
= b
n
.
.
.
a
nn
x
n
= b
n
vi ma trn h s l ma trn tam gic trn
_

_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
0 a
22
. . . a
n2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . a
nn
_

_
vi gi thit a
ii
= 0, vic gii h trn t di ln n gin.
T ta c phng php c tn l Gauss gii h (3) nh sau:
Ta vit ma trn A v cnh n l ma trn b, ta c ma trn ch nht [A, b]. S dng
cc php bin i s cp v hng a ma trn A v dng tam gic trn. Ta thy rng:
- Php bin i s cp nhn mt hng vi mt s khc khng ng vi php nhn mt
phng trnh vi mt s khc khng, n khng lm thay i nghim ca h.
- i ch hai hng ng vi php i ch hai phng trnh ca mt h khng lm thay
i nghim ca h.
- Cng mt bi k ca mt hng vo hng khc ng vi php cng mt bi ca phng
trnh vo phng trnh khc, n cng khng lm thay i nghim ca h phng
trnh.
Nh vy h tam gic thu c cui cng tng ng vi h ban u.
V d: Gii h phng trnh
_
2x
1
+ 4x
2
+ 3x
3
= 4
3x
1
+x
2
2x
3
= -2
4x
1
+ 11x 2 + 7x
3
= 7
Ngoi phng php Gauss ta cn c phng php Gauss-Jordan sau y:
Sau khi a v ma trn tam gic trn ta li tip tc s dng cc php bin i s cp
v hng a ma trn tam gic trn v ma trn cho, t h (3) c th a v h
cho
_

_
b
11
x
1
= b
1
b

22
x
2
= b

2
.
.
.
b
nn
x
n
= b

n
p dng phng php Gauss-Jordan tnh ma trn nghch o: Mun tnh
ma trn nghch oA
1
ca ma trn A bng cc php bin i s cp v hng ta lm
nh sau:
1) Vit ma trn n v bn cnh ma trn A.
2) S dng cc php bin i s cp v hng a ma trn A v ma trn n v I,
49
thc hin ng thi cc php bin i i vi ma trn I.
3) Khi A c bin i thnh I th I tr thnh ma trn nghch o A
1
ca A.
II. H phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut.
2.1 nh l Kronecker-Capeli: Cho h phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut
n

j=1
a
kj
x
j
= b
k
(1), k = 1, 2, .., m
gm m phng trnh, n n vi ma trn h s A = (a
kj
) v ma trn b sung A.
H (1) c nghim khi v ch khi rankA = rankA
2.2 Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh bng phng php Cramer.Xt h phng
trnh (1) vi ma trn h s A v ma trn b sung A.
Nu rankA < rankA th theo nh l Kronecker-Capeli h (4) v nghim. By gi
ta xt trng hp rankA = rankA = r min{m, n}. Trong ma trn A phi c mt
nh thc con khc 0 cp r.Ta gi s nh thc gm cc phn t ng r hng
u v r ct u ca ma trn A v k hiu l D
r
.
D
r
=

a
11
a
12
. . . a
1r
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2r
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
r1
a
r2
. . . a
rr

= 0
Ta s chng minh rng h (1) tng ng vi h gm r phng trnh u tin ca
n, tc l h sau
_

_
a
11
x
1
+a
12
x
2
+... +a
1n
x
n
= b
1
a
21
x
1
+a
22
x
2
+... +a
2n
x
n
= b
2
.
.
.
a
r1
x
1
+a
r2
x
2
+... +a
rn
x
n
= br
(4)
Tht vy, ta thy hin nhin tp hp nghim ca h (1) cha trong trong tp hp
nghim ca h (4).
Ngc li, gi s (c
1
, c
2
, ..., c
n
) l mt nghim ca h (4). Th th
n

j=1
a
tj
c
j
= b
t
; t = 1, 2, ..., r.
Xt phng trnh th k ty ca h (1),r < k m. V rankA = r v D
r
= 0 nn
trong ma trn A, vc t dng th k l (a
k
1
, a
k
2
, ..., a
kn
, b
k
) biu th tuyn tnh qua r
dng u tin ca A. Ta gi s
(a
k1
, a
k2
, .., a
kn
, b
k
) = h
1
(a
11
, ..., a
1n
, b
1
) +h
2
(a
21
, ..., a
2n
, b
2
) +... +h
r
(a
r1
, ..., a
rn
, b
r
)
t ta c
a
kj
=
r

t=1
h
t
a
tj
, t = 1, 2, ..., n.
v
b
k
=
k

t=1
h
t
b
t
.
50
Khi
a
k1
c
1
+... +a
kn
c
n
=
n

j=1
a
kj
c
j
=
n

j=1
(
r

t=1
h
t
a
tj
)c
j
=
r

t=1
h
t
(
n

j=1
a
tj
c
j
) =
r

t=1
h
t
b
t
= b
k
Nh vy (c
1
, c
2
, ..., c
n
) tha mn phng trnh th k vi mi k sao cho r < k m. C
ngha l (c
1
, c
2
, ..., c
n
) l nghim ca h (1) cho.
Vic gii h phng trnh (1) a v h (4). C hai kh nng xy ra sau y
a) Nu r = n th h (4) l h Cramer nn n c duy nht mt nghim.
b) Nu r < n th h phng trnh (4) c a v h mi tng ng vi n l
_

_
a
11
x
1
+a
12
x
2
+... +a
1r
x
r
= b
1
a
1r+1
x
r+1
... a
1n
x
n
a
21
x
1
+a
22
x
2
+... +a
2r
x
r
= b
2
a
2r+1
x
r+1
... a
2n
x
n
.
.
.
a
r1
x
1
+a
r2
x
2
+... +a
rr
x
r
= b
r
a
rr+1
x
r+1
... a
rn
x
n
(5)
Nu gn cho cc n x
r+1
, x
r+2
, ..., x
n
nhng gi tr ty c
r+1
, c
r+2
, ..., c
n
th h (5)
l h Cramer theo cc n x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
r
nn n c nghim duy nht x
1
= c
1
, x
2
=
c
2
, ..., x
r
= c
r
. Khi (c
1
, c
2
, ..., c
n
) l mt nghim ca h (4) v do n l mt
nghim ca h (1) cho.
Nh vy, trong trng hp r < n, h (1) c v s nghim ph thuc vo n r tham
s c
r+1
, ..., c
n
m ta gn cho cc n x
r+1
, x
r+2
, ..., x
n
.
Cc n x
r+1
, ..., x
n
c gi l cc n t do. Cc n cn li gn vi nh thc D
r
= 0
gi l cc n rng buc.
V d: 1)Gii h phng trnh
_

_
3x y + 2z = 1
x + 2y 4z = 3
4x +y 2x = 4
6x 5y + 10z = 10
HD: - Ma trn h s A =
_

_
3 1 2
1 2 4
4 1 2
6 5 10
_

_
- Ma trn b sung A =
_

_
3 1 2 1
1 2 4 3
4 1 2 4
6 5 10 10
_

_
- Hng ca A=hng ca A=2.
- H phng trnh tng ng vi h
_
3x y + 2z = 1
x + 2y 4z = 3
- a v dng
_
3x y = 1 2z
x + 2y = 3 + 4z
51
- Gii h trn nhn c x =
5
7
; y =
14z + 8
7
. - Kt lun: Nghim ca h c dng
(
5
7
;
14t + 8
7
, t/t R)
2) Gii v bin lun
_
x +y +z = 1
x +y +z = 1
x +y +z = 1
2.3 Gii h phng trnh bng phng php kh
S dng nh l Kronecker-Capeli, ta c th nhn bit mt h phng trnh tuyn
tnh cho c nghim hay khng. Khi h c nghim th ta c th a v mt h
tng ng v ta gii h ca cc n rng buc theo cc n t do bng phng
php Cramer.
Phng php kh (hay cn gi l phng php Gauuss da trn cc php bin i
tng ng mt h phng trnh m ta gi l cc php bin i s cp. l cc
php
1) i ch hai phng trnh,
2) Nhn hai v ca mt phng trnh vi mt s khc 0,
3) Nhn vo mt phng trnh vi mt s ri cng vo phng trnh khc.
V d: Gii h phng trnh
_

_
x 2y +z = 1
3x +y z = 2
9x 4y + 2z = 3
5x 3y + 2z = 4
.
HD: a ma trn b sung A =
_

_
1 2 1 1
3 1 1 2
9 4 2 3
5 3 2 4
_

_
v dng tam gic A =
_

_
1 2 1 1
0 7 4 5
0 0 1 4
0 0 0 0
_

_
H c vit li
_
x 2y +z = 1
7y 4z = 5
z = 4
Suy ra nghim.
-Phng php Gauss-Jordan: Tip tc dng cc php bin i s cp a h v
dng ng cho.
III. H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht.
3.1 nh ngha. Mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh trong tt c cc h s t do
bng 0 c gi l h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht.
Ta thy h phng trnh thun nht
n

j=1
a
kj
= 0, k = 1, 2, ..., m(6)
52
lun c nghim (0, 0, ..., 0), nghim ny c gi l nghim tm thng.
Ta c kt qu sau
3.2 nh l: H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht (6) vi n n c nghim khng
tm thng khi v ch khi hng ca ma trn h s nh hn n.
Chng minh: Theo nh l Kronecker-Capeli: Nu rankA = rankA = n(n l s n)
th h c nghim duy nht. Nu rankA = ranA < n th h c v s nghim v do
c nghim khng tm thng.
3.3 H qu: H phng trnh tuyn tnh vung gm n phng trnh v n n c
nghim khng tm thng nu v ch nu ma trn h s suy bin, tc l, nh thc
ca ma trn h s bng 0.
3.4 nh l: Gi s cho h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht
n

j=1
a
kj
= 0, k = 1, 2, ..., m(6)
vi ma trn h s A = [a
kj
] c hng bng r < n. Th th cc nghim ca h lp thnh
mt khng gian con ca K
n
c s chiu bng n r.
3.5 nh ngha: Mi c s ca khng gian nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh
thun nht c gi l mt h nghim c bn ca h phng trnh .
Nu
1
,
2
, ...,
nr
l mt h nghim c bn ca h (6) th
c
1

1
+c
2

2
+... +c
nr

nr
,
vi c
1
, c
2
, ..., c
nr
l hng s ty c gi l nghim tng qut ca h.
V d: 1) Nu (6) l h Cramer th N = {(0, 0, ..., 0)} do dimN = 0.
2) Tm mt h nghim c bn ca h phng trnh sau v gii h phng trnh
_

_
x
1
+ 7x
2
8x
3
+ 9x
4
= 0
2x
1
3x
2
+ 3x
3
2x
4
= 0
5x
1
+x
2
2x
3
+ 5x
4
= 0
3x
1
13x
2
+ 14x
3
13x
4
= 0
Ma trn ca h l
A =
_

_
1 7 8 9
2 3 3 2
5 1 2 5
3 13 14 13
_

_
a A v dng bc thang
_

_
1 7 8 9
0 17 19 20
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
_

_
H cho tng ng vi
_
x
1
+ 7x
2
8x
3
+ 9x
4
= 0
17x
2
+ 19x
3
20x
4
= 0
53
Thay x
3
= 1, x
4
= 0 vo h ta c nghim (
3
17
,
19
17
, 1, 0).
Thay x
3
= 0, x
4
= 1 vo h ta c nghim (
13
17
,
20
17
, 0, 1).
Vy mt h nghim c bn ca h cho l

1
= (
3
17
,
19
17
, 1, 0);
2
= (
13
17
,
20
17
, 0, 1).
Tp hp nghim ca h l
N = {c
1

1
+c
2

2
= (
3c
1
13c
2
17
,
19c
1
20c
2
17
, c
1
, c
2
/c
1
, c
2
R}
IV. S lin h gia nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut vi
nghim ca h phng trnh thun nht tng ng.
Xt h phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut
n

j=1
a
kj
x
j
= b
k
, k = 1, 2, .., m. (1)
v h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht tng ng
n

j=1
a
kj
x
j
= 0, k = 1, 2, .., m. (6)
Gi s h phng trnh tng qut (1) c nghim v = (
1
,
2
, ...,
n
) l mt nghim
ca n. Ta c nhn xt sau y
1) Nu u = (u
1
, u
2
, ..., u
n
) l mt nghim ca h thun nht th +u l mt nghim
ca h tng qut.
2) Nu l mt nghim ca h tng qut th l mt nghim ca h thun nht.
Nh vy nu N l khng gian nghim ca h thun nht th tp hp
+N = { +u/u N}
l khng gian nghim ca h tng qut tng ng.
T y suy ra rng nu bit mt nghim no ca h tng qut v tp nghim
ca h thun nht tng ng th s nhn c tt c cc nghim ca h tng qut.
54
bi tp
Bi 1: a) Gii v bin lun phng trnh theo
_

_
x +y +z +t = 1
x +y +z +t = 1
x +y +z +t = 1
x +y +z +t = 1
b) Cho h phng trnh
_

_
x
1
+x
2
+... +x
n
= a
x
1
+x
2
+.... +x
n
= a
.
.
.
x
1
+x
2
+... +x
n
= a
Vi gi tr no ca th h l h Cramer. Hy gii h Cramer .
c) Gii h sau bng phng php Cramer
_
_
_
x +ay +a
2
z = 1
y +bz +b
2
x = 1
z +cx +c
2
y = 1
Bi 2: Gii cc h phng trnh sau
a)
_

_
4x
1
x
2
+ 3x
3
+x
4
= 1
x
1
+ 3x
2
x
3
+ 2x
4
= 3
3x
1
+x
2
x
3
4x
4
= 2
2x
1
+ 3x
2
+x
3
x
4
= 5
; b)
_

_
2x
1
x
3
4x
4
+ 3x
5
= 7
2x
1
x
2
x
3
5x
4
+ 5x
5
= 3
x
3
2x
4
x
5
= 3
2x
1
+x
2
+x
3
7x
4
x
5
= 0
;
Bi 3: Tm mt h nghim c bn ca h phng trnh sau v gii h phng trnh

a)
_

_
x
1
+x
2
x
3
2x
4
= 0
3x
1
4x
2
+ 7x
3
+ 9x
4
= 0
x
2
+ 6x
3
+ 2x
4
= 0
x
1
+x
2
+x
3

5
2
x
4
= 0
2x
1
3x
2
+ 6x
3
+ 7x
4
= 0
; b)
_

_
4x
1
x
2
+ 3x
3
+x
4
= 0
x
1
+ 3x
2
x
3
+ 2x
4
= 0
3x
1
+x
2
x
3
4x
4
= 0
2x
1
+ 3x
2
+x
3
x
4
= 0
Bi 4: Gii v bin lun h phng trnh sau theo .
a)
_
x
1
+x
2
x
3
+ 2x
4
= 0
2x
1
x
2
+x
3
+ 5x
4
= 0
x
1
+ 10x
2
6x
3
+x
4
= 0
; b)
_

_
2x
1
+ 3x
2
+x
3
+ 2x
4
= 0
4x
1
+ 6x
2
+ 3x
3
+ 4x
4
= 0
6x
1
+ 9x
2
+ 5x
3
+ 6x
4
= 0
8x
1
+ 12x
2
+ 7x
3
+x
4
= 0
Bi 5: Gii v bin lun h sau theo
a)
_
x +y +z = 1
x +y +z =
x +y +z =
2
; b)
_
_
_
x = ay +a
2
z = a
3
x +by +b
2
z = b
3
x +cy +c
3
z = c
3
; c)
_
x +y +z = 1
ax +by +cz = d
a
2
x +b
2
y +c
2
z = d
2
55
Chng 5
dng ton phng
Bi 1: dng song tuyn tnh
Trong phn ny khng gian vc t c xt l khng gian hu hn chiu trn
trng s thc.
I. nh ngha v v d:
1.1 nh ngha: Gi s E l mt khng gian vc t n chiu trn R. Mt dng song
tuyn tnh trn E l mt nh x
: E E R
tha mn cc iu kin sau
Vi mi x, x

, y, y

E, vi mi R
1. (x +x

, y) = (x, y) +(x

, y)
2. (x, y) = (x, y)
3. (x, y +y

) = (x, y) +(x, y

)
4. (x, y) = (x, y)
Nh vy, mt dng song tuyn tnh trn E l mt hm hai bin trn E, khi c nh
mt bin th n tuyn tnh i vi bin kia.
1.2 V d: 1) Cho E = R
2
v nh x : E E R c cho b cng thc
((x
1
, x
2
), (y
1
, y
2
)) = x
1
y
1
+x
2
y
2
.
Khi l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn R
2
.
2) Cho A = [a
ij
] l ma trn vung thc cp 2. Khi nh x : R
2
R
2
R
2
xc
nh bi
[(x
1
, x
2
), (y
1
, y
2
)] = a
11
x
1
y
1
+a
12
x
1
y
2
+a
21
x
2
y
1
+a
22
x
2
y
2
l mt dng song tuyn tnh.
II. Ma trn, hng v biu thc ta .
Gi s : E E R l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn khng gian vc t n chiu
E v {e
i
}, 1 i n l mt c s ca E. t
(e
i
, e
j
) = a
ij
; i, j = 1, 2, ..., n
v k hiu A = [a
ij
] l ma trn vung thc cp n vi cc phn t a
ij
.
Cho hai vc t ty x, y E. Gi s
(x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) v (y
1
, y
2
, ..., y
n
)
tng ng l ta ca x v y trong c s {e
i
}. Ngha l
x =
n

i=1
x
i
e
i
, y =
n

j=1
y
j
e
j
.
Khi ta c
(x, y) = (
n

i=1
x
i
e
i
,
n

j=1
y
j
e
j
) =
n

i,j=1
a
ij
x
i
y
j
. (1)
56
K hiu [x], [y] tng ng l ma trn ct ta ca cc vc t x, y trong c s
{e
i
}, i = 1, 2, .., n
[x] =
_

_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_

_
; [y] =
_

_
y
1
y
2
.
.
.
y
n
_

_
v [x]
c
l ma trn chuyn v ca [x], c ngha l [x]
c
l ma trn dng [x]
c
= (x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
).
Nh vy biu thc (1) c th vit li di dng
(x, y) = [x]
c
A[y]. (2)
2.1 nh ngha. Biu thc (1) hoc (2) c gi l biu thc ta ca trong
c s {e
i
}. Ma trn A = [a
ij
] c gi l ma trn ca trong c s ny.
2.2 Chuyn c s:
Gi s {e
i
}, 1 i n; {u
j
}, 1 j n l hai c s ca khng gian E v C = [c
ij
] l
ma trn chuyn t c s {e
i
} sang c s {u
j
}, c ngha l
u
j
=
n

i=1
c
ij
e
i
, j = 1, 2, ..., n.
K hiu A = [a
ij
] v B = [b
ij
] l ma trn ca dng aong tuyn tnh trn E theo th
t trong c s {e
i
} v {u
j
}. Nu C
c
= [c

ik
] l ma trn chuyn v ca C v C
c
AC = [b

ij
]
th ta c c

ik
= c
ki
v
b

ij
=
n

i=1
n

t=1
c

ik
a
kt
c
tj
.
Nh vy ta c
b
ij
= (u
i
, u
j
) = (
n

k=1
c
ki
e
k
,
n

t=1
c
tj
e
t
)
=
n

k=1
n

t=1
c
ki
c
tj
(e
k
, e
t
) =
n

k=1
n

t=1
c
ki
c
tj
a
kt
=
n

k=1
n

t=1
c

ik
a
kt
c
tj
= b

ij
,
vi mi i, j = 1, 2, ..., n. t suy ra
B = C
c
AC.
V ma trn C khng suy bin nn t h thc B = C
c
AC suy ra hng ca A bng
hng ca B. Nh vy hng ca ma trn ca mt dng song tuyn tnh khng ph
thuc vo cch chn c s. Do ta c nh ngha sau.
2.3 nh ngha. hng ca mt dng song tuyn tnh trn E l hng ca ma trn
ca n trong mt c s bt k ca khng gian E.
Dng song tuyn tnh c gi l khng suy bin nu hng ca n bng s chiu ca
E.
57
Nh vy mt dng song tuyn tnh l khng suy bin khi v ch khi ma trn ca n
i vi mt c s ca ma trn khng suy bin.
bi tp
Bi 1: Trn khng gian R
3
cho dng song tuyn tnh c ma trn trong c s
chnh tc l
A =
_
_
1 0 2
3 1 1
2 1 0
_
_
a) Vit biu thc ta ca trong c s

1
= (1, 1, 2),
2
= (0, 1, 1),
3
= (3, 2, 1)
b) Tm hng ca .
Bi 2: Cho f l dng song tuyn tnh trn khng gian vc t thc c s chiu 3. Ma
trn ca f i vi mt c s E chn l ca V l
A =
_
_
1 1 0
2 0 2
3 4 5
_
_
v h : V V l nh x tuyn tnh c ma trn i vi i vi c s E l
B =
_
_
1 1 1
3 4 2
1 2 3
_
_
Chng minh rng nh x g : V V R xc nh bi
g(x, y) = f(x, h(y))
vi mi x, y V l dng song tuyn tnh. Tm ma trn ca g i vi c s E.
58
Bi 2: dng ton phng
I. Cc nh ngha
1.1.nh ngha. Dng song tuyn tnh trn khng gian vc t E
: E E R
c gi l i xng nu
(x, y) = (y, x), x, y E
.
V d: Trn R
2
, dng song tuyn tnh cho bi
((x
1
, x
2
), (y
1
, y
2
)) = x
1
y
1
+x
1
y
2
+x
2
y
1
+x
2
y
2
l mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng.
Tng qut hn, nu A = [a
ij
] l mt ma trn thc i xng cp n cho trc th dng
song tuyn tnh
: R
n
R
n
R
xc nh bi
((x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
), (y
1
, y
2
, ...., y
n
)) =
n

i,j=1
a
ij
x
i
y
j
l i xng.
o li, ma trn ca mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn khng gian vc t E, n
chiu l mt ma trn i xng.
1.2 nh ngha. Gi s l mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn khng gian
vc t E. nh x
: E R
x (x) = (x, x)
c gi l dng ton phng trn E ng vi dng song tuyn tnh i xng . Khi
c gi l dng song tuyn tnh cc ca .
V d: Trn R
2
, cho dng song tuyn tnh
((x
1
, x
2
), (y
1
, y
2
)) = x
1
y
1
+x
1
y
2
+x
2
y
1
+x
2
y
2
.
Khi dng ton phng tng ng l
(x
1
, x
2
) = x
2
1
+ 2x
1
x
2
+x
2
2
.
Ch : Vi x = (x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) R
n
, ta vit (x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) thay cho (x).
1.3 Nhn xt. Mi dng ton phng ch c duy nht mt dng cc. Tht vy, nu
l dng ton phng tng ng vi dng song tuyn tnh th
(x, y) =
1
2
((x +y) (x) (y)).
59
C ngha l c xc nh bi mt cch duy nht.
II. Ma trn, hng, biu thc ta .
Gi s l mt dng ton phng trn E v l dng song tuyn tnh cc ca .
Trong E, xt mt c s {e
i
}. Khi ma trn ca trong {e
i
} c nh ngha l ma
trn ca trong c s ny v hng ca chnh l hng ca ma trn ca n.
Gi s c ma trn A = [a
ij
] trong c s {e
i
} ca khng gian E. Khi ,vi x E
c s biu din qua c s
x =
n

i=1
x
i
e
i
v
(x) = (x, x) =
n

i=1
n

j=1
a
ij
x
i
x
j
. (3)
Biu thc (3) c gi l biu thc ta ca trong c s {e
i
}.
Ch : V ma trn [a
ij
] ca dng ton phng l i xng, c ngha l a
ij
=
a
ji
, i, j = 1, 2, ..., n hn na x
i
x
j
= x
j
x
i
nn ngi ta thng vit biu thc ta
ca di dng
(x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) =
n

i=1
a
ii
x
2
i
+ 2

1i<jn
a
ij
x
i
x
j
.
III. Dng chnh tc ca mt dng ton phng.
3.1 nh ngha. Gi s l mt dng ton phng trn khng gian vc t n chiu
E. Nu trong mt c s {e
i
} no ca E, biu thc ta ca c dng
(x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) =
1
x
2
1
+
2
x
2
2
+... +
n
x
2
n
(4)
th (4) c gi l dng chnh tc ca .
Nhn xt: Nu dng ton phng c biu thc ta (4) th ma trn ca n trong
c s {e
i
} l ma trn cho
_

1
0 . . . 0
0
2
. . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . .
n
_

_
Biu thc ta (4) v ma trn cho ca rt tin li cho vic kho st v ng
dng ca n trong cc vn khc. V vy, bi ton c t ra l: Cho mt dng
ton phng , hy tm mt c s {e
i
} ca E sao cho trong c s ny dng ton
phng c dng chnh tc.
3.2 Phng php Lagrange. Phng php a mt dng ton phng v dng
chnh tc c trnh by di y c gi l phng php Lagrange.
Gi s {e
i
}, i = 1, 2, ..., n l mt c s ca E v dng ton phng trn E c biu
thc ta l
(x
1
, x
2
, .., x
n
) =
n

i,j=1
a
ij
x
i
x
j
. (5)
60
Ta xt hai trng hp.
Trng hp 1. Tn ti a
ii
= 0, khng mt tng qut gi s rng a
11
= 0.
Ta bin i tng v phi ca (5) nh sau
(x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) = a
11
x
2
1
+ 2a
12
x
1
x
2
+.... + 2a
1n
x
1
x
n
+

(x
2
, x
3
, ..., x
n
)
=
1
a
11
(a
11
x
1
+a
12
x
2
+... +a
1n
x
n
)
2
+(x
2
, x
3
, ..., x
n
)
Thc hin php i ta
y
1
= a
11
x
1
+a
12
x
2
+.... +a
1n
x
n
y
k
= x
k
, k = 2, 3, ..., n.
Ta c
(x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) =
1
a
11
y
2
1
+
1
(y
2
, y
3
, ..., y
n
), (5

)
trong
1
(y
2
, y
3
, ..., y
n
) l mt dng ton phng ph thuc vo n1 bin y
2
, ..., y
n
.
Trng hp 2: Mi h s a
ii
= 0 v mt h s a
ij
= 0 vi i = j, ta thc hin php
i ta
x
i
= y
i
+y
j
x
j
= y
i
y
j
x
k
= y
k
, k = i, j
Thay vo biu thc (5) ta c
(x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) =
n

s,t=1
b
st
y
s
y
t
=
2
(y
1
, y
2
, ..., y
n
)
trong
2
(y
1
, y
2
, ..., y
n
) l dng ton phng ca n bin y
1
, y
2
, ..., y
n
vi h s ca
y
2
i
l b
ii
= a
ij
= 0. Sau ta thc hin cc php bin i nh trong trng hp 1.
V d: Trong c s chnh tc {e
1
, e
2
, e
3
} ca R
3
, dng ton phng cho c biu
thc ta
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = x
1
x
2
+x
1
x
3
+ x
2
x
3
.
i to
x
1
= y
1
y
2
x
2
= y
1
+y
2
x
3
= y
3
ta c
1
(y
1
, y
2
, y
3
) = y
2
1
y
2
2
+ 2y
1
y
3
= (y
1
+y
3
)
2
y
2
2
y
2
3
.
t
z
1
= y
1
+y
3
z
2
= y
2
z
3
= y
3
,
61
th c
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) =
1
(y
1
, y
2
, y
3
) =
2
(z
1
, z
2
, z
3
) = z
2
1
z
2
2
z
2
3
.
y l dng chnh tc ca . Php i ta l
x
1
= y
1
y
2
= z
1
z
2
z
3
x
2
= y
1
+y
2
= z
1
+z
2
z
3
x
3
= y
3
= z
3
Nh vy ma trn chuyn t c s {e
i
} sang c s {
i
} m trong {
i
}, c dng chnh
tc l ma trn
S =
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 1
0 0 1
_
_
iu ny c ngha l
1
= (1, 1, 0),
2
= (1, 1, 0),
3
= (1, 1, 1)
Nhn xt: a mt dng ton phng v dng chnh tc bng phng php Lagrange
c th cho ta nhiu dng chnh tc khc nhau. Tuy nhin cc h s trong dng chnh
tc tun theo mt quy lut gi l lut qun tnh.
3.3 nh l. (nh lut qun tnh ca dng ton phng)S cc h s dng,
h s m v h s bng khng trong dng chnh tc ca mt dng ton phng trn
mt khng gian vc t khng ph thuc vo c s ca khng gian vc t .
IV. Dng ton phng xc nh.
Gi s l mt dng ton phng xc nh trn khng gian vc t E. Hin nhin
() = 0 nhng iu ngc li ni chung khng ng.
By gi ta xt cc dng ton phng trn khng gian E vi tnh cht (x) = 0
khi v ch khi x = . Mt dng ton phng c tnh cht ny c gi l dng ton
phng xc nh.
4.1 nh ngha. Gi s l mt dng ton phng xc nh. Nu (x) > 0, x =
th c gi l xc nh dng. Nu (x) < 0, x = th c gi l xc nh
m.
4.2 nh l: iu kin cn v mt dng ton phng xc nh dng l tt
c cc h s trong dng chnh tc ca n u dng.
Chng minh: Gi s c dng chnh tc
(x) =
1
x
2
1
+.... +
n
x
2
n
,
i
> 0, i = 1, 2, ..., n.
R rng (x) > 0, x = 0.
Ngc li, gi s xc nh dng v trong mt c s {e
1
, e
2
, ..., e
n
} no c
biu thc ta dng chnh tc l (x) = k
1
x
2
1
+ k
2
x
2
2
+ ... + k
n
x
2
n
. Khi ta c
(e
i
) = k
i
> 0.
4.3 nh l. (Tiu chun Sylvester) Dng ton phng
(x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) =
n

i,j=1
a
ij
x
i
x
j
vi ma trn i xng A = [a
ij
], l xc nh dng khi v ch khi

1
= a
11
> 0
62

2
=

a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22

> 0
.
.
.

n
=

a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nn

> 0.
Ngha l tt c cc nh thc con chnh ca A = [a
ij
] u dng.
bi tp
Bi 1: Trong khng gian vec t R
3
trn trng s thc cho cc dng ton phng
vi cc biu thc ta c trong c s chnh tc
a) (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = x
2
1
+ 5x
2
2
4x
3
3
+ 2x
1
x
2
4x
1
x
3
.
b) (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = x
1
x
2
+ 4x
1
x
3
+x
2
x
3
.
1) Vit dng song tuyn tnh cc ca chng.
2) Bng phng php Lagrange a mi dng cho v dng chnh tc(vit r cng
thc i ta , c s m trong dng ton phng c dng chnh tc v vit ma
trn ca dng ton phng trong c s ny.)
3) Tnh hng ca mi dng ton phng.
Bi 2: Xc nh gi tr ca mi dng ton phng cho di y l xc nh
dng.
a) 5x
2
1
+x
2
2
+x
2
3
+ 4x
1
x
2
2x
1
x
3
2x
2
x
3
.
b) 2x
2
1
+x
2
2
+ 3x
2
3
+ 2x
1
x
2
+ 2x
1
x
3
.
c) x
2
1
+x
2
2
+ 5x
2
3
+ 2x
1
x
2
2x
1
x
3
+ 4x
2
x
3
.
Bi 3: Cho dng ton phng trn khng gian vc t thc n chiu c biu thc ta
i vi mt c s chn l
n

i,j=1
a
ij
x
i
x
j
.
a) Chng minh rng nu dng ton phng trn xc nh dng th a
ii
> 0 vi mi
i = 1, 2, ..., n.
b) Nu a
ii
> 0 vi mi i = 1, 2, ..., n th dng ton phng cho c xc nh dng
khng? Ti sao?