Hm c trng ca tp hp v ng dng

Trn Nam Dng

Trng H KHTN Tp HCM

1. M u

Hm c trng l mt khi nim quan trng ca ton hc vi nhiu ng dng trong l
thuyt tp hp, l thuyt nhm, l thuyt o v tch phn, l thuyt xc sut. Trong bi
vit ny, chng ta cp n hm c trng ca tp hp v nhng ng dng ca n trong
l thuyt tp hp v cc bi ton m. Cch tip cn hm c trng s gip hc sinh lm
vic d dng hn vi cc bi ton v tp hp v gip chng ta gii thch mt cch d hiu
phng php m theo phn t - mt k thut m hiu qu.

2. nh ngha v cc tnh cht c bn

Ta xt mt tp hp E v tp hp tt c cc tp con ca E (k hiu l P(E), hay 2
E
). Tp
hp E c gi l tp hp v tr, cha tt c cc tp hp m ta quan tm n. Ch l E
v C cng l tp con ca E, tc l phn t ca P(E).

nh ngha 1. Vi mi tp con A ca E, hm c trng _
A
(c l chi-A) ca A l hm s
xc nh trn E v nhn gi tr trong {0, 1}, c xc nh nh sau:

e
e
=
A x neu
A x neu
x
A
0
1
) ( _
Nh vy, hm c trng ch nhn gi tr 0 hoc 1 v _
A
(x) nhn gi tr 1 khi v ch khi x
thuc A. V th hm c trng ca tp hp cn c gi l hm thuc hay hm ch.

Mt tp hp s hon ton c xc nh nu ta bit hm c trng ca n. Hai tp hp
bng nhau khi v ch khi hai hm c trng ca n bng nhau (tc l chng bng nhau ti
mi im x thuc E). y chnh l c s ta vn dng hm c trng trong vic chng
minh cc tnh cht lin quan n cc php ton trn tp hp.

Trc ht, ta c cc nh ngha c bn sau:

nh ngha 2. Xt hai hm s _
1
v _
2
xc nh trn E v nhn gi tr trong R. Ta vit:
i) _
1
= _
2
_
1
(x) = _
2
(x) x e E;
ii) _
1
_
2
_
1
(x) _
2
(x) x e E;
iii) _
1
+ _
2
l mt hm s t E vo R, xc nh bi (_
1
+ _
2
)(x) = _
1
(x) + _
2
(x);
iv) _
1
_
2
l mt hm s t E vo R, xc nh bi (_
1
_
2
)(x) = _
1
(x)._
2
(x).

Ta cng s s dng 0 v 1 k hiu cc hm ng nht 0 trn E v ng nht 1 trn E
(ni cch khc 0 = _
C
, 1 = _
E
).

Cc tnh cht c bn ca hm c trng c tm tt trong nh l sau:

nh l 1. Nu A, B l cc tp con bt k ca tp v tr E th ta c
1) (_
A
)
2
= _
A
;
2)
A
A
_ _ =1 ;
3) _
AB
= _
A
._
B
;
4) _
AB
= _
A
+ _
B
- _
A
._
B
;
5) _
A\B
= _
A
- _
A
_
B

6) _
AAB
= _
A
+ _
B
mod 2.

Php chng minh nh l s dng nh ngha ca hm c trng, cng nh nh ngha cc
php ton trn tp hp. y ch l ta chn tp nh ca hm c trng l {0, 1} c mt
thun li l 0
2
= 0 v 1
2
= 1 do m c tnh cht 1). Cui cng, cng cn nhc li l k
hiu AAB biu th cho hiu i xng ca hai tp hp, tc l tp cc phn th thuc ng
vo mt trong hai tp hp:
AAB = (A\B) (B\A) = (AB) \ (AB)

3. ng dng hm c trng chng minh cc ng thc, bao hm thc v tp hp
Vi cc tnh cht c bn nu phn 2, hm c trng c th c s dng mt cch
hiu qu chng minh cc ng thc tp hp. Chng ta bt u bng cc v d n gin
sau:
V d 1. (Quy tc De Morgan). Nu A, B l cc tp con bt k thuc E th ta c
a) B A B A = ;
b) B A B A = .
Chng minh. a) Ta c

B A B A
B A B A B A B A
B A

= = = + = = _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . ) 1 )( 1 ( ) ( 1 1
T suy ra B A B A = .
b) Tng t

B A
B A

= _ _ 1
Mt khc

B A B A B A
B A B A B A
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . 1 ) 1 )( 1 ( 1 1 . = + = + =

Nn ta suy ra hm c trng ca B A v B A bng nhau, do chng bng nhau.

V d 2. (Tnh phn phi gia php hp v php giao). Nu A, B, C l cc tp con bt k
thuc E th ta c
a) (A B) C = (A C) (B C);
b) (A B) C = (A C) (B C).
Chng minh.
Ta ch chng minh phn a), phn b) c chng minh hon ton tng t.

Ta c
_
(A B) C
= _
A B
._
C
= (_
A
+ _
B
- _
A
._
B
)_
C

Mt khc
_
(A C) (B C)
= _
(A C)
+ _
(B C)
- _
(A C)
_
(B C)
=

_
A
_
C
+ _
B
_
C
- _
A
_
C
_
B
_
C
=
_
A
_
C
+ _
B
_
C
- _
A
_
B
_
C
= (_
A
+ _
B
- _
A
._
B
)_
C
.
Hai hm c trng bng nhau do hai tp hp hai v bng nhau.

Bi tp

1. Chng minh rng php hiu i xng c tnh kt hp, tc l vi mi tp hp A, B, C ta c (AAB)AC =
AA(BAC).

2. Chng minh rng nu A B = A C v A B = A C th B = C.

3. Chng minh nu A, B, C l cc tp con bt k ca E th ta c
a) (A \ B) (A \ C) = A \ (B C)
b) (A \ B) \ (A \ C) = (A\B) C = (A C) \ B

Hm c trng cn c th lm vic hiu qu vi cc bao hm thc, vi ch l A c B
khi v ch khi _
A
_
B
.

V d 3. Chng minh rng nu A C c B C v A \ C c B \ C th A c B.

Gii. T gi thit ta suy ra _
A
_
C
_
B
_
C
v _
A
- _
A
_
C
_
B
- _
B
_
C
. Cng cc bbt ng
thc v theo v, ta c _
A
_
B
, tc l A c B (pcm).

V d 4. Chng minh rng nu A B = C D, C D = E, C c A, D c B th C = A, D
= B.

Gii. Theo gi thit ta c
(1) _
A
_
B
= _
C
_
D
;
(2) _
C
+ _
D
- _
C
_
D
= 1;
(3) _
C
_
A
, _
D
_
B
.
Ta cn chng minh cc bt ng thc (3) phi l cc ng thc.

Gi s ngc li, tn ti mt im x m mt trong hai bt ng thc (3) l bt
ng thc thc s. Khng mt tnh tng qut, gi s _
C
(x) < _
A
(x). Khi _
C
(x) = 0,
_
A
(x) = 1. Lc , do (1) th _
B
(x) = 0. T bt ng thc _
D
_
B
suy ra _
D
(x) = 0. Nhng
iu ny mu thun vi (2).

Bi tp

4. Cho E l mt tp hp, X, Y, Z, X, Y, Z e P(E). Gi thit rng:
X Y Z = E, X Y = X Y, X Z = X Z, Y Z = Y Z, X c X, Y c Y, Z c
Z.
Chng minh rng X = X, Y = Y, Z = Z.

4. ng dng hm c trng trong cc bi ton m
Mt trong nhng ng dng p v c chiu su nht ca hm c trng l ng dng
trong cc bi ton m. V c s ca ng dng ny l cng thc hin nhin sau:

e
=
E x
A
x A ) ( | | _
Trc ht, ta s ng dng cng thc ny chng minh li mt s nguyn l c bn ca
php m.
Nguyn l cng
Nu A B = C th |A B| = | A | + | B |
Nguyn l nhn
|A x B| = | A |.| B |
Nguyn l tr
| | | | | | A E A =
Nguyn l b tr
|A B| = | A | + | B | - |A B|
Chng minh
R rng nguyn l cng v nguyn l tr l h qu ca nguyn l b tr, do ta ch cn
chng minh nguyn l b tr l suy ra hai nguyn l cn li.

Ta c _
A B
= _
A
+ _
B
- _
A
._
B
= _
A
+ _
B
- _
AB

T suy ra _
A B
(x) = _
A
(x) + _
B
(x) - _
AB
(x)
Cho x chy qua khp E ri cng li, ta c


e e

e e

+ =
E x E x
B A B
E x
A
E x
B A
x x x x ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( _ _ _ _
Nhng iu ny, theo cng thc c bn trn, c ngha l
|A B| = | A | + | B | - |A B|
Ta c iu phi chng minh.

Theo nh ngha th _
AxB
(x, y) = _
A
(x)._
B
(y). Ta c


e e e e

= = = =
E x B y
B A
F E y x
B A
F E y x
B A
B A y x y x y x B A | | . | | ) ( . ) ( ) ( ). ( ) , ( | |
) , ( ) , (
_ _ _ _ _
Nh vy quy tc nhn c chng minh.

Bi tp

5. Cho A, B, C l cc tp hp bt k, chng minh rng
| A B C | = | A | + | B | + | C | - (|A B| + | A C| + |B C|) + |A B C|.

6. Chng minh cng thc bao hm v loi tr (Nguyn l b tr) tng qut.

= s < < s

s < s =
+ + + =
n
i n i i i
n
n
i i i
n j i
j i i
n
i
i
A A A A A A A A A
1 1
1
1
1 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
| ... | ) 1 ( ... | | | | 1 | | | |

Tip theo, ta s ng dng cng thc ny gii thch phng php m theo phn t. Ta
minh ha phng php ny qua bi ton sau.

V d 5. Cho E = {1, 2, , n}. F = P(E). Hy tnh

e
=
2
) , (
| |
F B A
B A S
Gii. Bi ny c th gii bng hai cch, cch 1 l m theo tp hp v cch hai l m
theo phn t. Vi cch 1, ta gi s(k) l s tt c cc b (A, B) e F
2
sao cho |A B| = k.
Th th r rng

=
=
n
k
k s k S
0
) ( .
Nh vy ta ch cn i tm s(k). Vi mi k c nh, c
k
n
C cch chn ra mt tp con gm k
phn t. Gi s l C. Nu ta cho A B = C th |A B| = k. m bo iu ny,
sau mi phn t thuc E \ C c th:
a) Khng thuc A, khng thuc B;
b) Thuc A, khng thuc B;
c) Thuc B, khng thuc A.
Tc l c 3 cch chn.

T suy ra
k n k
n
C k s

= 3 . ) ( .
Cui cng
1
0 0
4 3 . ) ( .

=

=
= = =

n
n
k
k n k
n
n
k
n C k k s k S (Ti sao?)
Li gii trn l kh phc tp, bao gm 2 bc l lun kh: 1) Tnh c s(k); 2) Rt gn
tng

n
k
k n k
n
C k
0
3 . . Tuy nhin, p s bi ton li kh n gin: n4
n-1
. Ta th tm mt cch
tip cn khc cho ra thng p s ny. V tha s n p s gi cho chng ta n
phng php m theo phn t, tc l m s ln mt phn t x xut hin trong cc tp
hp A B. C th ta c


e e e

e

e
= = =
2 2 2
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
) ( ) ( | |
F B A E x F B A
B A
E x
B A
F B A
x x B A S _ _
y ta o th t ly tng.

Vi mt phn t x e E = {1, 2, , n} c nh, xt tng

e

2
) , (
) (
F B A
B A
x _ . Ta thy 1 ) ( =

x
B A
_
khi v ch khi A B cha x. Nh vy =

e

2
) , (
) (
F B A
B A
x _ |{(A, B) e F
2
| x e A B}|, tc l
tng trn bng s b (A, B) sao cho c A v B u cha x. C 2
n-1
tp con ca E cha x.
Do , theo quy tc nhn, s b (A, B) A B cha x bng 2
n-1
x 2
n-1
= 4
n-1
. T
. 4 . 4 ) (
1 1
) , (
2

e e

= = =

n
E x
n
E x F B A
B A
n x S _
Ghi ch. T kt qu bi ton ny ta suy ra kt lun sau: Nu ly ngu nhin hai tp con
A, B thuc E = {1, 2, , n} th gi tr k vng ca |A B| l .
4
n

V d 6. (APMO 1998). Xt tp hp E = {1, 2, , 1998} v F l tp hp tt c cc tp
con ca E. Hy tnh tng

e
=
n
n
F A A A
n
A A A S
) ,..., , (
2 1
2 1
| ... |
Gii. Nu gii bi ny bng phng php m theo tp hp s gp kh nhiu kh khn.
Tuy nhin, phng php m theo phn t cho ta kt qu mt cch nhanh chng


e e

e e

e
= =
E x F A A A
A A A
F A A A E x
A A A
F A A A
n
x x A A A
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
) ( ) ( | ... |
) ,..., , (
...
) ,..., , (
...
) ,..., , (
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
_ _
Tng bn trong ng bng s cc b (A
1
, A
2
, , A
n
) m A
1
A
2
A
n
cha x. Ta
c tng s cc b (A
1
, A
2
, , A
n
) bng (2
1998
)
n
(2
1998
l s cc tp con ca E). Tng s
cc b (A
1
, A
2
, , A
n
) m A
1
A
2
A
n
khng cha x bng (2
1997
)
n
(2
1997
l s cc
tp con ca E khng cha x). T suy ra s cc b (A
1
, A
2
, , A
n
) m A
1
A
2

A
n
cha x bng (2
1998
)
n
(2
1997
)
n
.

T suy ra S = 1998((2
1998
)
n
(2
1997
)
n
) = 1998(2
n
-1)2
1997.n
.

Bi tp

7. Cho E = {1, 2, , n}. Vi mi k = 0, 1, 2, , n t F
k
= {A c E| |A| = k} (tc l tp hp tt c cc tp
con c k phn t ca E). Hy tnh tng

e

q p
F F B A
B A
) , (
| |
8. (VMO 2002, bng B) Cho tp hp S gm tt c cc s nguyn trong on [1; 2002]. Gi T l tp hp
tt c cc tp hp con khng rng ca S. Vi mi tp con X thuc T, k hiu m(X) l trung bnh cng ca
tt c cc s thuc X. t
| |
) (
T
X m
m

= , y tng ly theo tt c cc tp hp X thuc T. Hy tnh gi
tr ca m.

5. Mt s ng dng khc ca phng php m theo phn t

Phng php m theo phn t c trnh by mc 4 c th c tng qut ha nh
sau:

Cho F l h cc tp con ca X. Vi x thuc x, ta gi d(x) l s phn t ca F cha x.

nh l 2. Cho F l h cc tp con ca tp hp X. Khi


Chng minh. Xt ma trn k M = (m
x,A
) ca F. Ngha l M l ma trn 0-1 vi |X| dng
nh s bi cc im x e X v |F| ct nh s bi tp A e F sao cho m
x,A
= 1 khi v ch
khi x e A. rng d(x) bng s s 1 trn dng th x cn |A| l s s 1 trn ct th A.
Nh vy c v tri v v phi u biu din s s 1 ca M.
Nu ta xt th G = (V, E) trn tp nh V nh mt h cc tp con 2 phn t ca V th ta
c nh l Euler.

nh l 3. (Euler, 1736) Trong mi th, tng bc cc nh ca n bng hai ln s cnh
ca n v nh th, lun l mt s chn.

nh l sau c th c chng minh bng cch tng t

nh l 4. vi mi Y _ X.


(Hai tng ng thc u ng vi s s 1 trn cc hng Y. Cc tng ng thc th hai
m s ln xut hin ca x trong cc tp c dng A B).

Trng hp c bit khi F = E l tp con 2 phn t, ta c

nh l 5. Vi th G = (V, E), ta c


nh l sau y ca hnh hc t hp c nhiu ng dng hiu qu trong cc bi ton nh
gi din tch v c chng minh da trn tng ca cng thc bao hm v loi tr,
cng nh phng php m theo phn t (d y chng ta khng lm vic vi tp hp
hu hn).

nh l 6. Trn mt phng cho n hnh. Gi
k
i i
S
...
1
l din tch phn giao ca cc hnh vi
ch s i
1
, , i
k
. S l din tch phn mt phng c ph bi cc hnh trn; Mk l tng tt
c cc
k
i i
S
...
1
. Khi :
a) S = M
1
M
2
+ M
3
- + (-1)
n+1
M
n
;
b) S M
1
M
2
+ M
3
- + (-1)
m+1
M
m
khi m chn v
S M
1
M
2
+ M
3
- + (-1)
m+1
M
m
khi m l.
Chng minh.
a) Gi W
m
l din tch phn mt phng c ph bi ng m hnh. Phn mt phng ny
to thnh t cc mu, mi mt mu c ph bi m hnh xc nh no . Din tch mi
mt mu nh vy khi tnh M
k
c tnh
k
m
C ln, v t m hnh c th thit lp c
k
m
C
phn giao ca k hnh. V vy
n
k
n k
k
k k
k
k k
W C W C W C M + + + =
+ +
...
1 1

Suy ra

( ) ( )
, ...
... ... ) 1 ( ...
2 1
3 2 1
2
2
2
1
2 1
1
1
1
3 2 1
n
n n n n n
n
W W W
W C C C W C C W C M M M M
+ + +
= + + + + = + +
+

v . 1 1 ) 1 1 ( 1 ...) 1 ( ) 1 ( ...
2 1 3 2 1
= + = + + + = +
m
m m
m
m
m
m m m
C C C C C C
Cui cng, ch rng S = W
1
+ W
2
+ + W
n
, ta suy ra iu phi chng minh.
b) Chng minh phn b) xin c dnh cho bn c.

Ta xem xt mt ng dng trc tip ca nh l 6.

V d 7.
a) Trong hnh vung din tch 6 c ba hnh a gic c din tch mi hnh bng 3. Chng
minh rng trong chng tn ti hai hnh a gic c din tch phn chung khng nh hn 1.
b) Trong hnh vung din tch 5 c chn hnh a gic c din tch mi hnh bng 1. Chng
minh rng trong chng tn ti hai a gic c din tch phn chung khng nh hn 1/9.

Gii.
a) Theo nh l 6, phn a) th ta c 6 = 9 (S
12
+ S
23
+ S
13
) + S
123
. T suy ra
S
12
+ S
23
+ S
13
= 3 + S
123
3
Suy ra mt trong cc s S
12
, S
23
, S
13
khng nh hn 1.
b) Theo nh l 6, phn b) th 5 9 M
2
, tc l M
2
4. V t 9 hnh a gic c th to ra
9.8/2 = 36 cp, nn din tch phn trong ca mt trong cc cp nh vy khng nh hn
M
2
/36 1/9.

Bi tp

9. Trong hnh ch nht din tch 1 c 5 hnh c din tch mi hnh bng 1/2.
a) Chng minh rng tn ti hai hnh c din tch phn chung khng nh hn 3/20.
b) Chng minh rng tn ti hai hnh c din tch phn chung khng nh hn 1/5.
c) Chng minh rng tn ti ba hnh c din tch phn chung khng nh hn 1/20.

10. (Olympic ton Nga, 1996) Trong Duma c 1600 i biu, to thnh 16000 y ban, mi y ban c 80
ngi. Chng minh rng tn ti hai y ban c chng t nht 4 thnh vin.

6. Ti liu tham kho
[1]. on Qunh (ch bin), Don Minh Cng, Trn Nam Dng, ng Hng Thng,
Ti liu gio khoa chuyn ton, i s 10, NXB Gio dc Vit Nam, 2009.

[2]. Nguyn Hu Anh, Ton ri rc, Nh xut bn Gio dc, 1999.
[3]. Jean-Marie Monier, Gio trnh Ton, Tp 5, i s 1, Nh xut bn Gio dc, 1999.

[4]. Trn Nam Dng, K thut m bng hai cch ng dng trong gii ton, K yu Hi
ngh khoa hc, Cc chuyn chuyn ton Bi dng HSG THPT, Nam nh,
11/2010.

[5]. Alfutova N.B., Ustinov A.V., i s v L thuyt s, NXB MCCME 2002.

[6]. Prasolov V.V., Cc bi ton hnh hc, NXB MCCME 2001.