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L THUYT
CHNG I CU TRC TINH TH CA VT LIU
Ph thuc vo iu kin to thnh (nhit , p sut,) v tng tc gia cc
phn t cu thnh (lc lin kt gia cc phn t, nguyn t), vt cht c th tn ti
trng thi rn, lng, hoc kh (hi). Tnh cht ca vt rn (vt liu) ph thuc ch yu
vo cc cch sp xp ca cc phn t cu thnh v lc lin kt gia chng. Trong
chng ny cc khi nim c bn s c cp li: cu to nguyn t, cc dng lin
kt v cu trc tinh th, khng tinh th (v nh hnh) ca vt rn.
[1]
1,
2,
S lng t spin
, c phn phi in
t nh sau:
1
K
3
L
h- hng s planck (h
6.627.
ec.s)
[2]
(1.1)
[3]
[4]
O)
[5]
[6]
[7]
P(d)
a 2 a 3
[9]
a)
P(d)
b)
[10]
Ceramic
As
Sn
Graphit
Polyme
SiO2
Mica
Fe, Ni, Co
Cr
Kim loi
(Cu, Na, Ag
CsCl
Ion
[11]
Cht v nng
lng lin kt M hnh lin kt
(eV/nguyn t)
Tnh cht
Tc
Tnh
do
ng
ho tr
Cao
Cao
Thp
Cao
Thp
Cao
Thp
Cao
Thp
Lc ht, y tnh
in
Mng ca cc trung
ion trong khng bnhgian in t t
cao
do chung
trung
bnh-
trung
bnh-
trung
bnh-
Cao
cao
thp
thp
Lc ht ngu cc Thp
Thp
Cao
Cao
ion
Kim
loi
NaCl (3,3)
Na (1,1)
cu (3,5)
Ti (4,8)
H2 (0,01)
Van der
CH4
waals
Cl2
trung
bnh
kt thc phn ny, xin lu rng tnh cht ca vt liu cn ph thuc rt nhiu
vo cu trc ca chng. Nhng nghin cu mi nht trong tinh th hc cho thy, bng
cch to ra hp kim v nh hnh v vi tinh th c th nhn c nhng vt liu c c, l,
ha tnh rt c bit, khc hn nhng tnh cht thng thng m cc vt liu ny c, vi
cu trc tinh th quen thuc.
2
gi l bc ca trc i xng. chng minh c rng ch tn ti trc
Hnh 1.11.
[13]
1.3.2. c s, h tinh th
c nhng khi nim u tin v mng tinh th,hy xut pht t khi nim n
gin v c s nh nu mc 1.2.2 v hnh 1.6. Thy rng, do tnh i xng ca tinh
th, t mt c s,bng thao tc i xng, tnh tin theo 3 chiu trong khng gian s
nhn c ton b mng tinh th.
H
th
Ba
nghing
a # b #c
# #
# 90
Mt
Nghing
a # b #c
= =
90 #
Trc
thoi
a # b #c
==
= 90
Ba
Phng
(thoi)
a=b=c
==
# 90
Su
Phng
a=b#c
= =
90 = =
120
Bn
Phng
a=b#c
==
= 90
a = b =c
==
= 90
Lp
Phng
Tm Khi
[14]
Tm mt
,b=
,c=
chu k tun hon (chu k tnh tin) ca mng tinh th theo ba chiu tng ng.Cc gc
to bi 3 vect ,
gia
, gia
( l gc gia
Thy rng trong cng mng tinh th c th chn c nhiu kiu c s khc
nhau (hnh 1.12a).Tuy nhin, v c s l n v tun hon nh nht ca mng tinh th
cho nn vic la chn phi tha mn nguyn tc sao cho n i din y cho tnh cht
v cu trc ca ton b tinh th. Cc nguyn tc l:
-Tnh i xng ca c s phi l Tnh i xng ca tinh th (v hnh dng bn
ngoi v cc tnh cht);
-S cnh bng nhau v s gc (gia cc cnh) bng nhau ca phi nhiu nht;
-Nu c cc gc vung gia cc cnh th s gc phi nhiu nht;
-C th tch nh nht hoc cc cnh bn ngn nht.
c s c th tch nh nht v ch c tm nguyn t (ion, phn t) nm nh
(nt mng) gi l c s n gin (hnh 1.12b).
a)
b)
Hnh 1.12. Cc loi c s c th (a) v c s n gin (b) ca mng tinh th
; ba gc
ngi ta phn
[15]
ca c s, nt O l gc ta (hnh
(1.28)
z1 = z0 + n3c
trong n1 ,n2 ,n3 - cc s nguyn
Ta cn c th biu din di dng vect :
=
+ n1
+ n2
+ n3
(1.29)
[16]
=u +v +w
(1.30)
[17]
(1.32)
[18]
L, S,V
- tng chiu di, din tch, th tch ang xt trong tinh th.
[19]
(1.35)
Mt xp theo mt (100):
(1.36)
Mt xp theo mt (111):
(1.37)
Mt th tch ca mng lp phng tm mt
(1.38)
1.3.4.2. Cch sp xp nguyn t trong mng tinh th, s xp cht
Nh trnh by trn, mt xp
c trng kh nng xp cht (kh nng xp
st, tip xc vi nhau) ca cc nguyn t.
Gi s cc nguyn t l nhng qu cu rn
cng kch thc c sp xp sao cho mi
nguyn t tip xc vi su nguyn t xung
quanh, chng s to ra mt lp nguyn t
xp cht (mt xp cht) (lp A rn hnh
1.17). Mun m bo tnh xp cht (c li
v mt nng lng khi to mng tinh th).
Lp nguyn t tip theo ch c th xp vo
lm B (cho lp B) hoc lm C tng ng
lp C (hnh 1.17). Nh vy s c hai kh
nng nguyn t xp cht: theo trt t
ABABABhoc ABCABCABC.
[20]
S lng l hng
trn mt nguyn
t
2
1
2
1
6
3
1
S lng l hng
trong c s
Dng l hng
Khi 4 mt
Khi 8 mt
Khi 4 mt
Khi 8 mt
Khi 8 mt
Khi 4 mt
Khi lp phng
8
4
12
6
6
12
1
so vi nhng vt rn khc.
Ba cu trc tinh th in hnh ca lin kt kim loi l lp phng tm khi
(lptk), lp phng tm mt
.8 + 1
nguyn t
v [
]].
[22]
k bng 8 ( hoc k
8+6)
, theo phng
111
v theo mt {110}
( theo c s)=
Trong
(1.39)
(1.40)
, suy ra r =
[23]
(1.41)
C hai loi l hng trong mng A2. L hng khi tm mt, kch thc 0,154d (d
ng knh nguyn t), nm tm mt v gia cc cnh bn, s lng n8m (bng 1.5):
n8m =(1/4).12+(1/2).6=6.
L hng khi bn mt nm trn on thng ni im gia cc cnh i din
ca cc mt bn, kch thc 0,221 d vi s lng (bng 1.5):
n4m=(1/2).24=12.
Cc nguyn t kim loi nh Mo, cht rn, W, -Fe,c cu trc mng A2
1.4.1.2 Mng lp phng tm mt (A1: lptm)
Trong c s mng A1 ngoi tm nguyn t nh cn su nguyn t tm mt
bn (hnh 1.20b); s lng nguyn t trong mt l:
Ta cc nguyn t gc l
2
(hnh 1.20 b) . Cho rng cc nguyn t xp kht nhau theo
2
a 2
2
(1.42)
[24]
1
2
gia r, a v c l r , c
Vi
c
2
a tc l 1, 6333.
a
3
c
1, 6333. , s sp xp ca mng s l K=12. (v d, nguyn t tm y
a
[25]
Kim loi
Kiu mng
Mo
Lptk, A2
0,3147
Cr
Lptk, A2
0,2884
-Fe
Lptk, A2
0,3165
Lptk, A2
0,2866
-Fe(950oC)
Lptm, A1
0,3656
Ni
Lptm, A1
0,3524
Cu
Lptm, A1
0,3615
Al
Lptm, A1
0,4049
-Ti(880oC)
Lptk, A2
0,3306
-Ti
Spxc, A3
0,2951
0,4679
Mg
Spxc, A3
0,3209
0,5210
Zn
Spxc, A3
0,2664
0,4945
[26]
Hnh 1.22 Mng tinh th ca kim cng a,b v lin kt trong tinh th c
c s mng kim cng (hnh 1.14a), c to thnh trn c s ca c s A1
c thm bn nguyn t bn trong vi cc ta (xem hnh 1.14b): 1/4, 1/4, 1/4 (1); 3/4,
3/4, 1/4 (2); 1/4, 3/4,3/4 (3); 3/4, 1/4, 3/4 (4). nm tm ca bn khi 1/8 c ch u
nhau. Cc nguyn t cacbon u c lin kt ng ha tr vi nng lng ln nn kim
cng c cng rt cao (cao nht trong thang cng).
1.4.2.2 Mng Graphit
C mng lc gic lp (hnh 1.15a), trong mt lp khong cch gia cc nguyn t
a = 0,246nm, lin kt ng ho tr . Khong cch gia cc lp c = 0,671nm, tng ng
vi lin kt yu Van der Waals, garafit rt d b tch lp, rt mm, n c coi nh l
mt trong nhng cht rn c cng thp nht.
Hnh 1.23. Cu trc mng ca grafit (a), si cacbon (b) v fullerene (c).
1.4.2.3. Cu trc si cacbon v fullerene
Si cacbon v fullerene l hai dng th hnh na ca cacbon. Thnh tu mi ca
cc cng trnh nghin cu trong lnh vc vt liu trong nhng nm gn y.
[27]
Hnh 1.24 Sp xp khi t din (SiO4) trong thch anh (a), cristobalit (b).
Cu trc khi t din c m t trn lun lun l c s ca cc mng tinh th
silicat. Tuy nhin, ph thuc vo thnh phn ha hc v iu kin to thnh, khng phi
lc no cc khi t din cng lin kt vi nhau bng mt nh chung nh tinh th SiO 2 .
[28]
V d, trong tinh th forsterit, Mg2SiO4, khi t din (SiO4)4- khng lin kt bng nh
ching m bng ion Mg2+ lm trung gian (hnh 1.24c)
Slicat l u vo quang trng trong cng ngh ch to vt liu gm (ceramic)
nh s trnh by chng 9.
1.4.3. Mng tinh th ca vt rn c lin kt ion
Cu trc tinh th ca vt rn (hp cht) kin kt ion ph thuc vo hai yu t:
- T s ca s lng ion m (anion) trn s lng ion dng (cation): t s ny
c nh i vi tng hp cht, ph thuc vo s lng in t tham gia lin kt, m bo
tnh trung ha v in ca h thng;
- Tng quan kich thc gia anion v cation; lin kt ion l loi khng inh
hng (xem mc 1.1.4.3) v vy trong mng tinh th, cc ion lun c xu hng sp xp
t xp cht v tnh i xng cao nht.
Sau y nu mt s kiu mng in hnh.
1.4.3.1. Mng tinh th hp cht dng MX
Xt mng tinh th ca NaCL v CsCl (hnh 1.25). Mng tinh th NaCL ( kiu B1)
to nn trn c s mng lptm ca anion Cl - v ngc li. T s cc ion Cl- trn s ion Na+
lun lun bng 1. Khc vi mang NaCl, mng tinh th ca CsCl(kiu B2) c to nn
trn c s mng lp phng n gin ca ion CL - , ion Cs+ nm l hng khi lp
phng ( tm khi lp phng) (hnh 1.25b), t s lng ion Cl- trn ion Cs+ lun l 1
nhng trong mng NaCl. Mi ion Cs+ bao quanh bng tm ion Cl- v ngc li.
Cl
Cs
a)
b)
c)
1.25c), t s lng ion ns/nZn= 4/4= , s ion S2- bao quanh ion Zn2+ bng bn v ngc
li.
1.4.3.2. Mng tinh th hp cht dng MX2 (hoc M2X)
b)
c)
d)
[30]
MX
MX2
M2X
M2X3
MNX3
MN2X4
Mng tinh
Dng l hng
th
ca
do cation chim
anion
lptm
Khi 4 mt
spxc
Khi 4 mt
lptm
Khi 8 mt
T l s l
hng
b Hp cht in hnh
chim
1/2
ZnS, SiC, ZnO, CdS
1/2
ZnS, ZnO
NaCl, MgO, CaO, MnS,
1
TiC
1
NiAs, FeS
spxc
Khi 8 mt
lp
n Khi
lp
1
gin
phng
lptm
Khi 8 mt
1/2
lp
n Khi
lp
1/2
gin
phng
lptm
Khi 4 mt
1
spxc
Khi 4 mt
2/3
lptm
lptm
-
CsCl
TiO, CdCl2
CaF2, ZnO2
Na2O, Li2O
Al2O3, Fe2O3, Cr2O3
BatiO3, SrZnO3
MgAl2O4, FeAl2O4
Lin kt theo (1.44) cho phn t polyetylen mch kn. Nu lin kt kp gia hai
nguyn t C m sang hai pha: lc c th s c v hn cc phn t (1.45) lin kt
vi nhau, cho mt mch h dng:
Mch polymer to thnh theo (1.46) gi l mch thng. Tuy nhin, khi nim
thng ch l tng i bi v gc to bi gia cc lin kt ca nguyn t cacbon l
109,5 ging nh trong kiem cng (hnh 1.27a v 1.27b).
[31]
thay th nh trn trong mng tinh th, to dung dch rn xen k hoc thay th (xem mc
2.2).
1.5.2. Sai lch ng.
Sai lch ng, v sau s c gi l lch (dislocation) l loi sai lch c kch
thc nh (c kch thc nguyn t) theo hai chiu v rt ln theo chiu th ba trong
tinh th.
L thuyt lch l c s l thuyt bn, b phn quan trng ca vt l cht rn ni
chung v vt l kim loi ni ring. Da vo l thuyt lch ngy nay c th gii thch
nhiu vn v c tnh, l tnh ca kim loi v hp kim m trc y khng gii thch
c bng l thuyt c in. Hn na l thuyt lch cho php m ra trin vng mi ,to
ln trong vic ch to kim loi v hp kim c nhng tnh cht c bit (v d, bn cao,
tnh siu do).
1.5.2.1.Nhng khi nim chung
a) Lch bin
C th hnh dung bng cch chn them mt na mt phng nguyen t ABCD vo
na phn trn ca tinh th l tng (hnh 1.29a). S xut hin thm na mt lm cho cc
mt phng nguyn t khc nm v hai pha tr nn khng hon ton song song vi nhau
na.Na tinh th trn pha ng AB s chu mt ng sut nn, na di ng sut ko
(hnh 1.29 a, b). ng AB c chiu di hng vn hng s mng, gi l trc lch,l bin
gii pha trong ca na mt ABCD, v vy gi l lch bin. Nu nga mt nm pha
trn,lch bin c gi l lch dng k hiu l (hnh 1.29b) trong trng hp ngc
li s c lch m, k hiu du T.
Cng c th hnh dung lch bin c tp bng cch trt p m t trn hnh 1.29
nh sau: Ct tinh th theo mt phng P (hnh 1.29c), p phn pha trn mt P sao cho
pha phi dch i mt on bng hng s mng,pha tri vn gi nguyn v tr c. Kt qu
nhn c (hnh 1.29d) cng ging m hnh biu din hnh 1.29b, mt phng p, cha
trc lch gi l mt trt.
[35]
Lch xon phi c k hiu, nu ng xon c nguyn t xung quanh trc lch
theo chiu kim ng h, ngc li s c lch tri. Mt ABCD mt trt ca lch
xon.Xung quanh lch xon cng tn ti trng ng sut n hi. C th c so snh v tr
cc mt phng tinh th trong mng l tng, cha lch bin v lch xon trn hnh 1.31.
c)Lch hn hp
Trong thc t rt nhiu trng hp mt lch c c trng ca c lch bin v lch
xon, l lch hn hp. Hnh 1.32 biu din cch to lch hn hp bng trt p.
ng AC l trc lch, cc thnh phn bin (CC)v xon (AA)cng nh m hnh sp
xp nguyn t xung quanh trc lch c biu din trn hnh 1.32b.
[36]
Khc vi sai lch im, nng lng ca lch khng ph thuc vo nhit .
hoc
exp (9--
. )
( 1.51)
G - M un trt
- H s Poisson
- khong cch gia cc mt nguyn t, song song vi mt trt
b - khong cch gia cc nguyn t theo phng trt
fp - lc Peierls-Nabarro, c ngha tng t lc ma st trong chuyn
ng ca lch.
T (1.51) thy rng theo mt v phng xp cht nht ca tinh th, ti
t gi
tr max, fp l min, lch chuyn ng d dng nht, tinh th d bin dng nht (xem mc
4.2).
T nhng ni dung trnh by, c th rt ra rng tc bin dng do () ph
thuc vo chuyn ng ca lch. Theo Orowan, quan h nh sau:
= .b.
(1.52)
trong : - mt lch
b gi tr vect Burgers
- tc chuyn ng ca lch.
Nhng khi nim c bn v lch va m t l c s ca l thuyt bn, cho php
gii thch nhng tnh cht nh do, bn, ph hu, dos c cp t m chng
4.
1.5.3 Sai lch mt
Sai lch mt l loi sai lch c kch thc ln theo hai chiu v nh theo chiu th
ba. Trong tinh th, sai lch mt ch yu l bin gii ht, bin gii siu ht, sai lch xp,
mt i tinh v mt ngoi tinh th.
1.5.3.1. Bin gii ht v siu ht
a) Bin gii ht
Bin gii ht l vng tip gip gia cc ht trong a tinh th ( xem mc 1.6). Cc
nguyn t bin gii ht khng sp xp theo trt t mng v c th coi l vng cu trc
v nh hnh. Sc cng b mt bin gii ht () c trng phn gia tng nng lng t do
[39]
vng bin gii so vi cc vng pha trong duy tr s cn bng nguyn t b mt.
Hnh 1.35 l m hnh sp xp nguyn t trn bin gii ht (hnh 1.25a.b) v nh chp t
vi bin giiht trong vt liu a tinh th (hnh 1.35c)
Chiu dy bin gii ht ph thuc vo d sch ca kim loi hoc vt liu, c th
t gi tr hng trm ln hng s mng. Kim loi cng tinh khit, bin gii ht cng
mng.
Do cu trc khng tinh th, tnh cht ca bin gii ht so vi cu trc tinh th nh
sau :
- C nhit nng chy thp hn so vi vng bn trong, v vy nhit cao
bin gii ht d b chy do, gy hin tng b nng.
- Hot tnh ho hc cao hn, d b n mn ho hc. Da vo c tnh ny, dng
phng php tm thc pht hin bin gii ht trn knh hin vi quang hc hoc knh
hin vi in t qut.
- Bin gii ht c tng tc mnh vi cc loi sai lch khc (nguyn t tp cht,
nt trng lch), v vy qu trnh khuych tn y xy ra mnh hn so vi vng bn
trong. Trong chuyn pha, bin gii ht l ni d to tm mm nht.
- Bin gii ht nh hng n in tr sut v n tn x in t dn. Ngoi ra,
lch rt kh vt qua bin gii ht nhit thp v vy kim loi c kch thc ht cng
nh (bin gii ht cng nhiu) in tr sut v bn cng cao ( xem mc 1.5.5.3)
b) Bin gii siu ht
Siu ht (block) l nhng vng tinh th nh (kch thc
trung bnh 102 104), vi cu trc tinh th kh hon chnh nh
hng lch nhau mt gc nh, ngn cch bng bin gii siu
ht.
Bin gii siu ht thc cht l nhng tng lch, to
nn do cc lch cung du, tng tc ln nhau khi chng trt
trn nhng mt trt song song (xem mc 1.5.2.2b) v gi
nhau v tr cn bng ( hnh 1.36). Hai siu ht ln cn nh
hng lch nhau mt gc :
=
Trong D l khong cch trung bnh gia cc lch
bin cng du trn trng lch.
Bin gii siu ht thng xut hin trong qu trnh kt tinh li (xem mc 4.2.6), c
tc dng cn tr lch trt v tng tc vi cc loi sai lch im khc nn cng ng
vai tr trong tnh do ca vt liu.
1.5.3.2. Sai lch xp, mt i tinh
Sai lch xp (SLX), (cn gi l khuyt tt xp) l s ph v tr t xp cht ca
tinh th ( xem mc 1.3.4.2). Gi s mng A1 c trt t sp xp l ABCABCABC, v l
[40]
d0=
Trong : G mun trt
h2.h3 vect Burgers ca cc lch khng hon chnh gii hn SLX
slx nng lng SLX.
SLX c vai tr rt ln trong lnh vc ho bn vt liu (xem mc 4.6), v vy mt
trong nhng phng hng quan trng nng cao bn lhp kim ho, lm gim slx ,
tng rng d0 ,tc l tng cn tr chuyn ng ca lch bng SLX.
Mt i tinh thung to thnh trong chuyn pha lng - rn hoc trng thi rn
(xem chng 3) cng l mt dng ca SLX. V d, tinh th mng A1 vi tr t
ABCACBAC(hnh 1.38) gm hai na tinh th hai pha mt A (lp A) i xng
gng vi nhau ( hnh 1.38a). Nh vy chng s nh hng lch nhau mt gc xc
nh. Mt A l mt i tinh, cng c tc dng cn tr chuyn ng ca lch. Trn t chc
t vi, cc mt i tinh th hin bng cc ng song song (hnh 1.38b)
1.5.3.3. Cu trc mt ngoi tinh th
Mt ngoi tinh th c hnh thi tn ti khc so vi nhng mt phng tinh th bn
trong. C th tng tng d dng rng i vi cc nguyn t mt ngoi (mt gii hn
tinh th) khng c s sp xp nh cc nguyn t bn trong, v vy mt ngoi chng
khng sp xp theo trt t quy nh ca tinh th (hnh 1.39) v to thnh vng sai lch.
Sc cng b mt tinh th (nng lng b mt) c trng phn gia tng nng lng t do
gi cc nguyn t b mt trng thi n nh.
Do c im cu trc sai lch cho nn lp
mt ngoi tinh th cng c nhng tng tc c
bit vi cc loi sai lch khc.
1.5.4 Sai lch khi
Nhng sai lch c kch thc ln
theo ba chiu trong mng tinh th gi l sai lch
khi. Sai lch khi v m l nhng sai hng sinh ra
[41]
cht nht). Cc n tinh th kim loi khng tn ti trong t nhin, mun c phi dng
cng ngh "nui" n tinh th .
c im: c tnh cht rt c th l d hng v theo cc phng mt xp cht
nguyn t khc nhau. n tinh th ch c dng trong bn dn.
1.6.2 a tinh th
Trong thc t hu nh ch gp cc vt liu a tinh th. a tinh th gm rt nhiu
(n) tinh th nh (c m) c gi l ht tinh th, cc ht c cng cu trc v thng
s mng song phng li nh hng khc nhau (mang tnh ngu nhin) v li n kt vi
nhau qua vng ranh gii c gi l bin ht (hay bin gii ht) nh trnh by hnh
1.20b.
T m hnh thy r:
- Mi ht l mt khi tinh th
hon ton ng nht, th hin tnh d
hng.
- Cc ht nh hng ngu nhin
vi s lng rt ln nn th hin tnh
ng hng
- Bin ht chu nh hng ca cc ht xung quanh nn c cu trc trung gian v
v vy sp xp khng trt t (x lch) nh l v nh hnh, km xt cht vi tnh cht
khc vi bn thn ht.
- C th quan st cu trc ht a tinh th hay cc ht nh knh hin vi quang hc
(h nh 1.20c).
+ ht ca tinh th
ht c th quan st nh tnh qua mt gy, chnh xc phi xc nh trn t
chc t vi. Cp ht theo tiu chun ASTM: phn thnh 16 cp chnh nh s t 00, 0, 1,
2...., 14 theo trt t ht nh dn, trong t 1 n 8 l thng dng. Cp ht
N=3,322lgZ+1, vi Z l s h t c trong 1inch 2 (2,542 6,45cm2) di phng i 100
ln.
Ngi ta thng xc nh cp ht bng cch so snh vi bng chun phng
i (thng l x100) hoc xc nh trn t chc t vi.
Bin gii siu ht
Nu nh khi a tinh th gm cc h t (kch thc hng chc - hng trm m)
vi phng mng lch nhau mt gc ng k (hng chc ), n lt mi h t n cng
gm nhiu th tch nh hn (kch thc c 0,1 10m) vi phng mng lch nhau mt
gc rt nh ( 1-2o) gi l siu h t hay block (hnh 1.20d). Bi n gii siu h t cng b
x lch nhng vi mc rt th p.
[43]
1.6.3 Textua
[44]
( 2.1)
biu thc:
RS US
d
dU
( 2.2)
l nghch o ca in tr sut:
l: (
(2.3)
)-1
J=
( 2.4)
U
d
(2.5)
)-1 .
)-1), c gi l
). Trong mi
[46]
nguyn t ring bit b phn tch thnh mt lot cc trng thi in t nm st nhau, hnh
thnh nn mt vng nng lng in t. S gin ( m rng ) t mt mc nng lng
in t trong nguyn t hnh thnh mt vng nng lng trong vt rn tu thuc vo
khong cch gia cc nguyn t, s gin ny bt u t cc in t ngoi cng ca
nguyn t bi v chng b nhiu lon trc tin khi cc nguyn t lin kt li vi nhau
( hnh 2.2 ). Trong mi vng cc mc nng lng vn l gin on, tuy nhin khong
cch gia cc mc k nhau l ht sc nh. khong cch nguyn t cn bng, s to
thnh vng nng lng c th xy ra vi cc lp in t gn ht nhn nht, nh minh ho
trn hnh 2.2 b. Ngoi ra gia cc vng k nhau c th tn ti nhng khe nng lng
( hay cn gi l nhng vng cm): bnh thng th cc in t khng c php chim
lnh nhng mc nng lng nm trong cc khe ny. Cch thc thng thng biu din
cu trc vng nng lng in t trong vt rn ch nh trn hnh 2.2a.
Hnh 2.2. Cu trc vng nng lng in t trong vt rn (a) l kt qu ca s gin (m rng )
cc mc nng lng in t (b) khi cc nguyn t ng gn nhau
[48]
Hnh 2.4. S chim cc trng thi thi in t trong kim loi (a) trc v (b) sau kch
thch in t
ny c biu din trn hnh 2.5 . i vi nhiu vt liu, khe vng ny rng vi
Electronvon. Thng nng lng kch thch l t ngun phi in nh nhit hoc nh
sng.
Hnh 2.5. s chim cc trng thi in t trong cht cch in v cht bn dn (a) trc
v (b) sau mt kch thch in t t vng ha tr ln vng dn
[50]
Hnh 2.6. S ng i ca mt in t
( 2.6 )
( 2.7 )
dn in (.m)-1
Bc
6,8.107
ng
6,0.107
Vng
4,3.107
[51]
Nhm
3,8.107
St
1,0.107
1,6.107
Thp ccbon tm
0,6.107
Thp khng g
0,2.107
( 2.8 )
t = 0 + aT,
( 2.9 )
( 2.10)
(2.11)
Hnh 2.8. in tr sut nhit phng ca hp kim Cu-Zn (dung dch rn) ph thuc
thnh phn
[53]
2.1.2. Bn dn in
Cc vt liu bn dn c dn in khng cao nh cc kim loi, nhng chng li
c mt s c trng in c o nn c ng dng rng ri. Tnh cht in ca cc vt
liu ny ht sc nhy cm vi s c mt ca cc tp cht ngay c nng thp. Cc
cht bn dn, trong tnh cht in c quy nh bi cu trc in t vn c trong vt
liu tinh khit, c gi l bn dn tinh khit. Cn khi cc c trng in do cc nguyn
t tp cht quyt nh th vt liu c gi l cht bn dn tp cht.
2.1.2.1. Bn dn tinh khit.
Cc cht bn dn tinh khit c c trng bi cu trc vng in t nu trn hnh
2.3d. OK hai cht bn dn nguyn t Silic (Si) v genmani (Ge) c khe nng lng
tng ng vo c 1,1 v 0,7 eV. C hai u nm trong nhm IV A ca bng tun hon
cc nguyn t v u c lien kt ng ho tr. Ngoi ra, nhiu hp cht cng c bn cht
bn dn tinh khit. Mt nhm vt liu nh th c hnh thnh gia cc nguyn t ca
cc nhm III A v V A, v d nh: gali asenit (GaAs) v ini antimonite (InSb); chng
thng c gi l cc tp cht III V. Cc hp cht ca cc nguyn t nhm II B v VI
A cng biu hin tnh bn dn, trong c catmi sunfit (CdS) v km telurit (ZnTe). Khi
hai nguyn t to thnh nhng hp cht ny nm v tr cch nhau cng xa trong bng
tun hon th lin kt nguyn t cng tr nn ion hn v ln ca nng lng khe tng
ln. Vt liu c xu hng tr nn cch in hn. Bng 2.2 cho bit khe nng lng ca
mt s hp cht bn dn.
Khi nim v l trng.
Trong cht bn dn tinh khit c khi mi in t c kch thch ln vng dn s
li mt ch thiu in t trong lin kt ng ho tr, tc l mt trng thi in t cn
trng trong vng ho tr nh ch trn hnh2.5b. C th tng tng rng, di nh hng
ca in trng, v tr thiu in t ny s chuyn ch trong mng tinh th do chuyn
ng ca in t ho tr khc ti, in vo mi lin kt cha (hnh 2.9)
[54]
e + p
[55]
(2.12)
=n
(2.13)
e+ b) = p
(e + b)
(2.14)
Khe
nng dn in, linh ng linh ng l
lng eV
(.m)-1
in t, m2/V.s
trng m2/V.s
Nguyn t
Si
1,11
4x10-4
0,14
0,05
Ge
0,67
2,2
0,38
0,18
GaP
2,25
0,05
0,002
GaAs
1,42
10-5
0,85
0,45
InSb
0,17
2x104
7,7
0,07
CdS
2,40
0,03
ZnTe
2,26
0,03
0,01
Hp cht III V
Hp cht II VI
2.1.2.2. Bn dn tp cht
Thc ra cc cht bn dn thng mi u l bn dn tp cht. Khi c mt tp cht
ngay c vi nng thp cng to ra in t hoc l d tha. Chng hn, mt nng
tp cht 10-12 (tc mt nguyn t tp cht trong 10 12nguyn t) cng lm cho silic
tr thnh bn dn tp cht nhit phng.
Bn dn tp cht kim loi n
minh ho tnh bn dn tp cht hnh thnh nh th no, ta li xt bn dn
nguyn t silic. Mt nguyn t silic c bn in t vng ngoi, mi mt in t ny lin
kt ng ho tr vi mt in t ca bn nguyn t silic ln cn. By gi gi s mt
nguyn t tp cht c ho tr nm c thay th vo, c th l nguyn t ca nhm V A
bng tun hon (v d, P, As, Sb). Ch c bn trong nm in t ho tr ca nhng nguyn
t tp cht ny c th tham gia vo lin kt.
[56]
(2.15)
Cng c th dng m hnh vng nng lng din t cc kch thch tp cht to
ra l trng. Mi mt nguyn t tp cht a vo khe cm mt mc nng lng nm rt
st pha trn nh ca vng ho tr (hnh 2.13a). Mt l trng s c to ra trong vng
ho tr khi kch thch nhit do mt in t chuyn t vng ho tr ln trng thi in t
tp cht ny nh biu th trn hnh (2.13b).
[58]
(2.16)
C-
(2.17)
C -
(2.18)
= -2k
(2.19)
[60]
[61]
Hnh 2.17. Ghp chnh lu p-n. Biu din s phn b in t v l trng (a) khi khng
c in p; (b) ni thun v (c) ni ngc
Chnh lu l linh kin in t cho php dng in ch chy theo mt chiu. Trc
khi xut hin chnh lu bn dn p n , ngi ta s dng n it chn khng. Ghp
chnh lu p n cu to bi mt tm bn dn pha tp loi n trn mt mt v loi p trn
mt kia (hnh 2.17a). Nu em cc tm vt liu loi n v p ghp li vi nhau s c mt
chnh lu km, bi v s xut hin b mt gia hai phn lm cho linh kin km hiu qu.
Do vy trong tt c cc linh kin u phi s dng vt liu bn dn n tinh th trnh
cc hin tng in t xut hin bin ht s ph hu hot ng ca linh kin.
Trc khi t mt in p ln mu p n, ht ti chnh bn p l l trng, cn bn n
l in t nh minh ho trn hnh 2.17a. Mt in p ngoi c th thit lph trn ghp p
n bng hai phn cc khc nhau. Khi dung mt b pin, u dng c th ni vo bn p v
u m vo bn n, gi l ni thun. S u cc ngc li (m vo p v dng vo n)
c gi l ni ngc.
[62]
(2.20)
[63]
Transitor
Transito, linh kin bn dn cc k quan trng mch vi in t ngy nay c th
m nhim hai chc nng c bn sau. Th nht, chng c th hot ng nh n in t
chn khng trc y, n triot, ngha l chng c th khuych i cc tn hiu in. Th
hai, chng cng c dng nh cc phng tin chuyn mch trong my tnh x l v
lu tr thng tin. C hai loi chnh l transito tip xc v transito hiu ng trng kim
loi oxyt bn dn (vit tt l MOSFET. Theo t ting Anh metal oxide
semiconductor field effect transistor).
Transito tip xc
Transito tip xc t hp bi hai tip xc p n ghp ta lng vo nhau theo cu
hnh n-p-n. Hnh 2.20 nu s ca mt transito tip xc p-n-p cng vi mch in ca
n. Mt vng (base) loi n rt mng c t xen k vo gia vng pht (emitter) v
vng gp (collector) loi p.
Mch bao gm tip xc pht - (tip xc 1) c lp thun, trong khi mt in
p lp ngc c t ln tip xc d - gp (tip xc 2).
[64]
[65]
a)
b)
Hnh 2.23. nh chp mt chip x l 32 bit, phng i 3,5 ln (a) v nh chp mt phn
ca mt chip vi x l 32 bit khc, phng i khong 1250 ln (b)
[66]
Vt liu
Graphit
Gm:
Nhm Oxyt
S
Thu tinh Na Ca
Mica
Polyme
Phenolformaldehyt
Nylon6.6
Polymetylmetacrylat
Polyetylen
Polystyren
polytetrafloetylen
10-9 - 10-10
10-9 - 10-12
<10-12
10-13- 10-17
<10-14
<10-16
( 2.21 )
[67]
i =
(2.22 )
Cc polyme dn in
Trong nhiu nm qua tng hp c nhiu polyme c dn in ngang vi
cc vt dn kim loi. Chng c gi l cc polym dn in. Trong cc vt liu ny
t c dn in cao ti 1.5 10 -7 ( . M)-1 Gi tr ny tnh theo th tch tng ng
vi mt phn t, cn tnh theo trng lng th tng ng vi hai ln dn ca ng.
Hin tng trn quan st thy trong nhiu polyme, trong c polyaxetylen,
polyparaphenylen, polypyrol v polyanilin c pha vi cc ph gia thch hp. ( tc
in t t do chim u th ) hoc theo loi p ( tc l trng chim u th ) tu theo cht
ph gia. Tuy nhin chng khc cc cht bn dn ch cc nguyn t hoc phn t pha
tp khng thay th hoc i ch mt nguyn t no ca polyme.Polyme tinh khit cao c
c trng cu trc vng in t ca cc cht cch in ( hnh 2.3 c ). C ch sinh sn ra
s lng in t v l trng trong cc polyme dn in ny rt phc tp, khng th gii
thch d dng, hiu mt cch n ginCc nguyn t pha tp dn n s to thnh nhng
vng nng lng mi ph ln vng ho tr v vng polyme tinh khit, to nn cc vng
dn hoc in t t do hoc l trng. Bng cch nh hng cc mch xch polyme trong
khi tng hp chng, hoc bng phng php c hoc s to ra c vt liu d hng
cao, c dn in cc i dc theo hng .
Nhng polyme dn in ny c u th trong mt lot ng dng do chng c trng
lng ring thp, do cao v d ch to. Cc pin ti sinh hin ang c ch to vi
in cc polyme c nhiu trin vng tt hn kim loi. Nhng ng dng khc nh lm
[68]
dy dn trong cc cu kin hng khng v v tr, che ph chng nhiu in cho qun o,
vt liu mn chn in t v linh kin in t.
2.1.4 in mi
in mi l vt liu cch in ( phi kim loi ), c cu trc lng cc in t nhin
hoc nhn to mc phn t hoc nguyn t. Vt liu in mi c s dng trong
cc t in nh kt qu ca tng tc lng cc vi in trng.
2.1.4.1. in dung
Khi in p V c t ln mt t in mt tm tr thnh in tch dng tm kia
in tch m vi in trng tng ng hng t tm m sang tm dng. in dung C
lin h vi in lng Q mi tm c tnh theo biu thc:
C =
( 2.23 )
Hnh 2.24. T in tm song song trong chn khng (a) v khi c mt mt vt liu in
mi
[69]
C=
( 2.24 )
( 2.25 )
( 2.26 )
tm. Hng s in mi l mt tnh cht vt liu c xem xt trc tin thit kt t in.
Gi tri
Vt liu
Gm :
Gm tittanal
Mica
Steatit ( MgO- SiO2 )
Thu tinh natri
s
silica nung
polyme:
phenolfomaldehyt
nylon 6.6
polystyren
polyetylen
polytetrafloetylen
Hng s in mi
60Hz
1MHz
bn in mi
6.9
6.0
4.0
200 1 180
3940 7 875
790 1 380
985
160-1575
985
15 10000
5.4 5.7
5.5 7.5
6.9
6.0
3.8
5.3
4.0
2.6
2.3
2.1
4.8
3.6
2.6
2.3
2.1
1180-1575
1575
1970-2760
1770-1970
1600-1970
(2.27)
Trong q - ln ca mi in tch;
d: khong cch gia chng .
Mmen lng cc l mt vect hng t in tch m ti in tch dng. Khi c
mt in trng E, mt ngu lc tc dng ln lng cc in lm n xp theo hng in
trng nh hnh minh ho trn hnh 2.26. Qu trnh xp lng cc nh vy goi nl s
phn cc.
Tr li vi t in, mt in tch mt D, tc l in lng trn mt n v in
tch ca tm t in ( C/m2 ), s t l vi in trng. Khi c chn khng th :
D=
E.
0.
( 2.28 )
( 2.29 )
i khi D cn c gi l dch in mi
D=
E +P
( 2.30 )
( r -1 ) E
( 2.31 )
[72]
(2.32 )
Hnh2.28. S biu din cc trng thi phn cc in t (a), phn cc ion (b)v phn cc
xoay hng (c)
Dng th ba, phn cc xoay hng ch tm thy trong nhng cht c mmen
lng cc vnh cu. S phn cc ny l kt qu ca s xoay cc mmen vnh cu theo
trng t vo ( hnh 2.28c ). Xu th sp xp ny b dao ng nhit ca nguyn t chng
li lm cho phn cc gim i khi nhit tng.
Phn cc ton phn P ca mt cht bng tng s cc phn cc in t, ion v
xoay hng ( tng ng l Pe,, Pi, P0) tc l:
P = Pe,+Pi+ P0
( 2.33)
Hnh 2.29. nh hng lng cc theo mt cc tnh xoay chiu (a) v theo tnh ngc li (b)
[74]
[76]
2.1.5.2. p in.
Hnh 2.32. Cc lng cc trong vt liu p in (a) v s xut hin in p khi vt liu chu nn
(2.34)
Thng thng, nhit dung c tnh theo mol ca vt liu (chng hn J/mol. K
hoc cal/mol.K). Nhit dung ring (thng k hiu bng ch c nh) l nhit dung ca
mt n v khi lng vt liu, c n v J/kg.K hoc cal/g.K).
Trong thc t, c hai cch o nhit dung ca vt liu tng ng vi cc iu kin
mi trng km theo s truyn nhit. Mt l nhit dung ng tch C v (th tch mu c
gi khng i) v hai l nhit dung ng p C p lun lun ln hn Cv. Tuy nhin, s khc
nhau gia chng l rt t i vi a s cc vt liu rn nhit phng v thp hn.
Nhit dung do dao ng mng.
Trong a s cc vt rn, dng cn bng nng lng nhit ch yu l bng s tng
nng lng dao ng ca cc nguyn t. Nguyn t trong vt liu rn khng ngng dao
ng tn s rt cao v vi bin tng i nh. Nhng dao ng ca cc nguyn t
ln cn phi hp vi nhau bng lin kt nguyn t v theo phng thc truyn sng
mng, c th xem l nhng sng n hi hay ni n gin l nhng sng m, c bc
sng ngn v tn s rt cao, lan truyn trong tinh th vi tc m thanh. Nng lng
dao ng nhit ca vt liu bao gm mt dy cc song n hi c phn b v tn s khc
nhau. Theo l thuyt lng t, nng lng dao ng nhit trong cht rn b lng t ho;
ch c mt s gi tr nng lng l c php. Mt lng t n ca nng lng dao
ng c gi l mt phonon (tng t nh lng t ca bc x in t phonon). Bn
thn song dao ng c khi cng c gi bng thut ng phonon.
Chnh nhng dao ng song (song n hi) ny gy nn tn x nhit ca cc in
t t do nh trong dn in in t (mc 2.1.1.4) v cng tham gia vn chuyn nng
lng trong dn nhit (xem mc 2.2.3).
S ph thuc nhit ca nhit dung
[78]
Bin thin theo nhit ca nhit dugn ng tch ca nhiu cht rn tinh th tng
i n gin nh nu trn hnh 2.33: C v bng khng OK nhng tng ln nhanh theo
nhit . iu ny tng ng vi kh nng ca cc song mang nng cao nng lng
trung bnh ca mnh. Kh nng ny c tng ln theo nhit . cc nhit thp, mi
quan h gia Cv, v nhit T l:
Cv = AT3
(2.35)
K ( 6 cal/mol.K ). Bng 2.5 gii thiu nhit rung ring thc nghim ca mt s vt liu.
Bng 2.5. Tnh cht nhit ca mt s vt liu
Vt liu
Kim loi:
Nhm
ng
Vng
St
Niken
Bc
Volfram
Thp 1025
Thp khng g 316
Brng ( 70Cu 30 Zn)
Gm:
Nhm Oxyt (Al2O3)
Berili oxyt (BeO)
Magioxyt ( MgO)
Spilen ( Mg Al2O3)
Silic ioxyt (SiO2)
Thu tinh Na
Polyme:
Polyetylen
Cp
J/kg(1)
10-60C-1
K
W/m.K(2)
L
. W/(K)2.10-6
90
386
130
448
443
235
142
486
502
375
23.6
16.5
13.8
11.8
13.3
19.0
4.5
12.5
16.0
20.0
247
398
315
80.4
89.9
428
178
51.9
16.3 (3)
120
2.24
2.27
2.52
2.66
2.10
2.32
3.21
-
775
1050(3)
940
790
740
840
8.8
9.0(4)
13.5(3)
7.6(3)
0.5(3)
9.0(3)
60- 220
80- 100
30.1
220(4)
37.7(4)
15.0(4)
2.0(4)
1.7(4)
0.38
0.12
2100
[79]
Polyprotylen
Polystyren
Polytetrafloetylen (teflon)
Phenolphomaldehyt (bakelit)
Ninon 6.6
Polyizopren
1880
1360
1050
1650
1670
50- 85
135150
68
80- 90
220
0.13
0.25
0.15
0.24
0.14
1 000 0C
(2.36a)
Hay l
= 1
(2.36b)
[80]
gn
ng bng 3
Hnh 2.34. S gii thch s gin n nhit khi ng cong th nng khng i xng (a) v
khng gin n nhit khi ng cong th nng i xng (b)
[81]
Hnh 2.34. S gin thch s gin n nhit khi ng cong th nng khng i
xng (a) v khng gin n nhit khi ng cong th nng i xng (b)
i vi mi loi vt liu (kim loi, gm v polymer), nng lng lien kt nguyn
t cng ln th h th nng ny cng su v cng hp hn; kt qa l vi mc tng nhit
cho, tng khong cch nguyn t s t hn, gy nn gi tr l nh hn. Bng 2.5
lit k h s gin n nhit di ca mt s vt liu. Ch n s ph thuc nhit ,
ln ca h s gin n tng theo nhit c bit nhanh khu vc gn OK. Cn cc gi
tr cho trn bng 2.5 l nhit phng, nu nh khng c ghi ch g khc.
Kim loi
Nh ghi bng 2.5 h s gin n nhit di ca mt s kim loi ph thng nm
trong khong t 5.10-6 n 25.10-6(oC)-1. Trong nhiu ng dng, n nh kch thc
cao khi nhit thng ging l rt quan trng. iu ny t c nh pht trin mt h
hp kim st niken v st coban c tr s l vo c 10-6(oC)-1. Mt hp kim nh th
c d kin c cc c trng gin n ging nh ca thu tinh Pyrex; khi c gn vi
Pyrex v chu bin thin nhit s trnh c ng sut nhit v s nt gy c th c
ch ni.
Gm
Trong nhiu vt liu gm, lc lin kt gia cc nguyn t kh mnh, v c phn
nh gi tr h s gin n nhit tng i thp, trong khong 0,5 10 -6 v 15.10-6(oC)-1.
cc gm khng tinh th v cc gm c cu trc tinh th lp phng. l l ng hng.
Ngc li, c mt s vt liu gm d hng, khi nung nng th chng co li theo mt s
hng tinh th v n ra theo mt vi hng khc. cc thu tinh hu c, h s gin n
ph thuc vo thnh phn. Thu tinh SiO2 tinh khit c h s gin n cc k nh: 0,5. 106 o
( C)-1. iu ny c gi thit bi mt nguyn t thp n mc s gin cch gia cc
nguyn t ch gy nn nhng bin i kch thc vi m tng i nh. Tp cht lm tng
h s gin n.
[82]
(2.38)
(2.39)
(2.40)
Trong : - dn in:
T - nhit tuyt i
L - hng s. Gi tr l thuyt ca L l 2,44.10 -8.W/(K)2, khng ph thuc nhit
v nh nhau i vi tt c mi kim loi nu nng lng nhit c vn chuyn hon
[84]
[85]
(2.41)
Trong E mun n hi
1- h s gin n nhit di
Khi nung nng (Tr > To) ng sut s l nn ( < 0), v s gin n ca thanh b
gi li. ng nhin, khi ithanh b lm lnh (T r < To) th s c ng sut ko (( > 0).
Cng vy, ng sut theo biu thc (2.41) cng l ng sut cn thit nn (hoc ko) n
hi thanh mu tr v di ban u sau khi n chu gin n do bin i nhit To Tr.
ng sut gy bi graient nhit .
Khi mt vt rn b nung hoc lm ngui, s phn b nhit bn trong s ph
thuc vo kch thc v hnh dng ca n, vo dn nhit ca vt liu v ch s bin
i nhit . ng sut nhit c th hnh thnh do graient nhit gy ra bi s nung
nng hoc lm ngui nhanh v lm cho phn ngoi thay i nhit nhanh hn phn
pha trong. Cc bin i kch thc b phn c tc dng hn ch s gin hoc co ca
nhng phn th tch xung quanh. Chng hn khi nung nng, phn ngoi ca mu s nng
hn, v do s gin mnh hn cc vng trong. Nh vy ng sut b mt v ng sut
nn, xut hin v b cn bng bi cc ng sut ko bn trong. Mi tng quan ng sut
trong ngoi s o li khi lm ngui nhanh lm cho b mt chu ng sut ko.
Sc nhit ca vt liu gin.
i vi cc kim loi v polymer d un, ng sut nhit sinh ra c th c gim
nh nh c bin dng n hi. Tuy nhin, i vi a s vt liu gm, tnh kh un s lm
tng kh nng ph hu gin do ng sut nhit. Ngui nhanh s gy ra sc nhit hn l
nung nng, v ng sut nhit sinh ra l ng sut ko. S to thnh vt nt v s lan
truyn cc vt nt t b mt xy ra d hn khi c ng sut ko.
Kh nng ca vt liu chng li loi ph hu ny c gi l bn xung nhit.
i vi gm b lm ngui nhanh, bn xung nhit ph thuc khng nhng vo ln
[86]
(2.42)
[87]
c)
a)
b)
(2.43)
[88]
B H
(2.44)
BO O H
(2.45)
(2.46)
B 0 H 0 M
(2.47)
tng cng n bng chnh t trng ring ca chng. S hng 0 M trong (2.47) chnh l
thnh phn ng gp .
ln ca
t l vi trng t vo l :
M mH
(2.48)
[89]
m r 1
(2.49)
K hiu
Cm ng t
(mt t
thng)
n v
2
Tesla(Wb/m )
CGS- EMU
gauss
Kg/s.C
Ampe.vng/m
C/m.s
oersted
Ampe.vng/m
C/m.s
Maxwell/cm2
( SI )
I
(CGS EMU )
thm t
ca
chn
khng
Khng n v
thm t (SI)
tng i
(CGS
EMU)
Henry/m
Kg.m/C
Khng n v
Khng
v
Khng n v
1Wb/m2 = 104
gauss
1ampe.vng/m
=4 .10-4
ersted
1ampe.vng/m
=
10-3
2
maxwell/cm
4 .10-7
henry/m =
emu
m (SI)
t ha
( h s t
ha)
Chuyn i
Gc
Cng t
trng
Vector
t
ha (T )
n v SI
Dn xut
Khng n v
Khng n v
Khng
v
(CGS EMU)
m 4 m
Ch :
n v Weber (Wb) L volt .second (V.s)
n v henry (H) l weber/ampe (Wb/A)
3.1.3.Ngun gc ca momen t
Cc tnh cht t v m ca vt liu u l h qu ca cc momen t gn vi tng
in t. Khi nim ny kh phc tp v da trn cc nguyn l c hc lng t nn vt
qu phm vi ca sch ny . Di y trnh by mt s c n gin ha. Mi in t
[90]
[91]
a)
[92]
Mt t thng B
Hnh 2.40. Cu hnh sp xp momen lng cc t trong vt liu nghch t (a) v thun
t (b) khi c v khng c t trng ngoi.
St t
Thun t
Chn khng
Nghch
Cng t trng H
H s t ha m
(th tch,n v SI)
-1.81.10-5
-0.96.10-5
-3.44.10-5
-2.85.10-5
-0.41.10-5
-2.38.10-5
-1.41.10-5
-1.56.10-5
Thun T
Vt liu
Nhm
Crm
Crm clorua
Mangan sulfat
Mlipden
Natri
Titan
Zicni
H s t ha m
(th tch,n v SI)
2.07.10-5
3.13.10-5
1.51.10-5
3.70.10-5
1.19.10-5
8.48.10-5
1.81.10-5
1.09.10-5
(2.50)
Mn2+
[94]
O2-
[95]
Nt mng tm mt
Nt mng 4 mt
Fe3+
Moomen t ring
Trit tiu hon ton
Fe2+
Momen t
ring (magneton
Bohr)
[96]
Fe3+
Fe2+
Mn2+
Co2+
Ni2+
Cu2+
[97]
[99]
[100]
kin chiu t trng xoay chiu vi tn hao nng lng phi thp; V d , lm li my
bin th. V l do ny din tch vng t tr phi nh, vng cn mnh v hp nh trn hnh
2.51. Do , vt liu t mn thm t ban u cao v kh thp. Vt liu c th t
c t ha bo ha bng mt t trng tng i thp( tc d b t ha v kh t)
v c tn hao nng lng t tr thp.
[101]
Vt liu
thm
Thnh phn t
tng
%
trng i
lng
ban
u
in
Tn hao t sut
Mt t
tr
trong
m
thng bo
mt
chu
ha, Tesla
trnh , J/m3
(Gauss)
( erg/ cm3)
99,95 Fe
2.14
270
(21 400)
( 2700)
2.01
40
(20 100)
(400)
1.60
120
(16 600)
(1200)
St thi thng mi
45 permalloy
Supermalloy
97 Fe, 3Si
55 Fe, 45 Ni
79 Ni, 15 Fe
150
1400
2500
75000
5Mo, 0,5 Mn
Ferrox cube A
48 Mn Fe2O4
36 NiFe2O4
4.7.10-7
4.5.10-7
6.0.10-7
0.80
(8 000)
1400
52 ZnFe2O4
Ferrox cube B
1.0.10-7
650
64 ZnFe2O4
[102]
0.33
40
(3 300)
(400)
0.36
35
(3 600)
(350)
2 000
107
tr
Trng kh
thnh phn t d
t
Hc
%
trng Br tesla
Ampe.vong/m
lng
(Gauss)
(oersted)
(BH)max
Nhit in tr
3
J/m
sut
curie
(Gauss
Tc 0C
m
Oersted)
Thp cacbon
Mactenxit
98,1 Fe
0,9 C1Mn
0,95
(9 500)
400
(50)
1 600
(0,2.106)
Thp volfram
92,8Fe6W
0,5 Cr
0,95
(9 500)
5 900
(74)
2 600
760
6
(0.33.10 )
3,0.10-7
Cunife
20Fe20Ni
60Cu
0,54
(5 400)
44 000
( 550)
12 000
(1,5.106)
410
1,8.10-7
Cunico
29Co21Ni
50Cu
0,34
(3 400)
54 000
(650)
6 400
(0,8.106)
860
2,4.10-7
0,76
(7 600)
123 000
( 1 550)
36 000
(4,5.106)
860
Vt liu
[103]
Ferrox dur
( nh hng)
BaO6Fe2O3
0,32
(3 200)
240 000
(3 000)
20 000
(2,5.106)
450
104
3.9.LU TR T
Trong nhng nm qua vt liu t ngy cng quan trng trong lnh vc lu tr
thng tin, v d, i vi my tnh. Trong khi cc linh kin bn dn ch dng ln b nh s
cp, th cc a v bng t li c kh nng lu tr nhng lng thng tin ln v vi gi
thnh thp hn. Ngy nay ngnh cng nghip ghi m v truyn hnh ang hy vng nhiu
vo bng t lu tr v ci to cc chng trnh audio (nghe) v video (nhn).
[104]
[105]
[107]
Hnh 2.54. Gin nhit - mt dng in-t trng ti hn phn chia cc trng thi siu
dn v dn in bnh thng (s )
[108]
Nhit ti Mt t Vt liu
Nhit
hn Tc, K
thng
ti
ti
hn
Tc, K
hn
c
(1
tesla )
Cc nguyn t
Cc hp cht v hp kim
Nhm
1.18
0.0105
Hp kim Nb- Ti 10.2
Mt t
thng
ti
hn
c
(1)
tesla
Ch
7.19
0.0803
Hp kim Nb- Zr
10.8
11
Thy ngn
4.15
0.0411
Nb3Sn
18.3
22
Thic
3.72
0.0305
Nb3Al
18.9
32
Titan
0.40
0.0056
Nb3Ge
23.0
30
Vofram
0.02
0.0001
V3Ga
16.5
22
Niobi (Nb)
9.26
Pb6Mo6O8
14.0
45
12
Hin tng siu dn c nhng ng dng thc t a dng. Cc nam chm siu dn
c kh nng to ra nhng t trng mnh c cng sut tiu th thp hn hin ang c
s dng trong cc thit b th nghim v nghin cu khoa hc. Chng cng ang c
ng dng trong lnh vc cng hng t (MR) v chp nh cng hng t (MRI). Trong y
hc nh mt cng c chun on . Nhng bt thng trong cc m v c quan ni tng
[109]
[110]
v bc sng
(2.51)
ca bc x in t u l hm s ca tc C
theo h thc:
C=
(2.52)
[111]
(2.53)
[112]
(2.55)
[113]
(2.56)
trng cn lu :
-Th nht ,cc trng thi ca nguyn t l gin on nn ch tn ti nhng khong
cch
tng ng vi nhng
[115]
(2.57)
(2.59)
do :
(2.60)
Chit sut
trung bnh
Gm
Thy tinh SiO2
Vt liu
Chit sut
trung bnh
Polyme
1.458
Polytetrafloetylen
[116]
1.35
1.51
Polyetylen
1.51
1.47
Polystyren
1.60
1.65
Polymetylmetacrylat
1.49
Corunng (Al2O3)
1.76
Polypropylen
1.49
Periclaz (MgO)
1.74
1.55
Spinen(MgAl2O4)
1.72
4.3.2 Phn x
Khi bc x nh sng i t mi trng ny sang mi trng khc ,mt phn nh
sng b bc x trn mt phn cch gia hai mi trng. Ngay c khi mi trng u v
trong sut. phn x R biu th phn nh sng b phn x mt phn cch tc l :
R=IR/I0
(2.61)
[117]
(2.64)
(2.65)
v ngn nht
( 2.66a)
[118]
( 2.66b)
(2.67)
[119]
(2.68)
(2.69)
Hnh 2.62. S truyn nh sng qua mi trng trong sut c phn x ti mt trc v mt sau
v hp th trong mi trng.
[120]
Hnh 2.63. S bin i theo bc sng ca cc t phn nh sng truyn qua, hp th v phn x
qua mt loi thy tinh xanh
Nh vy thnh phn ca tia ti truyn qua vt liu trong sut ph thuc vo nhng
tn hao do hp th v phn x. Hn na, cc thng s nh phn x, hp th v
truyn qua u ph thuc vo bc sng nh sng v phi tha mn biu thc(2.55).
Hnh 2.63 th hin cc mi quan h ny i vi thy tinh xanh. V d, vi nh sng c
bc sng 0.4m th t phn truyn qua,hp th v phn x ln lt vo khong
0.90;0.05 v 0.05. Tuy nhin vi bc sng 0.55m th cc t phn ny c cc gi tr
tng ng khong 0.5;0.48 v 0.02.
4.3.5 Mu sc
Cc vt liu trong sut hin mu l do c nhng di bc sng nh sng b hp th
chn lc, mu sc cm nhn c l kt qu t hp ca nhng bc sng c truyn
qua. Nu s hp th xy ra ng u vi tt c cc bc sng thy c th vt liu hin
ra khng mu, v d nh cc loi thy tinh v c tinh khit cao, kim cng v saphia
n tinh th tinh khit cao.
Thng thng, hp th chn lc l bng kch thch in t. Chng hn nh trng
hp cc cht bn dn c khe vng trng vi di nng lng photon nh sng nhn
thy(1.8eV n 3.1eV). phn nh sng nhn thy c nng lng ln hn E b hp th
chn lc bi cc chuyn di in t t vng ha tr ln vng dn. ng nhin, mt s
bc x b hp th ny li th pht khi cc in t kch thch nhy tr v nhng trng thi
nng lng thp ban u ca chng. S th pht ny xy ra khng nht thit cng tn
s nh khi hp th m trong trng hp chuyn ri bc x nhiu bc(hnh 2.61b) hoc
khng bc x (hnh 2.61c) th li l nh hn. Kt qu l mu sc ph thuc vo s phn
b tn s ca c chm sng truyn qua v chm sng th pht.
V d, cacmi sunfit(Cds) c khe vng khong 2.4V, do hp th nhng photon
c nng lng ln hn 2.4eV tng ng vi phn xanh v tm ca ph nh sng nhn
thy; mt s li th pht thnh nh sng vi nhng bc sng khc. Cn nh sng nhn
thy khng b hp th ch gm nhng photon c nng lng t 1.8eV n 2.4eV. Cds
hin mu vng da l do t hp chm truyn qua.
[121]
V d, nhm oxit hoc saphia n tinh th v tinh khit cao khng c mu. Nhng
rubi(saphia cha thm 0.5 n 2% crom oxit) li c mu chi. Ion Cr 3+ thay th Ion
Al+3 trong cu trc tinh th Al 2O3 v do a vo cc mc tp cht nm trong khe vng
rng ca saphia. C nhng bc sng c th s b hp th chn lc do h qu ca
nhng chuyn di hoc t nhng mc tp cht ny. truyn qua nh l mt hm s
ca bc sng i vi saphia v rubi c trnh by trn hnh 2.63. i vi saphia,
truyn qua t thay i trn ton ph nhn thy, to ra tnh khng mu. Tuy nhin, i vi
rubi c nhng pic(nh) hp th mnh xy ra, mt vng xnh-tm (gn 0.4Mm) v mt
vng vng lc (gn 0.6Mm). nh sng khng b hp th trn vi nh sng th pht a
li cho rubi mu thm.
Cc thy tinh v c c mu nh s c mt ca cc ion chuyn tip hoc t him.
C cc cp ion-mu in hnh nh Cu2+ xanh lc; Co2+ xanh tm, Cr3+ lc.
4.4 TNH C V TNH TRONG M CA CC CHT CCH IN
Mc trong m v c i vi cc vt liu in mi trong sut ph thuc rt
nhiu vo c tnh phn x bn trong v truyn qua ca chng. Nhiu vt liu in mi
vn l trong sut c th tr nn trong m hoc c nh phn x v khc x bn trong.
Mt chm sng lch hng v nha i l do nhiu ln tn x. Tnh c sinh ra khi mc
tn x mnh n mc trn thc t khng cn mt chm nh sng ti no c truyn
qua khng b lch ti c mt sau.
S tn x bn trong c th sinh ra theo nhiu nguyn nhn khc nhau. Cc mu a
tinh th vi chit sut khng ng hng thng l trong m. C phn x v khc x u
xy ra cc bin ht, gy nn s phn ta chm tia. l ssai khc v chit sut n gia
cc ht ln cn khng cng nh hng tinh th.
[122]
Hnh 2.65. S truyn nh sng qua ba mu nhm oxyt. T tri sang phi: vt liu n
tinh th (saphia) trong sut, vt liu a tinh th st cht (khng xp) trong m v vt liu a tinh
th (xp 5 %) c
nng lng nhit, c hay ha hc. Hn na s pht quang cn c phn loi theo ln
ca thi gian tr gia hp th v th pht. Nu nh th pht xy ra sau mt thi gian nh
hn nhiu so vi mt giy th hin tng c gi l hunh quang, nu xy ra sau thi
gian lu hn th gi l ln quang. C mt s vt liu c th to thnh cht hunh quang
hoc ln quang , chng gm mt s sunfit,oxit, volframat v mt s t cht hu c.
Thng thng th cc vt liu tinh khit khng to c cc hin tng ny v to ra
chng cn phi pha thm cc tp cht vi nng xc nh.
S pht quang c mt s ng dng thng mi. n hunh quang cu to bi mt
ng thy tinh, b mt bn trong c ph bng cc volframat hoc silicat theo cng ngh
c bit. nh sng cc tm c to ra trong mt loi n thy ngn phng in. Hnh
nh nhn thy trn mn truyn hnh chnh l sn phm ca s pht quang. Mt trong ca
mn hnh c ph bng mt loi vt liu s pht hunh quang khi c mt chm in t
trong n hnh phng nhanh ti mn. Cng c th thu tia rnghen v tia gamma bng
cch dng photpho pht nh sng nhn thy khi chiu vo mt chm bc x khng
nhn thy.
Mt s lp tip xc chnh lu P-N nh m t trong mc 2.1.2.4 cng c th
dng to ra nh sng nhn thy nh mt qu trnh gi l in pht quang. Khi mt in
th thun t qua linh kin, cc in t v l trng s trit tiu ln nhau trong vng ti
hp theo biu thc 2.67. Trong trng hp nng lng c sinh ra di nh sng
nhn thy. Nhng diode pht quang quen thuc pht ra nh sng nhn thy c s dng
hin s. Mu sc c trng ca Led ty thuc vo vt liu bn dn c dng.
4.5.2.Quang dn
Tnh dn in ca cc cht bn dn ph thuc vo s in t t do trong vng dn
v s lng l trng trong vng ha tr theo biu thc 2.12. Nng lng nhit gn vi cc
dao ng mng c th thc y cc kch thch in t trong in t t do v l trng
c to thnh nh trnh by trong mc 2.1.1.3. C th sn sinh cc ht ti b sung
thm nh cc chuyn ri in t c kch thch bi photon: dn in tng. Hin
tng ny gi l quang dn. Nh vy khi mt vt liu quang dn c chiu sng dn
in s tng ln.
[124]
[125]
4.5.3 Laser
Tt c cc chuyn di in t bc x trnh by cc phn trn u kaf t pht ,
c ngha l mt in t tt t mt trng thi nng lng cao xung mt trng thi nng
lng thp hn m khng c mt kch thch bn ngoi no. Nhng ln chuyn di c
lp vi nhau v ti nhng thi im ngu nhin, to ra bc x khng kt hp, ngha l
cc sng nh sng khng trng pha vi nhau. Nhng vi tia Laze, nh sng kt hp c
sn sinh bi cc chuyn di in t khi u t mt tc nhn kch thch bn ngoi.
Tuy c nhiu kiu Laze khc nhau nguyn l hot ng ca chng u c gii
thch bng Lazer cht rn rubi. Rubi n gin l n tinh th Al 2O3(saphia) c pha thm
0.05% ion Cr+3. Nh gii thch trn (mc 2.4.3.5), nhng ion ny lm cho rubi c
mu c trng, quan trng hn l chng to ra cc trng thi in t quyt nh hot
ng ca Laze. Rubi c dng thanh vi hai u phng song song v c mi nhn bng.
C hai u c m bc sao cho mt phn c ton phn cn u kia truyn qua mt
phn.
[126]
Hnh 2.67. S nng lng ca laser rubi (c nu cc con ng kch thch v ging
tt in t )
[127]
Hnh 2.68. S biu din pht x kch thch v khuch i nh sng ca laser rubi
[128]
Mt lot cc cht c th dng cho lase, trong c mt cht kh v thy tinh cng
nh cc it tip xc bn dn. Lase c nhiu ng dng khc nhau. Do cc chm tia lase
c th hi t to ra s lm nng cc b, chng c dng trong cc qu trnh phu
thut v ct gt, gia cng kim loi. Lase cng c dng lm cc ngun nh sng cho cc
h thng tin quang hc. Xa hn na, v cc chm tia lase l cc chm tia kt hp cao ,
chng c th c dng trong cc php o khong cch rt chnh xc.
[129]
Cu hi n tp chng 1
L thuyt:
1.Trnh by s khc nhau gia lin kt ion v lin kt cng ho tr. Nu r tc dng ca
lin kt ny trong cu to cht
2.Trnh by s sp sp cc nguyn t trong cht kh, cht lng v cht rn
3.K tn mt s trc tinh th ca vt rn. Nu c im chnh ca mng tinh th lp
phng tm mt (A1)
4.K tn mt s trc tinh th vt rn vi lin kt cng ho tr. Nu c im chnh ca
mng kim cng (A4)
5.C my loi sai lch ng trong tinh th. Nu c im ca sai lch xon.
6.Trnh by sai lch im trong mng tinh th.
7.C my loi sai lch ng trong tinh th. Nu c im ca sai lch bin
8.C my loi sai lch mt tinh th trong mng tinh th. Nu c im ca bin gii ht
9.Th no l n tinh th, a tinh th. Nu c tnh v ng dng ca chng
10.Trnh by cu trc ca polyme
II. CU HI V BI TP
Bi 1: Xc nh ch s phng sau ca cc vct A, B, C, D sau:
Bi 2: Xc nh ch s Miller ca cc mt A, B sau:
[130]
II. Cu hi n tp chng 2
1) Trnh by cu trc vng nng lng trong cc vt rn.
2) Da vo khi nim linh ng ca in t v cu trc vng nng lng hy nu c
im ca in tr kim loi, in tr ca bn dn tinh khit
3) Nu cu trc vng nng lng ca bn dn v in mi t chng minh tnh cht dn
in ca chng.
4) Nu v gii thch tnh cht dn in ca bn dn tp cht loi p.
5) Nu v gii thch tnh cht dn in ca bn dn tp cht loi n.
6) Trnh by tnh cht st in v p in ca vt liu.
7) Nu c ch dn nhit ca vt liu. T gii thch tnh cht dn nhit ca kim loi
8) Hy nu tnh cht dn in ca polymer.
9) Nu hiu ng ng sut nhit ca vt liu.
10)Nhit dung l g. Trnh by ngun gc ca nhit dung v s ph thuc ca nhit dung
theo nhit .
11)Nu c ch dn nhit ca vt liu. T gii thch tnh cht dn nhit ca gm, polymer
III. Cu hi n tp chng 3
1) Th no l cht thun t, nghch t. Nu c im ca chng
2) Hy nu ngun gc momen t ca vt liu.
3) Nu c im ca vt liu t cng.
4) Th no l cht phn st t, feri t. Nu c im ca chng.
5) Th no l vt liu t mm, nu tnh cht, c im ca vt liu t mm
6) nh hng ca nhit ln tnh cht t .
7) Hy nu ng dng ca vt liu t trong lu tr.
8) Gii thch ng cong t tr thng qua khi nim domen t
9) Phn bit t cng l g, t mm l g. Nu ng dng?
10)So snh s ging v khc nhau gia vt liu t cng v vt liu t mm
11)Nu c im ca siu dn, ng dng ca siu dn
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IV. Cu hi n tp chng4
1) Laser l g, ng dng ca laser
2) Nu tnh cht quang hc ca vt liu phi kim loi
3) Nu tnh cht quang hc ca kim loi, gii thch
4) Nu cc ng dng ca cc hin tng quang hc
5) Tng tc nh sng vi vt rn
6) Tng tc nguyn t v in t
7) Trnh by c ch pht quang ca vt liu
8) Nu s b cu to my pht laser
9) Hot ng ca my pht laser
10)Tnh c v tnh trong m ca cc cht cch in
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Mc lc
I. L THUYT............................................................................................................... 1
CHNG I CU TRC TINH TH CA VT LIU.........................................................1
1.1 CU TO V LIN KT NGUYN T......................................................................1
1.1.1 Khi nim v cu to nguyn t....................................................................1
1.1.2. Cc dng lin kt nguyn t trong cht rn..................................................2
1.1.2.1. Lin kt ng ho tr............................................................................... 2
1.1.2.2 Lin kt ion............................................................................................. 3
1.1.2.3 Lin kt kim loi...................................................................................... 4
1.1.2.4 Lin kt hn hp..................................................................................... 4
1.1.2.5 Lin kt yu ( lin kt Van der Waals).....................................................5
1.2. SP XP NGUYN T TRONG VT RN...............................................................7
1.2.1 Khng trt t hon ton, cht kh..................................................................7
1.2.2 Trt t l tng vt rn tinh th.....................................................................7
1.2.3 Cht lng, vt rn vi tinh th v v nh hnh...............................................8
1.2.4. Quan h cu trc v tnh cht.....................................................................10
1.3 KHI NIM V MNG TINH TH...........................................................................11
1.3.1.Tnh cht i xng ca tinh th...................................................................11
1.3.2. c s, h tinh th.................................................................................... 12
1.3.3. Phng v mt tinh th.............................................................................. 14
1.3.3.1 Ch s ca nt mng.............................................................................. 15
1.3.3.2. Ch s ca phng tinh th...................................................................15
1.3.3.3. Ch s Miller ca mt tinh th...............................................................16
1.3.3.4. Ch s Miller-Bravais trong h su phng............................................17
1.3.4. Mt nguyn t trong mng tinh th, h s xp cht..............................17
1.3.4.1. Mt xp............................................................................................ 17
1.3.4.2. Cch sp xp nguyn t trong mng tinh th, s xp cht..................19
1.3.5. L hng trong mng tinh th......................................................................19
1.4 MT S CU TRC TINH TH IN HNH CA VT RN.....................................21
1.4.1. Cu trc tinh th in hnh ca vt rn vi lin kt kim loi.......................21
1.4.1.1. Mng tinh th lp phng tm khi(A2)...............................................21
1.4.1.2 Mng lp phng tm mt (A1: lptm)....................................................22
1.4.1.3 Mng tinh th su phng xp cht(A3)................................................23
1.4.2 Mng tinh th ca vt rn c lin kt ng ho tr......................................24
1.4.2.1 Mng tinh th kim cng (A4)................................................................25
1.4.2.2 Mng Graphit......................................................................................... 25
1.4.2.3. Cu trc si cacbon v fullerene...........................................................25
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[134]
T TNH CA VT LIU......................................................................85
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