Holcim Technical Manual English

Holcim (Vietnam) Ltd.
1
st
edition 2013
Cement & Concrete
Technical Manual
Strength. Performance. Passion.
2
3
Copyright
C2013, Holcim (Vietnam) Ltd
All rights, including the partial re-print of parts or
entire section of the book in Vietnamese version
and/ or English version (including photo copy, micro
copy, CD-Rom, or any other way of copying and
presenting it in public), the storage in date centers
and the translation, are reserved to the authors.
Special permission must be requested in writing to
Holcim (Vietnam)
Authors
Technical consultant team
Holcim (Vietnam) Ltd
A special thank to Silvia Vieiria Mcs, PhD Holcim
Group Support Ltd
Publication
1st edition 2013 in Vietnamese
1st edition 2013 in English
Disclaimer
Alone the complete standards referred hereto serve
as reference. They can be sourced at the respective
organizations. Holcim (Vietnam) is not liable for
misapplication and/or interpretation of the content
of this manual.
Imprint
4
5
About Holcim (Vietnam) Ltd.
Founded in 1912 in the tiny Swiss village of Holderbank, Holcim is
one of the world leading cement and construction materials
companies. Holcim operates in more than 70 countries across all
continents and employs around 90,000 people world-wide. Today
Holcim has become synonymous of leadership in the supply of
cement and aggregates (crushed stone, sand and gravel), as well as
readymix concrete and construction-related services.
Holcim (Vietnam), founded in 1993, has the unique network of 4
cement plants in south Vietnam at Hon Chong, Hiep Phuoc, Cat Lai,
Thi Vai, to guarantee the best supply security for each project. To
meet the requirements of every application, Holcim Vietnam has
researched and developed a wide range of cements that offer the
optimal solution for every project.
Established in 2005, Holcim Beton has developed into a leading
readymix supplier in southern Vietnam, offering its customers high
quality, innovative products and services. Over the last years,
Holcim Vietnam has worked with leading national and
international contractors and developers as the preferred partner in
projects in southern Vietnam.
6
7
Preface
To develop Vietnam in the 21
st
century and to meet the requirements of modern society, many high rise
buildings and infrastructure projects, like ports, roads, bridges are being designed and constructed by
national and international developers, designers and contractors.
These structures are expected to be in service for long time, sometimes for 100 years, with low maintenance
costs. The durability of concrete as building material is a key element for long lasting projects. This Technical
Manual offers an overview of good practices in concrete as well as an overview of relevant Vietnamese and
international standards.
A better understanding of cement/concrete standards can make it easier for designers, consultants and
contractors to choose the type of cement and concrete, suitable for their specific project. With good concrete
practice at the jobsite, the high quality building material concrete will be molded and transformed into
long lasting concrete structures, to build Vietnam for future generations.
As the different standards are complex to summarize and the construction industry changes quickly in
Vietnam, it is possible that there are inaccuracies in this Technical Manual. We are looking forward to any
feedback or input for improvement on technical.service-vnm@holcim.com.
Yours sincerely,
Pieter Keppens
Technical Marketing Manager
8
Index
Chapter I
Cement & Concrete 11
A. Components of concrete 11
1. Cement 11
2. Mixing water 12
3. Fine aggregate 13
4. Coarse aggregate 14
5. Admixtures 16
6. Additions 17
B. From fresh concrete to hardened concrete 20
1. Composition of concrete 20
2. Workability 23
3. Concrete strength 27
4. Special characteristics 33
5. Production and transport 37
6. Placing and compaction 38
7. Concreting in hot weather 41
8. Pumped concrete 43
9. Curing 45
10. Influence of formwork 47
Chapter II
Applications with specific requirements 49
A. Infrastructure 49
1. Introduction 49
2. Cement for infrastructure 49
B. Aggressive environments 50
1. Introduction 50
2. Sulfate resistant Portland cement 50
3. Sulfate resistant blended cements 51
C. Massive structure 52
1. Introduction 52
2. Cement for massive structures 52
3. Concrete for massive structures 53
D. High strength concrete 54
1. Introduction 54
2. Production and use of high strength concrete 55
E. Very flowable and self-compacting concrete 56
1. Introduction 56
2. Production of very flowable / self-compacting concrete 57
F. Cement treated aggregates 58
1. Introduction 58
2. Cement for treated aggregates 58
3. Testing procedure for cement treated aggregates 59
4. Optimization of cement treated aggregates 61
9
Chapter III
Causes and prevention of concrete defects 62
A. Segregation of concrete 63
B. Cracking 64
1. Plastic settlement cracks 65
2. Plastic shrinkage cracks 66
3. Surface crazing 67
4. Drying shrinkage cracks 67
5. Early thermal cracking 68
C. Carbonation and corrosion of reinforcement 69
D. Degradation in seawater environment 70
1. Chloride-induced corrosion of the steel reinforcement 70
2. Attack by sulfates from seawater 71
3. Preventive measures 71
E. Chemical attack 72
1. Classification 72
F. Alkali Aggregate Reaction 74
G. Fire Resistance 75
1. Concrete in fire 75
Chapter IV
Overview of cement & concrete standards 76
A. Cement 77
Vietnamese standards TCVN 77
American standards ASTM 83
European standards EN 86
B. Concrete 89
Vietnamese standards TCVN 89
American standards ASTM 91
European standards EN 93
British standards BS 95
C. Recommendation for limiting values of concrete composition 97
Chloride - induced corrosion in sea water 97
Aggressive chemical environments 97
Reference 98
10
11
1. Cement
General
Cement is a hydraulic binder a material that
hardens after being mixed with water, either in the
air or under water. The hardened cement paste is
water-resistant and possesses high strength. For
all concrete without specific requirements, the type
of cement generally used in Vietnam is a blended
Portland cement, type PCB 40, according to the
Vietnamese standard TCVN 6260. For plaster/mortar
in rural areas, PCB30, a lower strength class, is
sometimes used as well.
Several types of blending materials are used, like
limestone, puzzolan or slag, depending on the locally
available materials.
International standards, comparable to TCVN 6260,
are:
American Standard ASTM C1157: type GU
(General Use)
European Standard EN 197-1: CEM II/A or CEM
II/B 42.5
Other types of cement, which are used worldwide, like
Ordinary Portland Cement OPC (TCVN 2682,
ASTM C150, EN 197-1 CEM I)
Blast Furnace Slag cement (TCVN 4316, ASTM
C1157, EN 197-1 CEM III)
are not available in Vietnam as general use cement.
The test methods of the TCVN standard are very
close to the EN standard, with the correction of
testing temperature (27
o
C instead of 20
o
C), to take
the local climate conditions into account.
The ASTM standards use a completely different
set of testing methods and the requirements
cannot be compared to the TCVN/EN standards. In
Vietnam, several 3
rd
party laboratories are equipped
to test cement according to TCVN & ASTM, but not
according to the EN standard.
Testing cement quality and conformity
The quality and conformity of Vietnam cements are
assured through three types of control:
Control of the product in the plant
An certified quality-management system
External monitoring
Control of the product in the plant
At each step of the cement production, from the
quarry to cement delivery, material specimens
are collected for analysis. Gap-free monitoring of
production ensures uniform, high-quality cement.
The testing methods for cement are described in
standard TCVN 6017:1995 and ISO 9597:2008.
Quality management system
Most cement plants have established a quality
management system and all are certified according
to the ISO 9001:2008 series of standards. Some
cement plants also have a testing center in series of
VILAS according to ISO 17025. This ensures that all
operational processes are standardized, traceable,
and transparent.
External monitoring
In-house testing is supplemented by external
monitoring. External monitoring is carried out by a
testing institute accredited for testing cement. In the
south part of Vietnam, the most referenced external
monitoring is Quality Assurance and Testing Center 3
(QUATEST 3). From November 2012, every cement in
Vietnam has to carry the CR quality label.

Cement storage and shelf life
If cement is stored unprotected for a long time, it
absorbs moisture, which leads to lumps and may
reduce the strength development. If lumps can be
crushed between the fingers, the loss of strength
will be negligible.
Cement can be stored for a limited time in silo or
bags. Bag cement is best stored in dry shelter. Bags
stacked temporarily outdoors must be placed on
timber sleepers for ventilation. The plastic cover
must not be allowed to contact the cement bags,
because condensation would wet the bags.
Chapter I: Cement & Concrete
A. Components of concrete
Holcim recommendation
For general use concrete, standard cement offers
the best supply security for any project:
TCVN 6260:2009 PCB 40
ASTM C1157:2008 GU
12
2. Mixing water
Water for mixing concrete and mortar must comply
with TCXDVN 302:2004 or ASTM C1602. Water that
meets these requirements, can be used for washing
aggregate and curing concrete sample. According to
these standards, drinking water can be used as
mixing water without testing. Water from rivers and
canals is in most cases not appropriate to make
concrete. The use of seawater in reinforced concrete
is strictly forbidden.
General
Mixing water is the total amount of water contained
in fresh concrete. It is the sum of:
The water added directly to the mix
The surface moisture of the aggregates
The water content of the concrete admixtures
and additions, if applicable
(silica fume, pigment in suspension, etc.)
Mixing water has two functions in concrete
technology. It is required for hydration of the
cement, and for the production of a plastic concrete
that can be well compacted.
Requirements for mixing water
According to TCXDVN 302:2004, mixing water must
meet these following requirements:
Does not contain oil scum and oily film
Organic content < 15mg/l
4 < pH < 12.5
Color free
Depending on the type of concrete, sulfate and
chloride content must follow the requirements
in Table I.1 (TCXDVN 302 : 2004).
Chapter I: Cement & Concrete A. Components of concrete
Table I.1 - Limit sulfate and chloride content in mixing water for different purpose
Purpose of mixing water
Maximum Level
(mg/l)
Soluble
Salt
Sulfate Ion
(SO
4
-
2
)
Chloride Ion
(Cl-)
Insoluble rest
1. Pre-stressed concrete. 2000 600 350 200
2. Reinforced concrete. 5000 2000 1000 200
3. Non-reinforced concrete. 10000 2700 3500 300
13 Chapter I: Cement & Concrete A. Components of concrete
3. Fine Aggregate
Grading
Fine aggregate shall consist of natural sand, crushed
sand, or a combination thereof. For concrete
production, fine aggregates must comply with TCVN
7570 : 2006 or ASTM C33 (Standard Specification for
Concrete Aggregates). In the south of Vietnam, 3
sources of fine aggregates are used in concrete (FM
= fineness modulus):
Sand from Dong Nai river : FM = 2.40 (good not
available in significant quantity)
Sand from Mekong river : FM = 1.1 -1.6 (too fine)
Manufactured (crushed) sand : FM = 4.0 (too
coarse)
Usually when the sand is very fine, the mix is
un-economical because the increase of water
demand will lead to the increase of cement. When it
is very coarse, the mix is harsh and unworkable
because there are so much voids between the grains
and the cement paste can not fill the voids.
According to ASTM C33, a reference for good sieve
curve of fine aggregates for concrete is like Fig I.1.
In the south of Vietnam, sand compliant to ASTM
C33 cannot be found. The current practice is to
combine Mekong sand with manufactured sand, to
reach the best performance.
Organic Impurities
Fine aggregate must be free of deleterious amounts
of organic impurities. Fine aggregates that contains
many organic impurities, will lead to delay in
concrete setting, loss of strength and durability of
concrete.
Fine aggregate should be tested before use on
organic impurites according to standard TCVN
7572-9 : 2006 or ASTM C40 (Standard Test Method
for Organic Impurities in Fine Aggregates for
Concrete). When a sample has a color darker than
the standard color, or Organic Plate No. 3, the fine
aggregate under test contains possible injurious
organic impurities. It is advisable to perform further
tests before approving the fine aggregate for use in
concrete.
Other Impurities
Impurities like silt, dust, clay content also have a
disavantage effect on concrete. It should be tested
before use for concrete according to standard TCVN
7572-8 : 2006 (Standard test method for silt, dust,
clay content) or ASTM C117 (Standard Test Method
for Materials Finer than 75-m).
Akali-Silica Reaction
For concrete that is subjected to wetting, extended
exposure to humid atmosphere, or contact with
moist ground (for example, foundations, bridges,
tunnels,), the aggregates (both fine and coarse)
shall not contain any materials that are deleteriously
reactive with the alkalies in the concrete to cause
Alkali Aggregate Reaction. This expansive reaction
can create cracks in the concrete, which reduces
both the concrete strength and the durability.
Potential Alkali-Silica Reactivity of Aggregates
should be tested according to standard TCVN 7572-
14:2006 (Determination of alkali silica reactivity ) or
ASTM C289 (chemical method), ASTM C1260 or
ASTM C227 (mortar bar method).
Fig I.2
Organic
impurities test
using organic
plate.
Fig I.1 - Good sieve curve of fine aggregate for concrete
10
0
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
9.50
10.0 1.0
Sieve openings (mm)
Fine limit (ASTM C33) Combination Coarse limit (ASTM C33)
P
a
s
s
i
n
g

(
%
)
0.1
4.75 2.36 1.18 0.60 0.30 0.15
Manufactured sand
Mekong sand
14
4. Coarse aggregate
General
Coarse aggregates form the skeletal structure of the
concrete and must comply with TCVN 7570 :2006 or
ASTM C33 (Standard Specification for Concrete
Aggregates).
Characteristics
The most important characteristics of coarse
aggregates are:
Specific gravity
Bulk density (unit weight) and moisture content
Mineral composition, grain shape, and surface
texture
Purity
Grading (grain size distribution) and aggregate
fractions (range of sizes)
Soundness
Table I.2
Classification of
aggregates by
specific gravity
State Ovendry Air dry
Saturated surface dry
(SSD)
Damp or wet
Total moisture None
Less than potential
absorption
Equal to potential
absorption
Greater than
absorption

Fig I.3
The moisture
state of
aggregate
Bulk density (unit weight) and moisture content
Bulk density is the weight of loosely poured material
per unit of volume. It is greatly influenced by
moisture content of the aggregate (Fig I.3). Thus the
two characteristics, bulk density and moisture
content, are closely related. Test method of bulk
density according to TCVN 7572-6 : 2006 or ASTM
C29 (Standard Test Method for Bulk Density and
Voids in Aggregate).
The moisture state of aggregates can change
between ovendry and wet aggregates, depending on
the situation.
Specific gravity
The aggregate specific gravity is the ratio of the
weight of a given volume of aggregate to the weight
of an equal volume of water. Aggregate specific
gravity is needed to determine weight-to-volume
relationships and to calculate various volume-
related quantities such as voids in mineral
aggregate. The test standard for coarse aggregate
specific gravity and water absorption is the TCVN
7572-4 : 2006 or ASTM C127 (Determination of
apparent specific gravity, bulk specific gravity and
water absorption).
Aggregate type Specific Gravity (kg/m
3
) Aggregate Material Application
Standard aggregate 2700
River or glacial deposits;
crushed stone
Reinforced and
non-reinforced concrete
Heavy aggregate >3000
Barite (heavy spar), iron ore,
granulated steel
Concrete for radiation
protection
Lightweight aggregate < 2000 Expanded clay, polystyrene
Insulating concrete, concrete
topping, sloped concrete
Hard aggregate > 2500
Quartz, corundum, silicon
carbide
Hard concrete slabs,
abrasion-resistant concrete
15
Purity
Adhesive impurity on coarse aggregate surface, such
as dust from degraded rock, reduces concrete
quality, for example, by disturbing setting properties
and reducing the contact area between aggregate
and cement paste. It is suggested to wash coarse
aggregate before use in concrete (Fig I.4.).
Grading
The grading and maximum size of coarse aggregate
is an important parameter in concrete mix. The
grading of aggregate is measured according to
TCVN 7572-2 or ASTM C136 (Standard Test Method
for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates)
Grading, or the distribution of grain sizes along
with surface texture, specific surface, and grain
shape of coarse aggregate greatly determines the
water requirement, and thus is one of the most
important characteristics.
The maximum size of aggregate (D
max
) is the
smallest sieve size, through which at least 90% the
aggregate would pass. The maximum size of
aggregates is limited by the application. It depends
on: the distance between reinforcement, size of
elements, and pumpability of concrete. The choice
for maximum size of aggregate follows the Fig I.5.
The use of smaller aggregates increases the water
demand, increases the cement content to meet the
same strength.
Mineral quality, grain shape, and surface texture
Porous or overly soft aggregate (for example
degraded rock) impairs the quality of concrete. Grain
shape largely determines the compactability and
water requirement of concrete, as does grading and
surface texture (Fig I.6).
A cubical grain shape is good for concrete mix, it
decreases the water requirement and increases
workability of concrete. In contrast, non-cubical,
grain shape (elongated and flaky- aggregate
particles having a ratio of length to thickness
greater than a specified value) will increase water
demand and decreases the workability of concrete.
Non-cubical grain shape content is measured
according to TCVN 7572-13 (Determination of
elongation and flakiness index of coarse aggregate).
Fig I.5 - The choice for maximum size of aggregate
Fig I.6
Grain shapes of
aggregate
Rounded Irregular Angular
Desirable
Less Desirable
Flaky
Elongated
Flaky Elongated
Fig I.4 - Screening and washing aggregate in a gravel plant
I-
D
max
< 3d/4
D
max
< e/5
D
max
< f/5
D
max
< a/3
D
max
< 1/3 diameter of hose
or 37.5mm
For pumped concrete
c
f
c
e
a
d
d
D
max
< 3c/4
II-
III-
IV-

16
5. Admixtures
Definition and classification
Concrete admixtures are chemical substances that
are added to concrete to change, through chemical
and/or physical action, some of its properties, such
as workability, setting, hardening.
In Vietnam, the performance requirements for
different types of admixtures comply with standards
TCVN 8826 : 2011 or ASTM C494 (Standard
Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete).
Dosage
Admixtures are added to concrete mainly in liquid
form and in very small amounts. The dosage is
generally about 0.4 to 2% in relation to the weight
of cement. In certain cases the amount will be
recommended by the manufacturer. If the dosage
exceeds about 1%, the water introduced with the
admixture, must be considered as part of concrete
mixing water. Too low dosage can reduce
significantly the desired effect, and too high dosage
can produce unwanted effects such as retarded
setting or loss of compressive strength.
The most important and common types of
admixtures
According to ASTM C494, there are seven types of
admixture (from type A through type G). In Vietnam,
three types are commonly used:
a/ Water reducing and retarding admixture.
This type of admixture, based on lignosulphonate,
can be used at dosage 0.4 - 0.6% to reduce the
quantity of water required (6% - 12%).
Water reducing admixtures require less water to
make a concrete of equal slump which improves the
concrete strength, or increase the slump of concrete
at the same water content.
Retarding admixture is useful for concrete that has
to be transported over long distances, requires a
long slump retention and to retard the setting time
of concrete when placed at high temperatures.
b/ Mid-range water reducing admixture.
This type of admixture, based on napthalene
sulfonate, can be used at dosage 0.7 1.2% to
decreases the water requirements by about 15
25%.
Mid-range water reducers allow larger water
reduction to increase strength or slump/slump
retention at jobsite. They can achieve a specific
consistency and workability at a greatly reduced
amount of water. As with most types of admixtures,
napthalenes can significantly delay the initial setting
time of concrete, depending on the admixture
formulation.
c/ High-range water reducing admixture
This type of admixture is based on polycarboxylate
base. Common dosages are between 0.8 1.8%,
depending on the supplier recommendation. This
type of admixture can reduce the quantity of mixing
water required (20 - 35%) to produce concrete with
high consistency, better workability and high
strength. The optimal dosage needs to be
determined based on the particular concrete mix
and specific requirements.
Other type of admixtures
Many other types of admixture for concrete are
available:
Accelerators
Air entrainer admixture
Corrosion inhibitor
These specific admixtures are rarely used in
Vietnam. More information can be found from
different admixture suppliers.
Fig I.7 - Admixture used in concrete.
17
6. Additions
Fibers
Polypropylene fibers are organic fibers, used in
concrete to prevent plastic shrinkage cracks. About
0.7kg - 1kg of fibers is required per m
3
of concrete
(Fig I.8).
Steel fibers, uniformly distributed in concrete,
improve certain mechanical characteristics,
particularly ductility (toughness) and tensile
strength. The efficiency of steel fibers greatly
depends on their length, diameter, and shape. The
main use of steel fibres is in industrial floors, to
replace the steel mesh in the concrete (Fig I.9).
Glass fibers are used to reinforce thin prefabricated
sections. Using glass fibers is tricky; it requires the
experience of a recognized expert (Fig I.10).
Silica fume
Silica fume (Fig I.11), also known as silica dust or
microsilica, possesses a high pozzolanic activity due
to extreme fineness and very high amorphous silica
content. Silica fume dosages of 5 to 10% by weight
of cement can produce permanent improvement of
concrete characteristics:
Reduction of concrete porosity, thus
improvement of durability; increased resistance
to salts, sulfates, and other aggressive chemicals.
Carbonation progresses slower, thus
reinforcement is better protected against
corrosion.
Contributes to concrete strength; allows the
production of high-strength concrete
(80-100MPa)
Fig I.8
Polypropylene
fibers
Fig I.9
Steel Fiber
Fig I.10
Glass fiber, cut
and bundled
Fig I.11
Silica fume Caution
Adding silica fume to a concrete mix reduces
the workability and changes the rheologic
characteristics (flow characteristics)! Adequate
workability can be achieved by adding special
superplasticizers.
As silica fume is very fine, the homogeneous
distribution into the concrete is an important
issue that requires specific attention. If the silica
fume is not well distributed into the concrete,
its efficiency in increasing strength and
durability will be reduced.
18
Other mineral additions (puzzolan, fly ash)
In many countries, high quality fly ash, a by product
from thermo power plants, is commonly used in
concrete, as this is an active puzzolan that
contributes to the strength of the concrete.

In Vietnam, the use of both puzzolan (Fig I.12) and
fly ash (Fig I.13) is mainly limited to Roller
Compacted Concrete (RCC) in hydraulic dams. The
available fly ash is not suitable for flowable
concrete, due to its:
High loss of ignition (= unburned coal)
High water demand
Issues with admixture compatibility
Unstable quality, with limited quality control.
Inorganic pigments
Inorganic pigments are used to dye concretes and
mortars (Fig I.14). Oxide pigments are virtually the
only ones that can meet the demanding criteria of
stability and grading. Pigments have no chemical
effect on concrete. Because of their high fineness,
they increase the concrete water demand. This can
be counteracted by adding a highrange water
reducer. Pigment dosage, usually a few percent
measured by weight of cement, depends on the
desired color intensity. Amounts are recommended
by the suppliers.
Producing flawless colored concrete surfaces
requires great experience. Uniformly colored, bright
concrete surfaces can be achieved only with a
completely homogeneous concrete mix using white
cement and light colored sand. The color of the
gravel is not so important.
Any residue of colored concrete must be completely
removed from mixers, transport vehicles, and
conveyor equipment, so that subsequent batches of
concrete are not contaminated. Even the best
pigments cannot prevent the color of concrete from
fading somewhat over time.
Fig I.14 - Concrete products made using white portland
cement colored with pigments
Fig I.12
Puzzolan
Fig I.13
Fly Ash
19 Cement & Concrete Concrete component
20
B. From fresh concrete to
hardened concrete
1. Composition of Concrete
Concrete is a composite material that consists
essentially of fine and coarse aggregates, glued
together by the cement paste. Aggregates occupy
60-75% of the concrete (measured by weight or by
volume, as Fig I.15 and they are important
constituents from a technical and economical point
of view. Aggregates play a central role in concrete
strength and durability.
But the picture looks a bit different when we
consider the so-called internal surface area, that is,
the combined surfaces of all the particles in
concrete. Measured in this way, the dominant
component in concrete is clearly cement and the
cement paste is fundamental in defining many
concrete characteristics.
Concrete mixing
In proportioning the constituents of concrete, or
determining the so-called concrete mix or mix
design, the producer is primarily concerned with
optimizing concrete's:
Workability
Strength
Production cost
Durability
Importance of the water/ cement (w/c) ratio
A central characteristics of concrete, and one that
largely determines its performance, is the water/
cement ratio, or w/c ratio (Fig I.16).
The relationships between the w/c ratio and
required characteristics of concrete are well known
in practice. Thus, the designing engineer usually
specifies the w/c ratio when he specifies the type of
concrete.
Fig I.15 - Composition of Concrete
Fig I.16 - Influence of the w/c ratio on concrete properties
21
Choosing the water/cement ratio
An appropriate w/c ratio will depend primarily upon
environmental exposure and the loads the concrete
construction will be carrying (Fig I.17).
Recommended maximum w/c for different exposure
conditions are given, for example, in the EN 206 or
in ACI 318.
Minimum cement content in concrete
With sufficient cement in concrete, enough calcium
hydroxide is formed during hydration that the high
alkalinity and low porosity achieved in the concrete
will reliably protect the steel reinforcement from
rusting. On the other hand, overly large amounts of
cement in concrete increases the possibility of cracks
due to shrinkage and increased heat of hydration.
According to EN 206, reinforced concrete with a
maximum aggregate size of 32mm should normally
contain at least 300kg cement per m
3
compacted
concrete. The dosage may be reduced to 250 kg/m
3

only if the constructed element is permanently
protected from environmental action and other
forms of attack.
TCXDVN 327:2004 - Concrete and Reinforced
Concrete Structures Requirements of Protection
from Corrosion in Marine Environment requires:
The European standard EN206 increases the
minimum cement content to the environmental
conditions (refer chapter IV.C)
Low porosity in concrete
A well-designed aggregate mix with a smooth
grading curve produces concrete with good
workability and high cohesion, with a high
resistance to segregation. The hardened concrete
will have low permeability, which gives it good
durability (Fig I.18 and I.19).
Fig I.17
Influence of the w/c
ratio on 28-day
compressive
strength of
concrete
Fig I.18
Poor filling of
void spaces, high
permeability
concrete with
only one size of
aggregate
(schematic)
Fig I.19
Good filling of
void spaces, low
permeability
concrete with a
smooth grading
curve (schematic)
Area Minimum cement
content (kg/m
3
)
No direct contact 350
Direct contact 400
Table I.3 - Minimum cement content depend on
environmental exposure (TCXDVN 327)
Chapter I: Cement & Concrete B. From fresh concrete to hardened concrete
22 Chapter I: Cement & Concrete B. From fresh concrete to hardened concrete
Proportioning the mix by absolute volume
In practice, the proportions of each constituent of a
concrete mix are determined by calculating their
absolute volumes. The unit volume of each
component is calculated based on 1m
3
(1000l) of
compacted concrete, and obtained by dividing the
mass of each component by the specific gravity
Example:
Volume (m
3
)=
Mass (kg)
Specific Gravity
(kg/m
3
)
Specification: Cement dosage 325 kg/m
3
Water/Cement ratio 0.48
Plasticizer 1% based on cement mass ( = ~ 3 kg)
Assumption: Normal porosity 1.5% entrapped air (=15 l)
Component Mass (kg)
Specific Gravity
(kg/m
3
)
Unit volume (m
3
)
Cement 325 3,100 0.105
C
Mixing water 156 1,000 0.156
C
Plasticizer 3 ~ 1,000 0.003
C
Entrapped air - 0.015
C
Subtotal 484
0.279
C
Dry aggregate 0.721 x 2,700 = 1947
2,700 1 - 0.279 =0.721

C
Fresh concrete 484 + 1947 = 2431
2,431
1
1
1) Mixing water = water added + moisture of aggregates. The number C through 1 indicate the sequence of the
calculation.
To calculate the actual amount of aggregate
necessary, the water contained as moisture in the
aggregate (generally 4 to 6% for sand and 1 to 3 %
for gravel) must be added for each fraction.
Subtracting the moisture contained in all the
aggregates from the total mixing water gives the
necessary amount of water to be dispensed.
The unit volume of entrapped air bubbles (generally
1 to 2 %) as well as the volume of entrained air must
also be considered in proportioning the mix by
absolute volume. The example shows a method of
calculating the dry aggregate amount and the
fresh concrete density.
Influence of other factors on the workability &
strength of concrete
Besides admixtures, many other factors influence
concrete workability. Changing one or more of these
factors changes not only the workability, but also
other characteristics of concrete, for example
strength. Table I.4 shows how various changes in
concrete constituents and mix affect the
consistence and 28-day compressive strength of
concrete.
23
Table I.4
Effect of various
factors on
workability and
strength of
concrete
Fig I.20
Apparatus to
determine slump
2. Workability
To achieve a high quality concrete structure, the
method of placing and compaction as well as the
shape of the concrete element and reinforcement
arrangement, should be considered to select the
workability of the concrete.
The concrete workability affects the speed of
placement and the degree of compaction of
concrete. Inadequate compaction may result in the
reduction in both strength and durability of
concrete.
Different test methods for workability are available
including slump, Vebe time, flow table, etc. The
choice of the test method depends on the concrete
workability and its application.
To get reliable results, each test method for
workability should be applied within its test range
(EN206):
TCXDVN 374:2006 specifies:
For too dry concrete: the vebe time > 50 second.
For dry concrete: the vebe time > 5 second and <
50 second.
For plasticized concrete: The slump from 10 to
220 (mm)
For super-plasticized concrete: the flow from 260
400 (mm)
a. Slump test :
The slump test is the most well-known and widely
used method to characterize the workability of fresh
concrete. This simple test is used at the job sites to
quickly determine whether a concrete batch should
be accepted or rejected.
The slump test measures the ability of concrete to
flow under its own weight, without vibration. This
method is suitable for medium to high workability
concrete with slump ranging from 10 to 210 mm
(EN 206).
The test method is widely standardized throughout
the world:
TCVN 3106
ASTM C143
EN 12350-2
The apparatus used in the slump test are: mold,
tamping rod, measuring equipment (Fig I.20):
Workability
28-day
compressive
strength
Change
Slump 10 mm and 210 mm;
Vebe time 30 sec and > 5 sec;
Flow diameter > 340 mm and 620 mm.
More rounded aggregate
Smoother grading
positive influence negative influence no significant influence
More crushed (angular) aggregate
More mixing water
Higher concrete temperature
Use of a superplasticizer
Use of an air entrainer
Use of a retarder
24
- In EN and TCVN standards, the slump is the
vertical difference between the top of the mould
and that of the highest point of the slumped test
specimen.
- In ASTM standard, the slump is the vertical
difference between the top of the mould and the
displaced original center of the top surface of the
specimen.
The slump test is only valid if the concrete cone
stays visible and symmetrical (true slump). If the
concrete cone shears (shear slump), the test needs
to be done again. If it fails again, the slump test is
not applicable for the concrete (EN 12350-2)
Depending on the application of concrete, the following slump values are recommended:
Slump Range (mm) Application Illustrated photo
60-80
Elements with intense vibration:
Precast elements, concrete pavement.
Concrete placed by bucket
100-160
Elements with good vibration (compaction
needles): column, slab, beams etc.
Concrete placed by bucket or pump
180-200
Elements with low vibration level:
Bore piling
Retaining wall
Core wall
Concrete placed by bucket or pump
Fig I.22 - Determine Slump conform to ASTM standard
Fig I.23 - True and shear slump shape
Fig I.21 - Determine Slump conform to TCVN and EN
standard

True Slump Shear Slump
Table I.5
Slump range for
different
applications
25
b. Slump flow:
The slump flow test method is used to determine
workability of very flowable concrete with a very
high slump. At this high slump > 200mm, normal
concrete has the tendency to segregate, which
impacts the concrete quality significantly. To reach a
high quality concrete at very high workability, the
mix design needs to be specially developed to avoid
segregation and achieve the required stability.
Two types of concrete can be distinguished
(see Chapter II.E):
- Very flowable concrete (slump flow: 450- 650mm)
- Self Consolidating Concrete (SCC), also known as
Self Compacting Concrete (slump flow > 650mm).
This test uses the same equipment as the slump
test, but the diameter of the concrete spread is
measured.
The test method to determine slump flow is ASTM
C1611 or EN 12350-8. In ASTM standard, there are
two ways to measure slump flow of concrete:
- Upright mold
- Inverted mold
The upright mold (same way as the slump test) is
popularly used in Vietnam. Slump flow is the
average of the largest diameter of circular spread of
the concrete and the circular spread of the concrete
at an angle approximately perpendicular to
diameter above.
Concrete with high workability is used for structure
with dense reinforced steel such as transfer beam,
core walls, pile cap, etc or for the areas that are
difficult to reach for compaction.
c. VEBE test:
For semi-dry concrete with a low workability, the use
of the Vebe test is recommended. The Vebe time is
the time needed to level and compact fresh concrete
in Vebe consistometer and ranges from 5s to 30s
(EN 206). Some typical applications are:
- Roller compacted concrete (RCC) for hydraulic
RCC dams
- Base layers of roads, container ports
- Precast products: concrete pipes
Fig I.25
Structure with
dense reinforce
steel
Fig I.26
Transfer beam
Fig I.24 - Determine slump flow for fresh concrete
26
The freshly mixed concrete is packed into a similar
cone used for the slump test. The cone stands within
a special container on a Vebe table, which is vibrated
at a standard rate after the cone has been lifted. The
time taken for the concrete to be compacted is
measured.
General standards which are used to determine
Vebe time:
- TCVN 3107:1993,
- EN 12350-3,
- ASTM C1170.
In Viet Nam, two methods have been applied: TCVN
3107 and EN 12350-3 to test Vebe time of semi-dry
concrete. Basically, both of standards are similar.
However, EN standard is more detailed than TCVN.
d. Flow table test:
The flow table test measures the workability of
concrete under the impact of compaction energy.
Generally, in Viet Nam, EN 12350-5 standard is used
to test flow table of fresh concrete.
To perform the test, the cone mold is placed in the
center of the plate and filled in two layers, each of
which is compacted with a tamping rod. The plate is
lifted by the attached handle at a distance of 40 mm
and then dropped a total of 15 times. The horizontal
spread of the concrete is then measured.
Fig I.28 - Apparatus
to measure Vebe
time
Moving Vertical Rod
Rotating Arm
Slump Cone
Container
Vebe Table
Clear Plastic Disk
Mold
Top Plate
Hinge
Handle
Clip
Bottom
Plate
200mm
200mm
700mm
40mm
30mm
Fig I.27
RCC for hydraulic
dams
Fig I.30 - Apparatus to determine flow table
Fig I.29 - Flow table test for fresh concrete
27
3. Concrete strength
One of the most important characteristics of
concrete is the strength, as strength is an important
input parameter to the design of the concrete
structure. Concrete is a very strong material when it
is used in compression and it is however, less
resistant to tension.
There are different ways to measure the concrete
strength, such as compressive strength, flexural
strength, and tensile strength tests.
a. Compressive strength:
Compressive strength is the capacity of a material or
structure to withstand axially directed pushing
forces. When the limit of compressive strength is
reached, the concrete fails and breaks.
The compressive strength of concrete is the most
common performance parameter used by the
engineer in designing building and other structures.
The compressive strength is measured in cylindrical
(150x300mm) or cubical (150mm) concrete
specimens that are casted, compacted, cured and
tested in standard conditions.
The type of specimen, as well as sampling method,
curing and testing, are specified in the following
standards:
- TCVN 3105 :1993 & TCVN 3118:1993
- BS EN 12390-2 & EN 12390-3
- ASTM C31 & ASTM C39
To obtain accurate test result with cylinder
specimens, the cylinder should be capped with a
thin layer of stiff Portland cement or sulfur paste
which is permitted to harden and cure with the
specimen in accordance with ASTM C 617.
This capping method has to be done carefully,
especially for high strength concrete.
The compressive strength is conventionally
determined on specimens tested at 28 days age. For
particular applications, for example mass concrete,
RCC etc, the concrete strength can be specified at
later ages, like 56 or 90 days.
In case early strength is required, to remove the
support frame or formwork, or to prestress the
concrete the compressive strength at earlier ages (1
day, 3 days etc) are commonly specified in addition
to the 28 days strength.
Sometimes, other specimen sizes are used the
following correlation factors can be appied to
recalculate into the standard size specimen (cube
150mm):
(source: TCXDVN 3118:1993)
Fig I.31 - Cube and cylinder specimens
Fig I.32 - Specimens in a compression-testing machine:
cube and cylinder specimens
Table I.6 - The correction factor to recalculate into the
standard size specimen (cube 150mm)
Fig I.33
Equipment for
capping
specimen and
the specimen
after capping
and testing

Shape & size specimen (mm) Correlation factor
Cube
specimen
100x100x100 0.91
150 x 150 x 150 1,00
200 x 200 x 200 1.05
300 x 300 x 300 1.1
Cylinder
specimen
71,4 x 143 & 100 x 200 1.16
150 x 300 1.2
200 x 400 1.24
28
In Vietnam, the concrete is classified based on grade
and class of hardened concrete.
Grade of hardened concrete (TCXDVN 239:2006)
The grade of concrete is the mean compressive
strength in MPa, tested on 150 x 150 x 150mm cube
samples, which are casted, compacted, cured and
tested according to the standard at the age of 28
days. Grade of concrete is prefixed with letter M.
Class of hardended concrete (TCXDVN 356:2005)
The class of concrete is the compressive strength of
concrete which the reliable probability is 0.95. Class
of concrete is prefixed with letter B.
B = M(1 1.64v)
With:
v variable strength coefficient
Accoding to the European standard EN 206, the
concrete is classified based on compressive strength
at 28 days of 150mm diameter by 300mm cylinders
(fck,cyl) or 150mm cubes (fck, cube). Example:
C30/37 is interpreted as follows:
C stands for concrete
30 is the characteristic strength, determined
using test cylinders (d=150mm, h=300mm),
37 is the characteristic strength, determined
using test cubes measuring 150mm.
EN 206 defines 16 concrete classes, ranging from C
8/10 to C 100/115.
In American standard system, there are two main
standards for concrete: ASTM C94 Standard
specification for ready-mixed concrete and ACI 318 -
Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete
and commentary. The ASTM/ACI standards do not
classify concrete based on compressive strength.
b. Flexural strength
The flexural strength of concrete is measured by
loading 150x150mm concrete beams with a span
length at least three times the depth. The flexural
strength is expressed in MPa and is determined by
standard test methods ASTM C78 (four-point
loading), ASTM C293 (three-point loading) or EN
12390-1.
Flexural strength is about 10 to 20 percent of
compressive strength depending on the type, size
and volume of coarse aggregate used. However, the
best correlation for specific materials is obtained by
laboratory tests for given materials and mix design.
The flexural strength of specimens shall be prepared
and cured in accordance with ASTM C42 or Practices
C31 or C192 or EN 12350-1 and EN 12390-2.
Pavements are normally designed to achieve a
targeted flexural strength. Therefore, laboratory mix
design based on flexural strength tests may be
required, or a cement content may be selected from
past experience to obtain the required flexural
strength. Sometimes it is used for field control and
acceptance of pavement or slab. Very few use
flexural testing for structural concrete.
Depending on actual use, it may be necessary to
specify the flexural strength at different ages such
as: 3 days, 7 days, 28 days and 56 days.
Fig I.34 - Four point loading
Fig I. 35 - Three point loading
1/2 Load 1/2 Load
Load
29
c. Assessment of compressive strength test results
Test methods for sampling & testing
General methods for the making of the concrete specimen, their curing and testing are summarized in below
table:
The below 3 steps are very important to assure the
reliability of the result:
The sampling of the concrete and the making of
the concrete specimens shall be done properly,
so that the concrete cubes are representative of
the concrete batch. This procedure is sometimes
neglected in some job sites, which may lead to
low strength of the concrete specimen.
The curing in water tanks specific attention
needs to be given to the transport of concrete
cubes at early age. A careless handling can
impact their final strength.
Finally, the compressive strength of the concrete
specimen is determined in the laboratory.
Experience shows that the skill of laboratory
staff can have a significant impact on the final
test result. Special attention is required for the
loading speed of the concrete specimen.
EN 12390 3: 2002 defines the shape of satisfactory
and unsatisfactory specimens (cube and cylinder)
after the compressive strength test as shown beside:
When the specimen shows an unsatisfactory failure,
the obtained result will not represent the true
compressive strength of the concrete.
Characteristic EN TCVN ASTM-ACI
Making EN 12390-2 TCVN 3105:1993 ASTM C31
Curing EN 12390-2 TCVN 3105:1993 ASTM C31
Compressive strength EN 12390-3 TCVN 3118:1993 ASTM C39
Fig I.36
Satisfactory
failure of cube
specimens
Table I.7
Test methods for
making, curing
and sampling
concrete
specimen
Fig I.38
Satisfactory
failure of
cylinder
specimens
Fig I.39
Unsatisfactory
failure of
cylinder
specimens
Fig I.37
Unsatisfactory
failure of cube
specimens
1
4
7 8 9
5
2 3
6
A B C D
H G F E
I J K
30
Following causes can lead to unsatisfactory failure of the specimen:
Specimens Cause
Cube
The surface of the cube is not flat and parallel
The cube is not positioned centrally in the test machine
The fresh concrete has segregated during compaction
Cylinder
The capping method is not suitable or well-done
The cylinder is not positioned centrally in the test machine
The fresh concrete has segregated during compaction
Compressive machine
The compression plates are not flat
Excentric loading of the test machine
Inappropriate measuring range (20-80 max load)
Assessment of test results
The test results from cube or cylinder specimen are
primarily used to determine that the delivered
concrete mix meets the strength requirements
specified in the technical specification.
Strength test results may be used for quality control,
acceptance of concrete, or for estimating the
strength in a structure for scheduling construction
operations such as formwork removal or for
evaluating the adequacy of curing and protection
provided to the structure.
The test results on concrete specimen, to meet the
required grade of concrete according to a specific
standard, are evaluated as follows:
TCXDVN 356:2005
TCXDVN 374:2006
TCVN 4453:1995
ASTM C94:2005 BS 5328:1990 EN 206-1:2000
Type of
sample
Cube 150mm
1 set = 3 specimens
Cylinder 300x150mm
For a strength test, at
least two standard test
specimens shall be made
from a composite sample
secured
Cube 150mm
1 set = 2 specimens
Cube 150mm
Cylinder
300x150mm
1 set = 3 specimens
Table I.8
Posible causes of
unsatisfactory
failures
Table I.9
Asessment of
test result
31
Method of
Sampling
Foundation: 1set/100m
3
Foundation under
machinery: 1set/50m
3
Frame and thin structure:
1set /20m
3
Base and sub-base:
1set/200m
3
Mass pour:
V < 1000m
3
: 1set/250m
3
V 1000m
3
: 1set/
500m
3
Not less than 1 set for each
115m
3
number of set required:
V 40m
3
: 1 / 10m
3
V 80m
3
: 1 / 20m
3
V 200m
3
: 1 / 50m
3
First 50m
3
: 3 set
Then 1 set / 150m
3
Take 2 or more
specimens per set.
Testing fmin : lowest strength
specimen
fmed: median strength
specimen
fmax: highest strength
specimen
1 = fmax - fmed ;
2 = fmed - fmin
fc : the specified
compressive strength.
fcr : the average
fmin: lowest strength
specimen
fmax: highest strength
specimen
fcm = (fmax + fmin) / 2
Measure
compressive strength
of the specimens.
fmin: strength of
the specimen with
lowest strength
fmax: strength of
the specimen with
highest strength
fcm = average
strength of all
specimens
Compliance
checking
If 1 and 2 are both
less than 15% of fmed,
then
favg = (f
min
+ fmed+ fmax)/3
If either 1 or 2 is
larger than 15% of fmed,
then favg = fmed
If (fmax f
min
) / fcm > 15%
then the sample was
invalid.
Otherwise, f = fcm
If (fmax fmin) /
fcm > 15% then
the sample was
invalid.
Otherwise, f = fcm
Compressive
strength
assessment
favg
fck
fmin
85% x fck
The average of 3
consecutive strength tests
shall be equal to or greater
than specific strength-f'c
If f'c 35 MPa:
individual strength test
fc - 3.5(MPa)
If f'c > 35 MPa: individual
strength test 0.9f 'c
When meeting failure case,
refer to section 19 ASTM
C94-2005.
favg = average strength of all
valid sample.
For C20 or above
Criteria 1 (Rolling average):
First 2 samples: favg
fck +1
fck +2
Any consecutive 4 samples:
favg
fck + 3
Criteria 2 (Individual sample):
All valid samples: f
fck - 3
For C7.5 to C15
Criteria 1 (Rolling average):
fck
fck+1
Any consecutive 4 samples:
favg
fck + 2
Criteria 2 (Individual):
All valid samples: f
fck - 2
favg = average
strength of all valid
samples
Criteria 1 (Rolling
average):
favg
fck + 4
Criteria 2 (Individual
sample):
All valid samples:
f
fck - 4
32
d. Comparison of strength between different
standards:
Every standard has its own system to evaluate the
compliance of the test result to the requirement of
the standard.
It is very difficult to compare the standards. In
principle, it is not recommended to translate one
standard into a different standard. To assure the
compliance to the design, the concrete should be
tested according the standard set (TCVN, ASTM, EN,
BS), used for the design.
The following graph provides an indication how
TCVN, EN and BS are related in terms of cube
strength (not to scale).
C25/30 C30/37 C35/45 C40/50
EN 206
C30 C35 C40 C45 C50
BS
TCVN
M300 M350 M400 M450 M500
Table I.10
Comparison of
strength between
different standards
in terms of cube
sample
33
4. Special characteristics
a. Concrete density
The density of both fresh and hardened concrete is
of interest to the engineers for different reasons
including structural design and impact on
By choosing suitable aggregates and mix design, the
density of concrete can be increased significantly
(heavy concrete) or reduced (light-weight concrete).
For fresh concrete:
The density plays an important role in controlling
concrete yield (compared to the mix design) at
readymix batching plant. Typical readymix concrete
density varies from 2200 2500kg/m
3
(TCXDVN
374:2006), depending on the aggregate type and
mix design.
Based on the density of compacted fresh concrete,
plant operators are able to check if the mix design is
over- or under yielding: this means that the mix
design gives more or less than 1m
3
concrete after
compaction. Fresh concrete density test method
complies with ASTM C138; EN 12350 6; TCVN
3108:1993.
For hardened concrete:
Before testing the compressive strength, the density
of concrete samples (cube, cylinder) should be
checked and compared with the mix design to
confirm the sampling, compaction, presence of
entrained air.
Example: A mix design shows that the density of
concrete is 2450 kg/m
3
; however, the hardened
concrete sample only measures 2370 kg/m
3
.The
strength of this sample will be much lower than the
design strength. Hardened concrete density is
determined either by simple dimensional checks,
followed by weighing and calculation or by weight in
air/water buoyancy methods (comply with EN
12390-7).
b. Air content
Air content of concrete is also an important
characteristic to indirectly assess the quality of
concrete.
Fresh concrete always contains a significant amount
of air bubbles. One of the main reasons to compact
the concrete is to remove them. If the concrete is
not well compacted, some air will remain in the
concrete, reducing the strength significantly.
Normally, a typical compacted concrete will have air
percentage varies from 0.5 2.5%. Concrete with
high slump usually has lower air content than low
slump concrete. Besides, the plasticizer/super
plasticizer admixture can increase the air content in
concrete, which may lead to lower strength.
In some cases, the air content in the concrete is
increased with an air-entraining admixture up to
4-6%, to improve the resistance of the concrete
against deterioration caused by freeze-thaw. For the
tropical climate in southern Vietnam, air entrained
concrete is normally not used for this purpose.
Air content test method is complied with ASTM
C231, TCVN 3111:1993
Fig I.40
illustration of the
pressure method
for air content
A rule of thumb
1% excessive air
reduces the concrete strength by 4-5%.
Extension
tubing for
calibration
checks
Clamping device
Bowl
Air chamber
Air bleeder valve
Pressure gage
Main air valve Pump
Petcock B
Petcock A
34
c. Bleeding
Bleeding is a particular form of segregation, in
which the water from the concrete appears on the
surface of the concrete. Bleeding is predominantly
seen in very wet mixes with high workability.
Excessive bleeding can have a negative impact on
the quality of the concrete:
Dusty surface, linked to cement particles that are
carried to the top of the concrete layer
Discolorations of the concrete surface
Reduction of the bond between large aggregates
/ steel bars and mortar.
Not all bleeding is harmful for the concrete. A
limited amount of bleeding protects the concrete
surface against plastic shrinkage, in hot and windy
weather.
For concrete floors, the bleeding of concrete is a very
important characteristic:
A limited bleeding reduces the risk of early
cracking
Too much bleeding water delays the finishing of
the concrete floor and can lead to delamination
problems
The bleeding of concrete can be reduced by:
Lowering the water/cement ratio
Intense and uniform mixing
Adapting the sand fraction of the concrete
Increasing the cement content in the mix
Bleeding of concrete test method is specified in
ASTM C232 (or TCVN 3109:1993). Bleeding of
concrete is determined by the percentage of water
coming out the concrete.
d. Setting time of concrete
After cement and water are mixed, they react
chemically, the concrete sets and changes to the
hardened state. Concrete setting time is defined as
the time taken for the concrete to change from the
fresh to the hardened state. Setting time of concrete
is defined by 2 two parameters: (ASTM C403 Test
method for setting time of concrete):
Initial set: the period time from mixing until the
penetration resistance of equals 500psi (3.5
MPa).
Final set: the period time from mixing until the
penetration resistance equals 4000psi (27.6 MPa).
Fig I.42
Concrete
bleeding meter
Fig I.43
Apparatus to
determine the
setting time of
concrete
Fig I.44 - Diagram to determine the setting time of concrete
Fig I.41 - Bleeding of fresh concrete (good and bad)
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
P
e
n
e
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
,

p
s
i
Elapsed Time, min
Final Setting
Initial Setting
Outlier
35
The setting time of concrete should not be confused
with the slump retention or early strength of the
concrete. These three characteristics are very
different properties of concrete, even if they
sometimes move in similar directions.
The setting time is heavily influenced by the type of
admixture, as some plasticizers act as a retarder for
concrete.
Thus, for specific application with different setting
time requirement, the admixture (compatible with
cement, dosage) and concrete workability (slump,
flowability, mixing water) should be controlled very
carefully.
e. Permeability
To determine the durability of concrete, the concrete
permeability is more important than the
There are two types of concrete permeability,
frequently used in Vietnam:
Water permeability for water-tightness of concrete
Chloride permeability for concrete in aggressive
environment (seawater, brackish water)
Permeability to Water:
For specific structures which directly get in contact
with water such as : basement for high rise building,
dams, dikes, the water tightness of concrete is
required, in addition to strength.
The concrete to permeability to water is classified
into 6 levels: B2, B4, B6, B8, B10 and B12 and the
testing method is specified in TCVN 3116:1993.
The level for permeability to water is the maximum
water pressure for which water has not gone
through 4 in 6 test samples.
In general, concrete with a higher strength will have
a lower water permeability. So from the grade of
concrete, the level of permeability to water can be
estimated.
Concrete Grade Estimated Level of Water
Permeability
30 B6
35 B8
40 B10
45 - 50 B12
1
3
2
4
6 5
4 4 4 4 4 4
4
Warning
The overdosage of admixture may delay the
setting time of concrete up to 1 day or even
longer.
Fig I.45
The test method
to determine the
water
permeability of
concrete
Table I.11
Estimation of
water permeability
base on concrete
grade
Fig I.46 - Water permeability test machine
36
Permeability to chlorides
The permeability of concrete to chloride ions is an
important indicator to measure the durability of
concrete in aggressive environment. At a low
chloride permeability, the steel reinforcement will
be protected against the chloride-linked pitting
corrosion and the durability of concrete will be
increased.
The method to measure the rapid chloride
permeability of concrete is specified in ASTM C1202
or TCXDVN 360:2005.
The test method consists of monitoring the amount
of electrical current which passes through 51 mm
thick slices of 102 mm nominal diameter cores or
cylinders during a 6 hours period. The total charge
passed, in coulombs, has been found to be related to
the resistance of the specimen to chloride ion
penetration.
As the ASTM C1202 specification, the rapid chloride
penetration ability of concrete is classified into 5
levels:
Charge passed
(coulombs)
Chloride Ion
penetrability
> 4000 High
2000 4000 Moderate
1000 2000 Low
100 1000 Very low
< 100 Negligible
The chloride permeability of concrete can be
improved by:
Using blended cements, with a high percentage
of blended material
Reduction of water/cement ratio, to make a
more compact concrete
Efficient compaction and curing
Fig I.47
The rapid
chloride
permeability test
equipment
Table I.12: Classification of the rapid chloride penetration
ability of concrete
37
5. Production and Transport
Dosage of the components
The production of concrete is closely linked to the
technology and equipment used. The task of dosage
is to dispense the components of the concrete mix
aggregate, cement, additions, mixing water,
admixtures in controlled amounts, to produce the
specified mix proportions with great accuracy. Two
systems are used, dosage by volume and dosage by
mass. Dosage by mass gives more accurate results.
Every batching plant must establish sequencing for
adding the material through systematic pretests.
Sequencing is critical for:
The dispersion
The mixing effect
The optimal effect of admixtures
Plant efficiency
Mechanical wear
Mixing the components
The mixer must blend the separate components into
a homogeneous mix. The mixer must also satisfy the
following requirements and tasks:
High mixing intensity
Short mixing duration
Dispersion of the cement and the additions
Optimal coating of the aggregates with fines
mortar (fines paste)
Fast discharging
Low wear
At ready-mix plants the paddle mixer is the most
common type, used discontinuously for mixing
single batches. Each type of mixer requires a
minimum batch size, below which the quality of the
fresh concrete is reduced.
Mixing duration
The duration of mixing depends on the type of
mixer (drum or paddle mixer). Mixing duration
should be determined by testing.
If a small additional dosage of water is necessary
during mixing to achieve the specified concrete
consistence, the mixing duration must be
appropriately extended. Plotting homogeneity of the
mix as a function of mixing duration gives a curve that
increases rapidly at first and asymptotically
approaches the ideal line as mixing advances (Fig I.48)
Readymix concrete should be brought to the
construction site immediately after production at
the concrete plant and placed without delay in order
to preserve quality. There is a certain danger of
segregation during transport, so truck mixers are
used when the concrete is of highly plastic
consistence, for long hauls, or when traffic
conditions are poor.
During the trip, concrete must be protected from
rain, exposure to sun, wind blast, and the like.
Depending on the prevailing weather conditions on
the day of concreting, suitable measures should be
taken (covering the concrete, reducing the
temperature of fresh concrete, etc.).
For delivery by truck mixer, the concrete should be
mixed an additional one to two minutes after arrival
on site and immediately before pouring. Adding
more water should be avoided, because such
additions are uncontrolled and the water cannot be
mixed in thoroughly. If the delay becomes too long,
the concrete may be used only for less critical
applications (fill, lean concrete, etc.).
Fig I.48
Homogeneity of
the mix as a
function of
mixing duration
Definition:
Mixing duration = Wet-mixing duration
starts when all components are in the mixer.
38
6. Placing and Compaction
Conveying and depositing
In Vietnam there are three main means of conveying used: chute, bucket and pump. Depend on local
circumstances, kind of structure, workability of fresh concrete, economy and progress of project , the method
of conveying will be chosen. Show in table I.13
Method of conveying Structure
Workability of concrete
(Slump)
Picture
Chute
Some small structures like
foundation, ground slab, floor...
8 -10 cm Fig I.49
Bore piling > 18 cm Fig I.50
Bucket
Column, beam and floor in
highrise building
8 - 14 cm Fig I.51
Pump Floor slab, foundation... 12 - 18 cm Fig I.52
Fig I. 49
Fig I.50
Table I.13
Method of
conveying
Fig I.51 Fig I.52
39
Delivery volume and placing capacity must be
coordinated. Concrete should be deposited at a
constant rate, in horizontal layers of uniform
thickness. To prevent segregation, the concrete
should not be dropped more than 50 to 70 cm. Drop
heights greater than 1,5 m require the use of a drop
chute or feed hose.
Compaction
Good compaction is the prerequisite for durable
concrete. The advantages of well-compacted
concrete are:
Higher density
Improved durability
Good compressive strength
Better bond between reinforcement and concrete
Method of compaction
Selecting the best method of compaction will
depend on the workability of the concrete and the
reinforcement density/rebar spacing of the element.
The most common effective method of compaction
is vibrating. Vibrating is most often done with
internal vibrators (poker-type vibrators) or external
vibrators (form vibrators or surface finishers with
surface vibrators).
Vibration almost completely overcomes the internal
friction between the aggregates. The separate
particles move closer together, and entrapped air
escapes to the surface in the form of air bubbles
(the content of entrapped air after compaction is
about 1.5 % by volume). The voids become filled
with fines paste and the fresh concrete is
consolidated under its own weight.
Effective range of electrical high-frequency vibrator
heads (Table I.14).
Experience shows that a frequency of about 12,000
CPM is best for normal concrete. The vibration
frequency should be increased (up to 18,000 CPM)
for fine-aggregate concretes.
Fig I.53 - Segregate concrete because of too high drop
Fig I.54 - Honeycomb on concrete
Fig I.55
The structure
with good
compaction
Table I.14
Reference values
for the effective
range diameter
and spacing of
insertion points
Diameter of
vibrator head
(mm)
Effective range
diameter
(mm)
Spacing
between
inserrtion
points (cm)
< 40 30 25
40 bis 60 50 40
> 60 80 70
40
Rules for good compaction
The vibrator head should be quickly immersed in
the concrete, held briefly at the lowest point and
slowly extracted. The concrete surface must
close behind. If the surface no longer closes,
either the consistence is too stiff, the concrete
has already begun to set, or the duration of
vibration has been insufficient. Spacing between
the insertion points should be uniform.
The vibrator head should not be used to
distribute the concrete.
Vibration should be stopped when a thin film of
fine mortar forms on the surface and larger air
bubbles surface only occasionally.
The insertion points should be spaced close
enough that the effective range diameters of the
vibrator overlap.
If concrete is deposited in several layers fresh on
fresh, the vibrator head should extend through
the layer to be compacted and about 10 to 15 cm
into the underlying layer of fresh concrete. This
ensures a good bond between the two layers
(Fig I.56).
Rule of thumb
Spacing between insertion points =
8 to 10 times the diameter of the vibrator head
Fig I.57
Spacing between
insertion points,
depositing fresh
on fresh
Fig I.56 - Concrete compaction by vibrating method
Right
insertion point
Wrong
1
5
0

m
m
1-2xD 8-10 D
I
I
II
II
III
III
8-10 D
3
0
0
-
4
0
0

m
m
41
Fig I.58
Aggregate
shading
Fig I.59
Cooling concrete
by liquid
nitrogen
7. Concreting in hot weather
Vietnam is a country located in hot climates, it
effects directly to the placing and quality of
concrete.
With hot weather, the workability of fresh
concrete drops faster so the placing of concrete
becomes harder. In spite of warnings not to add
extra water to the mix on the construction site,
this pratice is still often used to improve
consistence. Water addition at the jobsite
increases the w/c ratio, lowers the strength and
durability of the concrete. It can lead to strength
failures at the project.
To keep the drop in concrete strength due to hot
weather within narrow limits, the temperature
of fresh concrete should be controlled carefully.
Some projects in Vietnam require the tempera-
ture of fresh concrete from 30 to 32
o
C.
In addition to the decrease in strength and
durability, higher concrete temperatures produce
other negative effects:
Faster hydration of the cement causes faster
setting of the concrete or even premature
setting greatly impairing workability, to the
point of making the concrete unworkable.
The concrete, specifically the surface layer, dries
out faster especially under strong winds,
intensive sun, and low relative humidity.
Water loss must be prevented by curing. If water is
lost, plastic shrinkage will occur cracks (see Chapter
III.B). Additionally, cement hydration will remain
incomplete. This further reduces final strength in
the prematurely dehydrated outer layer, which
further impairs durability.
Methods of controlling the temperature of concrete
The temperature t of fresh concrete can be
roughly estimated using the formula:
Base on this formula, controlling the
temperature of aggregate and water has the
highest impact on the temperature of concrete.
The effect of cement temperature to fresh
concrete temperature is relatively small.
Methods of lowering the temperature of fresh
concrete:
Cooling the aggregate by shading or spraying
with water (*)
Cooling the mixing water with ice or water
chiller (*)
Cooling the concrete mix with liquid nitrogen
(*) The amount of mixing water is to be reduced
accordingly.
Rule of thumb
10 liters of extra mixing water per m
3
concrete
causes a 10-percent drop in 28-day strength.
t
concrete
= 0,7 t
aggregate
+ 0,2 t
water
+ 0,1 t
cement
42
Concreting in hot weather requires good planning
and preparation
The delivery of fresh concrete must be well
coordinated with the concreting work so that it
can be poured without delay.
Sufficient equipment and personnel must be
planned so that the concrete can be placed and
compacted without delay.
The substrate and forms must not extract water
from the fresh concrete. Forms should be
moistened before pouring the concrete (Fig I.60).
But excessive soaking of forms and substrate
should be avoided; no puddles should form.
If the conditions for successful concreting at
high temperatures cannot be achieved for any
reason, concrete work must be rescheduled to a
cooler hour of the day, for example at night.
Retarders can be used to largely eliminate the
disadvantages of fast cement hydration, but they
do little against premature setting of concrete.
Retarders also require extended curing times, as
they increase the risk of plastic shrinkage cracks.
Placing and compaction
The shortest waiting time and fastest possible
placement of fresh concrete are the cardinal
rules.
The contractor s personnel should be
familiarized with the special aspects and
requirements of concreting at high
temperatures.
If sudden stops cannot be avoided, any concrete
in the truck and in the delivery equipment must
be protected from the effects of direct wind and
sun. Truck mixers can be hosed down on the
outside with water.
Adding extra water on the construction site is to
be strictly prohibited. Compliance with this rule
must be checked.
Fig I.60
Wetting the forms
43
8. Pumped concrete
Application Range
The use of pumps is recognized as a modern and
efficient method of transport and placing concrete.
Pumped concrete can be used for practically any
construction task, and is particularly useful when
high performance in placing is required or when the
pouring location is poorly accessible. In general,
there are two types of concrete pumps: stationary
and mobile.
Requirements for pumped concrete
Pumped concrete is pushed like a plug through a
pipeline. The key is to keep the concrete from
segregating under the forces acting upon it.
Cement
Practically any standard cement is suitable for use in
pumped concrete. A fresh concrete that can be
efficiently moved through a pipeline should have a
cement content of at least 320 kg/m
3
.
Aggregate mix
Experience shows that increasing the fines
( 0.125mm, including cement) to about 400 kg/m
3

considerably improves pumpability without
compromising durability of the hardened concrete.
Thanks to improvements in pump design, the grain
shape of coarse aggregate has only a minor
influence on pumpability.
Admixtures
The rules that apply to using admixtures in concrete
also apply to pumped concrete. It should be kept in
mind when using air entrainers, that fresh concrete
with an air content greater than 4% can reduce the
delivery capacity of concrete pumps.
Consistence
Pumped concrete must have a plastic to soft
workability.
The required workability can depend greatly on the
characteristics of the sand, and must be adjusted
when necessary as indicated by pretests.
Fig I.62
Casting a large
concrete floor
slab. Mobile
pump fed by a
truck mixer
Fig I.61 - Pump concrete by mobile pump
44
Tips for pumping concrete
A smooth process must be ensured by good
planning between the concrete pump operator,
the building contractor, and the concrete
supplier.
The setup and operation of the pumps is the
responsibility of the pump operator.
The rate of delivery and the delivery rating of the
concrete pumps should be suited to the working
capacity of the crew placing the concrete.
The concrete should be delivered to the concrete
pump with truck mixers to prevent any
segregation. Hopper trucks or silo trucks may be
used for short hauls.
The construction contractor is responsible for the
proper placement and curing of the concrete.
About 0.52.0m
3
of a cement-rich mortar serves
as a lubricating mix to prime the pumping
system. This material may not be used as
structural concrete.
Safety aspects of using concrete pumps
Delivering and placing pumped concrete can
be dangerous.
The following must be ensured:
Formwork for walls and columns must be
strong enough to handle the increased
pressure of pumped concrete.
No overhead power lines should be in the
working area.
The load-bearing capacity of the pump
platform must be adequate. Directives of
the pump personnel must be strictly
followed.
45
9. Curing
Purpose and objectives
The purpose of curing is to protect concrete from
water loss and harmful influences during the early
hardening period. Compressive strength alone does
not guarantee durability; the concrete must also be
dense. Especially in the surface layer, hardened
cement paste with high density and low-as-possible
permeability is very important.
This gives better resistance to carbonation and other
types of attack. Curing includes all the measures
taken to protect freshly placed, young concrete
while it develops adequate strength. The chief
objectives of curing is to protect the concrete from:
Evaporation due to wind, sun, dry cold
Extreme temperatures (cold or heat) and rapid
temperature change
Heavy rain
Early influences of foreign substances (oil etc.)
Premature drying
Protection against premature moisture loss is
especially important. Protective measures must be
taken immediately after concrete is placed.
The consequences of premature water loss in the
surface layers are:
Heavy plastic-shrinkage cracking (see Chapter III)
Low strength
Tendency to surface dusting
Lower density and durability
Faster corrosion of steel reinforcement
Lower abrasion resistance
Preventive measures
Leaving forms in place
Covering with a membrane (Fig I.63)
Wrapping with insulating material (Fig I.64)
Covering with water-retaining fabrics
(burlap, geotextiles)
Application of a liquid curing compound
(Fig I.65)
Continuous spraying with water
Keep under water
A combination of these measures

Fig I.65
Fig I.63
Fig I.64
46
Rate of drying
The rate of drying depends on:
air temperature
concrete temperature
relative humidity
wind speed
Typical effects of these factors are shown in Fig I.66
and Fig I.67 and Fig I.68 shows the correlations
among the factors mentioned. The chart can be used
to estimate the rate of drying.
Fig I.66 - Influence of water retention on strength
development in the surface layer of concrete
Fig I.67 - shows the correlations among the factors
mentioned. The chart can be used to estimate the rate of
drying.
Testing age [days]
kept constantly
moist
not
kept moist
kept moist
for 7 days
1
0
10
20
30
40
3 7 28 90
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

[
N
/
m
m
2
]
Time [hours]
unprotected concrete,
wind speed 20 km/h
unprotected concrete,
wind speed 10 km/h
concrete protected
with a curing compound
0
0
1
2
3
4
6 12 18 24
P
l
a
s
t
i
c

s
h
r
i
n
k
a
g
e

[
m
m
/
m
]
Fig I.68 - Chart for calculating the rate
of drying of exposed concrete
surfaces. Example illustrated: air
temperature: 28C relative humidity:
50% concrete temperature: 28C wind
speed: 5m/sec. result: rate of drying =
0.8 kg/m
2
hr.
relative humidity
ambient temperature (
0
C)
10 20 30
20
0
4
10
8
6
4
2
0
3
2
1
10
15
20
25
30
40
'C %
35
40
60
80
100
wind speed
m/sec
rate of drying
(kg/m
2
hr.)
concrete temperature
47
10. Influence of Formwork
Formwork plays an important role in a successful
construction project. It gives the concrete surface its
form, texture, and color. It gives the concrete
structure, correct dimensions, and the proper form.
Formwork often does not receive the attention it
deserves.
Selection of forms
The construction contractor usually selects forms
based on the following criteria:
Building structure / construction task
Specified surface quality of the concrete
Number of potential reuses
Labor required for erection
Thermal insulation characteristics
Price
Common facing materials for forms
Raw, rough-cut wooden boards treated wooden
sheets
Plastic-laminated forms (polyester, polystyrene,
linoleum, elastomers, etc.)
Steel, aluminium
Requirements for forms
Dimensional accuracy
Watertightness (Fig I.69)
Stiffness, no deformation
Cleanness
Low adhesion to hardened concrete
(Fig I.70 and Fig I.71)
Attractive surface texture (Fig I.72)
Form types
Absorptive forms usually produce a smooth, closed
concrete surface, because they absorb surplus water
and air bubbles. The face of wooden forms should
include only boards which have been used for an
equal number of times, because the absorption
capacity of the wood decreases with each use, which
has an effect on the color of the concrete surface.
Raw wooden boards should be coated with cement
paste before initial use to remove the wood sugar
that disturbs hydration of cement. This coating also
evens out any variations in absorbency of the boards
(Fig I.73).
Fig I.72
Example of a
successful
textured
concrete surface
Fig I.73
Non-uniform
absorbency of
wood used in
forms affects the
concrete surface
Fig I.71
Concrete skin
adhered to
wooden forms
Fig I.69
Results of a leaky
form
Fig I.70
Peeled-off
concrete skin
48
Non-absorptive, water-repellant forms promote the
partial accumulation of mortar paste. This leads to
irregularities in the color of the concrete surface
(clouding). Strong surface segregation can lead to
reduced durability (see Chapter III.A Segregation of
Concrete). Thus for exposed surfaces it is
advantageous to use absorptive forms or water-
conducting form liners of polypropylene fibers, etc
Form-release agents
Form-release agents make it easier to loosen the
form faces from the concrete surface. At the same
time, they protect and preserve the form material.
They are to be applied thinly and uniformly,
normally before the reinforcement is put in place.
Surplus chemical should be wiped away with a cloth
(Fig I.74). Staining, and irregular gray color of the
concrete surface, can frequently be traced to
improper application of a form-release agent.
Fig I.74
Effect of form-release agents on the concrete surface:
- Left: surplus form-release agent removed with a cloth
- Right: excessive form-release agent used
49
A. Infrastructure
Chapter II: Applications with
specific requirements
1. Introduction
To support the growth of the economy in Vietnam,
both public and private funds invest important
amounts of capital into infrastructure projects, like
roads, bridges, dams, ports, tunnels, power plants
As this infrastructure is the backbone of the
economy, the design life of these projects is
significantly longer than normal buildings (houses,
schools). With proper maintenance, a bridge should
be used for at least 50 years up to 100 years and
even longer!
To meet this long service life, the concrete for
infrastructure projects requires special attention for
durability, with careful selection of the concrete
components.
2. Cement for infrastructure
In south Vietnam, the cement, used for
infrastructure, is Blended Portland Cement (PCB40),
compliant to TCVN6260, ASTM C1157 with low
alkali content (Na
2
O-eq < 0.60%) to prevent alkali
aggregate reaction.
The alkali-aggregate reaction or concrete cancer
in laymens terms is a reaction between
aggregates, the alkali in the concrete and water to
form an expansive gel that creates cracks in the
concrete. This reaction is a very slow process over
years, but can become visible in 5 to 10 years after
construction.
In case of aggressive environment (presence of
chlorides, sulphates, seawater,), additional
precautions have to be taken (see chapter II.B).
Cement PCB 40 according to TCVN 6260:2009
or ASTM C1157 - GU, with low alkali content
(Na
2
O-eq M 0.60%)
50
1. Introduction
To assure the long life of the construction in
aggressive environments, special care has to be
taken for the concrete: cement choice, mix design,
placing and compacting, and last but not least,
curing.
A key element is the choice of cement, as concrete
can be exposed to different aggressions:
Sulfates in the environment attack the cement
matrix (C
3
A cement mineral) and create cracks in
concrete
Chlorides penetrate into the concrete pores and
can lead to the dangerous pitting corrosion of
steel reinforcement of the structure
Other aggressive elements (low pH, acids,..) can
attack the cement matrix, by dissolving its
constituents
For aggressive environments, 2 main types of
cement are generally specified:
Sulfate resistant portland cement (only for
sulfate attack)
Sulfate resistant blended portland cement
2. Sulfate resistant Portland
cement
Main characteristic of sulfate resistant Portland
cement is a lower C
3
A content, a specific cement
mineral, as this component will react with sulfates
in the environment to ettringite, that expands in the
concrete pores to create tensions and cracks in the
concrete.
The C
3
A-content of cement can only be measured on
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). For blended
cement, the addition materials will change the
chemistry of cement and the calculated C
3
A
content (based on the Bogue formula C
3
A = 2,65
Al2O3 1,692 Fe
2
O
3
) is not valid any more.
This type of cement complies to following standards:
TCVN 6067
ASTM C150 Type II (Medium Sulfate MS) or
type V (High Sulfate HS)
BS 4027
The maximum value of C
3
A depends on the standard
used:
By limiting the C
3
A mineral, sulfate resistant
Portland cement offers protection to sulfate attack
from the environment only. It does not offer
additional protection to chloride penetration or
other aggressive elements (low pH, acids),
compared to a concrete with general use cement
PCB40.
B. Aggressive environments
(sulfate, seawater ...)
Note: According TCVN 6067, OPC type II (comply with ASTM
C150) does not classify as sulfate resistance cement
Fig II.1 - The maximum value of C
3
A depends on the
standard used
Attention
Durability of concrete is a lot more complex
than the use of sulfate resistance cement.
To improve concrete durability, the Four C can
be used as a rule of thumb:
Cement choice,
adapted to the aggressive environment
Water/cement ratio,
to reduce pore space
Concrete cover,
to protect steel reinforcement
Curing of concrete,
for high quality concrete cover
Normal Cement
TCVN
ASTM
Type II (MS)
ASTM
Type V (HS)
BS 4027
3.5 5 7 8 9
% C
3
A
51
3. Sulfate resistant blended
cements
With specific additions in cement, the concrete has a
more dense structure, with a lower permeability to
water and chloride, which protects the
reinforcement steel to corrosion and increases the
service life of the construction.
This type of cement complies to following standards:
TCVN 7711:2007
ASTM C1157 type HS
EN : CEM III/ CEM IV - type SR
The ASTM standard verifies the sulfate resistance
with a performance test on mortar samples. During
6 months, a mortar bar is exposed to a sulfate
environment (ASTM C1012). The swelling is
measured and determine the percentage expansion
at 6 and 12 months of the mortar bar which is
immerged in the sulfate solution.
According the EN 197-1:2011 standard, specific
types of blended cement are considered to be
sulfate resistance, based on long-term experience
with these cements.
The lower permeability of the concrete can be
measured by the rapid chloride permeability test
(ASTM C1202 or TCXDVN 306:2005), on the specific
concrete mix, to be used on the project.
The rapid chloride permeability test measures how
fast the chloride-ions can penetrate into the
concrete, to attack the steel reinforcement.
The results are classified into 4 categories:
Indicative reference values for 35-40MPa concrete:
Normal cement PCB40 : > 5000 Coulomb (high)
Sulphate resistant blended cement : 1000 1500
Coulomb (low)
The use of waterproofing admixture does not reduce
significantly the chloride permeability of concrete,
as chloride ions move within the water-saturated
pores.
For concrete in aggressive environments
(seawater, brackish water, waste water,..),
Holcim recommends to use a sulfate resistant
blended cement, type TCVN 7711:2007
or ASTM C1157- HS, as it offers several
advantages:
Better protection of steel
reinforcement against corrosion
High sulfate resistance of concrete
Higher resistance against other
aggressive elements (acids, low pH etc)
Fig II.3
The rapid
chloride
permeability test
equipment
Fig II.2: Test method to determine the expansion of the
mortar bar in sulfate solution
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0
7d 14d
Limit of Moderate Sulfate Resistance Normal Cement
Limit of High Sulfate Resistance Holcim Extra Durable (HS) cement
21d 28d 56d 91d 105d 112d 180d
0.1
0.05
Chloride Permeability
VERY LOW LOW MODERATE HIGH
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Coulomb
Chapter II: Applications with specific requirements B. Aggressive environments (sulfate, seawater ...)
52
C. Massive structure
1. Introduction
In massive concrete elements, the heat of hydration
of cement will increase the concrete temperature at
the center of the mass element significantly. During
the hardening phase, the temperature can rise up to
85 100
o
C for thick elements, with general use
concrete. When the hardened concrete in the center
then cools down, the thermal shortening of the
concrete creates stresses in the element, which can
lead to thermal cracking.
The high concrete temperature in the center has a
significant impact on the structure:
Above 70
0
C, there is a risk for Delayed Ettringite
Formation (DEF) in the concrete, which can lead
to long-term cracking in the concrete.
High concrete temperature reduces the concrete
strength at 28 days, especially above 70
0
C.
To reduce these risks, specific measures have to be
taken, for example:
Limit the maximum temperature difference
T < 20
0
C or limit the maximum temperature
gradient between two points T/m < 50
0
C
(TCVN 305:2004)
Limit the maximum temperature in the core T
max

< 70
0
C
Insulation formwork is often used to warm the
concrete surface and reduce temperature
difference. It should stay in place for several days
until T < 20
0
C. Removing it too soon can cause
the surface to cool quickly and crack.

These measures should be considered when the
concrete thickness > 1.5m.
For specific concrete structures, these requirements
can be imposed from thickness > 1m, when the
consequence of cracks can lead to significant
damages (example: tunnel elements, gas storage
tanks)
2. Cement for massive
structures
To manage the heat development in massive
concrete elements, specific cements are available
with a low heat of hydration:
TCVN 7712 : 2007
ASTM C1157 type Low Heat (LH)
BS-EN type Low Heat
The EN standard uses a different test method from
the ASTM standard the EN method is not available
in Vietnam.

Fig II.5
Timing of
formwork removal
impacts the risk of
thermal cracks
Unprotected surface
cools fast
Form
removal
Inside
Surface
T
max
< 70
0
C
T > 20
0
C (surface cracking)
T > 20
0
C
no cracking
Days
80
70
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

r
i
s
e
,

0
C
Fig II.4
Heat of
hydration
development
inside mass
concrete can lead
to thermal
cracking
53
3. Concrete for massive
structures
To meet the temperature limits on the concrete
structure, additional measures on concrete are
required, as many parameters play a role in the final
results:
Heat of hydration of the cement
Design strength of concrete, which decides the
mix design (include cement content)
Thickness of the concrete element
The mix design of the concrete can be optimized as
follows:
Optimize cement content, by using more
advanced admixtures
Use larger size aggregates
Compressive strength requirement at 56 days
instead of 28 days.
The fresh concrete temperature should be as low as
technically possible. In South Vietnam, maximum
temperature of 30 32
0
C can be obtained using
standard practices:
Cover aggregates to reduce their temperature
Sprinkle coarse aggregates regularly
Use of chilled water and ice.
Before the start of the concrete pour, a mock-up with
the casting thickness is strongly recommended to
check the compliance to the specifications. This
mock-up is insulated on the sides (5cm minimum) to
simulate the real dimensions of the pour.
After execution of the concrete pour, suitable curing
with insulation material (5cm minimum) is very
important to reduce the temperature difference
between surface and core. Water curing should not
be used as it cools down the surface. For the same
reason, the slab has to be protected from heavy rain,
as this will cool down the surface suddenly and
increases the risk of thermal cracks.
During the hardening phase, the temperature of the
concrete is measured every two hour for at least 3
days. For this purpose, thermo-couples are placed on
different locations in the concrete element.
To reduce the risk of cracks in
massive elements, a combination of
several measures is required:
Low heat cement compliant with TCVN
7712:2007 or ASTM C1157 type LH
to reduce risk of thermal cracks.
Fresh concrete temperature
should be < 30
0
C
Protect the concrete element
with insulation (5cm minimum)
against heat loss
Before execution of the pour, a suitable
mock-up of the concrete pour verifies the
compliance to the temperature requirements.
Maximum concrete temperature < 70
0
C
Maximum temperature difference < 20
0
C
Fig II.7 - Mock-up at jobsite
Fig II.6 - Trial mock-up
4T
5T
1T
2T
3T
4M
5M
1M 2M
3M
5B
4B
1B 2B
3B
polystyrene
Chapter II: Applications with specific requirements C. Massive structure
54
D. High strength concrete
1. Introduction
High strength concrete offers significantly higher
strength and stiffness (higher E modulus) than the
conventional concrete. A concrete is considered to
be high strength concrete from 60MPa to 100MPa.
Above 100MPa, the concrete is classified as ultra
high strength concrete.
High strength concrete is mainly used for elements
in compression, like columns and core walls in high
rise buildings. Other applications are prestressed
beams for bridges.
Because of its high strength, the column size can be
reduced up to 45%, compared to standard concrete.
This gives a number of benefits:
During construction:
Savings in steel & reduced cost /m column
Reduced weight and savings on foundation
For the building:
Thinner columns, more architecturally pleasing
More available floor space
Concrete grade
Source: BCA Pillars on Safe Built Environment (Singapore)
Reduction of column section
6000
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
B40 B60 B80 B100
0
S
e
c
t
i
o
n

a
r
e
a

(
%
)
S
e
c
t
i
o
n

a
r
e
a

(
m
2
)
Fig II.8 - The correlation of concrete grade and column size
reduction
Fig II.9 - Slender columns in high rise buildings
55
2. Production and use of high
strength concrete
In general, high strength concrete is produced with
specially selected high quality components:
High quality cement at dosage 450-500kg/m
3
Low water/cement-ratio < 0,35
Optimized aggregate grading, with selected
aggregates
Use of very fine filler (silica fume, ultrafine slag)
to optimize fine fraction
Use of last generation super plasticizer
admixture
High strength concrete has a very high fines content
with a low water/cement ratio, and has the
tendency to be sticky. To be able to pump and place
this concrete, a high workability with slump >
180mm is normally used.
For thick elements (>1m), special care is required to
reduce the heat development in the concrete during
hardening. In that case, the mix design needs to be
adapted in a similar way as for massive concrete
structures.
For the concrete supplier, the main challenge of high
strength concrete is to maintain the quality over
time every single concrete truck - and avoid
strength failures on the project.
Some recommendations to maintain the quality:
Control of moisture in the aggregates, especially
sand (moisture probe)
Automatic dosing system for silica fume, to
control and track the quantity
Comprehensive quality management system, to
assure the regularity of the supplied concrete
and to reduce the risk of strength failures.
The internal laboratory has been assessed and
found to conform with the requirements of ISO/
IEC 17025. The reliability of the internal quality
tests is very important to assure a stable
concrete quality at the project
Because of its low water/cement ratio, high strength
concrete has a higher tendency to cracks than
normal concrete. So curing is very important:
At initial phase, use curing compound for
exposed surfaces
As soon as possible, curing with wet cloth at
least 7 days
High strength concrete (60MPa 100MPa)
Strength class: B45-B80 (TCXDVN 356:2005)
or C50/60 C80/95 (EN 206)
Slump : > 180mm
To control the quality of the concrete, the
readymix plant is equipped with:
Moisture probe in sand bin
Automatic dosing system for silica fume
Comprehensive quality management system
The internal laboratory has been assessed and found
conform with requirements of ISO/IEC 17025
Chapter II: Applications with specific requirements D. High strength concrete
56
E. Very flowable and
self compacting concrete
1. Introduction
Very flowable and self compacting concrete offers a
significantly higher workability than traditional
concrete, which allows a fast and easy concreting of
thin walls, columns and beams, with better surface
finishing.
The benefits of very flowable and self-compacting
concrete are diverse:
a/ Saves construction time and costs
Faster placing with less labor
Easier to pump over higher and greater distances
Easier to finishing surface
Less to no compaction required no noise
Complex elements can be concreted in one time
Avoid loss of time and cost to repair concrete
defects
b/ Increased construction quality
Homogeneous concreting of zones with dense
steel reinforcement
Perfect bond between concrete and steel
reinforcement
No repairs for concrete voids and honeycombs
needed
Smooth surface finishing
Very flowable concrete and self compacting concrete
can be differentiated from normal concrete through
its workability (flow) and need for vibration to
compact the concrete :
Concrete Flow Applications
Self compacting
concrete
660
850mm
No vibration
required during
casting
Very flowable
concrete
450
650mm
Easy casting for
structures with
high density of
rebars.
(limited vibration)
Normal concrete <450mm
Compaction is
required
Within self compacting concrete, different classes
can be distinguished (see European Guide on Self
Compacting Concrete)
550 650mm (SF1) : slabs with limited
reinforcement
660 750mm (SF2) : columns, walls
760 850mm (SF3) : complex shapes, filling
under formwork
Fig II.11 - Placing self compacting concrete
Table II.1 - Flow range with different types of concrete
Fig II.10 - Determine flow of self compacting concrete
57
2. Production of very flowable
/ self compacting concrete
Generally speaking, this high performance concrete
is produced with specially selected high quality
components:
High quality cement, with stable quality
Optimized aggregate grading, with selected
aggregates
Use of filler (limestone filler or other) to increase
the fines content
Use of last generation super plasticizer
admixture
Addition of a Viscosity Modifying Agent (VMA)
When designing the mix, special attention has to be
given to the stability of the mix:
Impact of small changes in water content
Presence of segregation & segregation
resistance (sieve test)
Passing ability through reinforcement (L Box - for
self compacting concrete)
For thick elements (> 1.5m), special care is required
to reduce the heat development in the concrete
during hardening. In that case, the mix design needs
to be adapted in a similar way as for massive
concrete structures.
For the concrete supplier, the main challenge of very
flowable / self compacting concrete, is to maintain
the quality over time every single concrete truck -
and avoid segregation / honey combs in the finished
element.
Some recommendations to maintain the quality:
Control of moisture in the aggregates, especially
sand (moisture probe)
Comprehensive quality management system, to
assure the regularity of the supplied concrete
and to reduce the risk of strength failures.
The internal laboratory has been assessed and
found to conform with the requirements of ISO/
IEC 17025:2005.
The reliability of the internal quality tests is very
important to assure a stable concrete quality at the
project.
When using very flowable or self compacting
concrete, special attention has to be given to the
formwork:
The formwork should be completely tight, to
avoid mortar loss
The concrete pressure is higher than
conventional concrete, especially for vertical
elements. The formwork should be designed
specifically to resist this hydrostatic pressure.
Chapter II: Applications with specific requirements E. Very flowable and self compacting concrete
Fig II.12 - L-box and J-ring test for self compacting concrete
Very flowable concrete / self compacting
concrete
Strength class: B25-B45 (TCXDVN
356:2005) as required for the construction
Flow: as required by application +/- 50mm
To control the quality of the concrete,
the readymix plant is equipped with:
Moisture probe in sand bin
Comprehensive quality
management system
The internal Laboratory has been assessed
and found conform with
requirements of ISO/IEC 17025
58
F. Cement treated aggregates
1. Introduction
Cement treated aggregates can be used in different
applications:
Base layer for roads and highways
Heavily loaded storage industrial platforms,
container ports etc
Load distribution layer on top of CDM columns
(CDM: cement deep mixing as soil improvement
method)
When aggregates are treated with a small quantity
of cement, the bearing capacity and the stiffness
(E-modulus) of the layer increases resulting in a
longer service life of the structure.
For the same bearing capacity, the addition of
cement to aggregates will reduce the required
thickness of the aggregate layer, which reduces the
use of natural resources and expensive aggregates.
There are 2 main types of cement treated
aggregates:
sand/cement - without any coarse aggregates
cement treated aggregates 0/25
2. Cement for treated
aggregates
The cement used for the treated aggregate layer
must ensure a high efficiency to develop strength as
well as a long workability of the mix. The
optimization tests in the laboratory will determine
the compatibility of the cement and the aggregates.
In general, the cement complies to:
TCVN 6260 : 2009, type PCB40
or
TCVN 4316 : 2007, type PCB
BFS
40
Subbase
Soil
Base course
Pavement
Road
structure
Soil
stabilized
by CDM
Loading
Fig II.13 - Typical road structure
Fig II.14 - Compaction of road base layer
Fig II.15 - Sand/ cement layer
Fig II.16 - Cement treated aggregates
59
3. Testing procedure for
cement treated aggregates
Cement treated aggregates are tested as following:
Determine optimal moisture and max dry
density by proctor method, according to:
o 22TCN 333-06
or
o ASSHTO T180 - ASSHTO T99
Vary the moisture of mixture (Aggregate + Cement)
until the dry density of mixture reach highest value.
The moisture which gives the maximum dry density
would be the optimal moisture (Fig II.18)
In function of the aggregate size, the mould can
be choosen as follows:
o Coarse aggregates
22TCN 246/ASTM D558
or
o Fine aggregate (pass 4.75mm)
ASTM D1632
Note: When a different standard/test method is
applied, the measured strength will be different for
the same mix design. ASTM D1633 recommends a
correlation factor between different mould size.
Sample 22TCN 246 - ASTM D558 Sample ASTM D1632
71 x 142 mm 101.6 x 116.4 mm
Ratio of Length to
Diameter (L/D)
Strength Correction
Factor
2.0 1.0
1.75 0.98
1.50 0.96
1.25 0.93
1.00 0.87
2.00
5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10% 11% 12% 13% 14%
2.02
2.04
2.06
2.08
2.10
2.12
2.14
D
r
y

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
g
/
c
m
3
)
Moisture
2.16
Optimal moisture
Fig II.17 - Apparatus to determine optimal moisture
Fig II.19 - The correlation between moisture and dry density
Fig II.20 - Different sample size to determine compressive
strength
Table II.2
Strength
correlation factor
for different
sample size
Fig II.18 - Determine optimal moisture by proctor method
Chapter II: Applications with specific requirements F. Cement treated aggregates
60 Chapter II: Applications with specific requirements F. Cement treated aggregates
Curing
o The specimens are cured in the moulds in
moisture room for 12h
o The specimens are removed from the moulds
by the extruder
o The specimens are returned to moist room
o At the end of the moistcure period, the
specimens are immersed in water for 4 hours
Unconfined compressive strength is than tested
according to the standard ASTM D1633
o A screw power testing machine, with the
moving head operating at approximately
0.05 in. (1 mm)/min when the machine is
running idle, may be used
o With hydraulic machines, adjust the loading
to a constant rate within the limits of (140
70 kPa/s)
Workability period of cement treated aggregates
o Just like normal concrete, cement treated
aggregates have a workability period, during
which the material has to be transported,
placed, leveled and compacted.
o The workability period will depend strongly
of the type of cement and aggregates, the
mix design and the temperature of the mix.
It can range from 2-3 hours up to 10 hours
and even more.
The workability is specified in accordance with
the standard EN 13286-45
o The bulk density of the mix is determined
immediately after mixing (p(0)) and after
defined intervals of waiting time (for
example 30min)
o The workability period is the time which
corresponds to the dry bulk density p(t) equal
to 98% of p(0)
Said differently, the standard allows a maximum
loss of 2% density after compaction, which will
already reduce the strength of the layer. After the
workability period, the loss of density will increase,
which reduces the compressive strength further.
The aggregate/cement mix, with a longer initial
setting time, allows more time for transport,
leveling and compaction and assures a better quality
of the compacted layer.
p (t)
p (0)
0,98p (0)
0
f
s
f
W
pc
Fig II.21 - The diagram to determine workability period for
cement treated aggregate layer
61
4. Optimization of cement
treated aggregates
In South of Vietnam, there are many types of sand
with variable quality so the selection of sand is very
important, as well as the choice of cement that
offers a good compatibility with the selected
aggregate.
To optimise the cement content, laboratory tests are
required at different dosages e.g: 3%, 5% and 7%
(ratio of cement to aggregate on dry weight).
Based on project requirements for a targeted
strength, the optimal cement dosage can be
determined through regression analysis.
Additionally, an in-situ test at the project needs to
be conducted to confirm the laboratory tests with
the real mixing and compaction equipment, before
execution.
After compaction of the layer, a suitable curing layer
(sprayed bitumen + sand) is recommended to:
Avoid early dehydration of the layer and loss of
strength
Reduce damage from rainfall, especially within
hours of compaction Holcim recommendation
For cement treated aggregates, Holcim recommends to use
cement PCB40 according to TCVN 6260:2009 or TCVN 4316:2007.
Before execution of the project, a laboratory study is required to
optimize the mix design:
Determine optimal water content and optimal density of
the mix
Test the compressive strength of at least 3 different cement
dosages
By regression, determine the optimum cement dosage, to
reach the design strength
6.00
MPa
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
3% 4% 5% 7%
3.6%
1.19
1.83
1.02
28 Days Required strength
This experiment was carried out as follows :
Optimal moisture AASHTO T180
Sample moulding ASTM D558
Compressive strength test ASTM D1633
0.67
2.57
1.43
3.03
5.52
1.50
Mix Crushed + Sand (50:50)
Cement dosage
7 Days
Chapter II: Applications with specific requirements F. Cement treated aggregates
Fig II.22 - Laying and compaction sand/ cement layer
Fig II.23 - Relation between cement dosage and strength
62
Chapter III: Causes and
prevention of concrete
defects
Concrete in the construction can show different types of defects:
Segregation of concrete
Different type of cracks
Carbonatation and corrosion of reinforcement
Degradation in seawater environment
Attack by chemical component in ground water or soil
Attack by fire
A correct identification of the defect and its root cause will allow the user to take
appropriate measures to avoid them in future and improve the quality and durability of
the construction.
63
A. Segregation of Concrete
Various types of segregation can occur when
concrete is transported, conveyed, poured and
compacted. Segregation impairs the quality and /or
appearance of concrete to varying degrees.
Segregation can occur:
between different aggregate fractions
between aggregate and cement paste
between fines and water
In practice these types of segregation cannot be
clearly distinguished.
The most important forms of segregation:
Stone pockets, or concentrations of coarse
aggregate in the concrete (honey-comb)
Local concentrations of surplus water with fine
cement and aggregate particles at vertical
surfaces of forms
Bleeding or surplus mixing water that rises to
the surface of the concrete. Bleeding causes
irregular, powdery porous surfaces.
Micro-segregation or separation of cement and
sand/ fines. This blemishes the appearance of
concrete surfaces
Causes and remedial actions:
The most important causes of concrete segregation
(which also point to the remedies) are:
Too high consistency of the fresh concrete
Excessive dosage of a superplasticizer
Improper placement or compaction of the
concrete (failure to use vertical pipes for
excessive drop heights, concrete deposit points
spaced too far apart, excessive vibrating)
Unsuitable concrete composition (poor grading,
insufficient cement dosage)
Maximum aggregate size too large for section
poured
Mixing time too short
Leaky forms, allowing cement paste to escape
(sieve effect)
Reinforcement too dense (sieve effect)
Fig III.2 - Stone pockets formed by segregation due to excessive
drop height and/or reinforcement that is too dense
Fig III.1 - Honey comb on concrete
64
B. Cracking
Control of Cracking
Why control the cracks in concrete? A fundamental
requirement of any concrete structure is its
performance over its intended design life. Concrete
must be able to withstand wear and deterioration
given the environment and maintenance regime for
which it was designed. If a concrete structure meets
its intended design life when exposed to its
anticipated environment, then it can be described as
being durable.
The most common form of concrete defect is
cracking. It becomes more vulnerable to the
penetration of damaging elements and is more
prone to spalling, wear and abrasive damage.
Therefore, through the control of the cracks, the
servicelife of concrete structures can be improved,
saving cost for repair and replacement.
Cracks Classification
There are many types of cracks in a concrete
structure, but they can be classified into 5 main
types: plastic settlement, plastic shrinkage, early
thermal, drying shrinkage, surface crazing (Fig III.3).
Each type of those cracks occurs in concrete at
different moments from placing to hardening of the
elements (Fig III.4)
Fig III.3 - Cracking location in concrete structure:
a. Plastic settlement : 4, 5, 6, 13
b. Plastic shrinkage : 1, 2 , 3
c. Early thermal : 11, 12
d. Drying shrinkage : 8
e. Surface crazing : 9, 10
Fig III.4 Time period of cracking occurrence
Plastics Settlement
Plastics Shrinkage
Early thermal
Drying Shrinkage
Hours Days Weeks Months Years
Allowed crack width
For reinforced concrete sections without
specific requirements, a maximum crack width
up to 0.3mm is allowed in ACI 224R and BS
8110. Bigger crack width must be repaired by
epoxy injection.
9
2
6
13
3
5
5
14
1
8
8
7
11
12
8
8
4
4
10
65
1. Plastic settlement cracks
In plastic concrete, bleed water surfaces due to
gravity. If the accompanying settlement is restricted
by form work or reinforcement, cracking may occur.
The cracks occur while the concrete is plastic and
frequently while bleed water is still rising and covers
the surface. They tend to roughly follow the
restraining element, for example reinforcing bars, or
changes in the concrete section. They can be quite
wide at the surface, tend to extend only to the
reinforcement or other restraining element and
taper in width to that location (Fig III.5). In exposed
situations, this may increase the risk of corrosion of
the reinforcement and pose a threat to durability.
Cracks may develop further, due to subsequent
drying shrinkage, leading to possible cracking
through the full depth of the concrete member. This
type of cracking is often caused by insufficient
consolidation (vibration) and high slump (overly wet
concrete).
Typical plastic settlement is approximately 6-8mm
per meter depth of the concrete element
(corresponding to a typical bleeding rate of 6-8 liters
per cubic meter). Common elements that often
crack, are deep sections, top of column, suspended
floor

Fig III.5
Plastic
settlement
cracking
direction in
concrete
structure
Preventive measures
More cohesive mix, with enough fines and
low tendency to segregation
Increase the ratio of cover to reinforcing
bar diameter, by increasing the cover or
decreasing the size of the bars.
Set all formwork accurately and rigidly.
Good compaction of the concrete
Cure the concrete promptly and properly.
Settlement cracks
SECTION A-A
A
(a) (b)
A
A A
SECTION A-A
Settlement
cracks
Reinforcing
bar
Large aggregate
particles
Differential settlement cracks
Differential
settlement
cracks
Chapter III: Causes and prevention of concrete defects B. Cracking
66
2. Plastic shrinkage cracks
Plastic shrinkage cracks occur on the surface of
freshly placed concrete during finishing or soon
afterwards (but before final set of concrete). This
type of cracks is normally random, without a clear
orientation.
Cracks due to plastic shrinkage are caused by rapid
loss of mixing water once the concrete is in place.
This can be due to excessive water evaporation or
excessive water absorption by the formwork or
earth. This causes the concrete to shrink locally,
while other areas without water loss, hardly shrink
at all. This induces tensile stresses within the
concrete. If the stresses exceed the tensile strength
of the concrete (naturally very low at the beginning)
cracks will form (Fig III.6). They can exceed 1mm.
Horizontal concrete slabs can be particularly
susceptible to plastic shrinkage (Fig III.7)
Fig III.6 Surface cracks caused by plastic shrinkage due to
excessive water loss in the surface layer of the concrete
Fig III.7 Extensive plastic shrinkage cracking in concrete
Preventive measures
Use of anti-evaporation curing agent after
screed or floating and before finishing
Avoid the windiest and/or driest part of the
day
Start curing as soon as possible after
finishing
Dampen formwork, sub grade and
reinforcement
Cover with plastic sheet prior to finishing
Use of polypropylene fibers in the concrete
67
3. Surface Crazing
Crazing is the development of a dense network of
fine random cracks on the surface of concrete
caused by shrinkage of the surface layer. They are
more likely to occur on steel trowelled surfaces.
These cracks rarely compromise structural integrity
of the concrete.
Crazing occurs when good concrete practice is not
followed, for example poor curing, wet mixes, rapid
surface drying or when concrete is finished too early
while bleed water is still present. This phenomenon
often occurs on fair-faced concrete element (Fig.
III.8) and can be recognized as:
A network of fine random cracks on the surface
Rarely more than 2mm depth
Typically form hexagonal shaped areas no more
than 40mm across

4. Drying Shrinkage cracks
Once the concrete has set, drying shrinkage
continues for weeks and months before finally
coming to a virtual end (Fig III.9). Drying shrinkage
(also called hydraulic shrinkage) is caused by:
hydration of the cement, which binds part of the
mixing water
evaporation of mixing water from the concrete
surface
initial adjustment of the temperature of the
concrete to that of the environment
Drying shrinkage of concrete occurs at a rate of 0.3
1.0 mm/m, depending on mix design, aggregate
type, w/c ratio and the degree of drying out. If the
humidity of concrete increases, due to exposure to
rain for example, the concrete section will expand a
bit, meaning that drying shrinkage will be
somewhat set back. After further drying, shrinkage
will return to the previous level.
Drying shrinkage leads to cracking because the
concrete section is typically unable to contract as
shrinkage would dictate. Contraction may be
prevented by the reinforcement, by the substrate, or
by a concrete section being fixed in some way to
other members (restrained shrinkage cracks).
Fig III.9 Typical drying-shrinkage cracks in a concrete slab
Fig III.8 Surface crazing on concrete
Preventive measures
Avoid mortar-rich concrete mix (lower
sand/aggregate ratio)
Use coarse sand, avoid very fine sand, if
possible
Keep setting time of concrete under control
Cure the concrete as soon as possible.
Dont finish concrete while bleed water
exists
Never sprinkle or trowel dry cement or a
mixture of cement and fine sand to absorb
bleeding water
Avoid overcompaction of concrete
B. Cracking Chapter III: Causes and prevention of concrete defects
68
Typical examples are long slabs and walls (Fig III.10).
5. Early Thermal Cracking
Cracks can form due to thermal shrinkage if a
significant temperature differential exists within a
concrete body. Temperature differences can arise
due to the relatively low thermal conductivity of
concrete. Such differences develop frequently in
massive sections when the heat of hydration is
released and the core temperature increases
significantly. When temperature equalization within
the concrete section occurs, internal stresses will be
induced, because high-temperature areas contract
more than low-temperature areas. If the stresses
exceed the tensile strength of the concrete, cracks
will form (Fig III.11).
The thermal cracks can occur on pile caps,
foundation blocks, massive columns.
Fig III.10 Restrained drying shrinkage in a wall
Fig III.11 - Early thermal cracking on concrete
Preventive measures
At least for reinforced concrete and larger
concrete sections, there is no way to allow the
concrete to freely shrink cracking is
unavoidable. But by taking suitable measures,
relatively wide cracks, the damaging cracks,
can be avoided, and in their place numerous,
harmless, barely visible hairline cracks will
form. The preventive measures:
Proper installation of shrinkage reinforcement
Installing contraction joints in large
horizontal slabs or long walls at every 6-9m
length according to TCXDVN 313:2004
Optimize the w/c ratio within the range
0.40 0.50
Reduce the paste volume, use larger size
aggregates
Preventive measures
See chapter II.C Mass Concrete structures
69
C. Carbonation and corrosion
of reinforcement
How does carbonation phenomenon occur?
Carbonation is a chemical reaction between the
carbon dioxide (CO
2
) from the air with calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)
2
) in the concrete. The process
begins on the surface of concrete and progresses
slowly toward the interior. Carbonation has a
positive influence on the concrete itself, making it
more compact.
Effects of carbonation on reinforced concrete
On the other hand, carbonation of concrete can
result in serious damage of steel reinforcement. In
non-carbonated concrete, the high alkalinity (pH >
12) protects the steel from corrosion. Carbonation
reduces the alkalinity (pH < 9), so corrosion starts as
soon as the carbonation front (Fig III.12) reaches the
reinforcement. Corrosion causes the steel to expand,
which leads to scaling of the concrete covering the
reinforcement (Fig III.13). This greatly accelerates
further corrosion of the reinforcing steel, and the
concrete rapidly loses its load-bearing capacity and
serviceability.
The rate at which the carbonation front penetrates
concrete is proportional to the permeability of the
concrete. The rate decreases gradually with the time
(Fig III.14). The rate of carbonation, and thus the
depth are also influenced by number of other factors
such as cement content, concrete strength, curing
time and exposure to moisture, which may be
permanent, alternating or totally lacking.

Fig III.12 - Carbonation front made visible by a
phenolphthalein test on a cut into the concrete. The
concrete dyed violet by phenolphthalein has not yet been
carbonated.
Fig III.14 - The depth of carbonation varies widely as a
function of time, depending on other influencing factors
Fig III.13 - Concrete cover over reinforcement spalled due to
carbonation and rusting
Preventive measures
To prevent corrosion of reinforcement by
carbonation, the carbonation front must be
prevented from reaching the reinforcement.
This is achieved by:
Sufficient concrete cover all around the
reinforcement, generally at least 30 mm.
Good curing of the concrete, so that after
removal of formwork, the surface concrete
hydrates well and the rate of carbonation is
minimized
Thi gian (nm)
C
h
i
u

s
u

c
a
c
b
o
n
a
t

h
a

(
m
m
)
Time
(years)
D
e
p
t
h

o
f

c
a
r
b
o
n
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
70
D. Degradation in seawater
environment
In seawater, concrete can be degraded by two main
attack mechanisms:
Chloride-induced corrosion of the steel
reinforcement
Sulphate attack of the cement matrix
In general, the degradation from chloride-induced
corrosion advances significantly faster than the
sulphate attack of the cement matrix, and is the
biggest threat for concrete structures in contact
with seawater.
For this reason, Ordinary Portland Cement OPC with
a low C
3
A-content (sulfate resistant OPC according
TCVN 6067 or C150 OPC type V) is not
recommended for seawater environment, as it has a
lower chloride resistance, compared to standard
cement PCB40 (Refer Chapter 4 of ACI 201.2R-01).
Submerged wetting and drying of concrete, for
example in the tidal zone, accelerates the
degradation of concrete in sea water.
1. Chloride-induced corrosion
of the steel reinforcement
Concrete in contact with sea water or close to the
sea can be damaged by attack by the chloride ions in
sea water (Fig III.15). Chloride ions can also be
introduced into concrete by the mixing water, by
contaminated aggregates (for example: marine
aggregates) or chloride-based accelerators (which
are forbidden in most countries).
In presence of chlorides in the concrete, steel
reinforcement can corrode locally, even when the
concrete pH is still high (pH>12). This mechanism is
called pitting corrosion (Fig III.16), which is very
different from the distributed corrosion, linked to
carbonation of concrete. This process can be
described according to the reaction:
Fe
2+
+ 2Cl
-
---> FeCl
2
The effects of chloride attack are:
Significant and fast reduction of the steel section
(locally)
Risk for failure of construction
Does not create significant cracks in concrete, so
it is less visible
Fig III.15
Corrosion of
steel
reinforcement in
concrete in sea
water
Fig III.16 Mechanism of attack reinforcement steel by
chloride and CO
2
Concrete carbonation
(distributed corrosion)
Chloride corrosion
(concentrated pitting corrosion)
71
2. Attack by sulfates from
seawater
In seawater, sulfate attack can occur at the surface
of the concrete, with the same mechanism as
mentioned in the chapter on chemical attack
(see chapter III.E)
As this reaction is slower than choride-induced
corrosion, it mainly appears as secondary reaction:
first the concrete is degraded by the corrosion of the
reinforcement, then additional damage is done by
sulfate attack.
3. Preventive measures
Refer chapter II.B (Application for aggressive
environment)
Chapter III: Causes and prevention of concrete defects D. Degradation in seawater environment
72
E. Chemical attack
1. Classification
The durability of concrete does not only depend on the mix design but as well on the environment where the
concrete is exposed. An in-depth analysis on the aggressive environment is crucial to guarantee a long life
time of the concrete structure. According to standard EN 206, we can classify three levels of aggression
chemical environment following sign XA1, XA2 and XA3 (Table III.1 - Limiting value for exposure class for
chemical attack from natural soil and ground water)
Chemical
Characteristic
Reference
test method
XA1 XA2 XA3
Ground water
SO
4

-2
(mg/l) EN 196-2 200 and 600 >600 and 3000 > 3000 and 6000
pH ISO 4316 6,5 and 5,5 < 5,5 and 4,5 < 4,5 and 4,0
CO
2
(mg/l aggressive)
Pr EN 13577 :
1999
> 15 and 40 > 40 and < 100
> 100 up to
saturation
NH
4
+
(mg/l)
ISO 7150-1 or
ISO 7150-2
> 15 and < 30 > 30 and < 60 > 60 and < 100
Mg (mg/l) ISO 7980 300 and 1000 > 1000 and < 3000
> 3000 up to
saturation
Soil
SO
4

-2
(mg/kg total) EN 196-2
2000 and
3000(*)
> 3000(*) and
12000
> 12000 and
24000
Acidity (ml/kg) DIN 4030-2
> 200 Baumann
Gully
Not encountered in practice
XA1 : Slightly aggressive chemical environment; XA2 : Moderately aggressive chemical environment
XA3 : Highly aggressive chemical environment
(*) : The 3000mg/kg limit shall be reduced to 2000mg/kg, where there is a risk of accumulation of sulfate ions in the
concrete due to drying and wetting cycles or capillary section
Table III.1 - Limiting value for exposure class for chemical attack from natural soil and ground water
according to standard EN-206 (attack from seawater is discussed separately)
Depending on the type of chemical attack, concrete
can either remain stable or degrade more or less
rapidly. There are two basic types of damage:
a. Chemical decomposition:
Chemical decomposition of concrete is characterized
by the degrading of one or more constituents of
the hardened cement by external chemicals (Fig
III.17). The decomposed constituent is leached out of
the concrete. The concrete becomes gradually more
porous, loses strength, and loses protection of the
reinforcement against corrosion. The process always
begins at the interface between concrete and the
aggressive chemical, and progresses (usually slowly)
toward the concrete interior. Fig III.17 - Cement mortar prism attacked by acid
acid attack
73
Fig III.18
Prefabricated
jacking pipe
elements for
waste water
tunnel
b. Swelling due to chemical reaction
The second type of chemical attack is caused by the
reaction of a chemical with one or more
constituents of the hardened cement in the
presence of capillary water. If the reaction produces
a solid compound with a greater volume than the
component solids, the concrete will swell. The
stresses produced will soon exceed the tensile
strength of the concrete, and cracks will form,
expanding slowly but steadily.
An example is sulfate attack - sulfates in soil or
groundwater can attack hardened concrete. Sulfates
combine with tricalcium aluminate (C
3
A) in cement
to form the compound ettringite. This reaction
involves a significant increase in volume and
degradation of the concrete.
Protecting concrete from external chemical attack
requires a dense concrete:
Suitable cement choice
Low porosity, with a maximum w/c ratio
For external chemical attack, blended cements offer
significant benefits over Ordinary Portland Cement
OPC, as the blending materials (for example slag) will
reduce the pore size of the concrete and improve the
resistance to chemical attack.
If attack by dissolved sulfates is expected, these
measures must be combined with the use of cement
with high sulfate resistance.
Additional measures include:
Increased concrete cover over reinforcement
(sacrificial layer)
Special attention to curing
Concrete is relatively resistant to weak acids (XA1) only.
Moderately strong acids and strong acids can attack
concrete to the point of unserviceableness. In case of
strong acids or when no degradation is allowed,
additional acid-resistant coating (synthetic resin,
ceramic, etc.) should be considered by the designer.
Chapter II: Applications with specific requirements E. Chemical attack
74
F. Alkali Aggregate Reaction
Alkali-aggregate reaction is a slowly progressing
chemical reaction between certain so-called reactive
aggregate and alkalis that are present in the
concrete or that penetrate into the concrete from
the environment. This reaction involves swelling of
the concrete, leading ultimately to heavy cracking
and significant loss of strength.
Alkali-aggregate reaction is known in many
countries. It is difficult to recognize the reaction
with certainty, partially because the processes
involved can extend over a period of time from one
year up to fourty years (Fig III.19)
Conditions that induce alkali-aggregate reaction
Alkali-aggregate reaction can occur only when all
of these conditions are simultaneously met:
Presence of reactive aggregate
Sufficient moisture in the concrete
(almost always the case)
Sufficient alkali in the concrete
Fig III.19
Heavy cracking
due to swelling
of concrete
caused by
alkali-aggregate
reaction
Preventive measures
Use a cement with low alkali content (%
Na
2
O eq = % (Na
2
O + 0.658xK
2
O) < 0.6%)
Determination of the potential reaction of
these aggregate, through various tests
(chapter I). This should be done extensively
for different layers of the quarry, used at
the project.
75
G. Fire Resistance
1. Concrete in fire
Concrete has a high resistance against fire. Even
when exposed to extremely high temperatures,
concrete emits no smoke or toxic gases. Rather,
concrete prevents fire from spreading. When fire
impacts concrete, the temperature of the concrete
increases slowly. Therefore concrete offers excellent
protection against the spread of fire, without
requiring any fire-resistance treatment. Only after
long and intensive exposure to fire, portions of the
concrete may delaminate or spall off (Fig III.20).
Critical temperature:
Reinforced and non-reinforced concrete can
withstand temperatures up to 300C without
damage. This critical temperature of concrete is
reached only very slowly with exposure to fire.
Studies show that it takes one hour for the critical
temperature of 300C to penetrate 2 cm into the
concrete when the surface is exposed to a flame
temperature of 1000C (Fig III.21). This temperature
roughly corresponds to that of a blazing wood fire or
gas flame. Under these test conditions, the critical
temperature reaches a depth of 5 cm after 2 hours.
Concrete offers excellent intrinsic protection against
fire and high temperatures.
In most buildings, no additional precautions or
coatings are required to resist fire.
In specific cases, the protection can be enhanced by
increasing the reinforcement cover.
For high strength concrete, the addition of
polypropylene fibres may be required to avoid
excessive spalling.
Fig III.20 Steel reinforcement exposed after the concrete
cover was spalled off in a fire. The load-bearing capacity of
the concrete structure is undiminished.
Fig III.21 - Penetration depth of the critical temperature
(300C) in concrete exposed to 1000C heat.
76
Chapter IV: Overview of cement
and concrete standards
A. Cement
VIETNAMESE STANDARDS TCVN
Portland Blended Cement Specifications
TCVN 6260 : 2009
Portland Cement Specifications
TCVN 2682 : 2009
Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement
TCVN 4316 : 2007
Sulfate Resistant Portland Cement
TCVN 6067 : 2004
Sulfate Resistant Blended Portland Cement
TCVN 7711 : 2007
Low Heat Blended Portland Cement
TCVN 7712 : 2007
AMERICAN STANDARDS - ASTM
Standard Performance Specification For
Hydraulic Cement
ASTM C1157 : 2008
Ordinary Portland cement Specifications
ASTM C150 : 2011
EUROPEAN STANDARDS - BS-EN
Composition, Specifications and Conformity
Criteria for Common Cement
EN 197-1: 2011
B. Concrete
VIETNAMESE STANDARDS TCVN
TCXDVN 374:2006
AMERICAN STANDARDS ASTM
ASTM C94
EUROPEAN STANDARDS EN
EN 206-1:2000
BRITISH STANDARDS BS
BS 5328
C. Recommendation for
limiting values of concrete
composition
Chloride - induced corrosion in sea water
(EN 206-1:2000)
Aggressive chemical environments
(EN 206-1:2000)
To understand quickly the requirements of each standard, this chapter gives an overview of the main
referenced standards in this manual. For the complete details of each standard, please refer to the official
standard itself.
As worldwide there are many standards available, this overview only lists the standards that are currently
used in Vietnam.
77
A. Cement
1. Composition
Portland blended cement is produced by
Grinding portland clinker with a necessary
gypsum content and mineral additives. Grinding
aid can be used in the grinding process if
necessary.
2. Classification
Portland blended cement consists of 3 grades:
PCB30, PCB40 and PCB50 with
PCB is defined sign of portland blended cement
30, 40 and 50 is the minimum compressive
strength of standard mortar sample at 28 days in
MPa, testing method complies with TCVN 6016 :
1995 (ISO 679 : 1989)

VIETNAMESE STANDARD - TCVN
PORTLAND BLENDED CEMENT SPECIFICATIONS
TCVN 6260 : 2009 (Old version: TCVN 6260 : 1997)
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test Method PCB30 PCB40 PCB50
1
Compressive Strength
- 3 days
- 28 days
MPa
min
min
TCVN 6016:1995
14
30
18
40
22
50
2
Setting time
- Initial set
- Final set
minute
min
max
TCVN 6017:1995
45
420
3
Fineness
- Retained content on
sieve 0.09mm
- Specific surface - Blaine
%
(cm
2
/g)
max
min
TCVN 4030:2003
10
2800
4 Soundness mm max TCVN 6017:1995 10
5 Autoclave
(1)
Expansion % max TCVN 7711:2007 0.8
(1)
Apply when customers require
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test Method PCB30 PCB40 PCB50
1 Grinding Aid Content % max - 1.0
2
- Mineral additives
Content
- Filler Content (in
mineral additives)
%
%
max
max
-
40
20
3 MgO Content in Clinker % max TCVN 141:2008 5.0
4 SO
3
content % max TCVN 141:2008 3.5
3. Physical Specification
4. Chemical Specification
78 Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards A. Cement/ Vietnamese standard - TCVN
1. Composition
Portland cement is produced by grinding portland
clinker with a necessary gypsum content (comply
with TCVN 5438 : 2007). Grinding aid can be used in
the grinding process if necessary.
2. Classification
Portland cement consists of 3 grades: PC30, PC40
and PC50 with
PC is defined sign of portland cement
MPa, testing method complies with TCVN 6016 :
1995 (ISO 679 : 1989)

ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT SPECIFICATIONS
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test Method PC30 PC40 PC50
1
- 3 days
- 28 days
MPa
min
min
TCVN 6016:1995
16
30
21
40
25
50
2
Setting time
- Initial set
- Final set
minute
min
max
TCVN 6017:1995
45
375
3
Fineness
sieve 0.09mm
%
(cm
2
/g)
max
min
TCVN 4030:2003
10
2800
4 Soundness (mm) mm max TCVN 6017:1995 10
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test Method PC30 PC40 PC50
1 Grinding Aid Content % max - 1.0
2
SO
3
content
% max TCVN 141:2008 3.5
3
MgO Content
% max TCVN 141:2008 5.0
4
Loss of ignition
% max TCVN 141:2008 3.0
5
Insoluble rest
% max TCVN 141:2008 1.5
6
Alkali content
(1)

%Na
2
O eq = %Na
2
O +
0.658%K
2
O
% max TCVN 141:2008 0.6
(1)
Define for Portland Cement when using with aggregate which may cause alkali-silica reaction
79
1. Composition
Portland blast furnace slag cement is produced by
Grinding clinker portland cement with a
necessary gypsum content and Blast Furnace
Slag (comply with TCVN 4315 : 2007)
Or well mixing ground blast furnace slag with
Portland Cement
2. Classification
Portland blast furnace slag cement is classified into
2 types:
Type I: slag content is from 40 % to 60% - signed
PCB
BFS
I
Type II: slag content is from 60 % to 70% - signed
PCB
BFS
II
Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards A. Cement/ Vietnamese standard - TCVN
PORTLAND BLAST FURNACE SLAG CEMENT
No Characteristics Unit Requirement
Test
Method
Type I Type II
PCB
BFS
30
PCB
BFS
40
PCB
BFS
50
PCB
BFS
30
PCB
BFS
40
PCB
BFS
50
1
Compressive
Strength
- 3 days
- 28 days
MPa
min
min
TCVN
6016:1995
14
30
18
40
22
50
12
30
16
40
20
50
2
Setting time
- Initial
- Final
minute
min
max
TCVN
6017:1995
45
10
3
Fineness
- Specific
surface -Blaine
(cm
2
/g) min
TCVN
4030:2003
3300
4 Soundness mm max
TCVN
6017:1995
10
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test Method PCB
BFS
1 SO
3
2 MgO Content % max TCVN 141:2008 6.0
3 Loss of ignition % max TCVN 141:2008 3.0
80
1. Composition
Sulfate resistant portland cement is produced by
grinding sulfate resistant portland clinker with a
necessary gypsum content
2. Classification
Portland cement consists of 3 grades: PC
SR
30, PC
SR
40
and PC
SR
50 with
PC
SR
is defined sign of sulfate resistant portland
cement
MPa (testing method complies with TCVN 6016 :
1995)
SULFATE RESISTANT PORTLAND CEMENT
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test Method PC
SR
30 PC
SR
40 PC
SR
50
1
- 3 days
- 28 days
MPa
min
min
TCVN 6016:1995
12
30
16
40
20
50
2
Setting time
- Initial set
- Final set
minute
min
max
TCVN 6017:1995
45
375
3
Fineness
- Retained content on sieve
0.08mm
%
(cm
2
/g)
max
min
TCVN 4030:2003
12
2800
10
3000
8
3200
4 Soundness mm max TCVN 6017:1995 10
5 Sulfate Expansion at 14 days % max TCVN 6068:2004 0.04
(1)
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test Method PC
SR
30 PC
SR
40 PC
SR
50
1 SO
3
2 MgO Content % max TCVN 141:2008 5
3 Loss of ignition % max TCVN 141:2008 3
4 C
3
A content % max see Note 1 3.5
(2)
5 (C
4
AF + 2C
3
A) content % max see Note 2 25
(2)
6
Alkali content
%Na
2
O eq = %Na
2
O +
0.658%K
2
O
% max TCVN 141:2008 0.6
7 Residue insoluble % max TCVN 141:2008 1
8 BaO content % max TCVN 141:2008 1.5 2.5
(3)
Note 1 : (C
3
A) = (2.650 x %Al
2
O
3
) - (1.692 x %Fe
2
O
3
)
Note 2 : (C
4
AF + 2C
3
A) = (3.043 x %Fe
2
O
3
) + 2C
3
A
Note:
Only require
(1)
or
(2)
(3) only require for sulfate resistant portland cement consist of BaO
81
1. Composition
Sulfate resistant blended portland cement is
produced by grinding portland cement clinker with a
necessary gypsum content and:
Blast furnace slag (comply with TCVN 4315 :
2007)
Other mineral additives (comply with TCVN 6882
: 2001)
2. Classification
Sulfate resistant blended portland cement is
classified into 2 types: PCB
MSR
30, PCB
MSR
40, PCB
MSR
50,
PCB
HSR
30, PCB
HSR
40, PCB
HSR
50.
PCB
MSR
is defined sign of moderate sulfate
resistant blended portland cement
PCB
HSR
is defined sign of high sulfate resistant
blended portland cement
MPa (testing method complies with TCVN 6016)
SULFATE RESISTANT BLENDED PORTLAND CEMENT
TCVN 7711 : 2007
No Characteristics Unit Requirement
Test
Method
Level
PCB
MSR
PCB
HSR
30 40 50 30 40 50
1
- 3 days
- 28 days
MPa
min
min
TCVN
6016:1995
18
30
20
40
22
50
16
30
18
40
20
50
2
Setting time
- Initial set
- Final set
minute
min
max
TCVN
6017:1995
45
375
3
Fineness
sieve 0.08mm
% max
TCVN
4030 :2003
10
- Specific surface-Blaine cm
2
/g min 2800
4
Sulfate durability
(Defined by the
expansion of mortar
bar in sulfate
solution):
TCVN
7713 :2007
- 6 months
- 12 months
%
max
max
0.10
-
0.05
0.10
5
The expansion of
mortar bar in water
after 14 days
% max
TCVN
6068 :2004
0.02
6
The expansion by
autoclave method
% max
TCVN
7711 :2007
0.8
82
1. Composition
Low heat blended portland cement is produced by
grinding portland clinker with a necessary gypsum
content and:
Blast furnace slag
(comply with TCVN 4315 : 2007)
Other mineral additives
(comply with TCVN 6882 : 2001)
2. Classification
Low heat blended portland cement is classified into
2 types: PCB
MH
, PCB
LH
PCB
MH
is defined sign of moderate heat of
hydration blended portland cement, it consists:
PCB
MH
30, PCB
MH
40
PCB
LH
is defined sign of Low heat of hydration
blended portland cement, it consists: PCB
LH
30,
PCB
LH
40
30 and 40 is the minimum compressive strength
of standard mortar sample at 28 days in MPa
(testing method complies with TCVN 6016)
LOW HEAT BLENDED PORTLAND CEMENT
TCVN 7712 : 2007
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test method
Level
Moderate heat
PCB
MH
Low heat
PCB
LH
30 40 30 40
1
Heat of hydration
- 7 days
- 28 days
kJ/kg
(cal/g)
max
max
TCVN
6070:2005
290 (70)
335 (80)
250 (60)
290 (70)
2
Compressive strength
-7 days
-28 days
MPa
min
min
TCVN
6016:1995
18
30
24
40
18
30
24
40
3
Setting time
- Initial set
- Final set
minute
min
max
TCVN
6017:1995
45
375
4
Fineness
sieve 0.08mm
% max
TCVN
4030 :2003
10
- Specific surface-Blaine cm
2
/g min 2800
5
The expansion by
autoclave method
% max
TCVN
7711 :2007
0.8
83
1. Composition
Blended hydraulic cement a hydraulic cement consisting of two or more inorganic ingredients which
contribute to the strength-gaining properties of the cement, which or without other ingredients, processing
additions, and functional additions
2. Classification
No Type of Cement
1 Type GU
Hydraulic cement for general construction.
Use when one or more of the special types are not required
2 Type HE High early strength
3 Type MS Moderate sulfate resistant
4 Type HS High sulfate resistant
5 Type MH Moderate heat of hydration
6 Type LH Low heat of hydration
AMERICAN STANDARD ASTM
Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards A. Cement/ American standard - ASTM

STANDARD PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION FOR HYDRAULIC CEMENT
ASTM C1157: 2008 (Old version: ASTM C1157: 2002)
No Cement type Unit Requirement Test methods GU HE MS HS MH LH
1
Strength range
MPa min
ASTM C109/
C109M
- 1 day - 10 - - - -
- 3 days 13 17 11 11 5 -
- 7 days 20 - 18 18 11 11
- 28 days 28 - - 25 - 21
2
Autoclave length
change
% max ASTM C151 0.8
3
Time of setting,
Vicat test
minute
min
max
ASTM C191
- Initial 45
- Initial 420
4 Heat of hydration
kJ/kg ASTM C186
- 7 days max - - - - 290 250
- 28 days max - - - - - 290
5
Mortar bar
expansion 14 days
% max ASTM C1038 0.02
6
Sulfate expansion
(sulfate resistant)
% ASTM C1012
- 6 months max - - 0.1 0.05 - -
- 1 year max - - - 0.1 - -
- : Not required
84
1. Classification
Portland cement a hydraulic cement produced by pulverizing clinker consisting essentially of hydraulic
calcium silicates, usually containing one or more of the forms of calcium sulfate as an inter ground
addition.
There are five types of portland cement in this specification.
No Type of cement
1 Type I For use when the special properties specified for any other type are not required
2 Type II
For general use, more especially when moderate sulfate resistant
or moderate heat of hydration is desired
3 Type III For use when high early strength is desired
4 Type IV For use when a low heat of hydration is desired
5 Type V For use when high sulfate resistance is desired
When air-entraining is desired, cement type IA, IIA and IIIA are specified
2. Physical specification
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test methods I II III IV V
1
Air content of mortar,
volume
% ASTM C185
max 12 12 12 12 12
min - - - - -
2
Fineness, specific surface m
2
/kg
- Turbidiameter test
min ASTM C115 150 150 - 150 150
max 245
- Air permeability test
min ASTM C204 260 260 - 260 260
max 430
3 Autoclave expansion % max ASTM C151 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
4
Compressive strength MPa
ASTM
C109/C109M
- 1 day - - 12 - -
- 3 days 12 10 24 - 8
- 7 days 19 17 - 7 15
- 28 days - - - 17 21
5
Time of setting minute
ASTM C191
- Vicat test
- Time of setting min 45 45 45 45 45
- Time of setting max 375 375 375 375 375
- : Not required
PORTLAND CEMENT SPECIFICATIONS
ASTM C150: 2011 (Old version: ASTM C150: 2007)
85
3. Chemical specification
No Characteristics Unit Requirement Test methods I II III IV V
1 Aluminum Oxide (Al
2
O
3
) % max ASTM C114 - 6.0 - - -
2 Ferric oxide (Fe
2
O
3
) % max ASTM C114 - 6.0 - 6.5 -
3 Magnesium oxide (MgO) % max ASTM C114 6.0
4
Sulfur trioxide (SO
3
)
% max - When (C
3
A) is 8% or less ASTM C563 3.0 3.0 3.5 2.3 2.3
- When (C
3
A) is more than 8% 3.5 - 4.5 - -
5 Loss on ignition % max ASTM C114 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 3.0
6 Insoluble residue % max ASTM C114 0.75
7 Tricalcium silicate (C
3
S) % max ASTM C114 - - - 35 -
8 Dicalcium silicate (C
2
S) % min ASTM C114 - - - 40 -
9 Tricalcium aluminate (C
3
A) % max ASTM C114 - 8 15 7 5
10
(C
4
AF+2(C
3
A))content or
(C
4
AF+C
2
F), as applicable
% max ASTM C114 - - - - 25
86
1. Composition
Depend on type of cement, which cement comply
with EN standard can consist of different main
constituents as:
Portland cement clinker
Blast furnace slag
Pozzolan
Fly ash
Burnt shale
Limestone
Silica fume
Beside the minor additional constituents can be
used to improve the physical properties of the
cement.
2. Classification:
Standard strength :
There are 3 classes of standard strength at 28
days: class 32,5 class 42,5 and class 52,5.
Three early strength classes are provided for
each class of standard strength.
- Class with ordinary early strength, indicated by N.
- Class with high early strength, indicated by R.
- Class with low early strength, indicated by L.
Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards A. Cement/ European standard - EN
EUROPEAN STANDARD EN
COMPOSITION, SPECIFICATIONS AND CONFORMITY CRITERIA
FOR COMMON CEMENTS
EN 197-1: 2011 (Old version EN 197-1:2000)
No Characteristics
Test
methods
Cement
Type (1)
Requirements
Strength class
32.5N 32.5R 32.5L* 42.5N 42.5R 42.5L* 52.5N 52.5R 52.5L*
1
Early strength
(MPa)
2
days
EN 196-1 All
- 10.0 - 10.0 20.0 - 20.0 30.0 10.0
7
days
16.0 - 12.0 - - 16.0 - - -
Standard
strength (MPa)
28
days
32.5 42.5 52.5
52.5 62.5 -
2
Initial setting time
(min)
EN 196-3 All 75 45
3
Soundness /Expansion
(mm)
EN 196-3 All 10
4 Heat of hydration(J/g)
EN 196-8
at 7 days
LH 270
EN 196-9
at 41 h
(1): Types of cement were given below about the composition of each of the 27 products in the family of common cements
(*): Strength class only defined for CEM III cements.
87
No Characteristics Test reference
Cement
type
Requirements
Strength class
32.5N 32.5R 42.5N 42.5R 52.5N 52.5R
1
Loss on ignition
(% by mass)
EN 196-2
CEM I
CEM III
5%
2
Insoluble residue
(% by mass)
EN 196-2
CEM I
CEM III
5%
3
Sulfate content
(as %SO
3
by mass)
EN 196-2
CEM I
CEM II
(1)
CEM IV
CEM V
3.5% 4.0%
CEM III
(2)
4.0%
4
Chloride content
(% by mass)
EN 196-2 All
(3)
0.1%
(4)
5 Pozzolanicity EN 196-5 CEM IV Satisfies the test
(1)
Cement type CEM II/B-T may containt up to 4.5 % sulfate for all strength classes.
(2)
Cement type CEM III/C may containt up to 4.5% sulfate.
(3)
Cement type CEM III may containt more than 0.1 % chloride but in that case the maximum chloride content
shall be stated on the packaging and/or the delivery note.
(4)
For pre-stressing applications cements may be produced according to a lower requirement. If so, the value
of 0.1% shall be replaced by this lower value which shall be stated in the delivery note.
Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards A. Cement/ European standard - EN
88 Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards A. Cement/ European standard - EN
The composition of each of the 27 products in the family of common cements
The 27 products in family of common cements
M
a
i
n

t
y
p
e
s
Notation of the 27 products Composition [percentage by mass
(a)
]
M
i
n
o
r

a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l

c
o
n
s
t
i
t
u
e
n
t
s
(types of common cement)
Main constituents
Clinker Slag
Silica
fume
(b)
Pozzolana Fly ash Burnt shale Limestone
Natural
Natural
calcined
Siliceous Calcareous
K S DM P Q V W T L LL
C
E
M

I
Portland
cement
CEM I 95-100 - - - - - - - - - 0-5
C
E
M

I
I
Portland-slag
cement
CEM II/A-S 80-94 6-20 - - - - - - - - 0-5
CEM II/B-S 65-79 21-35 - - - - - - - - 0-5
Portland-
silicafume
cement
CEM II/A-D 90-94 - 6-10 - - - - - - - 0-5
Portland-
pozzolana
cement
CEM II/A-P 8 -94 - - 6-20 - - - - - - 0-5
CEM II/B-P 65-79 - - 21-35 - - - - - - 0-5
CEM II/A-Q 80-94 - - - 6-20 - - - - - 0-5
CEM II/B-Q 65-79 - - - 21-35 - - - - - 0-5
Portland-fly
ash cement
CEM II/A-V 80-94 - - - 6-20 - - - - 0-5
CEM II/B-V 65-79 - - - - 21-35 - - - - 0-5
CEM II/A-W 80-94 - - - - - 6-20 - - - 0-5
CEM II/B-W 65-79 - - - - - 21-35 - - - 0-5
Portland
-burnt shale
cement
CEM II/A-T 80-94 - - - - - - 6-20 - - 0-5
CEM II/B-T 65-79 - - - - - - 21-35 - - 0-5
Portland
limestone
cement
CEM II/A-L 80-94 - - - - - - - 6-20 - 0-5
CEM II/B-L 65-79 - - - - - - - 21-35 - 0-5
CEM II/A-LL 80-94 - - - - - - - - 6-20 0-5
CEM II/B-LL 65-79 - - - - - - - - 21-35 0-5
Portland-
composite
cement
(c)
CEM II/A-M 80-88 <------------------------------ 12-20 ------------------------------> 0-5
CEM II/B-M 65-79 <------------------------------ 21-35 ------------------------------> 0-5
C
E
M

I
I
I
Blast furnace
cement
CEM III/A 35-64 36-65 - - - - - - - - 0-5
CEM III/B 20-34 66-80 - - - - - - - - 0-5
CEM III/C 5-19 81-95 - - - - - - - - 0-5
C
E
M

I
V
Pozzolanic
cement
(c)
CEM IV/A 65-89 - <------------------ 11-35 -----------------> - - - 0-5
CEM IV/B 45-64 - <------------------ 36-55 -----------------> - - - 0-5
C
E
M

V
Composite
cement
(c)
CEM V/A 40-64 18-30 - <---------- 18-30 ----------> - - - - 0-5
CEM V/B 20-38 31-50 - <---------- 31-49 ----------> - - - - 0-5
(a)
:The values in the table refer to the sum of the main and minor additional constituents.
(b)
:The proportion of silica fume is limited to 10 %
(c)
:In portland-composite cement CEM II/A-M and CEM II/B-M, in pozzolanic cement CEM IV/A and CEM IV/B and in composite cements CEM
V/A and CEM V/B the main constituents other than clinker shall be declared by designation of the cement.
89
B. Concrete

VIETNAMESE STANDARD - TCVN
I. Workability
1. Classification (TCXDVN 374:2006)
2. Specification requirement (TCXDVN 374:2006)
Grade of fresh concrete
in workability
Method of testing workability
Vebe (second)
TCVN 3107 : 1993
Plasticity (mm)
Slump test (mm)
TCVN 3106 : 1993
Flow test (mm)
TCVN 3106 : 1993
Super dry concrete
SC > 50 - -
Dry concrete
C4 31-50 - -
C3 21-30 - -
C2 11-20 - -
C1 5-10 - -
Plastic concrete
D1 4 10-40 -
D2 - 50-90 -
D3 - 100-150 -
D4 - 160-220 260-400
Grade of fresh concrete in
workability
Maximum acceptable deviation compared to required value
Lower limit Upper limit
SC - 20 seconds -
C4 - 15 seconds + 10 seconds
C3 C1 - 10 seconds + 5 seconds
D1 D2 - 10mm + 20mm
D3 D4 - 20mm + 30mm
Acceptable deviation for workability of fresh concrete
90 Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards B. Concrete/ Vietnamese standard - TCVN 374:2006
II. Compressive strength
Concrete with density (from 1800 2500 kg/m
3
)
1. Grade of hardened concrete
Definition (TCXDVN 239:2006)
The grade of concrete in compressive strength is the mean compressive strength in MPa, tested on 150 x
150 x 150mm cube samples, which are casted, compacted, cured and tested complying with the standard
at the age of 28 days. Grade of concrete is prefixed with letter M.
Designed Grade: M100, M150, M200, M250, M300, M400, M500, M600 (if higher strength of construction
is required, higher design grade (Ex: M700, M800) is accepted.)
2. Class of hardened concrete
Definition (TCXDVN 356:2005 & TCXDVN 239:2006)
Class of Concrete in compressive strength is the compressive strength of concrete which the reliable
probability is 0.95. Class of concrete is prefixed with letter B.
B = M (1 1.64v)
With:
v Standard deviation
When the variable strength coefficient can not be determined and the quality of concrete is accepted at
medium level, v = 0.135 (TCXDVN 356:2006), then B = 0.778M. Correlation between B and M comply with
TCXDVN 356:2006:
Class of
concrete
Average compressive
strength of standard
sample, MPa
Grade of
concrete
Class of
concrete
Average compressive
strength of standard
sample, MPa
Grade of
concrete
B3.5 4.50 M50 B35 44.95 M450
B5 6.42 M75 B40 51.37 M500
B7.5 9.63 M100 B45 57.80 M600
B10 12.84 M150 B50 64.22 M700
B12.5 16.05 M150 B55 70.64 M700
B15 19.27 M200 B60 77.06 M800
B20 25.69 M250 B65 83.48 M900
B22.5 28.90 M300 B70 89.90 M900
B25 32.11 M350 B75 96.33 M1000
B27.5 35.32 M350 B80 102.75 M1000
B30 38.53 M400
3. Assessment
Concrete which is considered to meet the required grade of concrete (M) must satisfy 2 below conditions:
The mean compressive strength of one set (3 samples) is not less than designed grade of concrete
Strength of each sample in set is not less than 85% designed grade of concrete
Concrete which is considered to meet the required class of concrete (B) must satisfy 2 below conditions
at once:
With the initial period or without standard deviation:
- The mean compressive strength of one set (3 samples) is not less than 1.3 times designed
class of concrete (MPa)
- Strength of each sample in set is not less than 1.1 times designed class of concrete (MPa)
In case standard deviation (v) is able to be determined:
- The mean compressive strength of one set (3 samples) is not less than:
- Strength of each sample in set is not less than:
MPa
B
1 - 1,64v
MPa 0.85
B
1 - 1,64v
91 Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards B. Concrete/ American standard - ASTM C94
AMERICAN STANDARD ASTM

I. Workability (ASTM C94)
Tolerances in slump
Specified slump
If 75 mm or less If more than 75mm
Plus tolerance 0 0
Minus tolerance 40mm 65mm
Tolerances for normal slumps
For specified slump of Tolerance
50mm and less +/- 15 mm
More than 50 to 100mm +/- 25 mm
More than 100 mm +/- 40 mm
1. Requirement of design compressive strength
The strength is determined by a test on cylinder specimens (150x300 mm) at 28 days after sampling, curing
according to ASTM C31.
Due to variations in materials, operations, and testing, the average strength necessary to meet these
requirements will be substantially higher than the specified strength. This higher strength amount depends
upon the standard deviation of the test results and the accuracy with which that value can be estimated
from prior data as explained in ACI 318 and ACI 301.
Appendix part of this standard give the guide to calculate the average strength, necessary to meet the
specification:
A. When historical statistical data are available
With:
f
c
= the specified compressive strength
f
cr
= the required average compressive strength
s = the standard deviation
(*): Formula to achieve the satisfactory average of three consecutive strength tests.
(**), (***): Formulas for the minimum strength test result of an individual strength test (average of two
cylinders test) result.
Specified strength
f
c
, MPa
Required average strength
f
cr
, MPa (use the larger from 2 formulas)
f
c
equal to
or less than 35
f
cr
= f
c
+ 1.34s (*)
f
cr
= f
c
+ 2.33s 3.45 (**)
Greater than 35
f
cr
= f
c
+ 1.34s (*)
f
cr
= 0.90f
c
+ 2.33s (***)
92
B. When a new mix design or strength level and no standard deviation data is available. Required average
strength for mix design
Specified strength
f
c
, MPa
Required average strength
f
cr
, MPa
Less than 21 f
cr
= f
c
+ 7
21 to 35 f
cr
= f
c
+ 8.5
Greater than 35 f
cr
= 1.1f
c
+ 5
C. When having selected standard deviations and specified strength levels
fc, MPa
specified
strength
Standard deviation from fields data, MPa
No SD data
unknown
2.0 3.5 5.0 6.0 7.5
f
cr
, required average strength, MPa
Less than 21
21.0
35.0
50.0
60.0
75.0
90.0
100.0
120.0
24
38
53
63
78
93
108
128
26
40
55
65
80
95
105
125
29
43
57
67
82
97
107
127
32
46
59
68
83
98
108
128
35
49
62
71
85
100
110
130
f
c
+ 7
29.5
43.5
60.0
71.0
87.5
105.0
115.0
137.0
Bold numbers identify levels of specified strength where the standard deviation should be considered
unusual or inappropriate.
2. Strength assessment (ASTM C94)
Assess compressive strength
The average of 3 consecutive strength tests shall be equal to or greater than specific strength f '
c

- If f '
c
< 35 MPa: individual strength test ( average of two cylinder tests) f'
c
-3.5(MPa)
- If f '
c
> 35 MPa: individual strength test (average of two cylinder tests) 0.9f '
c
Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards B. Concrete/ American standard - ASTM C94
93 Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards B. Concrete/ European standard - EN 206-1:2000
EUROPEAN STANDARD EN 206-1:2000
I. Workability
Workability Test methods Requirement
Slump EN 12350-2 10 mm and 210mm
Vebe EN 12350-3 30 sec and > 5sec
Degree of compactability EN 12350-4 1.04 and < 1.46
Flow table EN 12350-5 > 340mm and 620mm
The consistence of concrete is classified, Tables 1,2,3 or 4 apply.
Note: the classes of consistence in Tables 1 to 4 are not directly related. In special cases, consistence may also be
specified by target value. For earth moist concrete, i.e concrete with low water content designed to be
compacted in special processes, the consistence is not classified.
Table 1:
Slump classes
Table 2:
Vebe classes
Table 3:
Compaction classes
Table 4:
Flow diameter in mm
Class
Flow diameter
in mm
Class Slump in mm Class
Vebe time in
seconds
Class
Degree of
compactability
F1 340
S1 10 to 40 V0 31 C0 1.46 F2 350 to 410
S2 50 to 90 V1 30 to 21 C1 1.45 to 1.26 F3 420 to 480
S3 100 to 150 V2 20 to 11 C2 1.25 to 1.11 F4 490 to 550
S4 160 to 210 V3 10 to 6 C3 1.10 to 1.04 F5 560 to 620
S5 220 V4 5 to 3 F6 630
The consistence may be specified either by reference to a consistence class according to table 1, 2,3 and 4 or,
in special cases, by a target value. For target values, the related tolerances are given in table 5.
Table 5: Tolerances for target values of consistence
Slump
Target value in mm 40 50 to 90 100
Tolerance in mm 10 20 30
Vebe time
Target value in sec 11 10 to 6 5
Tolerance in sec 3 2 1
Degree of compact ability
Target value 1.26 1.25 to 1.11 1.10
Tolerance 0.10 0.08 0.05
Flow diameter
Target value in mm All values
Tolerance in mm 30
94 Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards B. Concrete/ European standard - EN 206-1:2000
The strength is to be determined on test carried out either 150 mm cubes or 150/300 mm cylinders
conforming to EN 12390-1 and made and cured in accordance with EN 12390-2 from samples taken in
accordance with EN 12350-1.
The compressive strength is determined on specimens tested at 28 days. For particular uses, it may be
necessary to specify the compressive strength at ages earlier or later than 28 days or after storage under
special conditions.
The characteristic strength of concrete shall be equal to or greater than the minimum characteristic
compressive strength for the specified compressive strength class, see tables below.
Compressive strength class for normal-weight and heavy-weight concrete
Compressive
strength class
Minimum characteristic cylinder
strength
f
ck
, cylinder
(N/mm
2
)
Minimum characteristic cube
strength
f
ck
, cube
(N/mm
2
)
C8/10 8 10
C12/15 12 15
C16/20 16 20
C20/25 20 25
C25/30 25 30
C30/37 30 37
C35/45 35 45
C40/50 40 50
C45/55 45 55
C50/60 50 60
C55/67 55 67
C60/75 60 75
C70/85 70 85
C80/95 80 95
C90/105 90 105
C100/115 100 115

Strength assessment
- Criteria 1 (rolling average) : f
avg
f
ck
+ 4
- Criteria 2: (individual sample) : f f
ck
- 4
With:
f
ck
: specific strength of concrete.
f
avg
: The average strength of all valid samples.
f: Any individual test result.
95 Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards B. Concrete/ British standard - BS 5328
From December 2003, the standards BS-EN 206-1 and BS 8500 replace the BS 5328 series of standards.
However, some projects in Vietnam still refer to BS 5328, to specify concrete.
I. Workability
Guidance on the workability appropriate to different uses
Workability suitable for different uses of concrete
Use of concrete Form of compaction Workability
Nominal Slump
(1)

mm
Pavement placed by power operated
machines
Heavy vibration
Very low See NOTE 1
Kerb bedding and backing Tamping
Floors and pavements not placed by
power-operated machinery
Poker or beam vibration Low 50
Strip footings
Mass concrete foundations
Blinding
Normal reinforced concrete in slabs,
beam, walls and columns
Sliding formwork construction
Pumped concrete
Vacuum processed concrete
Domestic general purpose concrete
Poker or beam vibration
and/ or tamping
Medium 75
Trench fill
In situ piling
Self-weight compaction
High 125
Concrete sections containing
congested reinforcement
Poker
Diaphragm walling
self-levelling super plasticized
concrete
Self-levelling Very high See NOTE 2
(1) Cohesive mixes may give adequate place ability at lower values of slump than those given here.
NOTE 1. In the "very low" category of workability where strict control is necessary, e.g. pavement quality
concrete placed by "trains", measurement of workability by determination of compacting factor or Vebe
time (see BS 1881:parts 103 and 104) will be more appropriate than slump.
NOTE2. In the "very high" category of workability, measurement and control of workability by
determination of flow is appropriate (see BS 1881: part 105).
BRITISH STANDARD BS 5328
96 Chapter IV: Overview of cement & concrete standards B. Concrete/ British standard - BS 5328
Compressive strength grade of hardened concrete:
The strength is tested with cube specimens at 28 days made to the requirement of BS 1881. The strength
grade of concrete should be selected from table below as appropriate. Minimum grades for particular types
of work such as reinforced concrete, pre-stressed concrete and for durability under particular environmental
conditions are given in the appropriate code of practice.
Grade of hardened concrete
Grade
Characteristic compressive strength at 28 days
MPa
C7.5 7.5
C10 10
C15 15
C20 20
C25 25
C30 30
C35 35
C40 40
C45 45
C50 50
C55 55
C60 60
Strength assessment
Specified grade Group of samples
Criteria 1 Criteria 2
Average strength of
samples,
f
avg
(MPa)
Any individual test
result, f (MPa)
C20 to above
First 2 samples
First 3 samples
Any 4 consecutive
samples
f
avg
f
ck
+ 1
f
avg
f
ck
+ 2
f
avg
f
ck
+ 3
f f
ck
- 3
f f
ck
- 3
f f
ck
- 3
C7.5 to C15
First 2 samples
First 3 samples
Any 4 consecutive
samples
f
avg
f
ck
f
avg
f
ck
+ 1
f
avg
f
ck
+ 2
f f
ck
- 2
f f
ck
- 2
f f
ck
- 2
f
ck
: specific strength of concrete.
97
These two table provide recommendations for the choice of the limiting values of concrete composition and
properties in relation to exposure classes. The values recommended below, are based on the assumption of
an intended working of the structure of 50 years.
CHLORIDE - INDUCED CORROSION IN SEA WATER
(EN 206-1:2000)

Exposure Classes of Chloride induced corrosion in sea water
XS1 XS2 XS3
Maximum w/c 0.50 0.45 0.45
Minimum Strength Class C30/37 C35/45 C35/45
Minimum cement
content (kg/m
3
)
300 320 340
XS1 - Exposure to airborne salt but not in direct contact with sea water
XS2 - Permanently submerged
XS3 - Tidal, splash and spray zones
AGGRESSIVE CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENTS
(EN 206-1:2000)

Exposure Classes Aggressive chemical environments
XA1 XA2 XA3
Maximum w/c 0.55 0.50 0.45
Minimum Strength Class C30/37 C35/45 C35/45
Minimum cement
content (kg/m
3
)
300 320 360
Other requirements
Sulfate-resisting cement
*
XA1 - Slightly aggressive chemical environment
XA2 - Moderately aggressive chemical environment
XA3 - Highly aggressive chemical environment
*
When SO
2
4
leads to exposure classes XA2 and XA3, it is essential to use sulfate-resisting cement. Where
cement is classified with respect to sulfate resistance, moderate or high sulfate-resisting cement should be
used in exposure class XA2 (and exposure class XA1 when applicable) and high sulfate-resisting cement should
be use in exposure class XA3.
C. Recommendation for limiting
values of concrete composition
98
A. Components of concrete:
Cement
Specific requirement
Cement Type Vietnamese standard American Standard European Standard
Portland Cement TCVN 2682: 2009 ASTM C150 EN 197
Portland Blended cement TCVN 6260: 2009 ASTM C1157 EN 197
Sulfate resistance Portland Cement TCVN 6067: 2004 ASTM C150 BS 4027
Sulfate resistance Blended Portland Cement TCVN 7711:2007 ASTM C1157 EN 197
Low Heat Blended Portland Cement TCVN 7712: 2007 ASTM C1157 -
Blast Furnace Slag Portland Cement TCVN 4316: 2007 - EN 197
Test methods of physical characteristics
Characteristic Vietnamese Standard American Standard European Standard
Compressive strength TCVN 6016:1995 ASTM C109 EN 196-1
Setting time TCVN 6017:1995 ASTM C191 EN 196-3
Fineness TCVN 4030:2003
ASTM C115
ASTM C204
-
Soundness TCVN 6017:1995 EN 196-3
Autoclave expansion TCVN 7711:2007 ASTM C151
The expansion of mortar in sulfate solution after
6 months and 1 year
TCVN 7713:2007 ASTM C1012 -
The expansion of mortar bar in water after 14
days
TCVN 6068: 2004 ASTM C1038 -
Heat of hydration TCVN 6070: 2005 ASTM C186
EN 196-8
EN 196-9
Chemical analysis TCVN 141: 2008 ASTM C114 EN 196-2
Water
Specific requirement: TCXDVN 302:2004, ASTM C1602
Admixture
Specific requirement: TCVN 8826:2011, ASTM C494
Aggregate
Specific requirement: TCVN 7570: 2006, ASTM C33
Test methods
Characteristic Vietnamese Standard American Standard
Fine aggregate
Grading TCVN 7572-2:2006 ASTM C136
Organic impurities TCVN 7572-9: 2006 ASTM C40
Material finer than 75 m TCVN 7572-8: 2006 ASTM C117
Potential Alkali Reactivity TCVN 7275-14:2006
ASTM C227
ASTM C289
ASTM C1260
Coarse aggregate
Grading TCVN 7572-2:2006 ASTM C136
Specific gravity TCVN 7572-4:2006 ASTM C127
Bulk density and moisture content TCVN 7572-6:2006 ASTM C29
Elongation and flakiness index TCVN 7572-13:2006 -
Reference
99
B. Concrete
Specification for ready-mix concrete: TCXDVN 374:2006, ASTM C94, EN 206-1:2000
Test Methods
Fresh concrete
Slump TCVN 3106:1993 ASTM C143 EN 12350-2
Slump flow - ASTM C1611 EN 12350-8
Vebe Test TCVN 3107:1993 ASTM C1170 EN 12350-3
Density TCVN 3108:1993 ASTM C138 EN 12350-6
Air content TCVN 3111:1993 ASTM C231 -
Setting time - ASTM C403 -
Hardened concrete
Making and curing sample TCVN 3105:1993 ASTM C31 EN 12390-2
Compressive strength TCVN 3118:1993 ASTM C39 EN 12390-3
Bleeding TCVN 3109:1993 ASTM C232 -
Permeability to water TCVN 3116:1993 - -
Permeability to Chlorides TCXDVN 306:2005 ASTM C1202 -
Other standards for concrete
Specification for mass concrete TCXDVN 305: 2004
Concrete and reinforced concrete structure-
Design standard
TCXDVN 306:2005 BS 8110
C. Cement treated aggregate
Specific requirement: 22 TCN 245, 22TCN 246
Test Methods
Optimal moisture& max dry density 22 TCN 333-06
ASSHTO T180
ASSHTO T99
-
Making compressive strength sample 22 TCN 246
ASTM D1632
ASTM D55
-
Workability period - - EN 13286-45
Unconfined strength - ASTM D1633 -
D. Other relevant sources
Concrete Practice: Holcim (Schweiz) AG
Concrete Practice: Holcim Sri Lanka
Cement & Concrete Reference
100
E. Source of figures
Figure number Source
Figure: Fig I.1, Fig I.2, Fig I.3, Fig I.5, Fig I.6, Fig I.7, Fig I.9, Fig I.11, Fig I.12, Fig I.13,
Fig I.15, Fig I.16, Fig I.21, Fig I.22, Fig I.23, Fig I.24, Fig I.25, Fig I.26, Fig I.27, Fig I.30,
Fig I.31, Fig I.32, Fig I.33, Fig I.34, Fig I.35, Fig I.36, Fig I.37, Fig I.38, Fig I.39, Fig I.40,
Fig I.41, Fig I.42, Fig I.43,Fig I.44, Fig I.45, Fig I.46, Fig I.47, Fig I.48, Fig I.49, Fig I.50,
Fig I.51, Fig I.52, Fig I.53, Fig I.55, Fig I.56, Fig I.58, Fig I.60, Fig I.61, Fig I.62, Fig II.1,
Fig II.2, Fig II.3, Fig II.4, Fig II.5, Fig II.6, Fig II.7, Fig II.8, Fig II.9, Fig II.10, Fig II.11, Fig II.12,
Fig II.13, Fig II.14, Fig II.15, Fig II.16, Fig II.17, Fig II.18, Fig II.19, Fig II.20, Fig II.21, Fig II.22,
Fig II.23, Fig III.1, Fig III.3, Fig III.4, Fig III.5, Fig III.6, Fig III.7, Fig III.8, Fig III.9, Fig III.10,
Fig III.11, Fig III.14, Fig III.15, Fig III.16, Fig III.18
Holcim Vietnam
Fig I.4, Fig I.8, Fig I.10, Fig I.65, Fig III.17 Holcim Swiss
Fig I.14, Fig I.17, Fig I.18, Fig I.19, Fig I.20, Fig I.28, Fig I.29, Fig I.63, Fig I.64, Fig I.66, Fig
I.67, Fig I.68, Fig I.69, Fig I.70, Fig I.71, Fig I.72, Fig I.73, Fig I.74, Fig III.2, Fig III.12, Fig
III.13, Fig III.20, Fig III.21
Holcim Sri Lanka
Fig I.54, Fig III.19 Antoine Carnot
Fig I.57, Fig I.59 Lubica Pistanska
Cement & Concrete Reference
101
102
Holcim (Vietnam) Ltd.
Fideco Tower, 9th & 10th Floors
81 - 85 Ham Nghi Street, District 1
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Phone: +84 8 39149000
Fax: +84 8 39149001
Email: technical.service-vnm@holcim.com
Website: www.holcim.com.vn
Printed on PEFC standard sustainable paper.
Publishing licence number: 97-2012/CXB/239/01/VHTT.

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