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Php m - cc vn c bn v nng cao

Trn Nam Dng
Trng HKHTN Tp HCM

Php m hay cn gi l Gii tch t hp ng mt vai tr kh quan trng trong cc mn
khoa hc v c bit l trong Tin hc v Tan ng dng. C th ni, l thuyt xc sut c
in c c s l cc bi tan m, sinh hc di truyn cng s dng n php m, ri
ha hc cu trc

Nhng gii mt bi tan m khng h n gin. Khi mi lm quen vi gii tch t hp,
chng ta vn lin tc m nhm v nhng v m lp, m thiu, khng phn bit c
cc i tng t hp cn p dng, khng bit khi no th dng quy tc cng, khi no quy
tc nhn. Khi vt qua nhng kh khn ban u ny, ta li gp nhng bi tan m vic
p dng trc tip cc quy tc m c bn v cc i tng t hp khng em li kt qu
mong mun ngay lp tc. Vi nhng bi tan nh vy, ta cn n cc phng php m
nng cao hn.

Trong bi vit ny, c tnh h thng, trc ht chng ti s trnh by mt cch vn tt
phn l thuyt c bn ca php m, sau , chng ti s tp trung vo gii thiu cc
phng php m nng cao gm phng php song nh, phng php qu o, phng
php thm bt, phng php quan h quy v phng php hm sinh.

Bi vit ny c xy dng da trn bi ging ca chng ti ti cc kha cao hc, cc lp
c nhn ti nng v lp tp hun cho i tuyn Vit Nam thi ton quc t. Cc ti liu
tham kho c trnh by cui bi vit.

Chng ti xin chn thnh cm n Trng HKHTN HN, c bit l GS Nguyn Vn
Mu cho chng ti c hi c trnh by chuyn ny.

Bi 1. - Php m. Cc nguyn l c bn ca php m

nh ngha:
i) Mt tp hp A c ni l hu hn v c n phn t nu tn ti mt song nh gia A
v tp hp con {1, 2, ..., n} ca N. Ta vit |A| = n.
ii) Nu A khng hu hn, ta ni A v hn.

B (Nguyn b tr): Gi s B l mt tp con ca tp hp hu hn A. Gi C
A
(B) l
phn b ca B trong A. Khi y ta c
|A| = |B| + |C(B)|.

nh l: Gi s A, B l cc tp hp hu hn. Nu tn ti mt n nh t A vo B v mt
n nh t B vo A th A v B c cng s phn t.

Nguyn l cng: Nu A, B l cc tp hp khng giao nhau th
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|A B| = |A| + |B|.
Nguyn l cng cn c th pht biu mt cch khc nh sau:
Nu mt cng vic c th thc hin bng mt trong hai phng n lai tr ln nhau:
phng n th nht c m cch thc hin v phng n th hai c n cch thc hin. Khi
cng vic c m+n cch thc hin.

Nguyn l cng m rng: Nu tp hp hu hn C l hp ca n tp i mt ri nhau C
1
,
C
2
, ..., C
n
th:
| C | = | C
1
| + | C
2
| +...+ | C
n
|.

nh ngha: Tch Descartes ca hai tp hp A, B k hiu bi AxB l tp hp tt c cc
cp th t (a, b) vi a e A, b e B.

Nguyn l nhn: Nu A v B l hai tp hp hu hn th AxB cng hu hn v ta c
|A x B| = |A|.|B|

nh ngha v tch Descartes v nguyn l nhn trn y c th m rng cho nhiu tp
hp. Nguyn l nhn c th pht biu mt cch khc nh sau:
Nu mt qu trnh c th c thc hin qua hai cng an: cng an I c n
1
cch thc
hin, cng an II (sau khi thc hin I) c n
2
cch thc hin. Khi c n
1
.n
2
cch thc
hin qu trnh .

Nguyn l thm bt: Vi hai tp hu hn A, B bt k ta c
|A B| = |A| + |B| - |AB|

Cu hi v bi tp:
1) Hy tm s tp con ca mt tp hp c n phn t.
2) Hy cho mt v d v p dng ca nguyn l b tr.
3) Hy cho mt v d v php m phi p dng c nguyn l cng v nguyn l nhn.
4) C bao nhiu s c 3 ch s khc nhau?
5) C bao nhiu s c 3 ch s v chia ht cho 3?
6) C bao nhiu s c 3 ch s khc nhau v chia ht cho 3?
7) Trong tr chi tin ln, tnh xc sut mt ngi no c t qu.
8) Nguyn l thm bt c th m rng nh th no?

Bi 2. - Cc i tng t hp v cc s t hp

1. H cc tp con ca mt tp hp E
P(E) = {A| A _ E}
Mnh : |P(E)| = 2
|E|

2. Chnh hp ca n phn t chn k (hay chnh hp chp k ca n phn t)
Gi s E = {a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
}. Chnh hp ca n phn t chn k l mt b sp th t gm k
phn t (a
i1
, ..., a
ik
).
S cc chnh hp chp k ca n phn t c k hiu l
k
n
A . Ta c
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k
n
A = n(n-1)..(n-k+1) = n!/(n-k)!
3. T hp ca n phn t chn k (hay t hp chp k ca n phn t)
Gi s E = {a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
}. T hp ca n phn t chn k l mt b khng sp th t gm k
phn t {a
i1
, ..., a
ik
}. Ni cch khc, l mt tp con gm k phn t.
S cc t hp chp k ca n phn t c k hiu l C
k
n
. Ta c

k
n
C = n(n-1)..(n-k+1)/k! = n!/k!(n-k)!

4. Han v
Gi s E = {a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
}. Mt han v ca E l mt cch xp cc phn t ca E theo mt
th t no . Ni cch khc, chnh l chnh hp ca n phn t chn n.
S cc han v ca n phn t k hiu l P
n
. Ta c P
n
= n!.

5. Chnh hp lp
Gi s E = {a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
}. Chnh hp lp ca n phn t chn k l mt b sp th t gm
k phn t (a
i1
, ..., a
ik
), trong cho php ly lp li.
S cc chnh hp chp k ca n, theo quy tc nhn, bng n
k
.

6. T hp lp
Gi s E = {a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
}. T hp lp ca n phn t chn k l mt b khng sp th t
gm k phn t {a
i1
, ..., a
ik
}, trong cho php ly lp li. Ni cch khc, l mt a tp
hp gm k phn t ly t E.
S cc t hp lp chp k ca n phn t c k hiu l
k
n
H . Ta c

k
k n
k
n
C H
1 +
=

7. Han v lp
Xt a tp hp E(r
1
, r
2
, ..., r
s
) c n phn t, trong phn t a
1
c r
1
phin bn, phn t a
2

c r
2
phin bn, ..., phn t a
s
c r
s
phin bn, r
1
+r
2
+...+r
s
= n. Mt cch xp cc phn t
ca E theo th t no c gi l mt han v lp ca n phn t ca E.
S han v lp ca a tp hp E(r
1
, r
2
, ..., r
s
) bng n!/r
1
!...r
s
!.
B : (Tnh cht h s nh thc)

k
n
k
n
k
n
C C C
1
1
+

= +
nh l: (Nh thc Newton)

n n
n
n
n
n
n
n
y C y x C x C y x + + + = +

... ) (
1 1 0
.

Cu hi v bi tp:
1) Nu r s khc bit gia chnh hp v t hp, han v v han v lp.
2) Tm hiu ngha ca cc k hip A, C, P, H.
3) Hy chng minh nh l nh thc.
4) Nu v d p dng cho tng i tng t hp trn y.
5) Tm s nghim nguyn khng m ca phng trnh
x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
= 100
6) C 5 nam v 5 n. C bao nhiu cch chn ra 5 ngi trong c t nht 1 nam v t
nht 1 n.
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7) Rt gn tng

= =
= =
n
k
k
n
n
k
k k
n
kx C B C A
0 0
) cos( , ) 2 ( .
8) Chng minh

=
=
n
k
n
n
k
n
C C
0
2
2
. ) (

Bi 3. - Cc phng php m nng cao

C s ca php m l nh ngha php m, cc nguyn l m v cc s t hp (l cc
s thng ny sinh mt cch t nhin trong cc bi tan m). Tuy nhin, vi cc cng
c c s trn, chng ta thng ch gii c nhng bi tan dng n gin nht. Vi
cc bi tan c yu cu phc tp hn, cn n cc phng php m nng cao.

C nhiu phng php m nng cao da trn cc nn tng l thuyt khc nhau. V d
phng php song nh da vo l thuyt tp hp v nh x, phng php thm bt cng
da vo l thuyt tp hp (c th l tng qut ha ca cng thc |A B| = |A| + |B| -
|AB|), phng php qu o da vo mt nh l c bn v s ng i ngn nht gia
hai im ca li nguyn, phng php quan h quy da vo tng quy np,
phng php hm sinh s dng cc kin thc tng hp ca i s v gii tch ...

Di y, qua cc v d, chng ta s gii thiu mt s phng php m nng cao.

1. Phng php song nh.
Phng php song nh da vo mt tng rt n gin: Nu tn ti mt song nh t A
vo B th |A| = |B|. Do , mun chng minh hai tp hp c cng s phn t, ch cn xy
dng mt song nh gia chng. Hn na, ta c th m c s phn t ca mt tp hp
A bng cch xy dng song nh t A vo mt tp hp B m ta bit cch m.

V d 1. (Bi tan chia ko ca Euler)
Cho k, n l cc s nguyn dng. Tm s nghim nguyn khng m ca phng trnh
x
1
+ x
2
+ ... + x
n
= k (*)

Li gii: Ta xy dng mt nh x t tp hp A cc nghim nguyn khng m ca (*) vi
tp hp B cc xu nh phn di n+k-1 vi k bit 1 v n-1 bit 0 nh sau:
(x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
) 1..101..101..101..1
trong c x
1
s 1 lin tip, sau n s 0, sau n x
2
s 1 lin tip, li n 1 s 0
, cui cng l x
n
s 1 lin tip.

D dng chng minh c nh x ny l mt song nh (hy gii thch ti sao y l mt
tan nh bng cch xy dng nh x ngc). T | A | = | B | = .
1
1

+
n
k n
C

V d 2. (nh l c bn ca phng php qu o) Chng minh rng s ng i ngn
nht trn li nguyn t im A(0, 0) n B(m, n) bng
m
n m
C
+
.
Li gii: Mt ng i ngn nht t A n B s bao gm m an i ngang v n an i
ln. Ta cho tng ng mt ng i ngn nht t A n B bng mt xu nh phn gm m
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bit 1 (tng ng vi an i ngang) v n bit 0 (tng ng vi an i ln). D dng
chng minh tng ng ny l mt song nh, t s ng i ngn nht t A n B
bng s xu nh phn di m+n trong c m bit 1, v nh vy bng
m
n m
C
+
.
V d 3. Xy dng mt song nh t N vo ZxZ.
Hng dn: nh s cc im nguyn theo vng trn c.

V d 4. Chng minh khng tn ti mt song nh t tp hp cc s hu t thuc on
[0, 1] vo tp hp cc s thc thuc on ny.
Hng dn: Phng php ng cho!

V d 5. C n ngi xp hng dc. Hi c bao nhiu cc chn ra k ngi sao cho khng
c hai ngi lin tip c chn?
Li gii: Ta nh s n ngi bng cc s th t 1, 2, , n. Mt cch chn thch hp
chnh l mt b s 1 s

a
1
< a
2
< < a
k
s

n tha mn iu kin a
i+1
a
i
> 1 (tc l > 2).
Vy ta cn tm s phn t ca
A = {(a
1
, a
2
, , a
k
) | 1 s

a
1
< a
2
< < a
k
s

n, a
i+1
a
i
> 2 vi i=1, 2, , k-1}
Xt nh x f(a
1
, a
2
, , a
k
) = (b
1
, b
2
, , b
k
) vi b
i
= a
i
i + 1 th r rng ta c
1) b
1
= a
1
> 1;
2) b
i+1
b
i
= (a
i+1
(i+1) + 1) (a
i
i + 1) = a
i+1
a
i
1 > 0
3) b
k
= a
k
k + 1 s n k + 1.
Suy ra (b
1
, b
2
, , b
k
) l phn t ca tp hp B:
B = {(b
1
, b
2
, , b
k
) | 1 s

b
1
< b
2
< < b
k
s

n k + 1}
D thy f l mt n nh.
Ngai ra, nh x g(b
1
, b
2
, , b
k
) = (a
1
, a
2
, , a
k
) vi a
i
= b
i
+ i 1 cho chng ta mt n
nh t B vo A. Vy | A | = | B | =
k
k n
C
1 +
.

Phng php song nh cn c th c p dng chng minh cch ng thc t hp
mt cch v cng hiu qu. Y tng c bn l: Nu ta m mt tp hp bng hai cch
khc nhau th cc kt qu thu c phi bng nhau, cho d, vi cc cch m khc nhau
ta c th ra cc biu thc rt khc nhau.

V d 6: Chng minh h thc

1
1 2
1
2
) (

=
=

n
n
n
k
k
n
nC C k
Li gii: Hy gii bi tan sau bng hai cch C n nh vt l v n nh tan hc tham gia
mt Hi ngh khoa hc. Hi c bao nhiu cch chn ra mt nhm lm vic gm n ngi,
trong c 1 nh vt l lm nhm trng.
Cch 1: Chn nhm trng vt l, sau chn n-1 thnh vin cn li t 2n-1
ngi cn li.
Cch 2: Chn k nh vt l, chn nhm trng l nh vt l sau chn n-k nh
tan hc vi k = 1, 2, , n.

(Xem thm bi: Song nh v cc bi ton gii tch t hp TH&TT, s 1, 2/2001)

2. Phng php quan h quy.
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Phng php quan h quy l phng php gii bi tan vi n i tng thng qua vic
gii bi tan tng t vi s i tng t hn bng cch xy dng cc quan h no , gi
l quan h quy. S dng quan h ny, ta c th tnh c i lng cn tm nu ch
rng vi n nh, bi tan lun c th gii mt cch d dng.
Ta minh ha phng php ny thng qua mt s v d:

V d 1. (Bi tan chia ko ca Euler)
Cho k, n l cc s nguyn dng. Tm s nghim nguyn khng m ca phng trnh
x
1
+ x
2
+ ... + x
n
= k (*)
Gii. Gi s nghim nguyn khng m ca phng trnh trn l S(n, k). D dng thy
rng S(1, k) = 1. tnh S(n, k), ta ch rng (*) tng ng vi
x
1
+ ...+ x
n-1
= k - x
n
(**)
Suy ra vi x
n
c nh th s nghim ca (**) l S(n-1, k-x
n
). T ta c cng thc
S(n, k) = S(n-1, k) + S(n-1, k-1) + ...+ S(n-1, 0)
y c th coi l cng thc truy hi tnh S(n, k). Tuy nhin, cng thc ny cha tht tin
li. Vit cng thc trn cho (n, k-1) ta c
S(n, k-1) = S(n-1, k-1) + S(n-1, k-2) + ...+ S(n-1, 0)
T y, tr cc ng thc trn v theo v, ta c
S(n, k) - S(n, k-1) = S(n-1, k)
Hay S(n, k) = S(n, k-1) + S(n-1, k)
T cng thc ny, bng quy np ta c th chng minh c rng S(n, k) =
1
1

+
n
n k
C .

V d 2. C bao nhiu xu nh phn di n trong khng c hai bit 1 ng cnh
nhau?
Gii. Gi c
n
l s xu nh phn di n tha mn iu kin u bi. Ta c c
1
= 2, c
2
= 3.
tm cng thc truy hi, ta xy dng xu nh phn di n tha mn iu kin u bi
c dng a
n
a
n-1
a
n-2
......a
2
a
1
. C hai trng hp

i) a
n
= 1. Khi a
n-1
= 0 v a
n-2
......a
2
a
1
c th chn l mt xu bt k di n-2
tha iu kin. C c
n-2
xu nh vy, suy ra trng hp ny c c
n-2
xu.
ii) a
n
= 1. Khi a
n-1
......a
2
a
1
c th chn l mt xu bt k di n-1 tha iu
kin. C c
n-1
xu nh vy, suy ra trng hp ny c c
n-1
xu.
Vy tng cng xy dng c c
n-1
+ c
n-2
xu, ngha l ta c h thc truy hi
c
n
= c
n-1
+ c
n-2
.

V d 3. C bao nhiu cch lt ng i kch thc 3x2n bng cc vin gch kch thc
1x2?
Li gii: Gi c
n
l s cch lt ng i kch thc 3 x 2n. D thy c
1
= 3. tnh c
n
, ta
chia cc cch lt ng i kch thc 3x2n thnh n lai, trong lai th k l cc cch lt
m phn ng i 3x2k u tin c ph kn han tan, nhng khng tn ti i < k sao
cho phn ng i 3x2i u tin c ph kn han tan. Gi A
k
l tp hp cc cch lt
lai k th r rng c
n
= |A
1
| + |A
2
| + + |A
n
|. D dng nhn thy |A
1
| = 3c
n-1
(phn ng
i 3x2 c lt kn bng 3 cch, phn cn li c lt bng c
n-1
cch). Tip theo, c th
chng minh d dng rng, ch c hai cch ph phn ng i 3x2k cho cc cch ph
thuc A
k
vi k = 2, 3, , n, chnh l cch ph
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v cch ph thu c bng cch ly i xng.

T suy ra |A
k
| = 2c
n-k
. Nh vy, ta c c
n
= 3c
n-1
+ 2c
n-2
+ + 2. y l dng cng
thc truy hi bc v hn. thu c mt cng thc truy hi bc hu hn, ta thay n
n+1 v c
c
n+1
= 3c
n
+ 2c
n-1
+ 2c
n-2
+ + 2
T , tr hai ng thc cui cng v theo v, ta c
c
n+1
c
n
= 3c
n
c
n-1

v cui cng l
c
n+1
= 4c
n
c
n-1
.

V d 4. n ng trn chia mt phng thnh nhiu nht bao nhiu min?
Hng dn: 1 ng trn c th ct n-1 ng trn khc tt a bao nhiu im?

V d 5. (VMO 2003): Vi mi s nguyn dng n > 2 gi s
n
l s cc hon v (a
1
, a
2
, ...,
a
n
) ca tp hp E
n
= {1, 2, ..., n}, m mi hon v c tnh cht 1 s |a
i
- i| s 2 vi mi i=1,
2, ..., n. Chng minh rng vi n > 6 ta c 1.75s
n-1
< s
n
< 2s
n-1
.
Hng dn. Chng minh cng thc truy hi s
n+1
= s
n
+ s
n-1
+ s
n-2
+ s
n-3
- s
n-4
.

V d 6. Xt tp hp E = {1, 2, 3, ..., 2003}. Vi tp con A khc rng ca E, ta t
r(A) = a
1
- a
2
+ ...+ (-1)
k-1
a
k

trong a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
k
l tt c cc phn t ca A xp theo th t gim dn. Hy tnh tng
u
S = E
A _ E
r(A).

3. Phng php thm bt
Ta xt bi ton thc t sau:
V d 1. Rt ngu nhin 13 qun bi t b bi 52 qun. Tnh xc sut trong 13 qun
c t qu.
Gii. C
13
52
C cch rt 13 qun bi t b bi 52 qun. Ta cn tm s cch rt trong c 4
qun bi ging nhau (v s!).
Trc ht ta m s cch rt c t qu A. R rng c
9
48
C cch rt nh vy (ly 4 con
A v 9 con bt k t 48 con cn li). Vi cc qun bi khc cng vy. V c 13 qun bi
khc nn s cch rt l c t qu l 13.
9
48
C (!?).
Trong li gii trn, chng ta m lp. C th l nhng cch rt bi c hai t qu,
chng hn t qu K v t qu A c m hai ln: mt ln t qu A v mt ln t
qu K. Nhng ta ang m khng hi l s t qu m l s ln gp t qu. Nh th,
nhng ln m lp phi tr i. D thy, s cch rt c t qu K v A s l
5
44
C . L
lun tip tc nh th, ta c con s chnh xc cch rt c t qu l:

1
40
3
13
5
44
2
13
9
48
. 13 C C C C C +
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v xc sut cn tm bng
0342 . 0 / ) . 13 (
13
52
1
40
3
13
5
44
2
13
9
48
= + = C C C C C C p .
tc l vi mt ngi chi bi ngu nhin, c trung bnh 29 ln s c 1 ln t t qu. Xc
sut c 1 t qu trong 1 vn chi cao hn v cng c th tng bng phng php thm
bt.

P ~ 4p 6p
2
+ 4p
3
p
4
= 0.1299

tc l c khang 8 vn s c xut hin 1 t qu.
Trong li gii trn khng b m lp, chng ta ln lt bt i, ri lm thm vo, ri
li bt i C s tan hc ca phng php ny chnh l nh l sau:

nh l. Vi n tp hp A
1
, ..., A
n
bt k ta c cng thc
|A
1
... A
n
| = E |A
i
| - E |A
i
A
j
| + ...+ (-1)
n-1
|A
1
...A
n
|
Chng minh: Dng quy np v tnh phn phi.

V d 2. C bao nhiu cch xp 8 con xe ln bn c quc t b gch i mt ng
cho chnh sao cho khng c con no n con no?
Gii. C 8! cch xp 8 con xe con xe ln bn c quc t sao cho khng c con no n con
no. Ta cn m s cch xp khng hp l, tc l s cch xp c t nht mt con xe nm
trn ng cho.
Gi A
i
l tp hp cc cch xp c qun xe nm (i, i). Ta cn tm |A
1
... A
8
|.
Nhng d dng thy rng |A
i
| = 7!, |A
i
A
j
| = 6! ... |A
1
...A
8
| = 1 nn t nh l trn ta
suy ra
|A
1
... A
8
| = C
1
8
.7! - C
2
8
.6! + C
3
8
.6! - ... - C
8
8
.1! = 8! - 8!/2! + 8!/3! -...- 8!/8!.
Nh vy s cch xp 8 con xe ln bn c quc t b gch i mt ng cho chnh sao
cho khng c con no n con no bng
N(8) = 8! - (8! - 8!/2! + 8!/3! -...- 8!/8!) = 8!(1/2! - 1/3! + ...+ 1/8!).

V d 3. C bao nhiu cch xp 8 con xe ln bn c quc t b gch i hai ng cho
chnh sao cho khng c con no n con no?

Bi ni thm: nh l v xe v a thc xe.

4. Phng php qu o

V d 1. C m+n ngi ang ng quanh quy v, trong n ngi c tin 5.000 v m
ngi ch c tin 10.000. u tin quy khng c tin, v gi 5.000. Hi c bao nhiu
cch xp m+n ngi thnh hng khng mt ngi no phi ch tin tr li (m s n).

V d 2. (Bi ton bu c) Trong cuc bu c, ng c vin A c a phiu bu, ng c
vin B c b phiu bu (a > b). C tri b phiu tun t. C bao nhiu cch sp xp vic
b phiu lc no A cng hn B v s phiu bu?

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9
Cho x > 0 v y l s nguyn. Qu o t gc to n im (x; y) l ng gp khc
ni cc im O, (1; s
1
), ..., (k; s
k
), ...(x; s
x
), trong
|s
i
- s
i-1
| = 1, s
x
= y.

Gi N
x,y
l s cc qu o ni im (0; 0) vi im (x; y). Ta c cc nh l sau:

nh l 1. N
x,y
=
p
q p
C
+
vi p = (x+y)/2, q = (x-y)/2 nu x, y cng tnh chn l v N
x,y
= 0
nu x, y khc tnh chn l.
Chng minh: Gi s qu o gm p on hng ln trn v q on hng xung di.
Khi
p + q = x, p - q = y
t
p = (x+y)/2, q = (x-y)/2
(v p v q l cc s nguyn nn x, y cn phi c cng tnh chn l). V qu o s hon
ton c xc nh nu ta ch ra on no c hng ln trn, do s cc qu o t
im O n im (x; y) bng N
x,y
=
p
q p
C
+
.

nh l 2. (Nguyn l i xng gng) Gi s A(a; o), B(b; |) l cc im c to
nguyn, hn na b > a > 0, o > 0, | > 0, v A(a; - o) l im i xng vi A qua trc
Ox. Khi s cc qu o t A n B ct trc Ox hoc c im chung vi Ox bng s
cc qu o t A n B.
Chng minh. Mi mt qu o T t A n B, ct trc Ox hoc c im chung vi Ox ta
cho tng ng vi qu o T t A n B theo quy tc sau: xt on qu o T t A cho
n im gp nhau u tin gia T v Ox v ly i xng on ny qua Ox, tip theo T
v T trng nhau. Nh vy mi mt qu o T t A n B ct Ox tng ng vi mt qu
o xc nh t A n B. Ngc li mi mt qu o t A n B tng ng vi mt v
ch mt qu o t A n B ct Ox (ly on qu o t A n B n im gp u tin
v ly i xng on ny qua Ox). Nh vy ta thit lp c song nh t tp hp cc
qu o t A n B ct Ox vo tp hp cc qu o t A n B. nh l c chng
minh.

nh l 3. Gi s x > 0, y > 0. Khi s qu o t O n (x; y) khn c im chung vi
trc Ox (ngoi tr im O) bng (y/x)N
x,y
.

5. Phng php hm sinh

Phng php hm sinh l mt phng php hin i, s dng cc kin thc v chui,
chui hm (c bit l cng thc Taylor). y l phng php mnh nht gii bi tan
gii tch t hp

nh ngha: Cho dy s a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
, ...
Chui hnh thc
A(x) = a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
+ ... + a
n
x
n
+ ...
c gi l hm sinh ca dy {a
n
}.

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10
tng phng php hm sinh nh sau: Gi s ta cn tm cng thc tng qut ca mt
dy s {a
n
} no . T cng thc truy hi hoc nhng l lun t hp trc tip, ta tm
c hm sinh
A(x) = a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
+ ... + a
n
x
n
+ ...
Khai trin A(x) thnh chui v tm h s ca x
n
trong khai trin ta tm c a
n
.

Cng thc khai trin thng s dng (Cng thc nh thc Newton)
(1 + x)

= 1 + x + (-1)x
2
/2 + ...+ (-1)...(-n+1)x
n
/n!+ ...

V d 1. Tm s hng tng qut ca dy s f
0
= 1, f
1
= 2, f
n+1
= f
n
+ f
n-1
.
Gii: Xt hm sinh
F(x) = f
0
+ f
1
x + f
2
x
2
+ ...+ f
n
x
n
+ ...
= f
0
+ f
1
x + (f
0
+f
1
)x
2
+ ...+ (f
n-1
+f
n-2
)x
n
+ ...
= f
0
+ f
1
x + x
2
(f
0
+f
1
x+...) + x(f
1
x+...)
= f
0
+ f
1
x + x
2
F(x) + x(F(x)-f
0
)
T suy ra
F(x) = (1+x)/(1-x-x
2
)
Tip theo, ta khai trin F(x) thnh chui. Ta c
F(x) = (1+x)/(1-x)(1-|x)
trong , | l nghim ca phng trnh x
2
- x - 1 = 0. Ta d dng tm c hai hng s
A, B sao cho
F(x) = A/(1-x) + B/(1-|x)
T , s dng cng thc 1/(1-x) = 1 + x + x
2
+ ...+ x
n
+ ... ta c
F(x) = A + B + (A + B|)x + ...+ (A
n
+ B|
n
)x
n
+...
suy ra
f
n
= A
n
+ B|
n

vi , | l hai nghim ca phng trnh x
2
- x - 1 = 0 v A, B, l cc hng s han tan
xc nh.

V d 2. Tm s hng tng qut ca dy s a
0
= 1, a
n
a
0
+a
n-1
a
1
+ ...+ a
0
a
n
= 1
Gii: Xt hm sinh A(x) = a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
+ ...+ a
n
x
n
+ ...
Biu thc truy hi gi chng ta n h s ca hai a thc
A(x).A(x) = a
0
+ (a
0
a
1
+a
1
a
0
)x + ...+ (a
n
a
0
+a
n-1
a
1
+ ...+ a
0
a
n
)x
n
+ ... = 1 + x + x
2
+
...+ x
n
= (1-x)
-1
.
T suy ra
A(x) = (1-x)
-1/2
= 1 + (1/2)x + (1/2)(3/2)x
2
/2+ ...+ (1/2)(3/2)...(n-1/2)x
n
/n! + ...
V nh vy
a
n
= (2n-1)!!/2
n
.n! = . 4 /
2
n n
n
C

V d 3. (Bi tan chia ko ca Euler)
Cho k, n l cc s nguyn dng. Tm s nghim nguyn khng m ca phng trnh
x
1
+ x
2
+ ... + x
n
= k (*)
Gii: Gi c
n
(k) l s nghim ca (*). Xt tch ca cc tng v hn
(1+x+x
2
+...)(1+x+x
2
+...)....(1+x+x
2
+...) = (1+x+x
2
+...)
n
Ta nhn xt rng nu khai trin tch trn thnh chui ly tha ca x
(1+x+x
2
+...)
n
= c
0
+ c
1
x + ...+ c
k
x
k
+ ...
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11
th c
k
= c
n
(k) (V sao? Hy th gii thch)
Nhng
(1+x+x
2
+...)
n
= (1-x)
-n
= 1 + nx + ...+ n(n+1)...(n+k-1)x
k
/k! + ...
Suy ra
c
n
(k) = n(n+1)...(n+k-1)/k! = C
k
n+k-1
.

V d 4. V xe byt trong h thng giao thng cng cng c nh s t 000000 n
999999. Mt v c gi l v hnh phc nu tng ba ch s u tin bng tng ba ch
s cui cng. Hy tm xc sut gp v hnh phc ca mt ngi mua 1 v bt k.

V d 5. C 2n im trn ng trn. Hy tm s cch ni 2n im ny bng n dy cung
khng ct nhau.




Cu hi v bi tp

1. 1) n ng thng c th chia ng thng thnh nhiu nht bao nhiu min?
2) n mt phng c th chia khng gian thnh nhiu nht bao nhiu min?
2. Hm sinh ca dy {a
n
} bng A(x). Hy tnh hm sinh ca cc dy s sau
1) b
n
= ca
n

2) b
n
= a
n
+ b
3) b
n
= a
n
+ a
n-1
+ ...+ a
1
+ a
0

4) b
n
= a
2n

3. Gi s O l mt tp hp gm n phn t. H cc tp con A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
k
c gi l h
Sperner nu trong cc tp hp A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
k
khng c tp no l tp con ca tp khc.
1) Gi s A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
k
l mt h Sperner vi s phn t tng ng l i
1
, i
2
..., i
k
.
Chng minh rng 1/C
i1
n
+ 1/1/C
i2
n
+ ... + 1/C
in
n
s 1.
2) (nh l Sperner). Gi s A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
k
l mt h Sperner. Khi k s C
[n/2]
n
.
3) Gi A
n
l s cc h Sperner khc nhau ca O. Chng minh rng
2
Tn
< A
n
< C
Tn
2^Tn
trong T
n
= C
[n/2]
n
.
4. (M 1996) Gi a
n
l s cc xu nh phn di n khng cha chui con 010, b
n
l s
cc xu nh phn di n khng cha chui con 0011 hoc 1100. Chng minh rng b
n+1

= 2a
n
vi mi n nguyn dng.
5. (Vit Nam 1996) Cho cc s nguyn k v n sao cho 1 s k s n. Tm tt c cc b sp
th t (a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
k
) trong a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
k
l cc s khc nhau t tp hp {1, 2, ..., n},
tho mn iu kin:
1) Tn ti s v t sao cho 1 s s < t s k v a
s
> a
t
.
2) Tn ti s sao cho 1 s s s k v a
s
khng ng d vi s theo mod 2.
6. Tm s tt c cc b n s (x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) sao cho
(i) x
i
= 1 vi i=1, 2, ..., n;
(ii) 0 s x
1
+ x
2
+ ...+ x
r
< 4 vi r = 1, 2, ..., n-1;
(iii) x
1
+ x
2
+ ...+ x
n
= 4.
7. (PTNK 2000) Cho M = {1, 2, ..., n}.
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12
1) Tm s tt c cc b ba tp con A, B, C ca M tho iu kin
A B C = M, B C = C;
2) Tm s tt c cc b bn tp con A, B, C, D ca M tho iu kin
A B C D = M, B C D = C.
8. (Vietnam ST 94) Tnh tng
T = E 1/n
1
!n
2
!...n
1994
!(n
2
+2n
3
+...+1993n
1994
)!
y tng ly theo tt c cc b c th t cc s t nhin (n
1
, n
2
, ..., n
1994
) tho mn iu
kin
n
1
+2n
2
+3n
3
+...+1994n
1994
= 1994.
9. Cho 3n im trn ng trn. C bao nhiu cch ni cc im li to thnh n
tam gic khng c im chung?
10. Ta gi (i, j) l mt nghch th ca hon v t ca E
n
= {1, 2, , n} nu t(i) > t(j) m
i < j. Tm s cc nghch th trung bnh ca mt han v c chn ngu nhin.



Bi 4. - ng dng ca php m

Gii tch t hp khng ch gii quyt cc bi ton c t ra trong chnh l thuyt ny
m cn nhiu ng dng th v trong cc ngnh ton hc khc, v d nh trong i s, s
hc, hnh hc t hp, l thuyt xc sut...

Cc h s nh thc thng c ny sinh mt cch t nhin trong s hc modular, trong
i s giao hon, trong l thuyt i s Lie modular, v vy, nhng ng thc lin quan
n h s nh thc ng mt vai tr c bit quan trng.

Di y, chng ta xt mt s v d lin quan n ng dng ca gii tch t hp trong cc
lnh vc khc nhau ca ton hc.

V d 1. Cho p l mt s nguyn t. ng trn c chia thnh p cung bng nhau. Hi
c bao nhiu cch t p cung bng a mu khc nhau (Hai cch t mu thu c bng mt
php quay c coi l ging nhau)?
Gii. Mi mi cung c a cch t mu, nh vy c a
p
cch t mu p cung (vi quy c c
nh v tr). Trong s ny c a cch t mu bng ch mt mu. Vi mi cch t mu dng
2 mu tr ln, ta c th dng php quay to ra p cch t mu khc c tnh trong a
p

cch t mu trn nhng khng c tnh theo cch tnh bi. Nh vy s cch t mu
tho mn iu kin bi l (a
p
-a)/p + a.
H qu. (nh l nh Fermat) Cho p l s nguyn t v a l s nguyn, khi a
p
- a chia
ht cho p.

V d 2. Chng minh rng t 2n-1 s nguyn bt k lun tm c n s c tng chia ht
cho n.
Gii. Ta gi mnh bi l A(n). Trc ht ta chng minh rng nu A(m), A(n)
ng th A(mn) cng ng (hy chng minh!). T y, bi ton quy v vic chng minh
A(p) vi p l s nguyn t. Xt E = {a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
2p-1
}. Gi s ngc li rng vi mi b
a
i1
, ..., a
ip
ly t E ta c a
i1
+ ...+ a
ip
khng chia ht cho p. Khi , theo nh l nh Fermat
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13
(a
i1
+ ...+ a
ip
)
p-1
1 (mod p)
T suy ra
E (a
i1
+ ...+ a
ip
)
p-1

p
p
C
1 2
(mod p)
trong tng tnh theo tt c cc tp con p phn t ca E. Mt khc, ta m s ln xut
hin ca n thc a
j1
o1
...a
jk
ok
vi o
1
+ ...+ o
k
= p-1 trong tng v tri. C
k p
k p
k
p
C C

1 2 1 2

tng dng a
i1
+ ...+ a
ip
c cha a
j1
, ..., a
jk
. Trong mi tng ny, n thc a
j1
o1
...a
jk
ok
xut
hin vi h s (p-1)!/o
1
!...o
k
!. Nh vy, n thc a
j1
o1
...a
jk
ok
s xut hin trong tng v
tri vi h s
k p
k p
k
p
C C

1 2 1 2
.[ (p-1)!/o
1
!...o
k
!] = [(2p-1)!/k!(p-k)!(p-1)!].[ (p-1)!/o
1
!...o
k
!].
Do 1 s k s p-1 nn h s ny lun chia ht cho p, suy ra tng v tri chia ht cho p. Mt
khc
p
p
C
1 2
= (2p-1)/p!(p-1)! = (p+1)...(2p-1)/(p-1)! khng chia ht cho p. Mu thun.
V d 3. Chng minh rng
n
n
n
k
k
n
C C
2
0
2
) ( =

=
.

V d 4. Cho a l s thc dng v n l s nguyn dng cho trc. Tm gi tr ln nht
ca biu thc x
1
x
2
...x
n
/(1+x
1
)(x
1
+x
2
)...(x
n-1
+x
n
)(x
n
+a
n+1
), trong x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
l cc s
dng tu .
Gii. t u
0
= x
1
, u
1
= x
2
/x
1
, ..., u
n
= a
n+1
/x
n
th u
0
u
1
...u
n
= a
n+1
v ta cn tm gi tr nh
nht ca (1+u
0
)(1+u
1
)...(1+u
n
). Ta c (1+u
0
)(1+u
1
)...(1+u
n
) = 1 + Eu
i
+ Eu
i1
u
i 2

+ ...+
Eu
i1
...u
i k
+ ... + u
0
u
1
...u
n
. Tng Eu
i1
...u
i k
c
k
n
C
1 +
s hng. Tch ca chng s l mt biu
thc bc kC
k
n
. Do tnh i xng, mi mt s hng s ng gp bc l kC
k
n+1
/(n+1). Suy
ra tch ca tt c cc s hng ny bng (a
n+1
)^(kC
k
n+1
/(n+1)) = a^(kC
k
n+1
). p dng bt
ng thc Cauchy, ta c Eu
i1
...u
i k
> C
k
n+1
a
k
. Do 1 + Eu
i
+ Eu
i1
u
i 2

+ ...+ Eu
i1
...u
i k
+
... + u
0
u
1
...u
n

> 1 + (n+1)a + C
2
n+1
a
2
+ ...+ C
k
n+1
a
k
+ ... + a
n+1
= (1+a)
n+1
. Du bng xy ra khi v ch khi
u
0
= u
1
= ...= u
n
= a tc l khi x
1
= a, x
2
= a
2
, ..., x
n
= a
n
.

V d 5: (Dy ph y )
Vi mi s nguyn dng k > 1, ta ni b (a
1
, b
1
), (a
k
, b
k
) lp thnh mt dy ph y
nu vi mi s t nhin n, tn ti duy nht ch s i thuc {1, 2, , k} sao cho n ng
d a
i
moun b
i
.

Chng minh rng nu (a
1
, b
1
), (a
k
, b
k
) l mt dy ph y th
a) 1/b
1
+ 1/b
2
+ + 1/b
k
= 1.
b) a
1
/b
1
+ a
2
/b
2
+ + a
k
/b
k
= (k-1)/2.

V d 6: (Tp th cp cp 2)
Vi a tp hp A = {a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
} (cc a
i
c th bng nhau), ta gi A
(2)
= {a
i
+ a
j
| 1 s i <
j s n}. Chng minh rng nu tn ti cc a tp hp A, B sao cho
1) |A| = |B| = n
2) A = B
3) A
(2)
= B
(2)

th n = 2
k
vi k nguyn dng no .
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14

Ti liu tham kho

1. Nguyn Hu Anh, Tan ri rc, NXB HQG Tp HCM, 2001
2. Trn Ngc Danh, Tan ri rc nng cao, NXB HQG Tp HCM, 2003
3. Nguyn Khc Minh, Ti liu bi dng gio vin, H Ni 1996
4. Tp ch Tan hc v tui tr, s 1, 2/2001.
5. Hebert S. Wilf, Generating Functionology, A.K. Peters Ltd, 2005
6. M. Hall, Combinatorial Theory, New York: Wiley, 1986
7. Cohen, D., Basic Techniques of Combinatorial Theory, New York: Wiley, 1978
8. Stanley R.P, Enumerative Combinatorics, New York, Cambridge University
Press, 1999.
9. Tp ch Kvant
10. Ti liu Internet, c bit l cc website: www.mathlinks.ro,
www.diendantoanhoc.net, www.mccme.ru.