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170-188
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04
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05
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06
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08
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Abymvb I MelYv cwqvi c_g avc njv- welqe wbaviY ev mgmv wPwZ Kiv| welqe wbaviY
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Drm _K mycq cvwb cvIqvi Rb MelYv GKwU iZc~Y welq eU| Abw`K, cw_exZ LwbR Rvjvwb
(fossil fuels) hgb cvKwZK Mvm, Kqjv, cUvwjqvg BZvw`i gRy` Kg AvmQ Ges ejv nq h, AvMvgx
GKk eQi Zv dzwiq hve| fwelZi K_v weePbv Ki weK Rvjvwbi Abymvb I MelYv GKwU AZxe
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Abymvbi welqe wVK nj Abymvb KvRK mdj Kivi Rb cwiKbv cYqb, AbywgZ wmv MVb I
cixY Kiv nq| welqe mK Z_ msMn, cixYi Rb ivmvqwbK I Abvb DcKiY msMn, cixYi
dj cv Z_-Dcv (data) msMn, wek-lY (analysis) I evLv (explanation) c`vb Ges djvdj
MnYI Abymvb KvRi mv_ mswk-|
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cwieki Kx wZ KiZ cvi, Abymvb I MelYvi wewfb avci evwbK evLv mK I cixvi mgq h
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cixY msv c~e cKvwkZ wewfb evwbK Z_ msMn Kiv Abymvbi KvRi c_g kZ| hgb ai, Avgiv
mvBwUK GwmWhy dji Abymvb KiZ PvB| Zvnj Kvb-RvZxq d j mvBwUK GwmW _vKZ cvi Zvi aviYv
eBc ev evwbK Rvbvj (scientific journals) cKvwkZ Z_ _K RvbZ ne| mv_ mv_ mvBwUK GwmW
bvgK c`v_wU mve Kx Kx cixvi gvag kbv Kiv hZ cvi m Z_I msMn KiZ ne| cv Z_i
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Kvb Kvb cixvjvi viv mvBwUK GwmW (citric acid) kbv Kiv hvq| cwiKbv cYqbi mgq AekB
gv_vq ivLZ ne, b~bZg Kvb Kvb cixv bv Kij mvBwUK GwmWi kbvKiY c~Yv ne bv Ges wPwZ
cixvcwZjv _K evQvBc~eK mjvB weePbvq bqv DwPZ hjvi cqvRbxq DcKiY mnRjf I
cwiekeve|
imvqb
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wmv MVb KvRi cwiKbv cYqbK mnRZi Ki| Abymvb I MelYv cwqvi myweav_ cwiKbv cYqb
Gjvgjv fve bv Ki gvYymvi Kiv evbxq| A_vr h KvRi aviYv Qvov cii KvR i ev KvRi evLv
Kiv hve bv mUvK AvM iL cii KvRwU cwiKbvq bqv nq|
MelYvi cZvwkZ djvdj mK AvMvg aviYv Kiv Abymvb I MelYv cwqvi AviKwU iZc~Y avc| Kvbv
cixYi djvdj mK AvMB aviYv _vKj cv djvdj wbq Ah_v KZ~nj mw ne bv, ZvZ Ki
KvRi cii avcwUZ AMmi nIqv `yZ I mnR ne| GQvovI djvdj mK AvMvg aviYv KiZ cvij
KvRi cwiKbv cYqbI myweav nq, A_vr Kvbv KvRi djvdji Dci wfw Ki cii KvRwUi cwiKbv
Kgb nIqv DwPZ m mK aviYv cvIqv hvq|
imvqb Abymvb I MelYv cwqv AbK B cixYwbfi, Ze Kvbv Kvbv cixYi cwieZ
ckgvjvi gvag Z_-Dcv msMn Kiv hvq| cixY I Z_-Dcv msMn meRb MnYhvM cwZ gb Kiv
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QK-1.6 : `jMZfv e c~iY Ki|
1|
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imvqb
wevwiZ evgv
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11
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eenvi Kiv| cixY wgkYi msMn I h_vh_ cwikvab Kiv|
cwieki Rb wZKi, wekl Ki RjR (aquatic) Rxei Rb wZKi| G aibi c`v_
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cwiek
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12
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M. Bw_wjb
N. AvwmwUwjb
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13
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c`v_ nj Ggb fZ e hvi fi I AvqZb AvQ| mKj c`v_B mvaviYZ wZb Aevq weivR Ki KwVb,
Zij I evqexq| wK
^vfvweK K Zvcgvvq wKQz c`v_ KwVb, wKQz Zij Ges wKQz evqexq Aevq _vK|
Zvcgvv cwieZbi mv_ mv_ Aevi cwieZb NU| wZb AevZB G`i wbR^ ewk I ag iqQ,
Ze AYyi MVbi Kvbv cwieZb NU bv| KwVb Aevq AYymg~n KvQvKvwQ _K KuvcZ _vK; Zvc c`vbi
mv_ mv_ AYymg~n MwZkxj nq Ges `~i mi hZ _vK| wewfb gvag KwVb, Zij I evqexq c`v_i Qwoq
covi ceYZv j Kiv hvq| Zv nZ cvi ^ZtZfve A_ev Pvci cfve|
Zvci k
vYl
KwVb
Zij
evqexq
GB Aavq cvV kl Avgiv(1) KYvi MwZZi ^xKvhi mvnvh c`v_i fZ Aev evLv KiZ cvie|
(2) MwZZi mvnvh evcb I wbtmiYi evLv KiZ cvie|
(3) KwVb c`v_i Mjb I EacvZb Ges Zij c`v_i zUb cwqv eYbv KiZ cvie|
(4) c`v_i fZ Aev I Zvci ga mK evLv KiZ cvie|
(5) Zvcgvv ewZ evcb nvi ew cixvi gvag `LvZ cvie|
(6) KwVb c`v_i Mjb I EacvZb GK Zij c`v_i zUb cwqv cixvi gvag `LvZ cvie|
(7) cKwZZ msNwUZ eve NUbv imvqbi `wZ wek-lY AvMn c`kb KiZ cvie|
(8) ivmvqwbK `e I _vgvwgUvi mwVKfve eenvi KiZ cvie|
15
imvqb
KvVi UzKiv
wPwb
cvi`
Lvevi jeY
gvej cv_i
wnwjqvg Mvm
fiv ejyb
Pzbvcv_i
`ya
Kveb-WvB-AvBW
jyweKwUs
fiv Mvm Rvi
cvwb
cv_i
BU
AwRb
wmwjvi
mqvweb Zj
Zij
evqexq ev Mvmxq
wbR wbR Ki :
evwo _K Avbv cwj, cv_i ev Ab Kvbv KwVb c`v_i Dci Pvc `vI,
AvKwZ I AvqZb cheY Ki|
Gevi GKwU M-vm cvwb bvI, Ab AvKwZi GKwU cv Zv Xvj| Kx j Kij?
BbRKkbi `ywU wmwi cvwb I evZvm fi m~P Lyj gyL e Ki Pvc w`j Kx cwieZb nq `L|
Lvwj ejyb gyL w`q evZvm fi dzjvI, Zvici gyLwU Lyj `vI|
cheYi djvdj LvZvq bvU Ki|
`jMZfve Ki :
cheY I cixYi gvag Dcii Kvb ewkmg~n wbaviY KiZ cvij Kvbjv cvij bv Zv evLv
Ki| wkKi mvnvh wbq jveiUwiZ Zvgiv NbZ I cmviYkxjZv ewk `ywUi cixv KiZ cvi|
16
imvqb
(K)
(L)
(M)
wPv Ki :
GKB c`v_K Kxfve KwVb _K Zij Ges Zij _K Mvmxq Aevq bqv hvq?
wZb Aevq KwYKvmg~n Kxfve Aevb Ki?
Kvb Aevq AYymg~n mePq KvQvKvwQ Aevq, KLb gvSvgvwS Aevq Ges KLb mePq `~i `~i
Aevb Ki?
KLb GKwU AYyi mv_ Aci AYyi AvKlY kw mePq ewk, KLb wKQzUv Kg Ges KLb GK`g _vK
bv ejjB Pj?
wZb Aevq KwYKvmg~ni MwZkxjZvi Aev evLv Ki|
Avgiv mKjB cvwbi wZb Aevi mv_ cwiwPZ; eid (KwVb), cvwb (Zij) I Rjxqev (Mvmxq)| wP Zvc
c`vb Gi wZb Aevi cwieZb `Lvbv njv:
Zvc
eid
Zvc
cvwb
Rjxqev
wPv Ki : Kxfve RjxqevK cvwbZ Ges cvwbK eid cwiYZ Kiv hvq? wWc wdR cvwb ivLj Zv
Kxfve eid cwiYZ nq?
17
imvqb
m` dzUvbv GKKvc Mig cvwbK Uwej ivLj Kx `LZ cve? Dci Rjxqevi KYv evZvm Qwoq
coQ| GK hw` AviI Zvc `qv nZv GK mgq KvcwU Lvwj nq hZ| wK hw` KvcwU ^vfvweK Aevq
iL w`Z Ze Zv axi axi Vvv nq hZ; RjxqevK Avi ewiq coZ `LZ bv|
KYvi MwZZ _K KYvmg~n (AYy) Kxfve KwVb, Zij I Mvmxq Aevq MwZkxj Aevq _vK Zv Rvbv hvq|
KwVb c`v_i wbw` AvKvi I AvqZb AvQ| kwkvjx AvKlY eji KviY KYvmg~n Lye KvQvKvwQ Aevb Ki
KuvcZ _vK|
Zij AvqZb cwieZb bv Ki h cv ivLv nq m cvi AvKvi aviY Ki| Pvc AvqZb ^ gvvq
msKvPbkxj| Zij c`v_i KYvi MwZ KwVb c`v_i Zzjbvq ewk| KYvmg~ni ga AvKlY ej KwVbi Pq
Kg m KviY KYvmg~n gvUvgywU `~iZ Aevb Ki|
wP 2.4: Kvc dzUvbv cvwb
Mvmxq c`v_ h cv ivLv nq Zvi cyivUvB `Lj Ki| KYvmg~ni ga AvKlY ej LyeB Kg, GK Abi KvQ
_K AbK `~i Aevb Ki| Mvmxq c`v_i KYvmg~n evavnxbfve PjvPj Ki| KYvmg~n wewfb w`K
Pjgvb Aevq Qwoq _vK| Pvc AvqZb AwaK gvvq msKvPbkxj|
hZB Zvc `qv nq KYvmg~n ZZ MwZkw ARb Ki Ges PjvPj eo hvq| Zij Aevq KYvmg~n `~i `~i
mi hvq| zUb Mvmxq KYvmg~n Ziji DcwiZj _K evBi ewiq hvq Ges BQvgZv wewfb w`K PjvPj
Kivi gZv h_ kw mq Ki|
MwZZZi wfwZ Zvckw eenvi viv c`v_K GK Aev _K Aci Aevq i~cvi Kiv me| KwVbK
Zvc w`q MjbvsK cQvj Zv Zij cwiYZ nq| ZijK Zvc w`q zUbvsK cQvj Zv Mvmxq Aevq
cwiYZ nq|
dgv-3, imvqb-9g-10g
18
imvqb
wbPi cixv
jv Kvm `jMZfve Ki
cixv1
1. GKwU U
wUDe wKQz Zij bxj/Kjgi Kvwj/Kcvi mvjdUi `eY bvI|
2. Wcvii mvnvh axi axi cvwb hvM Ki|
.3 cyivUv cvwb GKB is aviY KiZ KZUv mgq jvMj cheY Ki bvU Ki|
4. Gevi Aci GKwU U
wUDe Mig cvwbi weKvi ivL Ges 1I 2 bs cwKqvwU mb Kivi ci 3bs
cwKqvwU nZ KZ mgq jvMj Zv bvU Ki|
cvwb
bxj/Kjgi Kvwj/
Kcvi mvjdU cvwbi `eY
cixv2
1. GKwU UwUDe GKwU cUvwmqvg cvigvvbUi wUK ivL| ZvZ cvwb hvM Ki|
2. cyivUv cvwb nvjKv ewb is aviY KiZ KZUv mgq jvMj bvU Ki|
3. Gevi Aci GKwU UwUDe Mig cvwbi weKvi ivL Ges 1 I 2 bs cwKqvwU mb nZ KZ mgq jvMj
Zv bvU Ki|| Nwo ai mgq bvI|
GB cixvwU Zzwg wPwb, Lvevi jeY w`qI KiZ cvi| hnZz iwOb bq, ^v` wbq Zv `LZ ne cvwbi mv_
wPwb ev jeYi KYvjv wgk MQ wK bv|
19
imvqb
cvwb
nvjKv e
wb iOi
cUvwmqvg cvigv
vbUi
`eY
cUvwmqvg cvigv
vbUi
wUK
cixv 1I 2 bs-Gi Kx `Lj?Zvc c`vbi c~e mgq jMQ ewk Ges Zvc c`vbi ci mgq
jMQ Kg| KYvmg~n Qwoq covi nvi 2bs cixvi Zzjbvq 1bs cixvq ewk wQj| Avevi ^vfvweK cvwbi
Zzjbvq Mig cvwbZ KYvmg~n Qwoq covi nvi ewk| Avgiv hw` Mvmxq c`v_ (Avgvwbqv Mvmi)cixvwU
wbR nvZ KiZ cviZvg `LZvg 1g cixvwUi PqI KYv Qwoq covi nvi AbK ewk| Dcii
cixv
jv _K Zzwg Zvcgvvi mv_ evcbi nvii mK wbYq Ki|
wPv Ki :
Dcii cixvmg~ni KvbvwUZB Kvbv Pvc cqvM Kiv nqwb|
1. He,
H2c,wq
CO
Mvmiej|
CO2
Kvbv gvag KwVb, Zij ev Mvmxq ei ^Zt~Z I mgfve cwiev
nIqvi
vK2evcb
-Gi evcb mgq mePq ewk, H2
Dcii cixvmg~n Ges wbR`i Awf
Zvi AvjvK wbR wbR
Gi mePq Kg jvMe Kb? He -Gi
LvZvq evcbi wKQz eve D`vniY wjL|
Kx NUe ej Zvgvi aviYv?
2.4 wbtmiY (Effusion)
2. Zij I KwVbi Zvci cfve
GKwU wnwjqvg Mvm ev evqyfiv ejyb bvI| QvU GKUv wQ` Ki| Kx NUQ j Ki| wKQzYi gaB `Le
I MwZZ
i mK Kx
ejybwU Pzcm MQ| fe `LQ, Kb Ggb njv? Mvmi ev evqyi AYymg~n wQ`c_ ewiq coQ|
G wK Kvbv Pvc KvR KiQ?hw` Pvc w
qv Ki Ze Zv Mvmxq ei ^Zt~Z I mgfve cwiev
nIqvi K_v bq| wQ`c_ AYyi ^Zt~Z MwZK evav `q| wQ` hZ eo nZ _vK ^Zt~ZZv ZZ ewcZ
_vK| hLb m~Y Pvcgynq ZLb evcb i~cvwiZ nq|
wnwjqvg Mvmi Pvc ejybi fZi Ges evwni mgvb bq| ejybi fZi Pvc ewk _vK| mi wQ`c_
Kvbv Mvmi AYymg~ni DPPvc _K wbPvc Aj ewiq Avmvi cwqvK wbtmiY ej|
D`vniY^i~c cvKwZK Mvm ev wg_b (CH4) MvmK AwaK Pvc cqvM Ki wm.Gb.wR (Compressed
20
imvqb
natural gas)Z cwiYZ Ki hvbevnbi Rvjvwb wnme eenvi Kiv nq| NievwoZ Rvjvwb wnme
eenvii Rb AwaK Pvc wg_b Ges widvBbvwi _K cv weDUb I cvcb Mvm wmwjvi, nvmcvZvj
eenvii Rb AwaK Pvc AwRb Mvm wmwjvi fi ivLv nq| Kvbvfve wmwjvimg~n wQ` nq Mj
`Lv hve mRvi Mvm ewiq AvmQ| hv _K wec`bK Aevi mw nZ cvi|
GKwU cvKv KuvVvj Nii GKwU K iL w`j Zvi M KuvVvji ZKi wQ`c_ ei nq wewfb K Qwoq
ci| ZKi wQ`c_ M ei nq Avmv wbtmiY Ges ei nIqvi ci wewfb K Qwoq civ evcb|
wPv Ki: KvbwU _K Mvm mePq ewk `yZ eie? wg_b Mvmi fi I NbZ mePq Kg, AwRb Mvmi
fi I NbZ Zvi Pq ewk| weDUb Mvmi mePq ewk| cvcb Mvmi fi I NbZ weDUbi Pq Kg|
evcb I wbtmiY ei fi Ges NbZi Dci wbfikxj| ewUi fi Ges NbZ hZ ewk ne evcb I
wbtmiYi nvi ZZ nvm cve|
kwYi KvR : evcb I wbtmYi wZKi w`K Kx wbR wbR LvZvq jL|
gvg + O2(g)
KwVb
gvg
3. A wkLvq axi axi Zvc w`Z ne Ges AbeiZ weKvii cvwbK bvovwb w`q bvoZ ne| KZ _vgvwgUvi
Mjb-wUDe
Zvcgvvq Zv MjZ i Ki Zv bvU wbZ ne| MjZ i Kij Zvc mwiq wbZ ne| GK wgwbU
ci
bvovwb
cvwb
KwVb
ci Zvcgvv bvU KiZ ne|
c`v_
6. Mvd ccvi X-A mgq I Y- A Zvcgvv ai eiLvwU (curve) GuK Zv _K Gi MjbvsK wbYq
KiZ ne|
21
imvqb
cixv-2 : c`v_i
zUb
1. wPi gZv hcvwZ I DcKiYjv mvRvZ ne| Lqvj ivLZ ne hvZ
_vgvwgUvi
2. cvwb dzUZ i Kiv ch Zvc w`Z ne| A_vr hLb mRvi ey`ey` AvKvi
RjxqevvKvi ewiq hZ _vK ZLb Zvc `qv e KiZ ne|
dzU
cvwb
Zvc
^vfvweK Pvc (1 atm) h Zvcgvvq Kvbv KwVb c`v_ Zij cwiYZ nq mB ZvcgvvK mB c`v_i
MjbvsK ej|
^vfvweK Pvc (1 atm) h Zvcgvvq Kvbv Zij c`v_ Mvmxq Aev cv nq mB ZvcgvvK mB
c`v_i zUbvsK ej|
F
(OC)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
wPv Ki: A-B ch Zvcgvv cwieZb njv, wK B-C ch njv bv| Avevi C-D ch Zvcgvv
cwieZb njv wK D-E ch njv bv| E-F ch Zvcgvv Avevi evoZ _vKj| Zvckw c`vb Kiv njv
wK Zvcgvv ew cj bv Kb? my Zvci K_v KLbv bQ wK?
c`v_i Aev cwieZbK wjLv hvq-
+ Zvc
+ Zvc
Mvm
Zvcgvv
Zij + Mvm
Zij
KwVb +Zij
KwVb
mgq
22
imvqb
cvR : GKBfve cvwbi kxZjxKiYi eiLvwU (cooling curve) c`kb Ki wewfb we`yZ
Gi Aev wek-lY Ki| Kvb Kvb Zvcgvvq Zvc c`vb KijI Zvcgvv cwieZb nq bv eYbv
Ki|
2.7 EacvZb :
wbPi wPwU j Ki :
+ Zvc
- Zvc
wPv Ki:
cvki wPi
Zvcxq I
kxZjxKiY
eiLv (curve)
Kgb nZ cvi?
eid
KwVb
Aev
Mvmxq
Aev
cixv : wPi gZv hcvwZ mvRvI| axi axi weKvii wbP Zvc
w`Z _vK|
Kx cwieZb `Lj LvZvq bvU Ki| GKB cwZZ bvc_vwjb,
Kc~iK Zvc w`q KwVb _K Mvm Ges Mvm _K KwVb
i~cvwiZ KiZ cvi|
KwVb
Aev
Zvc
Zvnj ejv hvq, hw` KwVb c`v_K Zvc w`j Zv mivmwi Mvm cwiYZ nq Ges Vvv Kij mivmwi
KwVb icvwiZ nq Ze c`v_i AevK EacvZb ej|
cvR : 1. `ywU cv cvkvcvwk Kc~i I eid iL bvovZ _vK| Kx cwieZb j KiQ Ges Kb
wek-lY Ki| `yw`b ci Kx Aev nq Ges Kx KviY nq evLv Ki|
23
imvqb
Abykxjbx
ewbevPwb ck:
.1 Kvc Mig Pv ivLj wbPi Kvb cwqvwU NU?
K. evxfeb
L. E
acvZb
M. evcb
N. wbtmiY
K. AvKvi msKywZ
P ne
M. GKB Ae
vb _K KuvcZ _vKe
N. cwicvk
wk wbMZ Kie
K.
L.
M.
N.
4. ARvbv KwVb e
Z -Gi Zvcxq eiLv
250
ARvbv e
Z-Gi
Zvcxq eiLv
C
154
54
H
A
1
F
G
mgq (wgwbU)
10
12
24
imvqb
i. Z e
wUi MjbvsK 54c
ii. Z e
wU Dvqx
iii.
A - B I C - D iLv e
wUi MjbvsK I zUbvsK eyvSq|
L. ii I iii
M. i I iii
N. i, ii I iii
mRbkxj ck:
.1
evwj I M-yKvR
AvqvwWb wgwk
Z Lv` jeY
K-cv
L-cv
K.
L.
ewW
Z evcb ev wbtmiYi KvbwU AvM NU?
M.
Zvcgvvevo
vZ _vKj DxcKi Kvb c`v_wU mevi AvM evxf~Z ne? KviY
evLv Ki|
N.
K-cv
i Dcv`vb I L-cv
i Dcv`vb
jvK c_KxKiY GKB c
wZi eenvi me wK
bv hywmn evLv Ki|
25
imvqb
2.
A
Zzjvq wm Nb nvBW&vRb
KvivBW
K.
L.
M.
N.
60 m.wg
40 m.wg
Zzjvq wm Nb
Avgwbqv
wbtmiY Kx?
GKB c`v_i MjbvsK I zUbvsK wfb Kb?
DxcKi cwqvwU Kvb aibi cwieZb evLv Ki|
Drcb mv`v auvqv A cvi KvQvKvwQ Drcb nIqvi hwK KviY evLv Ki|
dgv-4, imvqb-9g-10g
ZZxq Aavq
c`v_i MVb
cw_exZ hZ c`v_ AvQ meB AwZ z` KwYKv w`q Zwi| Giv GZB z` h AwZ DP gZvmb AYyexY
h
vivI Zv `Lv hvq bv| gwjK c`v_i z`Zg KwYKvi bvg cigvYy Ges hwMK c`v_i z`Zg KwYKvi
bvg AYy| cwZwU cigvYyiB wbR^ ewk iqQ| cavb ewk njv G`i wbR wbR cvigvYweK msLv|
cigvYy I AYyi AvcwK Ges cKZ fi iqQ| cvUb, BjKUb I wbDUb cigvYyi cavb KwYKv| cigvYyi
K` cvUb I wbDUb wbq MwVZ wbDwKqvmB Zvi cvq mKj fi enb Ki| cvUbi mgmsLK BjKUb
wbDwKqvmi Pviw`K wewfb Kc_ Nyi eovq| GKB gji Avevi GKvwaK fimsLvwewk cigvYy iqQ
hv`i AvBmvUvc ejv nq| gvbeRxeb wewfb G`i evenvi evcK|
27
imvqb
3.1 gj
bvBUvRb
Aw
Rb
md
d
ivm
Kveb
wnwjqvg
AvMb
Kvjwmqvg
gvMbwmqvg
mvjd
vi
Dci wKQz gji bvg `Iqv njv| G`i cigvYyi cZxK I cvigvYweK msLv jL
gji bvg
cZxK
cvigvYweK msLv
wbR Ki : gjmg~ni
BjKUb webvm Ki|
KwYKv
cvUb
wbDUb
BjKUb
cZxK
AvcwK fi
1
1
1840
AvcwK
Avavb
+1
0
-1
cKZ fi
cKZ Avavb
1.67 x 10 - 24 g
1.60 x 10 - 19
1.675 x 10
- 24
9.11x 10 - 28 g
Kzj^
0
- 1.60 x 10 - 19
Kzj^
cigvYyi K` _vK wbDwKqvm| wbDwKqvm Aevb Ki cvUb I wbDUb| G`i mgwK wbDwKqb msLv
ej; hvK fimsLvI ejv nq|
28
imvqb
cigvYyi cvUb msLvK ejv nq cvigvYweK msLv hv GKwU cigvYyi wbR^ mv ev Zvi cwiPq|
wjw_qvg cigvYyi BjKUb/cvUb msLv 3, wbDUb msLv 4| wbDwKqvm abvZK Avavbwewk cvUb I Avavb
wbic wbDUb _vK| wbDwKqvmi evBi Pviw`K wewfb kwi BjKUbmg~n wbR^ kw Abyhvqx wewfb
Kc_ Aevb wbq NyiZ _vK|
wbP wjw_qvg (Li) cigvYywUi MVbwP `Iqv njv:
BjKUb
kw
i
wbDUb
wbDwKqvm
cvUb
gj
cvUb/BjKUb
msLv
wbDUb
msLv
B
N
Mg
5
7
12
6
7
12
3.4 QKi Z_ _K wbDwKqvm cvUb I wbDUb Ges wewfb i BjKUb webvm Ki cigvYymg~ni MVb
wP Ab Ki (KvRwU `jMZfve Ki)|
Al
gji cZxK
29
imvqb
chvq mviwYi c_g 10wU gji cigvYyi cvigvYweK msLv I fimsLv `qv AvQ| Zv _K BjKUb, cvUb I
wbDUb msLv wbYq Ki Ges G`i msw cKvk jL:
gji cvigvYweK
cZxK
msLv
(Z)
fi
msLv
(A)
cvUb
msLv
BjKUb
msLv
wbDUb
msLv
(A-Z )
1- 1=0
He
4- 2=2
Li
Be
11
12
14
16
19
Ne
10
20
msw
cKvk
1
1
4
2
He
31
p, 178 O, 39
Si, 15
19 K ,
14
6
C, 64
29 Cu,
56
26
Fe
3.4 AvBmvUvc
wbPi QK nvBWvRbi wZb aibi cigvYyi MVb, cZxK, wbDUb msLv chvZvi kZKiv cwigvY `Iqv njv:
bvg
cigvYy wP
nvBWvRb
ev
cvwUqvg
wWDUwiqvg
cZxK
1
1
2
1
A_ev
wUwUqvg
msLv (A)
2
1
3
1
A_ev
3
1
wbDUb msLv
99.98
0.015
ZRwqZvi gvag
Drcb nq Ges cKwZZ Lye
mvgvb cwigvY cvIqv hvq
30
imvqb
hw`I nvBWvRbi 7wU AvBmvUvc (1H, 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H, 7H) AvQ G`i ga wZbwU cKwZZ
cvIqv hvq| Aewk PviwU MelbvMvi msk-lY Kiv nq|
wPv Ki :
QKwUK wek-lY Ki Zzwg Kx eySj?
cwZwU cigvYyi cvUb I BjKUb msLv KZ? cwZwU cigvYyi fimsLv ev wbDwKqb msLv KZ?
fimsLv cwieZbi KviY Kx?
mewKQz wek-lY Ki Zzwg Kx wmv wbZ cvi?
wewfb fimsLvwewk GKB gji cigvYyK ciii AvBmvUvc ej| wbDUb msLvi wfbZvi KviY Zv
nq| GKB gji cigvYyi cvUb ev BjKUb msLv KLbv cwieZb nq bv|
Cl
fimsLv
35
kZKiv cwigvY
75
AvcwK
cvigvYweK fi
35 X
37
Cl
37
25
eZgvb mKj wevbx Kveb- 12 AvBmvUvci fii AskK cvigvYweK fii cgvY wnme MnY KiQb|
AvaywbK msvbymvi
gji GKwU cigvYyi fi
gji AvcwK cvigvYweK fi =
1
Ask
12
GB msv _K evLv Ki, AvcwK cvigvYweK fii Kb GKK _vK bv? Kb GK AvcwK fi
ejv nq?
Dj-L, chvq mviwYZ cigvYymg~ni h cvigvYweK fi `qv nqQ Zv mKjB AvcwK cvigvYweK
31
imvqb
fi| Kvbv cigvYyi AvBmvUvc bv _vKj mjvi AvcwK cvigvYweK fi I fimsLv mgvb nq|
Dcii m~ eenvi Ki Zvgiv cigvYy cvUb I wbDUbi Avmj fii (Mvg GKK) mgwK Kveb-12
AvBmvUvci fii Ask w`q fvM KijB mB cigvYyi AvcwK cvigvYweK fi wbYq KiZ cvi| Dj-L,
Kveb- 12 AvBmvUvci fii Aski fi njv 1.66X
10g .
KvR: A
l Gi cvUb msLv 13, Gi GKwU cigvYyi fi hw` 4.482X
10-23g
AvcwK cvigvYweK fi KZ?
3.6
nq Ze Gi
GKB fve CO 2 , N 2 , H
Cl, H 2SO 4 BZvw`i AvcwK AvYweK fi wbYq Ki|
GwU kwYi KvR wnme wbR wbR LvZvq Ki|
wPv Ki : Kxfve m~q eenvi Ki GKwU cigvYyi fi I AYyi fi wbYq KiZ cvi| Dfq
e
p
1H
1
e
pn
2H
1
wP 3.2: nvBWvRbi wZbwU vqx AvBmvUvc
e
n
pn
3H
1
32
13
imvqb
C, 14 C, 87 Rb, 90 Sr, 115 In, 130 Te, 131 I,137 Cs,138 La,147 Sm,148 Sm,176 Lu,187 Re,186 Os, 222 Rn , 226 Ra ,
235
Th , 232 Th Ges
234
U _K 238 U ch
BZvw`|
Avgiv c~eB Dciv wZbwU AvBmvUvci K_v RbwQ| cKwZZ cvIqv hvq Ggb aibi e AvBmvUvc
AvQ hgb :
GQvovI wewfb eenvii Rb Kwg Dcvq e AvBmvUvc Zwi Kiv nq|
cvKwZK I Kwg Dcvq Zwi AvBmvUvci msLv 1300 Qvwoq MQ| G`i ga wKQz mywZ Ges ewki
fvM AwZ| AwZ AvBmvUvcjv wewfb aibi iwk hgb (-Avjdv, -weUv, -Mvgv) wewKiY K i
Ab gji AvBmvUvc cwiYZ nq| gji cigvYyi GB agK ZRwqZv ej| G aibi
AvBmvUvcjvK ZRwq AvBmvUvc ej| cKZc G mKj cigvYyi wbDwKqvm cwieZb NU| cigvYy
_K wbMZ iwkmg~n AwaK MwZmb| Mvgv () iwk Rxe
Kvli wZ mvab Ki| wbDKxq wewqvi gvag
Gme ZRwq AvBmvUvc Zwi Kiv nq|
33
imvqb
32
3. Lv` msiY : mKj cKvi kvK-mewR, dj mwVK msi Yi Afve ev ivbvcwqv mwVK bv nj wewfb
aibi wZKi evKUwiqvi Rb nq hv Avgv`i kixii Rb wZKi| wekl gZzi KviY ch
nZ
60
cvi| mvaviYZ Co _K h Mvgv iwk wbMZ nq Zv Gme wZKi evKUwiqvK gi dj| cvjwU dvgI
G iwk eenvi Kiv nq hLb Kvbv evKUwiqvRwbZ ivMi De NU| GKwU wbw` gvvi ZRwq iwk
cqvM Ki Lv` msiY Kiv nq| AwZwi ZRwq iwk eenvi Kiv ^vi Rb gvivZK wZKi|
Lv``e ZRwq iwk AekB cwiwgZ gvvq msiwZ vb cqvM KiZ ne| G ZRwq (Mvgv iwk)
m~hi Avjvi bvq wbivc`|
gZ evKUwiqv
Mvgv iwk
4. we`yr Drcv`b: AvBmvUvcmg~n qi mgq ev wbDwKq wewqvi mgq cPzi cwigvY Zvc Drcb Ki| GB
ZvckwK wewfb wWfvBm eenvi Ki we`yrkwZ i~cv
wiZ Kiv nq| cw_exi wewfb `k cvigvYweK Pzwj_K cPzi cwigvY we`yr Drcb Kiv nq wbDwKq wewqvi gvag|
GQvovI KxUcZ wbq
Y, wk, avZe cvZi cyiyZ cwigvc, ecv Ziji DPZv cwigvc, cvBc
jvBb wQ` A^lY, C- 14 viv dwmj gwgmn cw_exi hveZxq e, GgbwK cw_exi eqm wbaviY Kiv hvq|
34
imvqb
Kgv_ivwcZ ZRwq c`v_ eenvi nq| Kgv_ivwci dj gv_vi Pzj co hvq, ewg ewg fve nq| AbK
mgq Avgv`i Rb cqvRbxq evKUwiqvK gi dj|
wbDwKq wewqv nZ cv wbDwKq kw hgb we`yr Drcv`b eeZ nq Zgwb asmvZK KvRI eenvi nq|
wnivwmgv I bvMvmvwKZ wbw GUg evgvmn me aibi cvigvYweK evgvi kwi Drm wbDwKq wewqv|
`jMZfve KvR Ki : iv`vidvWi cigvYy gWji cwZwU cvebv fvjvfve wek-lY Ki Ges Gi ga
Kx Kx mxgveZv cj Zv wjL|
`jMZfve cvIqv mxgveZvjvi mv_ wbPi mxgveZvjv wgwjq `L:
mxgveZvmg~n njv :
1. migji Mnmg~n mvgwMKfve PvRwenxb A_P BjKUbmg~n FYvZK PvRhy|
35
imvqb
2. gvIqji Zvbymvi Kvbv PvRhy e ev KYv Kvbv evKvi c_ NyiZ _vKj Zv gvMZ kw
wewKiY Kie Ges Zvi AveZbPI axi axi KgZ _vKe| myZivs BjKUbmg~n gk kw nvivZ
nvivZ wbDwKqvm cek Kie| A_vr iv`vidvWi cigvYy gWj Abymvi cigvYy m~Yfve GKwU
Avqx Aev cv ne| A_P cigvYy nZ gvMZ kw wewKiY ev BjKUbi wbDwKqvm cek KLbB
NU bv|
3. cigvYyi eYvwj MVbi Kvbv myz evLv G gWj w`Z cvi bv|
4. AveZbkxj BjKUbi Kc_i AvKvi I AvKwZ m^ Kvbv aviYv iv`vidvWi gWj `qv nqwb|
5. GKvwaK BjKUbwewk cigvYyZ BjKUbjv wbDwKqvmK Kxfve cwigY Ki Zvi Kvbv Dj-L G
gWj bB|
e-
36
imvqb
wewKwiZ kw
wewKwiZ I kvwlZ
kwK eYwj wnme
cvIqv hvq
kvwlZ kw
37
imvqb
cvigvYweK
msLv
1
2
6
9
15
18
gj
H
eH
C
F
P
Ar
1
2
2
2
2
2
M
wbR Ki : 1 _K 18
cvigvYweK msLvwewk
gjmg~ni wPmn BjKUb
webvm Ki (QKijv ev`
w`q) |
4
7
5
8
8
gj
19
webvmi wP
20n
20p
20
Ca
2
20n
19p
m~vbyhvqx 2n2 cUvwmqvgi M kj 9 wU Ges Kvjwmqvgi 10wU BjKUb _vKvi K_v wQj| Kb _vKj bv?
Gi Di Avgiv ejZ cvwi, cwZwU cavb kwi (orbit)
Avevi GK ev GKvwaK Dckwi (orbital)
wbq
MwVZ| PZz_ kwii Kvbv GKwU Dcii kw ZZxq kwii GKwU Dcii Zzjbvq Kg| G
DcijvK s, p, d, f BZvw` bvg AvLvwqZ Kiv nq| s Dcii mevP BjKUb aviYgZv 2, p
Dcii 6, d Dcii 10, f Dcii 14. BjKUbmg~ni mvaviY ag nQ Giv c_g wbg kwmb
Dci (orbital)
c~Y Ki Ges gv^q DP kwmb Dci Mgb Ki|
38
imvqb
1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 0 4s1
6
1s 2 2s 2 2p 3s 2 3p 6 3d1 4s 2
Sc(21)
hnZz 4s AiweUvji kw 3d AiweUvji kwi Pq Kg, ZvB cUvwmqvgi mekl BjKUbwU 3d AiweUvj
26
Fe 30 Zn
33
Ar
36
Kr 38 Sr
hgb: Sc (21)
Sc (21)
1s 2
2s 2 2p 6
M
3s 2 3p 6 3d1
N
4s 2
wjLe|
39
imvqb
BjKUb webvmi mvaviY wbqgi wKQz ewZg: mvaviYfve `Lv hvq h, mgkwmb AiweUvjmg~n Aac~Y
ev m~Yi~c c~Y nj m BjKUb webvm AwaKZi mywwZ ARb Ki| A_vr np3, nd 5, nd 10, nf 7, Ges nf14
mePq mywZ nq| Gi djB d10s1 Ges d5s1 BjKUb webvmwewk gj AwaKZi vqx nq|
GB wbqg AbymiY Ki vwgqvgi BjKUb webvm:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s
Abykxjbx
ewbevPwb ck:
1.
2.
L. 125 I
M. 32 P
N. 153 Sm
Z GKwU gj hvi cvUb msLv 111 Ges wbDUb msLv 141 | KvbwU viv cigvYywUK cKvk Kiv hvq?
111
K. 14
1 Z
1
L. 14
Z
111
M. 252
Z
111
1
N. 1430
Z
146
25
154 X
75
4.
K. 14
8
L. 150
M. 152
N. 153
56
Y
26
DxcK gjwUi
i. GKvwaK hvRbx we`gvb
ii. cvUb I wbDUb msLv wfb
iii. BjKUb webvm ^vfvweK wbqgi
40
imvqb
L. ii I iii
M. i I iii
N. i, ii I iii
mRbkxj ck:
1. GKwU gji cigvYyi gWj AuvKvi Rb ejv nj beg kwYi Qv dwi` wbPi wPwU Ab Kij|
BjKUb
+
K.
L.
64
X
29
M.
N.
Ges3064Y cigvYy `yBwUi wbDwKqb msLv mgvb wK wbDUb msLv wfb evLv Ki|
2.
4W
12X
20Y
29Z
K.
fimsLv Kx?
L.
3Li
M.
N.
Dcii GKwU gji BjKUb webvm ^vfvweK wbqg Kiv hvq bv- hywmn Dcvcb Ki|
PZz_ Aavq
chvq mviwY
chvq mviwY njv QKi gvag cKvwkZ ivmvqwbK gjmg~ni agi GKwU aviYvwP| 2012 mvj ch megvU
118wU gj kbv nqQ| cZK gji Gme aviYv Avjv`v Avjv`vfve Avq Kiv Ame| chvq mviwYZ
^ cwimi gjmg~nK Zv`i agi wfwZ fvM Kiv nqQ| chvq mviwY `LB Avgiv Kvbv GKwU
gji ivmvqwbK AvPiY mK aviYv KiZ cvwi| G Aavq chvq mviwYi mw _K i Ki eve Gi
eenvi I DcKvwiZvi AvjvPbv Kiv nqQ|
mvwi
10 11 12 13 14
15
16
17 18
Li
Be
Ne
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
Ca
Sc
Ti
Cr
Mn
Fe
Rb
Sr
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Cs
Ba
La
Hf
Ta
Re
Os
Fr
Ra
Ac
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
He
Ni
wewfbCo gj
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Kr
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Uut
Fl
Uup
Lv
Uus
Uuo
GB Aavq cvV kl Avgiv(1) chvq mviwY weKvki cUf~wg eYbv KiZ cvie|
(2) gji meewnt kwii BjKUb webvmi mv_ chvq mviwYi cavb Mycjvi mK wbYq
KiZ cvie (c_g 30wU gj)|
(3) GKwU gji chvq kbv KiZ cvie|
(4) chvq mviwYZ Kvbv gji Aevb Rb Gi fZ I ivmvqwbK ag mK aviYv KiZ cvie|
(5) gjmg~ni wekl bvgKiYi KviY ejZ cvie|
(6) chvq mviwYi iZ evLv KiZ cvie|
(7) chvq mviwYi GKB kwYi gj viv MwVZ hMi GKB aibi ag nvZ-Kjg KvRi gvag c`kb
KiZ cvie|
(8) cixYi mgq KvPi hcvwZi mwVK eenvi KiZ cvie|
(9) cixY KvR mZKZv Aej^b Kie|
(10) chvq mviwY AbymiY Ki gjmg~ni ag Abygvb AvMn c`kb Kie|
dgv-6, imvqb-9g-10g
42
imvqb
chvq mviwY
1
1
H1
gji cZxK
chvq msLv
18
Mc msLv
cvigvYweK msLv
13
14 15
16 17
gji bvg
cvigvYweK fi
88
10 11 12
4
5
6
7
Fl
Flerovium
289
Lv
Livermovium
292
43
imvqb
chvq mviwYZ 7wU chvq ev Avbyf~wgK mvwi (row) I 18 wU Myc ev Lvov (coulmn) iqQ|
g~j chvq mviwYi wbP 2 wU Avbyf~wgK mvwi Ges 14wU Lvov wewk GKwU QvU QK c`wkZ nqQ|
GwUI g~j chvq mviwYi chvq- 6 I chvq- 7 -Gi Askwe kl|
chvq- 1 -G aygv `ywU gj iqQ, hviv Myc- 1 I Myc- 18 Z AewZ| GKBfve chvq- 2 I chvq- 3
G AvUwU Ki gj AvQ hviv Mc- 1 _K Mc- 3 Ges Mc- 13 _K Mc- 18 -Gi g a AewZ|
chvq-4 _K chvq-7 ch mejv chvqi cwZwU MycB gj viv c~Y|
chvq-4 I ch vq-5 GB chvq `ywUi 18wU Myc 18wU gj iqQ| A_vr cZK Myc GKwU Ki
gj vb `Lj Ki wbqQ|
chvq- 6 I chvq- 7 -Gi ewZg jYxq| Zv`i cZKi 18 wU Myc 32wU Ki gj
iqQ| G`i aygv Myc- 3 ZB 15 wU gji Aevb| evwK 17 wU Myc GKwU Ki gj
Aevb Ki| Gfve megvU 32 wU gj mwbewkZ nqQ|
Pj Gevi wbPi KvRwU mb Kwi| QKwUZ wewfb chvq mwbewkZ gji msLv Dj-L Ki| wewfb Myc
gji Aevb eySvevi Rb QK c` AvqZvKvi duvKv Nijv _K aygv cqvRbxq Nijv cwj w`q
fivU Ki| hw` c` AvqZvKvi Nijv cZK chvq AewZ me gjK c`kbi Rb chv bv nq, Zvnj
QKi wbP c` eo AvqZwUZ cqvRbgZ Ni GuK fivU Ki| KvRwU mb nj cv QKwU c` chvq
mviwY (wP 4.1) Gi mv_ Zzjbv Ki|
chvq
gvU
gji
msLv
Mc
1
IA
IIA
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
11 12
IB
IIB
13 14
IIIA IVA
15 16
17 18
VA VIA VIIA
44
gvawgK imvqb
Dcwiwj-wLZ ewkjv chvq mviwYi evwnK w`K j Kij `LZ cvB| Gevi gjmg~ni agi wfwZ
chvq mviwYK weePbv Kwi|
mvaviYfve gjmg~ni ag Zv`i Mci Dci wbfikxj| GKB Myci mKj gji fZ I ivmvqwbK
ag cvq GKB iKg|
imvqb
45
46
imvqb
18
He
2
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
B
2,3
C
2,4
N
2,5
O
2,6
F
2,7
Ne
2,8
Al
2,8,3
Si
2,8,4
P
2,8,5
S
2,8,6
Cl
2,8,7
Ar
2,8,8
Mg
2,8,2
Ca
2,8,8,2
Be
2,2
H
1
Na
2,8,1
K
2,8,8,1
Li
2,1
3
4
chvq
Myc
meewnt kwii 3wU BjKUb _vKj Zv`iK Mc13 Z vb `Iqv nqQ| Kbbv chvq-2
I chvq-3 -Gi
Mc- 3 _K Myc-12 ch Kvbv gj DcwZ bB| Zvnj `yBwU I wZbwU kwi
BjKUb web Kvbv gji
meewnt kwii DcwZ BjKUb msLvi mv_ `k ( 10) hvM Ki Mc msLv wbYq Kiv me|
chvq-4 _K chvq-7 ch h mKj gji BjKUb d cDi cek Ki Zv`i
d cDi
cekKZ BjKUb Ges mekl K
c_i BjKUb msLvi mgw Zvi Mc wb`k Ki| Ze chvq-6 Ges
chvq-7 -Gi h mKj gji mekl BjKUb f cDi cek Ki Zv`iK g~j chvq mviwYi wbP
c_Kfve Aevb `Iqv nq|
Qv
/Qv
xiv
5 Rb Ki `j fvM nq wbRiv kwYKemB wbPi QK (QK-4.3) c`KvRwU mb Ki|
D`vniY wnme QK bvBURb gjK `Lvbv nqQ|
gj
BjKUb webvm
chvq mviwYZ
Aevb
chvq- 2
++
Myc - 15
evLv
2wU kwi BjKUb web| AZGe chvq
msLv ne 2| meewnt kwi BjKUb
msLv njv 5wU, wK chvq msLv 2| AZGe Myc
msLv 5 bv nq, (5 + 10) = 15 ne|
Li
Al
Ne
Cl
QK-4.3:BjKUb webvm _K chvq mviwYZ gji Aevb wbYq
47
imvqb
mvwW
qvg (Na)
wjw_qvg (Li)
evwgb (Br)
wbKj (Ni)
mwjwbqvg (Se)
cUvwmqvg (K)
wP4.2:wewfb gj
48
imvqb
4.7 wewfb kwYZ DcwZ gjmg~ni wekl bvg (vi avZz, grvi avZz, gy`v avZz,
nvjvRb, wbwq Mvm, Aevi gj)
vi avZz: chvq mviwYZ Myc- 1 -G AewZ gjmg~n hgb- Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs Ges Fr
vi avZz
(alkali metal) ejv nq| Giv cZKB cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki nvBW
vRb Mvm I
vi `eY Zwi Ki|
meewnt kwi AewZ GKgvBjKUbwU c`vb Ki AvqwbK hM (jeY) Zwi Ki|
grvi avZz : Myc- 2 -G AewZ Be _K i Ki Ra ch gjmg~nK gr
vi avZy ejv (alkaline
earth metal) nq| G`i ag AbKUv
vi avZzi gZvB| G`i A
vBW
mg~n cvwbZ
vixq `eY Zwi Ki|
GivI meewnt kwii 2 wU BjKUb c`vb Ki AvqwbK hM (jeY) Zwi Ki| GB gjmg~n wewfb
hM wnme gvwUZ _vK|
Aevi gj:chvq mviwYZ Myc- 3 _K Myc-11 ch Myc AewZ gjmg~n Aevi gj (transition
metal) wnme cwiwPZ| Aevi gjmg~ni wbR^ eY iqQ| Giv avZe c`v_ wnme cPzi eeZ nq|
meewnt kwii BjKUb c`vb Ki AvqwbK hM Zwi Ki| Kvbv chvqi Aev i gjmg~ni ga
evgw`Ki gj _K vWbw`Ki gj viv MwVZ hMi ewk AvqwbK _K mghvRxZ cwiewZZ nq|
gy`v avZy : chvq mviwYZ Myc 11 Z AewZ gjZvgv (Cu), icv (Ag) I mvbv (Au) G`i avZe
ewk hgb D
jZv we`gvb| wHZnvwmKfve Gme avZy viv gy`v Zwi Ki Zv`iK q-weq I Abvb
cqvRb wewbgqi gvag wnme eenvi Kiv nq| G`iK gy`v avZz (coinage metals) ejv nq|
cKZcGiv Aevi gj|
nvjvRb:Mc- 17 Z AewZ gj F, Cl, Br, I Ges At GB 5wU gjK GKnvjvRb (halogen)
ej| nvjvRb k
i A_ jeY MVbKvix (salt maker)| Giv meewnt kwi GKwU BjKUb MnYi
gvag nvjvBWAvqb Zwi Ki| nvjvRbmg~ni g~j Drm mvgyw`K jeY| Giv wbR wbRB BjKUb
fvMvfvwMi (electron sharing) gvag w-gj AYy Zwi Ki|
wbwq Mvm: chvq mviwYZ Myc- 18 Z AewZ gjmg~nK wbwq gj ej| G`i meewnt kwi
cqvRbxq msLK BjKUb viv c~Y _vKvq Giv BjKUb Av`vb-c`vb ev kqvii gvag hM MVb mvaviYZ
AvMn c`kb Ki bv| A_vr eb MVb ev ivmvqwbK wewqvi cwZ GB gjmg~n wbwq _vK|
50
imvqb
GKwU KvPwUDe AvbygvwbK 2/3 Mvg Na2CO3 bvI| AZtci we cvwbZ mwU `exf~Z Ki Ges `eYi
ga axi axi jNy nvBWvKvwiK GwmW hvM Ki| cheY Ki Kvbv Mvm Drcb nq wK bv| Drcb MvmK
Rj KvwVi mvnvh kbv Ki| ivmvqwbK cixvi gvag kbv Kivi Rb Drcb MvmK euvKvbv KvPbji
mvnvh weKvi ivLv cwivi Pzbi cvwbZ cek KivI Ges cwieZb cheY Ki| GB cwieZbi KviY
evLv Kivi Pv Ki| Pzbi cvwbZ AwZwi Mvm cek Kivj Kx cwieZb nq Zv cheY Ki Ges KviY
evLv Kivi Pv Ki|
GKBfve KvPwUDe AvbygvwbK 2/3 Mvg K2CO3 wbq cixv Ki| cixv Ki wbPi Uwej c~Y Ki|
M-vm/UwUDe Na2CO3
hvMKZ Dcv`vb
M-vm/UwUDe K2CO3
we
jeyi im/wmiKv/jNy
HCl
Rj KvwVK Drcb
Mvmi Dci ai
Drcb MvmK Pzbi
cvwbZ cek KivI
AwZwi
cwigvY
Drcb MvmK Pzbi
cvwbZ cek KivI
Abykxjbx
ewbevPwb ck:
1. chvq mviwYi mwZKvi g~j wfw Kx?
K. cvigvYweK msLv
L. cvigvYweK fi
M. AvcwK cvigvYweK fi
N. BjKUb webvm
L. Group-5
M. Group-11
N. Group-13
51
imvqb
X
Y
Z
[GLvb X, Y Ges Z cZxKx A_; cPwjZ Kvbv gji cZxK bq]
L. 4_
M. 5g
N. 6
4. Dwj-wLZ gjjvii.
L. ii I iii
M. I iii
N. i, ii I iii
mRbkxj ck:
1.
F
Na
Mg
52
imvqb
K.
L.
M.
N.
cg Aavq
ivmvqwbK eb
wbwq Mvmmg~n GK-cigvYyK Mvmi~c cKwZZ vqx, G Mvmjv eZxZ Ab gji cigvYymg~n
^vaxbfve cKwZZ weivR Ki bv| gwjK Mvmi AYymg~n mvaviYZ wcigvYyK hgb- O2, N2, F2, Cl2,
Br2 BZvw`| Avevi Kvbv Kvbv gji AYy `yBqi AwaK cigvYy wbq MwVZ nq| hgb O3, P4, S8 |
Avevi wfb wfb gji cigvYy wgj hM MVb Ki hgb NaCl, H2O, HCl, CH4 cfwZ| me AYyZB
cigvYymg~n GK wekl AvKlYkw viv cii Ave _vK, G kwK ebkw ej| mvaviYZ eb MVb
Kvj mKj cigvYyyB Zvi kl kwi wbKUeZx wbwq Mvmi BjKUb webvm jvf KiZ Pvq| avZz-AavZz
wgj mvaviYZ AvqwbK eb, AavZz-AavZz wgj mghvRx eb MVb Ki| avZe L avZe cigvYymg~n
avZe ebi gvag GK Abi mv_ Ave _vK| wZb cKvi eb m gj ev hMi Avjv`v Avjv`v
ewk iqQ|
oo
oo
o
xx
x
x
x
x
Na
x
x
o
o o
Cl
xx
o
oo
oo
xx
oo
oo
o
Na
xx
x
x
x o
o o
Cl
o
oo
oo
o o
o o
o o
o o
H
O
54
imvqb
7n
7p
(gjmgyni c_g Kc_i `ywU BjKUbK eRvo Aevq `Lvbv njI cKZc Giv GKwU Dci Rvo Aevq)
55
Dcii BjKUb webvm _K `Lv hvq, GKgv wnwjqvg Qvov Ab mKj wbwq gji hvRZv i 8wU
BjKUb iqQ| He -Gi cvigvYweK msLv 2| 1g cavb kwi GKwU gv Dci (s) _vKvq Gi hvRZv
i 2 wU BjKUb viv c~Y _vK, hv He -Gi Rb vqx webvm| He -Gi hvRZv i 2 Ges Abvb
wbwq Mvmi hvRZv i 8wU BjKUb wwZkxj Aev c`vb Ki| Gi~c BjKUb webvm cwieZb
AbvMnx nIqvi KviYB gjmg~n ivmvqwbKfve wbwq| Abw`K Abvb gjmg~ni meewnt i G
BjKUb webvm bv _vKvq G me gj wewfbfve G aibi AwaKZi vqx BjKUb webvm MVb AvMnx|
57
imvqb
wbR Ki :
gvMbwmqvg I AwRbi BjKUb webvmi wP GuK Kxfve `ywU cigvYy G`i wbKUeZx wbwq Mvm
wbqbi BjKUb webvm jvf Ki KvUvqb I Avbvqb cwiYZ ne `LvI|
5.6 AvqwbK eb
x
x
Li
He
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x
Ne
x
x x
wjw_qvg Kxfve wnwjqvg Ges dvwib Kxfve wbqbi BjKUb webvm jvf Kie? wjw_qvg cigvYy hvRZv
ii GKwU BjKUb eRb Ki wnwjqvgi vqx `yB-Gi (duplet) Ges dvwib cigvYy hvRZv i GKwU
BjKUb MnY Ki wbqbi hvRZv ii vqx AK (octet) webvm jvf Kie|
`ywU cigvYy hLb KvQvKvwQ Avm ZLb wjw_qvg cigvYy Zvi hvRZv ii BjKUbwU dvwib cigvYyK `vb
Kie Ges dvwib mB `vbKZ BjKUbwU MnY Ki h_vg Li+ Avqb I F- Avqb cwiYZ ne| `ywU Avqb
hy nq LiF hM cwiYZ ne|
x
x
Li
x
Li+
wbR Ki :
GKBfve mvwWqvg I dvwib cigvYy mshvM mvwWqvg dvivBW (NaF) hMwUi MVbcwqv `LvI|
[`jMZfve Ki : gvMbwmqvg AvBW, Kvjwmqvg KvivBW Ges cUvwmqvg KvivBW hMmg~ni
MVbcwqv GuK `LvI Ges wbPi ckjvi Di `vI|
1. gvMbwmqvg AvBW eb MVbi mgq gvMbwmqvg I AwRb KZwU Ki BjKUb `vb Ges MnY Ki?
2. Mg, Mg2+ Avqb Ges O, O2- Avqb cwiYZ njv Kb?
3. Kvjwmqvg KvivBWi msKZ Kx?
dgv-8, imvqb-9g-10g
58
imvqb
Dcii mejv D`vniY chjvPbv Kij `Lv hvq avZzmg~n BjKUb eRb Ges AavZymg~n avZz KZK `vbKZ
BjKUb/BjKUbmg~n MnY Ki h_vg KvUvqb I Avbvqb cwiYZ nq| KvUvqb I Avbvqb KvQvKvwQ Gm
AvqwbK eb MVb Ki|
BjKUb Av`vb-c`vbi gvag MwVZ KvUvqb (abvZK Avqb) Ges Avbvqbmg~n (&FYvZK Avqb) h AvKlY
ej viv hMi AYyZ Ave _vK ZvK AvqwbK eb ej|
`ywU wfbagx cigvYyi gvag MwVZ nq AvqwbK hM|
5.7 mghvRx eb
nvBWvRb, Kveb, AwRb, bvBUvRb I dvwibi BjKUb webvmi wP AuvK|
G mKj gjB AavZz|
AavZz-AavZz e b MVb Kivi Kx NU? hw` GKwU nvBWvRb cigvYy Aci GKwU nvBWvRb cigvYyi
mv_ hy nq ZLb Kx NU?
G wnwjqvg cigvYyi vqx `yB-Gi web vm jvf Kivi Rb nvBWvRbi BjKUb MnY ev eRb me bq|
m cigvYyq cii BjKUb kqvi Ki wnwjqvgi vqx webvm jvf Kie|
H2 AYy
59
imvqb
6n
6p
7n
7p
10n
9p
10n
10p
Kveb
bvBUvRb
dvwib
wbqb
AavZzi mv_ eb MVbi mgq wbqbi hvRZv ii vqx AK MVbi Rb A_ev wnwjqvgi vqx
BjKUb webvm MVbi Rb Kvebi 4 wU BjKUb MnY ev eRb cqvRb| bvBUvRbi 3 wU BjKUb MnY
ev 5 wU BjKUb eRb cqvRb| dvwibi 7 wU BjKUb eRb ev 1 wU BjKUb MnY cqvRb| AavZzmg~n
BjKUb MnY GKgv avZzi mv_ eb MVbi mgq| AavZz-AavZzi eb MVbi Kx NUe?
Kvbv gji c GZ AwaKmsLK BjKUb MnY ev eRb me bq| KviY Gi Rb AwaK cwigvY kw eq
KiZ nq hv h Kvbv gji gZvi evBi|
Kvwib AYy MVbi Kx NUe?
xx
xx
x
x x
x x
Ar
Cl
x x
x x
x
xx
xx
Cl
x
xx
x
xx
x x
x x
x
Cl
xx
xx
x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x
Cl
xx
xx
x
x x
x x
`Lv hvQ Cl2 AYyi eb MVbi cwZwU cigvYyi hvRZv ii GKwU Ki BjKUb kqvi Ki Zvi
wbKUeZx wbwq Mvm AvMbi BjKUb webvm jvf Ki|
[wbR Ki : AwRb I dvwib AYyi eb MVbwP AsKb Ki| KvbwUi GKK Ges KvbwUi
web `Lv hvq evLv Ki|]
Dci AvjvwPZ meB gwjK AYy| AviI AbK gwjK AYy iqQ| wfb wfb AavZy cigvYy wgj hLb hM MVb
Ki ZLb Kx NU j Ki|
H2O, cvwbi GKwU AYy hv `yBwU nvBWvRb I GKwU AwRb cigvYy wbq MwVZ|
AwRbi cvigvYweK msLv 8, Gi BjKUb webvm: 2, 6| nvBWvRbi cviYweK msLv 1, Gi BjKUb
webvm 1| wbqbi BjKUb webvm jvfi Rb AwRbi meewnt i 2 wU BjKUb cqvRb| m
60
imvqb
KviY `yBwU nvBWvRb cigvYy GKwU Ki BjKUb AwRbi hvRZv ii `yBwU BjKUbi mv_ kqvi
Ki AwRb AK I nvBWvRb `yB-Gi webvm jvf Kie|
H
2H +
xx
+x
Cl
xx
xx
x
x
Cl
xx
x
x
eb-Rvo BjKUb
mghvRx ebi gvag MwVZ nq mghvRx hM Ges mghvRx AYyy| wbPi QK (QK 5.1) wKQz AYyyi msKZ
`Iqv njv| G`i eb MVbwP AsKb Ki (hvRZv ii BjKUb kqvii gvag)|
AYy
cigvYy msLv
wg_b
CH4
C+4H
Avgvwbqv
NH3
N+3H
Kveb -WvB-AvBW
CO2
eb MVb wP
C+2O
61
imvqb
wPv Ki : H2O, NH3, CO2 Ges CH4 eb MVbi ci cwZwU AYyZ KZwU gy-Rvo BjKUb
iqQ Ges KZwU eb-Rvo BjKUb eb MVb AskMnY KiQ?
Dcii mejv D`vniY chvjvPbv Kij `Lv hvq mghvRx AYy MVbKvix cwZwU cigvYyB AavZz| nvBWvRb
Qvov me AavZz gjiB kl kwi wZbi AwaK BjKUb iqQ| `yB-Gi I AK wbqg Abymvi hM
`yB Gi MVb Kivi Rb BjKUb ZvM ev MnYi Rb hZUv kw cqvRb Zv Zv`i bB| dj wbR`i ga
Zviv BjKUb kqvi Ki|
mekl kwi vqx BjKU&b webvm jvfi Rb BjKUb kqvii gvag h eb MwVZ nq, ZvK
mghvRx eb ej|
jYxq mvaviYZ `ywU AavZe cigvYyi ga mghvRx eb NU _vK|
eb AskMnYKvix cigvYy mgmsLK BjKUb hvMvb w`q GK ev GKvwaK BjKUb hyMj mw Ki hv
Dfq cigvYy mgvbfve kqvi Ki|
mghvRx eb MwVZ gwjK AYyyK (hgb O2) mghvRx AYy Ges hMK mghvRx hM (hgb CO2 ) ej|
wKQz mghvRx AYy Kg Zvcgvvq Mvmxq Aevq _vK (CO2, CH4, NH3 BZvw`) wKQz Zij Aevq _vK
(H2O, C2H5OH ; B_vbj BZvw`) Ges wKQz KwVb Aevq _vK {mvjdvi (S8), AvqvwWb (I2) BZvw`}|
G`i AYymg~n `yej fvbWvi Iqvjm (van der Waals) kw viv Ave _vK hv Kg Zvcgvvq fO hvq|
CO2, CH4, NH3 BZvw`i AYymg~ni ga fvbWvi Iqvjm (van der Waals) kw bB ejjB Pj, hvi
dj Giv Mvmxq Aevq GKK AYy wnme Nyi eovq|
62
imvqb
AvqwbK hM abvZK I F
YvZK cv _vK| AvqwbK hMi abvZK cv cvwbi F
YvZK Aw
Rb cv viv
AvKwlZ nq Ges AvqwbK hMi F
YvZK cv cvwbi abvZK nvBWvRb cv viv AvKwlZ nq| mghvRx
hMmg~ni ga hv`i cvjvwiwU iqQmjvI GKBfve AvKwlZ nq Ges cvwbZ `exf~Z nq|
63
imvqb
we`yr cwievwnZv (`jMZ KvR): GKwU cv/weKvi Lv`jeYi `eY, Aci GKwU cv/weKvi wPwbi `eY wbq
BjKUvW wnme `ywU MvdvBU ` bvI| `qi mv_ Kcvi Zvi evUvwi, UP evj hy Ki|
MvdvBU
`
NaCl Gi
`eY
MvdvBU `
wPwbi
`eY
cheY Ki Ges AvqwbK I mghvRx hMi we`yr cwievwnZvi cv_K wbYq Ki| MvdvBU `i cwieZ
avZe ` eenvi Kiv hvq| `eYi we`yr cwievnx I Acwievnx nIqvi KviY evLv Ki|
(Z_ : we`yr cwienYi Rb gy Avqb ev BjKUbi DcwwZ Ges Zv`i PjvPj cqvRb|)
Kjvm MVb :
[evwoi KvR: cZK c_K cv Lvevi jeY I wPwbi Avjv`v Avjv`v m `eY Zwi Ki ZvZ axi
axi Zvc cqvM Ki| `eYi AvqZb cv_wgK AvqZbi AaK cwigvY nj bvwgq Vvv nZ `vI| wKQz
mgq ci cvi Zjvq jeY I wPwbi `eY _K Rgv nIqv KwVb c`v_i AvKwZ cheY Ki| (Gjvi
AvKwZ cixv Ki Kxfve AbKjv cvkvcvwk Aevb Ki, Kb jeYi Kjvm MjvZ wPwbi Pq
AbK ewk Zvckwi cqvRb ne evLv Ki])
[kwYi KvR : GKBfve ZzuZi `eY Zwi Ki ZuzZi wUK Zwi Ki]
AviI wKQz AvqwbK hMi wUK Kjvm AvQ hgb gvMbwmqv (MgO), Avjywgbv (Al2O3) hv`i MjbvsK
AbK ewk, G`i fZ Aev 15000C Zvcgvvq AcwieZxZ _vK| mvaviYZ Kg Zvcgvvq AvqwbK hMmg~n
KwVb Aevq _vK| BjKUb PjvPj KiZ cvi bv ej G Aevq Giv we`yr cwienb KiZ cvi bv|
wbP wKQz mghvRx AYyi wUK Kjvmi wP `Iqv njv:
64
imvqb
5.9 avZe eb
Zvgiv Kcvi Zvi, Avjywgwbqvg dqj, Avjywgwbqvgi Zwi `iRv-Rvbvjv, jvnv, wRsK avZzi cjchy
XDwUb, wewfb aibi KUv `L _vK| G`i cigvYyjv wK Ab Kvbv gji mv_ eb MVb Ki bv,
Avevi wbR`i ga wcigvYyK ev wcigvYyyK Aevq _vK bv| ^ ^ gji cigvYymg~n GK cvkvcvwk
Aevb Ki| c~eB j KiQ mKj avZziB kl kwi Kg msLK BjKUb _vK| chvq mviwYi GKB
chvqi Abvb gji Zzjbvq GB gjmg~ni BjKUb wbDwKqvm _K `~i _vKvi KviY wbDwKqvmi mv_
BjKUbi AvKlYej Kg _vK| ZvB avZe Kjvm GB BjKUbjv cigvYyi Kc_ _K ei nq mgM
avZeL gyfve PjvPj Ki| wegy BjKUbjv Kvbv wbw` cigvYyi Aaxb _vK bv| ei mgM avZe
Li nq hvq| BjKUb nvwiq avZzi cigvYyMyjv Avqb cwiYZ nq GK wgvwK Kjvm Aevb Ki|
GK BjKUb mvMi avZe Avqbjv wbgwZ AvQ ej gb Kiv nq| GB miYkxj BjKUbi KviY
avZeL DP Zvc I we`yr cwievwnZv, bgbxqZv, NvZmnZv cfwZ ewki mw nq|
avZe cigvYymg~n h AvKlYej viv ciii mv_ Ave _vK ZvK avZe eb ej |
avZzi we`yr cwievwnZvi KviY:
(-) Kv_vW
AvbvW (+)
me avZzB we`yr mycwievnx| hnZz avZe Kjvmi Afix BjKUbmg~n ^vaxbfve PjvPj Ki, mnZz
e`ywZK i cfve ev avZe LK evUvwii mv_ hy Ki eZbx c~Y Kij mnRB eZbxi FYvZK cv
_K gy BjKUbmg~n abvZK cvi w`K PjvPj Ki Ges GfveB we`yr cwienY Ki| Dcii wPwU
fvjvfve j KijB Zv Zvgiv eySZ cvie|
65
imvqb
cixv Ki: wKQz c`v_ hgb jvnv, Avjywgwbqvg, wRsK, avZe KUvi QvU XvKbv, cwji `yB cv mvc
Ki, ivevi, KvVi UzKiv, ivevi ev BZvw`i ga w`q we`yr cwievwnZv cixv Ki| mejvi ga AavZz
B -Gi vb wewfb c`v_ eenvi Ki| G`iK cwievnx I Acwievnx wnme c_K Ki|
evUvwi
A
vKvWvBj wKc
B
Abykxjbx
ewbevPwb ck:
1.
2.
L. Zwor FYvZKZv
M. ivmvqwbK eb
N. fvbWvi Iqvjm ej
wbPi Kvb hMwU MVbKvj cwZwU cigvYyB wbqbi BjKUb webvm ARb Ki?
K. KF
L.
CaS
M. MgO
N.
NaCl
A
B
66
3.
4.
imvqb
L.
M. 4
N.
K. iii
L.
ii I iii
M. i I iii
N.
i, ii I iii
B gjwU
mRbkxj ck:
1.
gj
chvq
kwY
15
15
K.
L.
M.
N.
BCl5 hMi wwZkxjZv evLvq AK wbqg Acv `yB-Gi wbqg AwaK KvhKix hywmn evLv `vI|
67
2.
wP-X
wP- Y
L.
M.
N.
X AvqwbK I mghvRx Dfq aibi hM MVb KijI Y KLbI mghvRx eb MVb Ki bv hywmn 4
evLv Ki|
l Aavq
1 WRb wWg = 12 wU
imvqb
69
70
imvqb
18 Mvg H2O
56 Mvg CaO
46 Mvg CH3CH2O
H
2 Mvg H2
32 Mvg O2
Kveb
AwRb
gji cigvYyi fi
3 Mvg
8 Mvg
3/12 =0.25
8/16 =0.50
2
AvYweK msKZ
CO2
72
gji cZxK
imvqb
mekl
Kc_i
BjKUb
msLv
mekl
Kc_i
eRvo
BjKUb
msLv
hvRZv
1H
1s1
3Li
1s22s1
4Be
1s22s2
4Be*
1s22s12px1
5B
1s22s22px1
5B*
1s22s12px12py1
6C
1s22s22px12py1
6C*
1s22s12px12py12pz1
7N
1s22s22px12py12pz1
11Na
1s22s22p63s1
15P
1s22s22p63s23px13py13pz1
15P*
1s22s22p63s13px13py13pz13d1
73
imvqb
hMg~jKi msKZ
Avavb
hvRZv
Avgvwbqvg
NH4+
+1
dmdvwbqvg
PH4+
+1
nvBWvBW
OH-
-1
KvevbU
CO32-
-2
mvjdU
SO42-
-2
mvjdvBU
SO32-
-2
bvBUU
NO3-
-1
bvBUvBU
NO2-
-1
dmdU
PO43-
-3
dgv-10, imvqb-9g-10g
74
imvqb
FYvZK Avqb
I Zvi Avavb
I Zvi Avavb
abvZK
hMi msKZ
hMi gvU
Avavb
FYvZK
Cu2+ , +2
Na+ , +1
Al3+ , +3
SO42- , -2
PO43- , -3
NO3- , -1
1
3
1
1
1
3
0
0
0
CuSO4
Na3PO4
Al(NO3)3
QK: 6.6: abvZK I FYvZK Avqb viv MwVZ KqKwU hMi msKZ|
KvR : kwYZ abvZK I FYvZK Avqb wbq `kwU msKZ wjL wkKK `LvI|
`ywU wbic cigvYyi gvag hM MVbi mgq mvaviYZ chvq mviwYi evg cvki gjK c_g jLv nq|
Zzjbvg~jKfve AwaK abvZK gjK c_g jLv nq| Kvbv gji hvRZv, Ab gji mv_ hy nIqvi
gZv cKvk Ki| GKwU gji hvRZvK Aci gji msLv wnme ai gji cigvYy msLvi AbycvZ
_K msKZ jLv nq|
hMi msKZ
c_g gj I
Zvi hvRZv
wZxq gj I
Zvi hvRZv
H, 1
Cl , 1
C,4
H, 1
1:4
CH4
C,4
O,2
1:2
CO2
N,5
O,2
2:5
N2O5
HCl
75
imvqb
`ei KYv
jNy `eY
Mvp `eY
GK gvjvi `eYi , GK wjUvi `eY ev GK W.wg.3 `eY GK gvj cwigvY `e `exf~Z _vK| mwg
gvjvi (0.5 gvjvi) `eYi cwZ wjUvi 0.5 gvj cwigvY `e `exf~Z _vK| GK wjUvi `eY 2 gvj cwigvY
`e `exf~Z _vKj 2 gvjvi `eY ej| `eYi AvqZb Zvcgvvi Dci wbfikxj, `eYi gvjvwiwUK wbic
msvwqZ Kiv nq:
wbw` Zvcgvvq cwZ wjUvi `eY `exf~Z `ei gvjmsLvK `eYi gvjvwiwU ej| GK M viv cKvk Kiv nq|
wbw` Nbgvvi `eY cwZi Rb ewYZ avcjv AbymiY Kiv nq| c_g wbavwiZ gvci KvPcv ev Ab
Kvbv cv (Avav wjUvi, GK wjUvi, 2.5 wjUvi BZvw`) wbZ ne| h AvqZbi `eY cZ KiZ ne m
AvqZbi cv wbZ ne| cwZ wjUvi GK gvj wnmve wbavwiZ AvqZb wbw` Nbgvvi Rb `ei cwigvY
Mvg-GKK wnmve KiZ ne| wnmveKZ `ei cwigvYK wbwi mvnvh gc dvbji gvag wbavwiZ cv
bvI| dvbji Mvq jM _vKv `eK cvwZZ cvwb ev we cvwb w`q wbavwiZ cv vbvi Ki wKQz cwigvY
cvwb w`q SuvwKq `eY cZ Ki| AZtci cvwb w`q `eYi AvqZb wbavwiZ gvc ch c~Y Kij wbw`
Nbgvvi `eY cZ ne| hgb, Avav wjUvi 0.1 gvjvi Nbgvvi Na2CO3 `eY cZ Kivi Rb Avav
wjUvi AvqZbi cv 0.10.5 gvj ev 0.10.5106 Mvg Na2CO3 wbwi mvnvh gc Avav wjUvi
cv `eY cZ Kij Avav wjUvi 0.1 gvjvi Na2CO3 `eY cZ ne|
81
imvqb
GKwU wewqKi fi _K wewqvq AskMnYKvix Aci wewqKi fi wbYq: (5 Mvg gvMbwmqvg avZz KZ Mvg
AwRbi mv_ wewqv Ki?)
Dcii mgxKiY Abymvi,
48 Mvg gvMbwmqvg avZz wewqv Ki 32 Mvg AwRbi mv_
82
imvqb
A_vr wewqvi mgq GKvwaK wewqKi ga h wewqK Aewk _vK bv ZvK wjwgwUs wewqK ej| wewqK
_K Drcv`i cwigvY wnmve Kivi mgq wjwgwUs wewqKi cwigvY _K wnmve Kiv nq|
=AwRb AYy
=avZe gvMbwmqvg
=gvMbwmqvg AvBW
83
imvqb
CuSO4.5H2O
-5H2O
CuSO4
bxj eY
mv`v eY
(b-c) 100
(b-a)
Mvg
84
imvqb
Abykxjbx
ewbevPwb ck:
1. cgvY Aevq 2g nvBWvRb Mvmi AvqZb KZ?
K. 2.24 L
L. 11.2 L
M. 22.4 L
N. 44.8 L
N. Ca3(PO4)2
N. 6.36 10 23
M. 2.89 gvj H2
mRbkxj ck:
1.
4g
HCl
100 mL
4g
NaOH
85
imvqb
K.
L.
M.
DxcKi `eYqK GK wgwkZ Kij h jeY cvIqv hvq Zvi mshyw wbYq Ki `LvI|
N.
DxcKi `eY `ywUi Nbgvv mgvb ne wKbv Zvi MvwYwZK hyw `vI|
2.
K.
L.
M.
wewqvq KZ gvj Kveb WvB AvBW eenvi Kiv nqwQj Zv wbicY Ki `LvI|
N.
mg Aavq
ivmvqwbK wewqv
cwiek h mKj Dcv`vb iqQ Zv cwZwbqZ cwiewZZ nQ| wewfb aibi cwieZb AvQ| KvbvwU fZ
cwieZb Ges KvbvwU ivmvqwbK cwieZb| mKj cwieZbi Kvbv bv Kvbv cfve iqQ| wekl Ki
ivmvqwbK cwieZbi DcKvix I wZKi Dfq w`K iqQ| ZvB ivmvqwbK cwieZbi cfve mK Avgv`i
mgK vb _vKv AZvekKxq| GB Aavq cvV Ki wewfb aibi cwieZb Ges Zvi cfve mK RvbZ
cvie|
KuvPv Avg
cvKv Avg
`ya
`wa
87
imvqb
H2O(l)
H2O(g)
GKBfve gvg I MvjvK Zvc w`j GwU Mj Zij Aevq cwiYZ nq Ges Zvc mwiq wbj `Z KwVb c`v_
icvwiZ nq| KLbv KLbv GKwU c`v_ evwnK Zvc, Pvc I Ab c`v_i msk cwieZbi mgq c`v_
we`gvb gjmg~ni kZKiv mshywZi cwieZbi gvag bZzb c`v_ Drcb nq| bZzb c`v_wU c~e c`v_i gj
viv A_ev Kvbv gji wehvRbi gvag A_ev Kvbv gj mshvRbi gvag MwVZ nZ cvi| cwiewZZ
c`v_i fZ Aev c~e-c`v_ _K wfb ev c~e-c`v_i Abyic nZ cvi| bZzb hM Dcv`vb gj wfb
nIqvq gjmg~ni kZKiv mshywZi cwieZb nq| hgb, gvgi cavb Dcv`vb wewfb nvBWvKvebi wgkY|
gvg Rvjvj Zvi wKQz Ask ay fZ cwieZbi gvag Mj KwVb Aev _K Zij Aevq icvwiZ nq
Ges Vvv nq cybivq KwVb Aevq cwiYZ nq| GKBmv_ gvgi wKQy Ask AwRbi mv_ wewqv Ki
Kveb-WvB-AvBW I Rjxqev Drcb Ki| A_vr gvg Rvjvbvi mgq fZ cwieZb Ges ivmvqwbK wewqv
Dfq cwieZb msNwUZ nq| gvgK Rvjvj nvBWvKvebi Kveb I nvBWvRb evqyi AwRbi mv_ hy nq
Kveb-WvB-AvBW I Rjxqev Drcb Ki| gvg Rvjvj hnZz bZzb c`v_i mw nq ZvB GB cwieZb
GKwU ivmvqwbK cwieZb ev ivmvqwbK wewqv| ivmvqwbK cwieZb c`v_i cigvYymg~ni gaeZx eb fO
bZzb eb MwVZ nq| cigvYymg~ni gaeZx eb fvOv I bZzb eb MwVZ nIqvq Zvckwi cwieZb nq|
ivmvqwbK wewqvwU wbic:
CxHy +
(x+y
)O 2
2
xCO2 + yH2O + kw
cvKwZK Mvm ev wg_bK Rvjvj AwRbi mv_ wewqv Ki Kveb-WvB-AvBW I Rjxqev Drcb Ki|
GLvb ay ivmvqwbK cwieZb msNwUZ nq|
CH4(g)
2 O2(g)
CO2(g) +
2 H2O(g)
Pzbvcv_i (Kvjwmqvg KvebU; CaCO3) GwmWi mv_ wewqv Ki Kvjwmqvg KvivBW (CaCl2) KvebWvB-AvBW I cvwb Drcb Ki|
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)
CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) +
H2O(l)
88
imvqb
KvR : Dcii cwqvjvZ wewfb c`v_ gjmg~ni kZKiv mshywZi AvjvK cwieZb mK gZvgZ `vI|
fZ cwieZb cwiewZZ c`v_K mnR c~ei Aevq wdwiq bIqv hvq wK ivmvqwbK cwieZb cwiewZZ
c`v_K m~Yic c~ei Aevq wdwiq bIqv hvq bv|
1. wewqvi w`K (Direction of Reaction): wewqvi w`Ki Dci wfw Ki ivmvqwbK wewqvK `yB
fvM fvM Kiv hvq
K. GKgyLx wewqv (Irrev
ersible R
eaction
): GKgyLx wewqvq aygv wewqK c`v_ ev c`v_mg~n
Drcb c`v_ cwiYZ nq| wewqvq Drcb GKvwaK Drcv`i ga h Kvbv GKwU Drcv`K wewqv gvag
_K AcmviY Kiv nj Drcb c`v_mg~n wewqv Ki wewqK cwiYZ nZ cvi bv| GKgyLx wewqvi
wewqK I Drcv`i ga GKgyLx Zxi wP ( ) eenvi Ki wewqvi mgxKiY Dcvcb Kiv nq|
Pzbvcv_i (Kvjwmqvg KvebU; CaCO3) K DPZvc D Kij Pzbvcv_i wehvwRZ nq Pzb (Kvjwmqvg
AvBW; CaO) I Kveb-WvB-AvBW Drcb Ki| Lvjv cv msNwUZ GB wewqv GKgyLx nq|
CaCO3(s)
CaO(s)
CO2(g)
(Lvjv cv)
wewqvq Drcb c`v_ KwVb Kvjwmqvg AvBW I Mvmxq Kveb-WvB-AvBW| Lvjv cv GB wewqv mb
Kiv nj Mvmxq Drcv` Kveb-WvB-AvBW wewqvcv _K AcmvwiZ nq| dj Kvjwmqvg AvBW (CaO)
I Kveb-WvB-AvBW wewqv Ki Kvjwmqvg KvebU (CaCO3) Drcb KiZ cvi bv; A_vr wecixZ
wewqv mb Ki bv|
89
imvqb
L. DfgyLx wewqv (R
ev
ersible eRaction
): DfgyLx wewqvq wewqK c`v_mg~n wewqv Ki Drcv`
cwiYZ nq, GKBmv_ Drcb c`v_mg~n wewqv Ki cybivq wewqK cwiYZ nq| Dfg~Lx wewqvq GKBmv_
`ywU wewqv Pjgvb _vK| GKwU wewqvq wewqKmg~n wewqv Ki Drcv` cwiYZ nq| GK myLgyLx wewqv
ej| AciwU wewqvq Drcb c`v_mg~n wewqv Ki wewqK cwiYZ nq| GK wecixZgyLx wewqv ej|
wecixZgyLx wewqvi g~j wewqvq Drcb c`v_ wewqK wnme wqv Ki| DfgyLx wewqvi
wewqK I Drcv`i ga DfgyLx Zxi wP (
) eenvi Ki wewqvi mgxKiY Dcvcb Kiv nq|
ARe GwmWi (H+) DcwwZZ B_vbj I Re GwmW wewqv Ki Gvi Drcb Ki| GwU GKwU DfgyLx
wewqv| GB weqvi Drcb Gvi fO B_vbj I Re GwmW cwiYZ nq|
CH3CH2OH + CH3COOH
O
CH3CH-O-C-CH3
H+
CaO(s)
CO2(g)
(e cv)
wewqvq Drcb c`v_ KwVb Kvjwmqvg AvBW I Mvmxq Kveb-WvB-AvBW| e cv GB wewqv mb Kiv
nj Kvjwmqvg AvBW (CaO) I Kveb-WvB-AvBW wewqv Ki Kvjwmqvg KvebU (CaCO3) Drcb
Ki wecixZ wewqv mb Ki| cKZc cvq mKj wewqvB Dchy kZ DfgyLx nq| Ze wKQz wewqvi
myLgyLx wewqvi Zzjbvq wecixZ wewqvi cwigvY GZB Kg _vK hb wewqvK GKgyLx gb nq|
2. wewqvq Zvci cwieZb (Heat Change of Reaction): Zvci cwieZbi Dci wfw Ki
ivmvqwbK wewqvK `yB fvM fvM Kiv nq| h_v
K. ZvcDrcv`x wewqv (E
xoth
ermic eRaction
): wewqK _K Drcv` Drcb nIqvi mgq
Zvckw Drcb nj ZvK ZvcDrcv`x wewqv ej| ZvcDrcv`x wewqvq wewqv mb nIqvi mv_ wewqv cv
I wewqv-`eY Mig nZ _vK| GB wewqvq Drcb ZvcK Drcv`i mv_ hvM w`q A_ev H wnme cKvk
Kiv nq| ZvcDrcv`x wewqvq H -Gi gvb FYvZK nq| hgb, Zvc, Pvc I cfveKi DcwwZZ
bvBUvRb I nvBWvRb wewqv Ki `yB gvj Avgvwbqv Drcb nIqvi mgq 92 wKjvRyj Zvc Drcb nq|
Fe
N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2NH3(g) + 29KJ
200-250 atm
o
450-550
C
A_ev,
Fe
N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2NH3(g) ; H = -9
2 KJ
200-25
0 atm
o
45
0-5
0
5
C
dgv-12, imvqb-9g-10g
90
imvqb
L. Zvcnvix wewqv (Endothermic Reaction): wewqK _K Drcv` Drcb nIqvi mgq Zvckw kvwlZ
nj ZvK Zvcnvix wewqv ej| Zvcnvix wewqvq wewqv mb nIqvi mv_ wewqvcv I wewqv-`eY kxZj
ev Vvv nZ _vK| GB wewqvq kvwlZ ZvcK Drcv`i mv_ weqvM w`q ev wewqKi mv_ hvM w`q A_ev
H wnme cKvk Kiv nq| Zvcnvix wewqvq H Gi gvb abvZK nq| hgb, Zvc, Pvc I cfveKi
DcwwZZ bvBUvRb I AwRb wewqv Ki `yB gvj bvBwUK AvBW Drcb nIqvi mgq 180 wKjvRyj
Zvc kvwlZ nq|
N2(g) + O2(g)
2NO(g) -
180 KJ
A_ev,
N2(g) + O2(g)
180 KJ
2NO(g)
A_ev,
N2(g) + O2(g)
2NO(g) ; H = 180 KJ
{ZvcDrcv`x Ges Zvcnvix wewqv mK Zvgiv cieZx Aavq (Ag Aavq; imvqb I kw) wevwiZ RvbZ
cvie}|
K. iW (Redox) wewqv: iW (R
edox ) kwU weRviY; R
eduction
-Gi R
ed Ges RviY;
Oxidation -Gi Ox wbq MwVZ| A_vr iW (R
edox ) A_ RviY-weRviY| RviY-weRviY wewqv BjKUb
vbvii gvag msNwUZ nq| GKwU wewqK _K RviY-weRviY wewqv mb nj wewqKi GKvwaK
gji ga BjKUb Av`vb-c`vb nq| `ywU wewqKi ga RviY-weRviY wewqv mb nj wewqK `yBwUi
ga BjKUb Av`vb-c`vb nq| GZ wewqKi RviY msLvi cwieZb nq|
RviY msLv (Oxidation Number): hM MVbi mgq Kvbv gj hZ msLK BjKUb eRb Ki
abvZK Avqb Drcb Ki A_ev hZ msLK BjKUb MnY Ki FYvZK Avqb Drcb Ki ZvK gji RviY
msLv ej| wbic ev gy gji RviY msLv k~b (0) aiv nq| BjKUb MnY Ki FYvZK Avqb cwiYZ
nj gji RviY msLvK FYvZK RviY msLv Ges BjKUb eRb Ki abvZK Avqb cwiYZ nj gji
RviY msLvK abvZK RviY msLv ej| avZzmg~ni RviY msLv mvaviYZ abvZK, AavZzmg~ni RviY msLv
FYvZK Ges hMg~jKi RviY msLv Zv`i Avavb Abymvi nq| wewfb hM GKB gji RviY msLv wewfb
nZ cvi| hgb, HCl AYyZ H -Gi RviY msLv +1 Ges H2 AYyZ H -Gi RviY msLv k~b (0)| FeSO4
AYyZ Fe -Gi RviY msLv +2 Ges gy Fe -G Fe Gi RviY msLv 0| GKBfve HCl AYyZ Cl Gi RviY
msLv -1 Ges Cl2 AYyZ Cl -Gi RviY msLv 0|
`jMZ KvR: RviY msLv I hvRbxi ga Zzjbv Ki|
91
imvqb
RviY msLv wbYq (Determination of oxidation number): gji RviY msLv g~jZ Zvi BjKUb
webvmi mv_ mwKZ| GKwU hM Kvbv gji RviY msLv hM we`gvb Abvb gji RviY msLvi
Dci wbfikxj| hM Kvbv GKwU gji RviY msLv wbYq Kivi Rb hM we`gvb Abvb gji cgvY
RviY msLv (Standard oxidation number) eenvi Kiv nq| wbi Uwej wKQz gji, Avqbi Ges
hMi cgvY RviY msLv `Iqv nj:
RviY msLvi wbqg
avZzmg~ni RviY msLv abvZK Ges AavZzmg~ni RviY
msLv FYvZK nq|
wbic cigvYy ev gy gji RviY msLv k~b nq|
wbic hM cigvYymg~ni gvU RviY msLv k~b nq|
hMi msKZ
gj I RviY msLv
NaCl
Na = +1
Cl = -1
Fe, H2
Fe = 0
H=0
Fe, H2
H2O H = +1, O = -2
gvU = 0
SO42- = -2
NH4+ = +1
Avavbwewk Avqb cigvYymg~ni gvU RviY msLv Avavb SO42msLvi mgvb nq|
NH4+
vi avZzmg~ni RviY msLv +1 nq|
grvi avZzmg~ni RviY msLv +2 nq|
KCl, K2CO3
K = +1
CaO, MgSO4
Ca = +2
Mg = +2
MgCl2, LiCl
Cl = -1
NH3
LiAlH4
H = +1
H = -1
K2O, CaO
K2O2, H2O2
NaO2, KO2
O = -2
O = -1
1
O=2
hnZz KMnO4 wbic AYy, AZGe cigvYymg~ni gvU RviY msLv k~b nq|
myZivs (+1) + x + (-2) x4 = 0
+1 + x - 8 = 0
x7=0
x = 7, A_vr KMnO4 G Mn -Gi RviY msLv = +7
KvR : hM ev Avqbmg~ni wb `vMvwZ gji RviY msLv wbYq Ki:
92
imvqb
RviY-weRviY wewqvi mgq mvaviYZ GKwU wewqK BjKUb MnY Ki Ges Aci wewqK BjKUb eRb
Ki| h wewqK BjKUb MnY Ki ZvK RviK (Oxidant ) Ges h wewqK BjKUb eRb Ki ZvK
weRviK (Reductant ) ej| avZe wRsK (`v) Kcvi mvjdUi mv_ wewqv Ki wRsK mvjdU I Kcvi avZz
Drcb nq| GwU GKwU RviY-weRviY weqv| RviY-weRviY wewqvi `ywU Ask RviY I weRviY|
nZ
+ CuSO4
Z
nSO
n
Z
+ Cu2+
Z
n
+ Cu
wewqvi AvqwbK ic :
2+
+ Cu
1. RviY (Oxidation): RviY-weRviY wewqvi mgq wewqK _K BjKUb eRb ev AcmviY cwqvK
RviY ej| Dcii wewqvq wewqK Z
n -Gi RviY msLv k~b (0) Ges Drcv` Z
nSO 4 G Z
n -Gi RviY
msLv +2| A_vr wewqvq Z
n `ywU BjKUb AcmviY Ki RvwiZ nq Ges Z
nSO 4 -G cwiYZ nq| wewqvi
RviY AskK wbi mgxKiYi mvnvh Dcvcb Kiv nq|
n
Z
2e-
n
Z
2+
2. weRviY (Reduction): RviY-weRviY wewqvi mgq wewqK KZK BjKUb MnY cwqvK weRviY
ej| Dcii wewqvq wewqK CuSO4 G Cu -Gi RviY msLv +2 Ges Drcv` Cu -Gi RviY msLv k~b
(0)| A_vr wewqvq CuSO4 `ywU BjKUb MnY Ki weRvwiZ nq Ges Cu -G cwiYZ nq| wewqvi weRviY
AskK wbi mgxKiYi mvnvh Dcvcb Kiv nq|
Cu2+ + 2e-
Cu
Z
nSO
+ Cu
weRviY wewqv
Dcii eYbvq RviY I weRviY wewqv ejv njI hnZz RviY ev weRviY GKwU c~Yv wewqvi AwaKvsk| ZvB
RviY wewqvK RviY Aa Ges weRviY wewqvK weRviY Aa wewqv ejv kq|
BjKUb vbvii gvag msNwUZ mKj wewqvB RviY-weRviY wewqvi Afy| BjKUb vbvii
gvag msNwUZ wewqvmg~n:
93
imvqb
ition Reaction
d
)
1. mshvRb wewqv (A
2. wehvRb wewqv (D
ecom
position Reaction )
3. cwZvcb wewqv (Substitution Reaction )
4. `nb wewqv (Com
ustion Reaction )
b
1. mshvRb wewqv (Addition Reaction): `yB ev ZZvwaK hM ev gj hy nq bZzb hM Drcb
nIqvi cwqvi bvg mshvRb wewqv| Avqib (n) KvivBW Kvwibi mv_ wewqv Ki Avqib (In ) KvivBW
Drcb Ki (mbvZb cwZZ Kvbv hMi mv_ Kvwibi ev FYvZK Aski mshvMK RviY ejv nq)|
2F
eCl
2(aq)
Cl2(g)
2F
eCl
3(aq)
nvBWvRb Mvm Kvwib Mvmi mv_ wewqv Ki nvBWvRbKvivBW Mvm Drcb Ki|
H2(g)
2HCl(g)
Cl2(g)
mshvRb wewqvq `yB ev ZZvwaK gwjK c`v_ hy nq bZzb hM Drcb nj, GK msk-lY (Sy
nth
esis
wewqv ej|
PCl3(l)
Cl2(g)
cvwbZ Zwor Pvjbv Kij cvwb wehvwRZ nq nvBWvRb I AwRb Drcb Ki|
Zwor wek-Y
2H2O(l)
2H2(g) + O2(g)
3. cwZvcb wewqv (Substitution or Displacement Reaction): Kvbv hMi GKwU gj ev
hMg~jKK Aci Kvbv gj ev hMg~jK viv cwZvcb Ki bZzb hM Drcb Kivi cwqvi bvg
cwZvcb wewqv| mvaviYZ AwaK mwq gj ev g~jK viv Kg mwq gj ev g~jK cwZvwcZ nq| wRsK
mvjwdDwiK GwmWi mv_ wewqv Ki wRsK mvjdU I nvBWvRb Mvm Drcb Ki| wewqvq AwaK-mw q
wRsK avZz Kg-mw q nvBWvRbK cwZvcb Ki (mwqZvi Zzjbvi Rb LwbRm` (avZz-AavZz) Aa vq
`L, mbvZb cwZZ Kvbv hM _K nvBWvRb ev abvZK Aski AcmviYK RviY ejv nq)|
n
Z
(s)
H2SO4(aq)
Z
nSO
4(aq)
+ H2(g)
mvwWqvg avZz Kcvi mvjdUi mv_ wewqv Ki mvwWqvg mvjdU I avZe Kcvi Drcb Ki| wewqvq
mvwWqvg avZz Kcvi mvjdU _K Kcvi avZzK cwZvcb Ki|
2Na(s) +
CuSO4(aq)
Na2SO4(aq) + Cu(s)
94
imvqb
4. `nb wewqv (Combustion Reaction): Kvbv gjK ev hMK evqyi AwRbi DcwwZZ cywoq
Zvi Dcv`vb gji AvBW cwiYZ Kivi cwqvK `nb wewqv ej| `nb wewqvq mvaviYZ Zvc Drcb
nq| wg_b Mvm ev cvKwZK MvmK cywoq ev `nb Ki h Zvc cvIqv hvq Zv ivbvmn Abvb KvR eenvi
Kiv nq (mbvZb cwZZ Kvbv hMi mv_ AwRb ev FYvZK Aski mshvMK RviY ejv nq)|
CH4(g)
2O2(g)
CO2(g)
2H2O(g)
GKBfve Kveb, mvjdvi, nvBWvRb I gvMbwmqvgK `nb Kij Zv`i AvBW Drcb nq|
C(s)
O2(g)
CO2(g)
2S(s)
3O2(g)
2SO3(g)
2H2(g)
O2(g)
2H2O(g)
2Mg(s)
O2(g)
2MgO(s)
vi
jeY
cvwb
Rjxq `eY GwmW I vi wewqv Ki jeY I cvwb Drcb nIqvi mgq `eYi pH 7 -Gi wbKUeZx nq|
ckgb wewqv m~Y nj pH -Gi gvb 7 nq| wewqvi mgq GwmW `eY Zvi GwmW ag Ges vixq `eY Zvi
viag nvwiq ckwgZ nZ _vK| Rjxq `eY GwmW I vi wewqv Ki jeY I cvwb Drcb Kivi wewqvK
ckgb wewqv ej| mKj ckgb wewqv Zvc-Drcv`x nq| nvBWvKvwiK GwmW (HCl) I mvwWqvg
nvBWvvBW (NaOH) Rjxq `eY wewqv Ki mvwWqvg KvivBW (NaCl) I cvwb Drcb Ki| wewqv-cv
mvwWqvg KvivBW `exf~Z Aevq _vK|
HCl(aq)
NaOH(aq)
NaCl(aq) +
H2O(l)
95
imvqb
cKZc wewqvq GwmWi nvBWvRb Avqb (H+) I vii nvBWvwj Avqb (OH-) hy nq cvwb Drcb
Ki| mvwWqvg KvivBW Rjxq `eY mvwWqvg Avqb (Na+) I KvivBW Avqb (Cl-) wnme _vK| Rjxq `eY
mvwWqvg Avqb (Na+) I KvivBW Avqb (Cl-) wewqvq AskMnY Ki bv| G`iK `kK (Spectator) Avqb
ej| G wewqvq Kvbv BjKUbi vbvi NU bv|
HCl(aq)
Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
Na+(aq) +
+ NaOH(aq)
A_ev,
H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
Na+(aq) +
A_ev,
H+(aq)
+ OH (aq)
H2O(l)
2. AatcY wewqv (Precipitation Reaction): GKwU wbw` `veK `eYxq `ywU hMK wgwkZ Kivi
ci H `veK A`eYxq ev ^ `eYxq bZzb hM Drcb nj hMwU wewqvcvi Zj`k KwVb c`v_ wnme
Rgv nq| Drcb bZzb hM `veK `exf~Z bv nq KwVb c`v_ wnme Rgv nj ZvK Aatc ej| h
wewqvq Drcb hM Aatc wnme cvi Zj`k Rgv nq ZvK AatcY wewqv ej| AatcY
wewqvq AskMnYKvix wewqK `ywU mvaviYZ AvqwbK hM nq| GKwU wewqvq Drcb hM Aatc wnme
Rgv ne wK bv Zvnv wewqvq eeZ `veKi Dci wbfi Ki| Kvbv wewqvq Drcb hM cvwb `veK
Aatw njI Ab Kvbv `veK Aatw bv-I nZ cvi| AwaKvsk ivmvqwbK wewqv cvwb `veK mb
Kiv nq| ZvB Drcb hMi ga h Kvbv GKwU hM cvwbZ A`eYxq nj wewqvwUK AatcY wewqv
ej| G Aavq ay cvwb `veK mb ivmvqwbK wewqv AvjvPbv Kiv ne| ivmvqwbK mgxKiY Aatc
wnme Rgv nIqv Drcv`i mvgb c_g ebxi ga s jLv nq| AbK mgq AatcK cKvk Kivi Rb
ivmvqwbK mgxKiY Drcv`i mvgb wP eenvi Kiv nq| mvwWqvg KvivBW I wmjfvi bvBUU Rjxq `eY
wewqv Ki mvwWqvg bvBUUi Rjxq `eY I wmjfvi KvivBWi Aatc Drcb Ki|
NaCl(aq) +
AgNO3(aq)
NaNO3(aq)
AgCl(s)
A_ev,
NaCl(aq) +
AgNO3(aq)
NaNO3(aq)
AgCl
cKZc wewqvq wmjfvi bvBUUi wmjfvi Avqb (Ag+) I mvwWqvg KvivBWi, KvivBW Avqb (Cl-) hy
nq wmjfvi KvivBWi Aatc Drcb Ki| mvwWqvg bvBUU Rjxq `eY mvwWqvg Avqb (Na+) I bvBUU
Avqb (NO3-) wnme _vK| Rjxq `eY mvwWqvg Avqb (Na+) I bvBUU Avqb (NO3-) wewqvq AskMnY
Ki bv| G`iK `kK (Spectator) Avqb ej| G wewqvq Kvbv BjKUbi vbvi NU bv|
NaCl(aq) +
AgNO3(aq)
Na+(aq) +
NO3-(aq) + AgCl(s)
A_ev,
Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
Na+(aq) +
NO3-(aq) + AgCl(s)
96
imvqb
A_ev,
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
AgCl(s)
NaNO3(aq)
KNO3(aq)
KCl(aq)
A_ev,
Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + K+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
AwaKvsk AatcY wewqv bb-iW| Ze KLbv KLbv BjKUb vbvii gvag msNwUZ RviYweRviY (iW) wewqvq Drcb GKvwaK Drcv`i ga h Kvbv GKwU Drcv`K Aatc wnme cvIqv
hvq| GB cKwZi wewqv AatcYi Zzjbvq RviY-weRviY wewqv bvg AwaK cwiwPZ| hgb, vixq
wmjfvi bvBUU `eYK Ujb weKviK (Tollens reagent) ej| Ujb weKviK Rjxq `eY AvjwWnvBW kwYi
Re hMi mv_ wewqv Ki KwVb avZe wmjfvi Aatc wnme wewqvcvi Zj`k Rgv nq| GB
wewqvq wmjfvi bvBUUi wmjfvi Avqb (Ag+) GKwU BjKUb MnY Ki weRvwiZ nq Ges avZe wmjfvi wnme
Aatw nq|
Rjxq `eY wmjfvi bvBUU mvwWqvg nvBWvvBW ev Avgvwbqvg nvBWvvBWi mv_ wewqv Ki wmjfvi
nvBWvvBW Drcb Ki| Drcb wmjfvi nvBWvvBW wehvwRZ nq wmjfvi AvBW wnme Aatw nq|
AgNO3(aq)
NaOH(aq)
2AgOH(s)
Ag2O(s) +
AgOH(s)
HNO3(aq)
H2O(l)
wmjfvi AvBW Avgvwbqvi Rjxq `eY duvUvq duvUvq hvM Kij mKj Aatc `exf~Z nq Avgvwbqvhy
wmjfvi nvBWvvBWi `eY ev Ujb weKviK Drcb Ki|
Ag2O(s) + 4NH3 +
H2O(l)
2[Ag(NH3)2]+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
Ujb weKviKi wmjfvi Avqb (Ag+) AvjwWnvBWi mv_ wewqv Ki weRvwiZ nq Ges avZe wmjfvi wnme
Aatw nq| GKBmv_ AvjwWnvBW RvwiZ nq Re GwmW cwiYZ nq|
97
imvqb
KqKwU wekl wewqv: wKQz ivmvqwbK wewqv AvQ hv ewYZ kwYwefvMi AMZ bq|
1. Av`wek-lY ev cvwb wek-lY (Hydrolysis) wewqv: cvwbi AYyZ abvZK nvBWvRb Avqb (H+) I
FYvZK nvBWvwj Avqb (OH-) _vK| Kvbv hMi `yB Ask cvwbi wecixZ Avavbwewk `yB Aski mv_
hy nq bZzb hM Drcb Ki| GB wewqvK Av`weklY wewqv ej| Av`weklY wewqv, wc wZvcb
wewqvi Abyic (AatcY wewqvq AvjvwPZ)| Ze GB wewqvq cvwb AskMnY Kivq GK cvwb weklY
wewqv ej Ges wewqvq Kvbv BjKUbi vbvi NU bv| Avjywgwbqvg KvivBW cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki
Avjywgwbqvg nvBWvBW I nvBWvKvwiK GwmW Drcb Ki| GLvb Avjywgwbqvg KvivBWi Avjywgwbqvg
Avqb (Al3+) cvwbi nvBWvwj Avqbi (OH-) mv_ Ges KvivBW Avqb (Cl-) cvwbi nvBWvRb Avqbi (H+)
mv_ hy nq| wewqvq Drcb Avjywgwbqvg nvBWvBW cvwbZ A`eYxq, ZvB Drcv`wU Aatc wnme
wewqvcvi Zj`k Rgv nq|
AlCl3(s)
3H2O(l)
Al(OH)3(s) +
3HCl(aq)
4H2O
Si(OH)4
4HCl
6H2O
CaCl2.6H2O
MgCl2 +
7H2O
MgCl2.7H2O
CuSO4 +
5H2O
CuSO4.5H2O
CaCl2
dgv-13, imvqb-9g-10g
CH3-O-CH3
bvg : WvB wg_vBj B_vi
fZ Aev : Mvmxq
zUbvsK : -24 C
`veZv
: cvwbZ ^ `eYxq
105
imvqb
2. Pb (NO3)2 + 2KI
Dcii wewqvi AvjvK wbPi QKwU c~iY Kiv njv [K = 39, I = 127]:
Dcv`vb
1g cv
2q cv
3q cv
4_ cv
1
4
1
6
2
3
1
6
3
2
1
6
4
1
1
6
Kvb cvi `eYwU AwaK njy` ne ej Zzwg gb Ki? hywmn evLv Ki|
Ag Aavq
imvqb I kw
ivmvqwbK eb g~jZ kwi Avavi| ivmvqwbK eb fvOv-Movi mv _ kw wbwnZ| cw_exZ hZ ivmvqwbK
cwieZb NU mKj B kwi icvi nq| GB cwieZbjvi ga hjv ^Zt~Zfve NU m
cwieZbi kwK KvR jvwMq Avgiv `bw`b KvR Kwi| cw_exZ GB kwi cwigvY mxwgZ hv w`b w`b Kg
AvmQ| ZvB Avgv`i weK kwi K_v wPv Kiv cqvRb| BZvga m~hK KvR jvwMq mvjvi cvbj Zwi
Ki evwZ Rvjvbi cwigvY ew Kivi Pv PjQ| Ab w`K DbZ `ki bvq cvigvYweK kwK eenvi
Kivi cPv Avgv`i `k i nqQ|
107
imvqb
1.1
ivmvqwbK kw
Zvc Drcv`x wewqv: h ivmvqwbK wewqvq Zvc Drcb nq ZvK Zvc Drcv`x wewqv ej| hgb: KvV, Kqjv ev Mvm
cvovj Zvc Drcb nq| KvV ev Kqjv g~jZ Kveb Ges Kvebi wewfb hM, hv `nbi gvag evqyi AwRbi mv_
wewqv Ki Kveb-WvB-AvBW (CO2) I Zvc Drcb Ki| Pzb cvwbZ w`j Zvc Drcb nq| Pzb njv Kvjwmqvg
AvBW (CaO), hv cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki Kvjwmqvg nvBWvBW; Ca(OH)2 I Zvc Drcb Ki|
C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + Zvc
CaO (s) + H2O (l) Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Zvc
Gevi Zvckw wbMZ nIqvi welqmg~n evLv Kiv hvK| c_g , wewqK Kveb I AwRbi ga gvU
wZ ivmvqwbK kw Drcvw`Z hM Kveb-WvB-AvBW ga wZ ivmvqwbK kwi Pq ewk| Abyicfve,
Drcv` Kvjwmqvg nvBWvBW-Gi ga wZ ivmvqwbK kw wewqK Kvjwmqvg AvBW I cvwbi ga gvU
wZ ivmvqwbK kwi Pq Kg| mnR ejv hvq, wewqKi ga wZ gvU ivmvqwbK kw bZzb hM MVb
eq nIqvi ci AwZwi Ask Zvc wnme ei nq, A_vr wbMZ Zvckw = Drcv` hMmg~ni gvU kw (E2)
wewqK hMmg~ni gvU kw (E1)|
108
imvqb
wewqv Zvc: Kvbv ivmvqwbK wewqvq cwiewZZ ZvcK wewqv Zvc ej|
`nb Zvc: GK gvj cwigvY c`v_K `nb Kij h Zvci Drcb nq ZvK `nb Zvc ej|
Zvc
ivmvqwbK c`v_
ivmvqwbK c`v_
Zvc
wP-8.2:Zvcnvix wewqv|
Zvcnvix wewqv: h ivmvqwbK wewqv msNwUZ nIqvi Rb Zvci kvlY NU, ZvK Zvcnvix wewqv ej|
ZvcDrcv`x wewqvi Avgiv mPivPi Zvci De cZfve Abyfe Kwi, wK Zvcnvix wewqv Lye
KgB Zvc kvlYi NUbv eySZ cvwi| Gevi Pj, Zvc kvlY nqQ Ggb NUbv eySevi Pv Kwi| 60
mwUMW Zvcgvvq AaK M-vm Mig cvwb AvQ| Gi ga GKUyKiv eid hvM Ki| wbqB Avgiv eySZ cvwi
h, wKQyYi gaB eidUzKivwU Mje, Avi mv_ mv_ cvwbi ZvcgvvI Kg hve| Gfve mPivPi Avgiv
cvbxqK Vvv KiZ eidUzKiv eenvi Ki _vwK| Avgiv Dci RbwQ h, cvwb _K kw ei Kij cvwb
Zij _K KwVb (eid) cwiYZ nq| Zvnj GUv h, MnxZ kw (Zvc) eidK diZ w`j KwVb eid
Zij cvwbZ cwiYZ ne| cKZc, M-vm ivLv eidUyKivwU Mig cvwb _K Zvc (kw) MnY Ki cvwbZ
cwiYZ nq| Zvi dj Mig cvwbi Zvcgvv Kg hvq| Zvnj eidUzKiv Zvi Pvicvk (cwiek) _K Zvc kvlY
Ki cvwbZ cwiYZ nq| Abyicfve ivmvqwbK wewqv msNwUZ nIqvi Rb Zvci kvlY nZ cvi| G
KLbv KLbv ivmvqwbK wewqv msNwUZ Kivi Rb eeZ cvi Mvq nvZ w`j Vvv Abyf~Z nq| Avevi
KLbv evwni _K Zvc `Iqv Qvov wewqvB nq bv| hgb: Lvevi mvWv I jeyi im ev wfbMvii wewqvi
mgq Zvci kvlY NU| Lvevi mvWv njv mvwWqvg-evB-Kve bU (NaHCO3)| Aciw`K jeyi im
mvBwUK GwmW I wfbMvi GwmwUK GwmW _vK| mvwWqvg-evB-Kve bU GwmWi mv_ wewqvq Kveb-WvBAvBW, jeY I cvwb Drcb Ki| wewqvwU msNwUZ nIqvi mgq `eY _K Zvc kvlY Ki, dj Avgiv
`eYwU Vvv nZ `wL|
NaHCO3(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) + Zvc (`eY _K kvwlZ)
CH3COONa+ (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)
A_ev
NaHCO3(aq) + H+(aq) (mvBwUK GwmW) + Zvc (`eY _K kvwlZ)
imvqb
113
mvjdvi-I bvB UvRb gjhy hM _vK, Zvnj Rvjvwb cvovbvi mgq cwiek I ^vi Rb SuzwKc~Y
mvjdvi I bvBUvRbi wewfb AvBW Drcb nq| mvjdvi-WvB-A vBW evqyi Rjxqevi mv_ hy nq
mvjwdDwiK GwmW Zwi Ki, hv GwmWewi (acid rain) mw Ki| Avgiv wbqB eySZ cvwi h,
GwmWew cwieki MvQcvjv I RxeRi wUK _vKvi Rb Aivq| GQvovI hvbevnb _K wbMZ auvqvq
Kveb-g bv-A vBW, bvBUvm AvBW I AeeZ Mvmxq Rvjvwb (wg_b) evqyZ wgk m~hi Avjvi
DcwwZZ bvbv ivmvqwbK wewqvi gvag wewfb welv Mvmi auvqvi mw Ki| GK dUvKvwgKvj
auvqv (photochemical smog) ej| dUvKvwgKvj auvqvi Dcv`vb Mvmmg~n evqygji IRvb
(O3) ii gvivZK qmvab Ki| AZGe ^v I cwiek ivq we Rvjvwbi eenvi wbwZ
Kiv AZ Riwi|
114
imvqb
115
imvqb
Galvani) I fvjUv (Alessandro Volta) c_g ivmvqwbK kwK we`yr kwZ icvwiZ KiZ mg
nqwQjb| Mvjfvwb 1780 wLv I fvjUv 1800 wLv Avjv`vfve cixvi gvag eySZ cvib h,
^Zt~Zfve NUv RviY-weRviY wew qvi (redox reaction) gvag we`yr Drcb Kiv me| g~jZ Zv`i
Avwevii djB AvR Avgiv evUvwi cqwQ| Zvnj, MvjfvwbK Kvl (Galvanic Cell) (hv fvjUvwqK Kvl
(Voltaic Cell) ejI cwiwPZ) njv GK aibi Zwor ivmvqwbK Kvl (electrochemical cell) hvi gvag
ivmvqwbK kw _K we`yrkw Zwi Kiv hvq| Aciw`K we`yrkw eenvi Ki Zwor ivmvqwbK Kvli
gvag ivmvqwbK wewqv msNwUZ Kiv hvq| GK Zwor wek-lY (electrolysis) ejv nq| h Kvl Zwor
wek-lY Kiv nq ZvK Zwor wek-l Kvl (electrolytic cell) ej| Zwor ivmvqwbK Kvl wewfb z`vsk,
hgb Zworvi (electrode), jeY- mZz (salt brige) I Zwor wek-l `eY wbq MwVZ| wb Zwor ivmvqwbK
Kvli wewfb welqi AvjvPbv Kiv njv|
116
imvqb
`K H avZzi Zworwek-l `eYi ga vcb Ki Zworvi MVb Kiv nq| MvjfvwbK Kvli AvbvW I
Kv_vW wnme wfb avZe `K eenvi Kiv nq (GKB avZe `K wfb Nbgvvi Zwor wek-li ga
vcb Ki AvbvW I Kv_vW MVb Kiv hvq| GB mK cieZx kwYZ Rvbe)| MvjfvwbK Kvli
AvbvW I Kv_vW wbavwiZ nq avZzi mwqZv viv| Zworvi wnme eeZ avZe `qi ga AwaK mwq
avZz AvbvW Ges Kg mwq avZz Kv_vW wnme KvR Ki|
Zworvi wewqv
Dci Avgiv avZz/avZe Avqb Zworvi mK RbwQ| Ag|Ag+(aq) ZworviwUi wewqvK Avgiv
wbgvfve wjLZ cvwi|
Ag+(aq) + e
Ag(s)
avZz/avZe Avqb Zworvi wewqv DfgyLx cKwZi nq _vK| A_vr Zworvi wewqvq avZe Ag (s) BjKUb
ZvM Ki Ag+(aq) Avqb cwiYZ nq `eY `exf~Z nq| Ab_vq `eYi Ag+ (aq) AvqbK hw` GKwU
BjKUb c`vb Kiv hvq, Zvnj Ag+ (aq) Avqb avZe Ag(s) G cwiYZ ne|
Zvnj Zworvi wewqv RviY ev weRviY wewqv| A_vr Kvbv GKwU Zworvi wewqvq BjKUbi Av`vb A_ev
c`vb NU| wK Avgiv Rvwb, RviY-weRviY hyMcr N U| hw` GKwU Zworvi BjKUb c`vb Ki (RviY)
Zvnj D BjKUbwU MnY Kivi Rb AviKwU Zworvii cqvRb bq wK? Avmj wVK ZvB| Zwor ivmvqwbK
wewqvq Rb `yBwU Zworvi _vK- K v_vW I AvbvW| Zwor ivmvqwbK wewqvq h Zworvi Zwor wek-l
c`v_K BjKUb c`vb Ki, ZvK Kv_vW ej| Avevi h Zworvi Zwor wek-l c`v_ _K BjKUb MnY
Ki ZvK AvbvW ej| Zworvi wewqv ^ZtZ nZ cvi| Ab_vq Zworvi we`yr cevni gvag
Zworvi wewqv mv`b Kiv hvq|
AvbvW wewqv : M M+ + e
Kv_vW wewqv : X + e X
117
imvqb
Ab cv AvbvW wnme wRsK ` wRsK mvjdUi Rjxq `eY Wyevbv _vK| cvqi `eYi ga mshvM
vcbi Rb wbwq Zwor wek-l (KCl) `eYc~Y U-AvKwZi wUDe `eYqi ga Wyevbv nq| Gevi hw`
Zvii mvnvh Zworvi `ywUK mshy Kiv nq, Zvnj wbgv RviY-weRviY wew qv ^Zt~Zfve NUe|
AvbvW wewqv : Zn (s) Zn2+ (aq) + 2e
Kv_vW wewqv : Cu2+ (aq) + 2e Cu (s)
Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu (s)
A_vr Zn AvbvW wbR BjKUb Qo wehvwRZ (dissolution) nq `eY Zn2+(aq) Avqb wnme `exf~Z
ne| Aciw`K, `eY nZ Cu2+(aq) Avqb Kv_vW _K BjKUb MnY Ki avZe Cu wnme Kv_vW
Rgv ne| cKZc, AvbvW Drcb BjKUb Zvii gvag Kv_vW cuQ BjKUbi mgZv iv Ki|
Zvnj Zvi w`q Zworvi `ywUK mshy KijB AvbvW _K Kv_vW BjKUb cevni mw ne| BjKUb
cevn gvbB we`yrcevn| Zvnj Avgiv eySjvg, hw` Wvwbqvj Kvli evBii Zvii mv_ e`ywZK evj hy
Kiv nq, Zvnj evjwU Rj DVe| Gevi fe `L, Dj-wLZ we`yrcevn KZY Pje? ZvQvovI Kvl wewqv
kl fii w`K _K wRsK I Kcvi `i Aev Kx ne? wbRiv wPv Ki ei Ki I LvZvq jL|
e
wRsK (Zn)
AvbvW
K+
Cl
Kcvi (Cu)
Kv_vW
jeY mZz
(salt bridge)
ZnSO4 `eY
CuSO4 `eY
Pj Gevi jeY- mZzi Kvh I cqvRbxqZv weePbv Kwi| Avgiv `Ljvg h, AvbvW Zn2+(aq) Avqb Zwi
nq `eY hvq| Aciw`K, Kv_vW `eY _K Cu2+(aq) Avqb Cu wnme Rgv nq| Zvnj, AvbvW cv
Zn2+(aq) Avqbi AvwaK nq I Kv_vW cv Cu2+(aq) Avqbi NvUwZ nq| Avgiv Rvwb h, Kvbv GKwU
wekl Avqb (abvZK ev FYvZK) GKv _vKZ cvi bv| A_vr GKwU abvZK Avqb GKwU FYvZK Avqbi
DcwwZ Qvov Zwi nq bv| DvwUI wVK| myZivs AvbvW cv Drcb Zn2+(aq) Avqbi mgZyj cwigvY
FYvZK Avqbi (mvjdU Avqb) cqvRb ne| Abw`K, Kv_vW cvi `eY _K Cu2+(aq) Avqb Cu
145
imvqb
Kwl gvwU cwiPhvq: wewfb GjvKvi gvwU wewfb cKvi| Kvbv Kvbv GjvKvi gvwUi GwmwWwU AZwaK ev
pH gvb Kg nIqvq fvjv dmj Rbvq bv| GB gvwUZ Pzb hvM Kij gvwUi GwmwWwU nvm cvq| Pzb viRvZxq
c`v_, Gi ivmvqwbK bvg Kvjwmqvg AvBW| Pzb gvwUi AwZwi GwmW ckwgZ Ki dj gvwUi pH gvb ew
cvq| Avevi gvwU AwZwi vixq nj A_vr pH gvb Lye ewk nj GZ Avgvwbqvg mvjdU hvM Kiv nq|
GwmWagx Avgvwbqvg mvjdU AwZwi viK ckwgZ Ki gvwUi pH gvb nvm Ki|
jeY:
BZvgaB Zywg jeY mK RbQ| GwmW I vii wewqvq jeY I cvwb Drcb nq| jeYi GKwU Ask
GwmW _K Ges Aci Ask vi _K Avm| G Rb cwZwU jeY GKwU A-xq g~jK I GKwU vixq g~jK
_vK| mvaviYZ jeYmg~n ckg ev wbic| mgvb ZxeZvi GwmW I vii wewqvq Drcb jeY ckg Ze Zxe
GwmW I `yej vii jeY GwmwWK (FeCl3) Avevi `yej GwmW I Zxe vii jeY vixq (Na2CO3)|
jeYmg~n Rjxq `eY abvZK I FYvZK Avqb wewk- nq| Ze Kvbv Kvbv jeY cvwbZ `exf~Z nq bv|
GwmW I viagx jeY wewqv Ki ckg jeY Drcb Ki|
2F
Cl
e
3(aq)
+ 3N
a 2CO3(aq)
aCl(aq) + 3CO
N
6
2(g)
+F
e 2O3(s)
9.14 GwmWew
mvaviYZ ewi cvwb wKQzUv GwmwWK| Gi pH gvb 5.6, KviY ewi cvwbZ Kveb-WvB-A vBW Mvm I
bvBUvRb-WvB-A vBW Mvm `exf~Z _vK| RxeRMZi mKj m`m kvmwqvi mgq evqygj Kveb-WvBAvBW wbtmiY Ki| h Kvbv AwMKv, AvMqwMwii AMyrcvZi dj cKwZK fve evqygj Kveb-WvBAvBW Rgv nq| BUfvUv, KjKviLvbv I Mvwoi auvqv cwiek Kveb-WvB-A vBW Mvm wbtmiY Ki|
eRcvZi mgq evqygj bvBUvRb-WvB-A vBW Drcb nq| At`nb Bwb cUvwjqvg cvovbvi mgqI
bvBUvRb-WvB-A vBW Drcb nq Ges Zv evqygj gy nq|
Kveb-WvB-A
vBW I bvBUvRb-WvB-A
CO2(g) + H2O(l)
H2CO3(aq)
2N
O
HN
O
2(g)
+ H2O(l)
2(aq)
+ HN
O
3(aq)
bvBUvm GwmW AZ Yvqx | GwU evZvmi AwRbi viv RvwiZ nq bvBwUK GwmW cwiYZ nq|
AvMqwMwii AMyrcvZi mgq mvjdvi-WvB-A vBW, bvBwUK AvBW Drcb nq| we`yrK`, BUfvUv,
KjKviLvbvi Rvjvwb Kqjv I cUvwjqvg mvjdvi/bvBUU hy nj evqygj mvjdvi-WvB-A vBW/bvBwUK
AvBW wegy nq| mvjdvi-WvB-A vBW evqygji cvwbi mv_ wewqvq mvjwdDivm GwmW Drcb Ki|
mvjdvi-WvB-A vBW evqygji AwRb I IRvbi mv_ wewqv Ki mvjdvi-U vB-A vBW Drcb Ki|
mvjdvi-U vB-A vBW evqygji cvwbi mv_ wewqvq mvjwdDwiK GwmW Drcb Ki|
SO2(g) + H2O(l)
H2SO3(aq)
SO3(g) + H2O(l)
H2SO4(aq)
dgv-19, imvqb-9g-10g
146
imvqb
Dchy GwmW
jv ewi cvwbi mv_ f~ccwZZ nq| GwmW
ewi dj Rjvkq I gvwUi
pH gvb 4 ev 4 -Gi
Pq Kg hvq| A_vr gvwU I cvwb GwmwW
K nq hvq| GZ RxeewPi evcK wZ nq| eRxe wejy
nq|
1. wkv_xi KvR
K.c_Kfve ewi iZ I kl cvwb msMn Ki|
L. pH ccvi eenvi Ki GB cvwbi pH gvb wbYq Ki|
M.cici KqK w`b cwqvwUi cybivewKi|
.NZvgvi gZvgZmn GKwU wicvU Zwi Ki wkKi wbKU Rgv `vI|
2. wkv_xi KvR
GwmW
ewi Drm weePbvq wbq evsjv`k uS
zwKc~Y KqKwU GjvKvi bvg wjL|
3. wkv_xi KvR
Dchy cvVweePbvq wbq GwmW
ew cwZivai Dcvq mK GKwU cwZe`b Dcvcb Ki| (Dj-L
mvjdvigy cUvwjqvg I Kqjv cvIqv hvq)
9.15 cvwb
wkv_xi KvR:
Kv_vq Kv_vq cvwb cvIqv hvq?[mvMi, cvnvo, AvKvk, cvZvj, b`x-bvjv mKj RvqMv fvebvq wb e|]
GK vb _K Ab vb Kxfve cvwb vbvwiZ nq?
Zzwg cvwb cvb Ki, Dw` Kxfve cvwb cvq?
Zvgvi kixi Nvg nq, Dw` wK Aby icfve cvwb ZvM Ki?
Dchy welqjv weePbvq wbq cw_exi cvwbi AveZbi GKwU P AsKb Ki|
cw_exZ gvU cvwbi cwigvYi cwieZb mK Zvgvi gZvgZ `vI|
cvwbPi GKwU Dj-LhvM Ask cvwb cw_ex c
i Dci w`q cevwnZ nq| GB cevn PjvKvj cvwb gvwUZ
DcwZ wewfb LwbR jeYi msk Avm| cvwbZ jeY `exf~Z nq| ewi cvwbZ DcwZ KvewbK GwmW
Pzbvcv_i; CaCO3, W
jvgvBU (CaCO3.MgCO3) mg wkjvi Dci w`q Mwoq hvIqvi mgq axi axi
wewqv Ki I G`i `exf~Z Ki|
H2O(l) + CO2(g)
H2CO3(aq)
CaCO3(s) + H2CO3(aq)
Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
MgCO3(s) + H2CO3(aq)
Mg(HCO3)2(aq)
Kvbv Kvbv wkjvZ wRcmvg (CaSO4.2H2O) ev Abv` CaSO4 _vK| Gjv cvwbZ ^gvvq `eYxq|
G Dcv`vbjv cvwbZ DcwZ _vKj cvwb Li nq| Avqib AvqbI Li cvwbi GKwU Dcv`vb|
147
imvqb
mvevb
2R-COO- + Ca2+
w
qviU Avqb
R-COO- + Na+
R = CnH2n+1, hLvb
w
qviU Avqb
n = 12-18
(R-COO)2Ca
A`eYxq Kvjwmqvg w
qviU
mvevbi mvwW
qvg Avqb `eYxq mvwW
qvg KvebU Drcb Ki| mvwW
qvgi j mvevb cUvwmqvg _vKjI
mvevb GKB wewqv `q| Li cvwbi gvMbwmqvg ev Avqib mvevbi mv_ Abyic wewqv Ki| dj
Kvjwmqvg, gvMbwmqvg I Avqib avZzi evB-Kve bU, KvivBWI mvjdU jeY `exf~Z _vKj cvwbZ
mvevbi dbv Drcb nq bv|
cvwbZ avZzmg~ni evB-Kve bU jeY `exf~Z _vKj cvwbi LiZv Avqx aibi| cvwbK D
vc dzUvj cvwbi
Avqx LiZv `~i nq| Acic cvwbZ avZzmg~ni KvivBWev mvjdU jeY cvwbZ `exf~Z _vKj cvwbi
LiZv mnR `~ixf~Z Kiv hvq bv| cvwbi vqx LiZv `~i Kivi KqKwU cwZ njv:
1.mvW
v c wZ 2. cvigywUU c wZ 3.Avqb wewbgq iwRb c wZ BZvw`
g`y cvwbZ `exf~Z Kvjwmqvg, gvMbwmqvg, Avqib Avqb _vK bv| dj g`y cvwbZ mvevbi cPzi dbv nq|
mvaviYZ e Rjvkq hgb, cyKzi, W
vevi cvwb g`y nq| ewi cvwb Lye fvjv g`y cvwb| g`y cvwbZ Zvc w`j
Kvbv Zjvwb Rg bv|
wkv_xi KvR
Li cvwb eenvii myweav I Amyweavi Zzjbv Ki|
BwZ
Amyweav : KvcoKvPv - mvev bi dbv Drcb nq bv I Zjvwb co| eqjvi/Mig cvwbi cvBc 1.Zvc w`j
Zjvwb co; 2.cy iZ ew cvIqvq Zvc Kg/ewk cqvRb; 3.cy iZi cwieZbi KviY eqjvi ewW
i
mmviY|
myweav : `uvZ I nvo - Li cvwbi Dcv`vb|
wk Li cvwb eenvi S
uzwK I mve Avw_K wZ wek-lY Ki|
cyKzi, wUDeIqj Gic Abvb KqKwU Drm _K cvwb msMn Ki| AZtci GB cvwbZ mvevb
eenvi Ki nvZ ayq Drcb dbvi cwigvYi wfw
Z Li cvwb I g`y cvwb wPw Z Ki|
148
imvqb
evsjv`k b`x, Lvj-wej, cyKzi BZ vw` Rjvkqi cvwb bvbvfve `~wlZ nQ| Mnvwj eR I gjg~ ewi
cvwbZ ayq GB mKj Rjvkq coQ| nvmcvZvj-eR I ivwMi Kvco- Pvco avqvi gvag ev ewi cvwbZ
ayq cvwb `~wlZ nQ| wUc~Y bhvbi Zj PzBq cvwb `~wlZ nQ| Kwl eeZ mvi I KxUbvkK ewi
cvwbZ ayq gy Rjvkq coQ| Avgv`i `k wk-KviLvbv jv _K KvbviKg cwqvKiY QvovB wk
eR Rjvkq djv nQ| gv
vwbR, vwgqvg, KvW
wgqvg BZvw` `~lK c`v_i A
fy| fvwi avZzmg~n gvbe
`n Kv
vi mw Ki| eRi mvjwdDwiK GwmWcvwbi pH gvb nvm Ki| dj RjR Rxei eskwevi
KgZ _vK| cvwb gqjv nq I `yMQovq|
gvbyli KgKv
i dj wewfb cvKwZK `~lK c`v_ f~-Mf cvwb I f~-DcwiZ ji cvwb `~wlZ nQ| hgb,
AMfxi bjK~ci mvnvh AwZwi cvwb D
vjbi dj Ges AwZwi Lbbi dj f~-Mf cvwbZ AvmwbK
`~lY `Lv w`qQ| evsjv`ki AwaKvsk GjvKvi wUDeIqji cvwbZ MnYhvM gvvi ( 0.01 wg.Mv./wjUvi)
Pq AbK ewk cwigvY AvmwbK cvIqv hvQ| AvmwbK GKwU welv c`v_| `xNw`b AvmwbKhy cvwb cvb
Kij gZzI nZ cvi| nvZ-cv q Z mwi gvag GB msgYi cv_wgK jY cKvk cvq| eZgvb
Rb^v cKkj Awa`
i AvmwbK `~lYhy wUDeIqji gyL jvj is Ki w`qQ| AvmwbKhy cvwbZ
mP `qvi dj gy Rjvkqi cvwbI `~wlZ nQ| Lv`P AvmwbK hy nq hvQ|
wkv_xi KvR:
Zvgvi GjvKvi cvwb `~lYi KviY wbYq Ki GKwU cwZe`b Zwi Ki|
149
imvqb
Zvcgvv KqK wW
wM ewk nj Zvc`~lY nqQejv hvq| we`yrK`i h cvwZ VvvKivi cvwb ev eqjvii
Mig cvwb mivmwi Rjvkq gy Kiv nj cvwbi Zvc`~lY nq| _vgvwgUvi w`q cvwbi Zvcgvv wbYq Ki Zvc
`~lY kbv Kiv hvq|
cvwbi pH gvb: cvwbi pH gvb 4.5 _K Kg Ges 9.5 Acv ewk nj Zv Rxei Rb cvYbvkK| pH
ccvi ev pH wgUvi eenvi Ki pH gvb wbYq Kiv hvq|
weIwW (BOD; Biological Oxygen Demand): BOD gvb Re ivmvqwbK Aw
Rbi Pvwn`v| Kvbv
cvwbZ (BOD) gvb ewk nj Hcvwb `~wlZ| evqyi DcwwZZ cvwbZ DcwZ mKj Re eK fvOZ h
cwigvY Aw
Rb cqvRb Zv weIwW
| GKwU Rjvkqi cvwbZ Kx cwigvY Aw
Rb AvQZv gc wbZ ne|
AZci 100 wg.wj.AvqZbi GKwU evZj HRjvkqi cvwb w`q Ggbfve c~Y Ki evZji gyL eKiv nq
hvZ evZj Kvbv evqy bv _vK| evZjwUK 200m Zvcgvvq 24 N
v iL w`q Gi Aw
Rb cwigvc Kiv
nq| GB `yB gvbi cv_K _K (BOD) gvb Rvbv hvq|
wmIwW (COD; Chemical oxygen Demand): COD gvb ivmvqwbK Aw
Rb Pvwn`v| cvwbZ gvU
KZUzKz ivmvwbK `e AvQZvnv eyS
vbvi Rb (COD) gvb eenvi Kiv nq| weklfve b`x-bvjv-wS ji
cvwbZ Re `~lK (Organic Potutants) -Gi gvv gc cvwbi YvY wek-lY Kiv nq| cvwbi COD gvb
ewk nj cvwb`~lYi gvv ewk nq|
BOD I COD K wgwjMvg/wjUvi ev wcwcGg (ppm: Parts per million) GKK cKvk Kiv nq|
1 ppm =cwZ wjUvi `eY 1 wgwjMvg `e
Ca(OH)2 + 2[Cl]
RxevYy + 2[Cl]
RvwiZ RxevYy
150
imvqb
AvmvBbgU:
Zvgvi wbRi pH ccvi Zwi Ki|
iwOb kvK-mewR hgb, jvj kvK, jvj euvavKwc, weU BZvw` ev iwOb dzj hgb, iRev, jvj Mvjvc,
Wvwjqv Gi h Kvbv GKwU bvI| QvU QvU Ki KvUv| nvjKv AuvP fvc wm Ki| h iwOb wbhvm cvIqv
hve ZvZ GK UzKiv wdvi ccvi WzevI| evZvm iL wKq bvI| AZci wPKb wPKb Ki KU bvI|
Zwi njv Zvgvi wbRi pH ccvi| GB ccvi Rvbv pH gvb `eY Wzweq pH cwimii Kvjvi PvU Zwi
Ki| G fve Zvgvi c me meKqwU mewR ev dzj w`q pH ccvi Zwi Ki| mePq DrKwU
eenvii Rb wbevPb Ki|
Abykxjbx
ewbevPwb ck:
1. Pzbvcv_ii Dci jNy mvjwdDwiK GwmW hvM Kij wbPi Kvb hMwU Drcb ne?
K. CO2
L. H2
M. O2
2. wbPi KvbwU vi?
K. Kvgj cvbxq
M. wmiKv
N. SO2
L. jeyi im
N. KvcoKvPv mvWv
N. H2O
4. GKwU ARvbv avZzi mv_ bvBwUK GwmWi wewqvq eYnxb `eY Drcb nq| Drcb `eYwUZ mvwWqvg
nvBWvBW `eY hvM Kij mv`v eYi Aatc Drcb nq wK AwaK cwigvY mvwWqvg nvBWvBW `eY hvM
Kij Zv-I `exf~Z nq hvq| avZzwUK. Kcvi
L. Avqib
M. jW
N. wRsK
5. GKwU B_vbwqK GwmW `eYi pH -Gi gvb 4, pH -Gi gvb ew Kivi Rb GZ hvM KiZ ne
i. Avgvwbqv `eY
151
imvqb
L. i I iii
M. ii I iii
N. i, ii I iii
mRbkxj ck:
1.
X
NH4Cl
I
CaO
N.
2. U
UvBj wgj I W
vwqs wk, is I mvjwdDwiK GwmW
hy eR mivmwi wbKU Rjvkq djQ| dj H
mKj Rjvkq RjR cvYxi emevmi Abychy nq coQ|
K.
L. D
xcKi Rjvkqi pH gvb mK Zvgvi aviYv e Ki|
M. U
UvBj wgj I vWwqs wki `~lY wbq
Y c-vU GwmW`~lY wbq
Y hwK civgk `vI|
N.
U
UvBj wgj I vWwqs wki Avkcvk GwmW
ewi mvebv wewqvmn wek-lY Ki|
`kg Aavq
LwbR m` avZz-AavZz
evsjv`ki bKvbv Rjvi `yMvcyi DcRjvi weRqcyi, Mvcvjcyi AbZg chUb K`| GLvb bqbvwfivg
jKi cvk mv`v gvwUi cvnvo `Lv hvq| KIwjb ev Avjywgwbqvg mg GB gvwU wmivwgK KviLvbvq eenZ
nq| iZ Pxb `ki jvKiv GB iKg gvwU eenvi KiZv ej GB gvwUK Pxbv gvwU ev Pvqbv K ejv nq|
mPivPi Kvjv ev a~mi Ges jvj gvwU `Lv hvq| cwZ gvwUi ewk wfb wfb| GB wfbZvi KviY gvwUZ
wewfb LwbRi DcwwZ|
153
imvqb
10.1 LwbR m`
cw_exi DcwifvMi gvwUi AveiY njv f~ZK| f~ZK DcwZ iZc~Y gjmg~ni kZKiv nvi cvB PvU
Dcvcb Kiv njv| PvUwU chvjvPbv Ki wbPi ckjvi Di `Iqvi Pv Ki|
Kvb `yBwU gj f~ZKi cavb Dcv`vb?
f~ZKi cavb Dcv`vb `yBwU avZz bv AavZz?
Avjywgwbqvg, Avqib, Kvjwmqvg, cUvwmqvg, mvwWqvg I
gvMbwmqvg avZzK cKwZZ gy Aevq cvIqv me wK
bv? Dii mc hyw `vI? [avZzmg~ni ivmvqwbK
mwqZv weePbv Kie|]
mvwWqvg
3%
cUvwmqvg
3%
Kvjwmqvg
4%
Avqib
5%
Avjywgwbqvg
8%
wmwjKb
27%
gvMbwmqvg
2%
Abvb
2%
AwRb
46%
evwj (KvqvUR; wmwjKb WvB AvBW, SiO2), Lvevi jeY (mvwWqvg KvivBW ; NaCl) , Pzbvcv_i (Kvjwmqvg
KvebU; CaCO 3)| cKwZZ mwq avZzmg~ni hM cPzi cwigvY cvIqv hvq| Acic Kg mwq avZzi hM
Lye Kg cvIqv hvq| dj Kg mwq avZz hgb, wmjfvi (Ag), Kcvi (Cu) , wRsK (Z
n) , wUb (Sn) Ges jW
(P
) BZvw` g~jevb| wbwq avZz hgb ^YK (Au) cKwZZ gy Aevq cvIqv MjI Zv cvq weij| G
b
Rb ^Y AZ g~jevb| cKwZZ cvIqv hvq Ggb 98 wU gji Pvi fvMi wZb fvMB avZz| avZzi KZjv
PgrKvi ewk AvQ| h Rb avZzi eenvi GZ evcK| avZzi ewkmg~n njvK. NvZmnbxqZv (avZzK wcwUq h Kvb AvKvi `qv hvq)
L. bgbxqZv (avZzK wcwUq mi Zvi cwiYZ Kiv hvq)
M. DjZv (avZzi wekl `ywZ AvQ| Giv AvjvK weQziY Ki)
N. cwievwnZv (avZzmg~n Zvc I we`yr my-cwievnx)
O. avZe k (AvNvZ avZz Uzb Uzb k Ki)
P. MjbvsK I zUbvsK (avZz DP MjbvsK I zUbvsK wewk)
Q. NbZ (avZzmg~ni NbZ AvavZzi Zzjbvq ewk)|
cKwZZ avZzi gZ AavZzmg~nI hM wnme Aevb Ki| Ze Kvbv Kvbv AavZz hgb, mvjdvi gy gj
wnme cvIqv hvq|
154
imvqb
hvq| wUjv ev ceZ QovZI Zzwg wewfb i `LZ cve| wmgU RvZxq c`v_ Kvjwmqvg KvebU z`
KYvjvK k Ki ai iL cv_i ev wkjvq cwiYZ Ki| GB wkjv cvjwjK wkjv| gZ mvgyw`K cevj ev
wSbyK-kvgyKi Lvmv ZjvwbZ Rg Pzbvcv_i cwiYZ nq| Kvbv Kvbv wkjv f~Mfi AbK Mfxi _vK|
f~Mfi DP Zvc wkjv Mj hvq| GB MwjZ AevK gvMgv ej| gvMgv Vvv nj cybivq KwVb wkjvq cwiYZ
nq| GB wkjvK AvMq wkjv ej| GB wkjvjvZ AbK mgq g~jevb LwbR m` cvIqv hvq| Avevi KLbv
Zv KejB ej cv_i|
gwjK LwbR : ^Y, nxiv, MK, BZvw` c`v_K cKwZZ gwjK c`v_ i~c cvIqv hvq| G Rb Gjv
gwjK LwbR|
hwMK LwbR : gwjK LwbR ev` w`j evwK mKj LwbR hwMK LwbR| G`iK hM wnme cvIqv hvq|
fZ Aev weePbvq LwbR wZb cKvi| h_v, 1. KwVb LwbR, 2. Zij LwbR I 3. Mvmxq LwbR|
KwVb LwbR : KwVb Aevq cvIqv hvq| hgb, gvMbUvBU , evBU , mvjdvi ev MK BZvw`
Zij LwbR : gvKvwi ev cvi` , cUvwjqvg
Mvmxq LwbR : cvKwZK Mvm|
177
imvqb
ev KvidigK PZbvbvkK wnme Ges UUvKvivwg_bK (CCl4) WvBIqvk KiZ `veK wnme eenvi
Kiv nZv| Kvwibhy nvBWvKveb welv Ges welvZvi cwigvY wbfi Ki hM Kvwib msLvi Dci|
UUvKvivwg_b wMR I gqjvK mnR `exf~Z KiZ cvi|
fvOb ev wehvRb (Cracking):
eo nvBWvKveb AYyK fO AwaK eenvi DchvMx Zzjbvg~jK z` AYyZ cwiYZ KivK fvOb ej| fvOb
`yBfve mb Kiv nq| cfveKwenxb DP Zvc I Pvc, GK Zvcxq fvOb ej| cfveKmn wbg Zvc I Pvc
mb fvObK cfveKxq fvOb ej| fvOb cwqvq Kvbv GKK wewqv mb nq bv| wewqvq wKQz
w-e bhy nvBWvKvebmn, nvBWvKvebi wgkY Drcb nq| G cwqvi GKwU mve wewqv2C2H4 + C3H6 + C8H18
Bw_b
cvwcb
AKUb
C15H32
Zvcxq fvOb ev wehvRb: `xN wkKj wewk AvjKbK DP Pvc (70 evqyPvc) I Zvcgvvq (cvq 750 oC)
D Kij Kveb wkKji eb fO z` wkKj wewk AvjKb I AvjwKbi wgkY cvIqv hvq|
cfveKxq fvOb: fvOb wewqvi MwZ ew Kivi Rb cfveK eenvi Kiv nj GK cfveKxq wehvRb ej|
cfveK wnme mvaviYZ wRIjvBUm (Z
eolites)
, Avjywgwbqvg AvBW (Al2O3) ev wmwjKb WvB AvBW
(SiO2) eenvi Kiv nq| wRIjvBUm njv FYvZK Avavb wewk AvjywgbvwmwjKU (RwUj hM)| Bnv
Avjywgwbqvg, wmwjKb I AwRb cigvYy wewk enr jvwUm| cfveKi DcwwZZ AcvKZ Kg Zvcgvvq
(500oC) I Pvc DPZi AvjKbK fO z`Zi AvjKb (C5- C10) Zwi Kiv hvq| GB wewqvq kvLvhy
AvjKb Ges AvivgwUK nvBWvKveb (ebwRb) Drcb nq| cfveKi DcwwZZ GB wewqvq AvjwKb
wnme cavbZ Bw_b Mvm cvIqv hvq| enr wkKj hy AvjKbi Zzjbvq z` wkKj hy AvjKb Dg
Rvjvwb| ZvB fvOb ev wehvRb, cUvwjqvg wk GKwU Zvrchc~Y wewqv| GB wewqvi gvag wWRj
RvjvwbK cUvj RvjvwbZ cwiYZ Kiv QvovI AvjwKb I nvBWvRb Mvm cZ Kiv nq| cUvKwgKvj
wk AvjwKb _K AvjKvnjmn wewfb Re hM I c-vwK Zwi Kiv nq|
C18H38 C 6H14 + 6C2H4
C18H38 C 8H16 + C10H20 + H2
AvjKbi Abvb eenvi: AvjKbK wewfb Bwbi Rvjvwb, we`yr Drcv`b, wcwQjKviK Zj wnme
Ges ivmvqwbK wk Abvb ivmvqwbK `e cwZZ eenvi Kiv nq| GQvovI enr wkKj wewk AvjKbK
gvg (W
ax)
Zwii Rb I ivv cvKv Kivi Rb eenvi Kiv nq| AvjKb _K cZ Zij gvg Ges
KwVb gvg wbw` AbycvZ wgwkZ Kij c Gi bvq c`v_ cvIqv hvq, hv wewfb iKg gvwjk hgb: wfKm&
(vicks)
ZwiZ eeZ nq|
dgv-23, imvqb-9g-10g
178
imvqb
500 oC
500 oC
C10H22
+ H 2C
C8H16
CH2
C4H8 + H2
B_vbjK Avjywgwbqvg AvBWi DcwwZZ D Kij ev mvjwdDwiK GwmW viv wbiw`Z Kij cvwb
AcmvwiZ nq Bw_wjb ev Bw_b Drcb Ki|
CH3CH2OH
H2SO4
-H2O
H2C
CH2
CH3CH2OH
Al2O3,
-H2O
H 2C
CH2
AvjwKbi fZ I ivmvqwbK ag: AvjKbi bvq AvjwKbmg~n `vn Ges Mvmxq, Zij I KwVb Aevq
_vK| AvjwKbi Zvrchc~Y ivmvqwbK ewki KviY G`iK cUvKwgKvj wk eenvi Kiv nq|
AvjwKb AYyZ Kveb-Kveb w-eb _vKvq Giv ivmvqwbKfve AZ mwq| KviY w-ebi c_g ebwU
kwkvjx njI wZxq ebwU Zzjbvg~jK `yej| `nb, mshvRb Ges cwjgviKiY AvjwKbi ewkc~Y
wewqv|
`nb: AvjwKb AwZwi AwRb ev evqyi mv_ wewqv Ki CO2(g) I H2O(g) Drcb Ki| GB wewqvq
chv cwigvY Zvckw Drcb nq| AvjwKb Kg `vn, KviY AvjwKb Kvebi kZKiv cwigvY AvjKbi
Zzjbvq Kg|
179
imvqb
mv_ wewqv Ki AvjKb Drcb Ki| GK cfveKxq nvBWvRbkb (Catalytic hydrogenetion) ej|
H2C
CH2(g) + H2(g)
180-200 oC
H3C
Ni
CH3(g)
Br2(g)
CH2Br-CH2Br(l)
3. AvjwKbi RviY: AvjwKb hgb, Bw_bK jNy Rjxq cUvwmqvg cvigvvbU viv RvwiZ Kij
Bw_wjb M-vBKj Drcb nq| GB wewqvq jNy Rjxq cUvwmqvg cvi gvvbUi Mvjvcx ev ewb eY web nq|
GB wewqvi gvag Am nvBWvKvebK kbv Kiv hvq|
H2C
CH2(g)
KMnO4 (aq)
H2O
CH2(OH)-CH2(OH)(l)
4. cvwb mshvRb: DP Zvc (300 oC), DP Pvc (60 evqyPvc) I dmdwiK GwmW cfveKi DcwwZZ
AvjwKb cvwb evi mv_ wewqv Ki AvjKvnj Drcb Ki|
300 oC, 60 atm
H2C
CH2(g) + H2O(g)
H3PO4
H3C
CH2OH(l)
Kvbv Kvbv `k hgb, evwRj AvjKvnjK cwiekeve Rvjvwb wnme Ges mKj `k cUvwjqvg
wk `veK wnme eenvi Kiv nq, ZvB GB wewqv AZ Zvrchc~Y| wk G wewqv jvfRbK bq ej
wk GB wewqvi gvag AvjKvnj cZ Kiv nq bv|
cwjgviKiY:
DP Zvc (200 oC) I DP Pvc (1000 evqyPvc) AmsL AvjwKb AYy ciii mv_ hy nq enr AvKwZi
AYy MVb Ki| GB wewqvq Drcb enr AYyK cwjgvi Ges wewqvK cwjgviKiY wewqv ej| h AmsL
wewqK AYy hy nq Zv`i cZKwU AYyK gbvgvi ej| mKj c-vwK `e I Kwg Z GB wewqvi gvag
Zwi Kiv nq| Bw_wjb AYy _K cv cwjgviK cwjw_b ej|
200 oC, 1000 atm
n H2C
CH2(g)
-CH2-CH2-
n(s)
L. AvjKvBb (Alkyne): AvjKvBbi Kveb wkKj AZ `ywU Kveb cigvYyi ga w-e b _vK Ges Kvebi
Aewk hvRZv nvBWvRb viv c~Y nq| AvjKvBb kwYi z`Zg I mij m`m B_vBb ev AvwmwUwjb (CH CH)|
AvjKvBb cwZ: cvKwZK Mvm ev wg_bK 1500 oC Zvcgvvq evqyi DcwwZZ `nb Kij B_vBb Drcb
nq| wg_bi AvswkK `nb _K GB wewqvi cqvRbxq Zvc cvIqv hvq| wewqvi mgq wg_b AYyZ eb
180
imvqb
CH(g) + 3H2(g)
wk Kvjwmqvg KvevBW _K B_vBb Mvm cZ Kiv nq| Kvjwmqvg KvevBW duvUvq duvUvq cvwb hvM
Kij B_vBb ev AvwmwUwjb Mvm Drcb nq|
CaC2(s)
HC
H2O(l)
CH(g)
CH
HC
CH
H2
Br2
H2
Br2
181
imvqb
GKB wewqKi AmsL AYy hy nq cwjgvi MVb Kivi cwqvK hyZ cwjgviKiY (A
dition
Poly
merisation ) ej| hyZ cwjgviKiY mvaviYZ w-e b wewk AvjwKb AYy gbvgvi wnme wewqv
Ki| hyZ cwjgviKiY AmsL gbvgvi AYy hy nIqvi mgq Kvbv cKvi z` AYy AcmvwiZ nq bv|
n H2C
cwjgviKiY
CH
X
[ CH2 - CH ]
182
imvqb
mKj c-vwK `e cwjgvi| imvqbwe`Mb cwjgvi hMi wKQz wekl ewk eYbv Kivi Rb c-vwK kwU
eenvi Kib| AmsL QvU QvU AYy GK hy nq cwjgvi MwVZ nq| GB QvU AYyK gbvgvi ejv nq|
ivmvqwbK c`v_ weklZ w-e b wewk AvjwKb, AvjwWnvBW, AvjKvnj, Avwgb, Re GwmWi
cwjgviKiY wewqvi gvag c-vwK cZ Kiv nq| c-vwK I Z Zwii Rb G mKj Dcv`vb cUvwjqvg
_K c_K Kiv nq A_ev cUvwjqvg Dcv`vb _K cZ Kiv nq|
wkv_xi KvR: gbvgvii msKZ _K hyZ cwjgvii msKZ wjL|
CH2=
CH-CH 3,
cvwcb
CH2=
CHCl,
wfbvBjKvivBW
CF 2=
CF
UUvdvivBw_b
cwjgvi cwZi c_g w`K 200 oC Zvcgvvq, 1200 evqyPvc mvgvb AwRbi DcwwZZ Bw_wjbi
cwjgvi cwjw_b cZ Kiv nq| GB cwjw_b AwaK cwigvY kvLvhy `xN Kveb wkKj _vK, GZ cwjgvii
NbZ I MjbvsK Kg Ges Kvgj cKwZi nq| GB cwjw_bK wbg NbZi cwjw_b (L
PE
D
;oLweDnsity
PolyE
thene ) ej| Rvgvb imvqbwe` Kvj wRMjvi (K
arl Z
iegler ) cfveKi DcwwZZ AbK Kg Zvc
I Pvc (60 oC, GK evqyPvc) Bw_wjbi cwjgvi cwjw_b cZ Kib| GB cwjw_b kvLvi msLv Kg _vK,
GZ cwjgvii NbZ, MjbvsK Zzjbvg~jKfve ewk nq| mvgvb kvLv hy _vKvq cwjw_bi `pZv ew cvq|
GK DP NbZi cwjw_b (HD
PE
;High D
ensityPolyE
thene
) ej|
GKvwaK wewqKi AmsL AYy hy nq cwjgvi MVb Kivi cwqvK Nbxfeb cwjgviKiY (Condensation
Poly
merisation ) ej| Nbxfeb cwjgviKiY mvaviYZ AvjwWnvBW, AvjKvnj, Avwgb I Re GwmWi
AYy gbvgvi wnme wewqv Ki| Nbxfeb cwjgviKiY AmsL gbvgvi AYy hy nIqvi mgq cvwb (H2O)
Kveb WvBAvBWi (CO2) bvq z` AYy AcmvwiZ nq| Kvbv wewqK `yB cv `yB aibi KvhKixg~jK
_vKj H wewqKi GKvwaK AYy hy nq G cwjgviKiY NU| ej eeZ Nbxfeb cwjgvii bvg bvBjb|
DP Zvc, DP Pvc cfveKi DcwwZZ AmsL WvBKvewwjK GwmW Ges WvBAvwgb AYy ciii mv_ hy
nq bvBjb Drcb Ki|
nHOOC-(CH2)4-COOH + nH2N
-(CH
H 2
2)6-N
{-OC-(CH 2)4-COHN
-(CH
H-} n
2)6-N
+ 2nH2O
cvKwZK cwjgvimg~n (vP, mjyjvR I cvwUb) Nbxfeb cwjgvii D`vniY| cvKwZK cwjgvi hgb,
mjyjvR, Dj, wm w`q myZv Zwi Kiv hvq wK vP I ivevi w`q myZv Zwi Kiv hvq bv| A_vr cvKwZK
cwjgvi `yB aibi| Kwg cwjgvi (bvBjb, cwjvi) w`q Kvco Zwi, iwk Ges `uvZi evk Zwi Kiv nq|
183
imvqb
cwjgvii bvg
gbvgvii msKZ
cwjgvii ag
eenvi
cwjw_b
CH2C
=H
UKmB
cwjcvwcb
= H-CH
CH2C
UKmB
cwjwfbvBjKvivBW (PV
C )
= HCl
CH2C
cwjUUvdvivBw_b
(PT
FE ) ev Udjb
CF2C
=F
bbwK I Zvcmn
bvBjb
bb wK cv,
184
imvqb
wbqQ| c-vwKi wewfb ewki KviY KvV I avZzi Zwi `ei cwieZ c-vwK`e eenvi ew
cqQ| c-vwK Kg g~j cvIqv hvq, q nq bv, ivmvqwbK c`v_i mv_ wewqv Ki bv, mnR is Kiv hvq,
we`yr Acwievnx, IRb nvv, mnR cwienbhvM, `xNvqx Ges AvenvIqv viv wZM nq bv|
c-vwK `ei AbK myweav _vKjI Gi wKQz AmyweavI iqQ| Kwg cwjgvi ev c-vwK eenvii cavb
mgmv Bnv wehvwRZ nq bv Ges cwiekK `~wlZ Ki| AwaKvsk cvKwZK Dcv`vb gvwUi evKUwiqv viv
wehvwRZ nq wK c-vwK `e evKUwiqv viv wehvwRZ nq bv| G Rb c-vwKK bb evqvwWMWej
(N
on-b
iod
egrad
ab
le
) c`v_ ej| AbK c-vwKK cywoq kl Kiv nq hvZ welv auvqv
(nvBWvRb KvivBW, AvjwWnvBW, nvBWvRb mvqvbvBW) Drcb nq| G mKj Mvm gvbyli kixi Kvvimn
wewfb ivMi mw Ki| eZgvb wevbxMY Kwg cwjgvi Zwi KiQb hv c_g m~hi AvjvZ wehvwRZ
(Photod
egrad
ab
le ) nq Ges cieZxZ cvKwZKfve evKUwiqv RxevYy viv wehvwRZ (B
iodegradable
)
nq| G`iK evqvcwjgvi ej| ewkifvM evqvcwjgvi fzv I Bz _K cZ Ki| GB cwjgvi RxevYy viv
wehvwRZ nZ 20 _K 30 eQi cqvRb| cwjB_vbj {-CH 2-CH(OH)-}n GK cKvi cwjgvi hvnv
nvmcvZvj eeZ nq Ges cvwbZ `exf~Z nq| cwjB_vbji cvwbZ `ebxqZv n Gi gvbi Dci wbfi Ki|
c-vwK cwjgvimg~nK h gbvgvi viv cZ Kiv nq Zvnv Rxevk Rvjvwb _K msMn Ki| GZ mxwgZ Rxevk
Rvjvwbi gRy` nvm cvq, Aciw`K eZgvb weki 4% Rxevk Rvjvwb w`q Drcvw`Z we`yr, c-vwK cwjgvi cZ
KiZ eenvi Kiv nq| AcqvRbxq c-vwK eenvi bv Ki Ges eeZ c-vwK cybeenvi (R
ecyling
) Ki
Rxevk Rvjvwbi Dci Pvc Kgvbv hvq| cwieki fvimvg iv_ Kwg Auvki Dci wbfikxjZv Kgvbv cqvRb|
Zzjv, Dj I cvUi Avuk QvovI cvKwZK Auvki eenvi evovbv hZ cvi| evsjv`ki gvwU Dei, GLvb Zzjv I
cvU Pvli cvkvcvwk gmZv Pvl Ki Kwg Auvki eenvi Kgvbv hvq| wdwjcvBb I B`vbwkqvq Avbvimi cvZv
Ges KjvMvQi Auvk _K DbZgvbi myZv Zwi Ki Kvco eybvbv nq|
185
imvqb
?
?
?
?
KvR : AvjwKb
AvjKvBjnvjvBW
AvjKvnj
AvjwWnvBW / wKUvb
Re GwmW
CH2(g) + H2O(g)
H2C
H3PO4
H3C
CH2OH(l)
2% gviwKDwiK mvjdU (HgSO4) Ges 20% mvjwdDwiK GwmWi (H2SO4) DcwwZZ AvjKvBb
(B_vBb) cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki AvjwWnvBW Drcb Ki| HgSO4 welv nIqvq wk Gi eenvi
wbirmvwnZ Kiv nq|
HgSO4, H2SO4
CH2(g) + H2O(g)
H2C
H3C
CHO(l)
cUvwjqvg _K cv AvjKbK DP Zvc I Pvc evqyi AwRb viv RvwiZ Kij B_vbwqK GwmW Drcb
nq|
CH3-CH3(g) + [O] CH3-COOH(l)
CH3-CH2-CH3(g) + [O] CH3-COOH(l)
186
imvqb
Kij GKw`K Rxevk Rvjvwbi Dci Pvc Kg Aciw`K cwiekK `~lYgy ivLv hvq|
AvjwWnvBW: wkKviLvbvq AvjwWnvBWi eenvi Zzjbvg~jKfve Kg| Ze Ab ivmvqwbK c`v_ cZ Kivi
Rb AvjwWnvBWi cPzi eenvi iqQ| wg_vbvj ev digvjwWnvBWi m (40%;AvqZb wnme, 37%;
fi wnme) Rjxq `eYK 100% digvwjb ej hvnv gZ cvYx msiY Kivi Rb eeZ nq|
AvjwWnvBW _K cwjgviKiY wewqvq c-vw
K `e Zwi niv nq| wb AvYweK fi wewkAvjwWnvBWi
(wg_vbvj; HCHO) Rjxq `eYK AwZ wbg Pvc D
Kij Wiwjb ( Derlin) bvgK k cwjgvi Drcb
nq| Wiwjb cwjgvi w`q Pqvi, WvBwbs Uwej, evjwZ BZvw` RvZxq `e Zwi Kiv nq hv c~e KvVI avZz
w`q Zwi Kiv nZ|
O
H
O C
H
n H-C-H(l)
n(s)
COOH
C O CH2-CH2
+ (2n-1) H2O
n
myMw(G
vi) RvZxq ivmvqwbK `e Zwi KiZ Re GwmW eeZ nq|
wkv_xi KvR :
cvKwZK Mvm, cUvwjqvg I Kqjv eenvii Kkj:
cvKwZK Mvm cUvwjqvg I Kqjvq AbK mvjdvi, bvBUvRb DcwZ _vK| evZvmi
Aw
Rbi mv_ Gjvi wewqvq Drcv` weePbvq wbe|
187
imvqb
Abykxjbx
ewbevPwb ck:
1. cvKwZK Mvm kZKiv KZ fvM B_b _vK?
K. 3 fvM
M. 6 fvM
L. 4 fvM
N. 7 fvM
2. wbPi Kvb hMwU evwgb `eYi jvj eYK eYnxb KiZ cvi?
K. C3H8
L. C3H8O
M. C3H6O
N. C3H4
L. 2, 2-WvBevgv cvcb
N. 1, 2-WvBevgvcvwcb
188
imvqb
L. ii I iii
M. i I iii
N. i, ii I iii
mRbkxj ck:
1. gvP-Ryb gv m evsjv`k msiYi Afve cPzi cwigvY Avjy bnq| Avjy _K wbPi wewqvq B_vbj
Drcb Kiv hvq|
GbRvBg (WvqvmUR I gvjUR)
v
P
GbRvBg (RvBgR)
M-yKvR
B_vbj
H2O
K. cUvwjqvgi cavb Dcv`vb Kx?
L. AvjKb Ac-v AvjwKb mwq Kb?evLv Ki|
M. Avjy _K wg_b cwZi eYbv `vI|
N. AwZwi AvjyK Rxevk Rvjvwbi weKwnme eenvii mvebv wek-lY Ki|
2. chvqg GKwU MvmK i _K iii wewqvi gvag wewfb c`v_ cwiYZ Kiv nq|
i. 2CH4
ii. HC
iii. nCH2
1500 C
HC
CH + H2
CH + HCl
CHCl
polymerization
CH2
CHCl
CH2- CH
Cl
v`k Aavq
M-vm cwiviK
ewKs cvDWvi
jeb
UqjU cwiviK
Avg evsjv`k AZ Rbwcq dj| Kvjwmqvg KvevBW w`q cvKvbv nqQ ej A_ev wcRvfwUf `Iqv AvQ
ej gvbyl dj LZ fq cvQ| gvbyli aviYv gvQI dgvwjb, gvbyl hve Kv_vq! msiY ev cvKvbvi
Dcv`vbjv ivmvqwbK c`v_| Avgv`i `bw`b cqvRb eeZ mKj ivmvqwbK c`v_ wZKi bq| cwZw`b
imvqbi mv_ Nyg fv Avevi imvqb kl Ki NygvZ hvB| Avgv`i Lvevi, cmvab mvgMx, Lv` Drcv`b
eeZ mvi-KxUbvkK, cwi viK c`v_ BZvw` mKjB ivmvqwbK Dcv`vb| Avgv`i Rxeb imvqbi cfve
Dcjw Ki gvWvg gwi Kzwi (Madam Marei Curei) Gi imvqb bvej cyivi (Novel Prize)
ARbi 100 Zg eQi Dcj imvqb Ges dwjZ imvqbi AvRvwZK msv (IUPAC) 2011 mvjK imvqb
eQi wnme cvjb Ki| Gi cwZcv` welq wQj: imvqbB Avgv`i Rxeb Ges imvqbB Avgv`i fwelr|
ivmvqwbK mvi
KxUbvkK
dj
kvK mewR
wWUviRU cvKU
Kvgj cvwbq
wfbMvi
mvevb
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
190
imvqb
wkv_xi KvR:
GKwU cv Mvp Ki Lvevi jeYi `eY Zwi Ki| GKwU UZ Kvjv cwjw_b wewQq Gi Ici wKQzUv `eY
Xj `vI| UwUK mvivw`b iv` `vI| cwZw`b mKvj UZ wKQzUv `eY hvM Ki mviv w`b iv` `vI|
j ivLe hb GZ Kvb fve cvwb bv co| Gfve GK mvn cheY Ki|
cheYi wfwZ DcK~ji Pvwl`i jeY AvniYi Kkj mK Zvgvi aviYv evLv Ki|
GKwU AvZkx KuvP w`q jeYi GKwU `vbv cheY Ki| Gi eY I AvKvii weeiY `vI|
aCl )
GKwU cv fvKzqvg Bfvcvikb cwZZ (wk KviLvbvq cZ) cwikvwaZ jeY (we N
aCl)
elvKvj evZvm 2/3w`b iL
I Aci GKwU cv mvaviY jeY (CaCl 2, MgCl2 wgwkZ N
`vI| cheYi wfwZ jeYi cvwbMvmx ag evLv Ki|
mvwWqvg jeY Avgv`i kixii BjvjvBUi Pvwn`v c~iY Ki| Lvevi jeY QvovI mvwWqvg KvivBW wewfb
hM cwZZ, Jla wk, mvevb wk Ges e ib wk is cvKv Kivi Rb eeZ nq|
CaO + CO 2(g)
Pzbv cv_i
Pzb Kveb WvB AvBW
Kveb WvB AvBW, Avgvwbqv I cvwbi wewqvq Drcb nq Avgvwbqvg nvBWvRb KvebU|
imvqb
191
CO2 + N
H
+ H2O
H
N
4HCO3
4HCO3
+ N
aCl
aHCO
N
H
N
4Cl
a 2CO3
N
CO2(g) + H
2O
mvwWqvg KvebU
aHCO 3 e`nRg mgmvi mgvavb `q| e` nRg mgmvq cvKwjZ AwZwi
mvwWqvg nvBWvRb KvebU N
aHCO 3 GB GwmWK ckwgZ Ki|
nvBWvKvwiK GwmW HCl Drcb nq| N
aHCO
wkv_xi KvR : cZxK I msKZi mvnvh Dchy ckgb wewqvwU wjL| Dj-L N
AavZz GB `ywU Avqb weqvwRZ nq|
3 avZz
Ges
evwoZ ev eKvwiZ cvDiwU dvjvbvi Rb B bvgK QvK eenvi Kiv nq| G Rb c_g wPwbi Mig `eY
B gkvbv nq| GB wgkY w`q gq`v gL `jv Ki D vb ivLj gq`vi `jv dvjZ _vK| gq`vi GB
dvjvi KviY Bi ^evZ kmb| B evZvmi AwRbmn kmb wqv Kivi mgq Kveb WvB AvBW Mvm
Drcb Ki| hv cvDiwUK dvjvZ mvnvh Ki| cvDiwU cwiwgZ cwigvY dvjvi co Ifb ewKs Kiv nq|
Dvc B gi hvq dj iwUi dvjv e nq|
C6H12 O6 + 6O2
6CO2(g) + 6H
2O(l) +
Zvckw
M-yKvR
wkv_xi KvR: c_Kfve ewKs cvDWvi Ges Bi mv_ gq`v gL iL `vI| wKQz mgq co GB gq`v
w`q KK evbvI| Dfq KKi ga Zzjbv Ki| KK `yBwUZ cv_K `Lv Mj Gi KviY evLv Ki|
3. wmiKv ev wfbMvi
wmiKv ev wfbMvi njv B_vbwqK GwmWi 5-5.0% Rjxq `eY| B_vbwqK GwmW Rjxq `eY AvswkK
weqvwRZ nq| dj Rjxq `eY Lye Kg msLK nvBWvRb Avqb Drcb nq| Gi coI B_vbwqK GwmWi
192
imvqb
CH3 COO- + H+
Lv` `e hgb AvPvi msiYi Rb wfbMvi ev wmiKv eenvi Kiv nq| AvPvi cP hvIqvi Rb `vqx
evKUwiqv| wfbMvii B_vbwqK GwmWi H+ Avqb evKUwiqvi cvwUb I dvUK Av`wek-wlZ Ki| dj
evKUwiqv gi hvq| GZ Ki AvPvi cPbi nvZ _K iv cvq| gvQ, gvsm gwibU (gvQ, gvsmK njy`,
gwiP w`q iL `qv) Kivi RbI wmiKv ev wfbMvi eenvi Kiv nq| GwU cvwUbK fO dj ej ivbv
big I my^v`y nq|
B_vbwqK GwmWi cwZ: cixvMvi B_vbjK mvjwdDwiK GwmWi DcwwZZ cUvwmqvg WvB vgU viv
RvwiZ Ki B_vbwqK GwmW Drcb Kiv nq|
CH3-CH2OH
[O]
CH3CHO + H2O
[O]
CH3-CHO
CH3COOH + H2O
wk B_vBb ev AvwmwUwjb _K we B_vbwqK GwmW msk-lY Kiv nq| cUvwjqvgi Zvc weqvRb
Drcb B_vBb MvmK 60 oC Zvcgvvq D Ki 2% gviwKDwiK mvjdU I 20% jNy mvjwdDwiK
GwmWi Rjxq `eY Pvjbv Kiv nq| dj B_vbvj Drcb nq| G HgSO4 I jNy H2SO4 cfveK i~c
KvR Ki|
20% H2SO4
HC
CH
2% HgSO4, 60
CH3CHO + H2O
B_vbvjK gvvbvm GwmUU cfveKi DcwwZZ 60 oC Zvcgvvq evZvmi AwRb viv RvwiZ Ki
B_vbwqK GwmW Drcv`b Kiv nq|
CH3
CHO
Mn2+,60
CH3COOH
Avgv`i `k 30/35 eQi AvMI Mvgi jvKiv LRyii im iv` w`q g wfbMvi Zwi Ki AvPvi
msiY KiZv|
wkv_xi KvR :
Zvgv`i evwoZ ev cwZekxMY Avi Kvb Kvb Dcv`vb eenvi Ki Lv` msiY Kib Zvi GKwU
ZvwjKv Zwi Ki| ZvwjKvi Dcv`vbMyjvi pH gvb wbYq Ki| GB Dcv`vbmg~ni msiY Kkj mK
Zvgvi aviYv evLv Ki|
4. Kvgj cvbxq
cvjvI, wewiqvbx LvIqvi ci Kvi bv Vvv Kvgj cvbxq cvb Kivi BQv nq! Kvgj cvbxq njv cvwbZ Kveb
WvB cvjvI, wewiqvbx LvIqvi ci Kvi bv Vvv Kvgj cvbxq cvb Kivi BQv nq| Kvgj cvbxq njv cvwbZ
Kveb-WvB-A vBWi `eY| GZ AwZwi cwigvY wPwb `exf~Z _vK| Abvb DcKiY wgwkq wWsKmi eY I
^v` cwieZb Kiv nq| Vvv Aevq I DP Pvc cvwbZ Kveb WvB AvBW Mvm `exf~Z Kiv nq| Zvc ew