I.

L THUYT
CHNG I CU TRC TINH TH CA VT LIU
Ph thuc vo iu kin to thnh (nhit , p sut,) v tng tc gia cc
phn t cu thnh (lc lin kt gia cc phn t, nguyn t), vt cht c th tn ti
trng thi rn, lng, hoc kh (hi). Tnh cht ca vt rn (vt liu) ph thuc ch yu
vo cc cch sp xp ca cc phn t cu thnh v lc lin kt gia chng. Trong
chng ny cc khi nim c bn s c cp li: cu to nguyn t, cc dng lin
kt v cu trc tinh th, khng tinh th (v nh hnh) ca vt rn.

1.1 CU TO V LIN KT NGUYN T

Trong mc ny s trnh by mt s khi nim c bn v cu to nguyn t v cc
dng lin kt gia chng, nhng yu t ng vai tr quan trng i vi cu trc v tnh
cht ca vt rn v vt liu.
1.1.1 Khi nim v cu to nguyn t
Nguyn t l mt h thng bao gm ht nhn mang in dng v cc in t
(electron) mang in m chuyn ng xung quanh. Ht nhn nguyn t cu to t nhng
proton v nowtron. Ht ntron khng mang in cn ht proton mang in dng, c
in tch bng in tch ca nguyn t. trng thi thng, nguyn t trung ha in v
s lng proton bng s lng in t. S c c trng bng s th t nguyn t
(Z) trong bng tun hon Meneleev. V khi lng ca proton v ntron ln hn rt
nhiu so vi in t (khong 1830 ln) cho nn khi lng nguyn t c xc nh
bng khi lng ht nhn ca n. Vi cng khi lng in t v proton, ht nhn c th
cha s lng ntron khc nhau v to thnh nhng ng v ca cng mt nguyn t ha
hc.
Theo c hc lng t, xc sut tm thy in t trn mt qu o no xung
quang ht nhn c xc nh bng bn tham s, gi l s lng t. Ni mt cch khc,
trng thi nng lng ca mi in t trong nguyn t c xc nh bng bn s lng
t sau y:
S lng t chnh n: c cc gi tr bng 1, 2, 3, 4, xc nh nng lng cho
php ca in t. Nhng in t c cng s n hp thnh mt lp in t. K hiu cc lp
in t ln lt l K, L, M, N,tng ng vi n = 1, 2, 3, 4
S lng t phng v l: xc nh cc gi tr cho php ca mmen xung lng qu
o, c tr s bng 0, 1, 2,(n-1). Cc in t vi l khc nhau ca cng lp to thnh
nhng phn lp tng ng, k hiu ln lt l s, p, d, f, ng vi l = 0, 1, 2 ,3 ,
S lng t t

: xc nh kh nng nh hng cho php ca vect mmen

xung lng qu o i vi chiu ca t trng bn ngoi, c tr s bng 0,

l;

[1]

1,

2,

S lng t spin

: xc nh kh nng nh hng ngc chiu nhau cu vect

mmen xung lng spin ca in t,

Ngoi ra, s phn b in t theo cc mc trng thi (kh nng c mt ti mt
phn lp no vi mt trng thi nng lng xc nh) cn tun theo nguyn l pauli:
mi trng thi vi ba s lng t n, l,

xc nh ch c th cha hai in t vi spin

ngc chiu nhau. Da vo nguyn l ny, c th d on s in t cho php trn cc

bc nng lng (ng vi cc lp v phn lp) khc nhau (bng 1.1)
Bng 1.1 S lng in t (s trng thi nng lng) trn mt s lp v phn lp

K hiu S lng S lng in t c th

S lng K
hiu
phn lp trng thi
Trn phn
t chnh
lp in t
Trn lp
in t
c th
lp
1
K
s
1
2
2
s
1
2
2
L
8
p
3
6
s
1
2
3
M
p
3
6
18
d
5
10
s
1
2
p
3
6
4
N
32
d
5
10
f
7
14
V d. nguyn t ng (Cu) vi s th th nguyn t Z

, c phn phi in

t nh sau:
1
K

3
L

Trong s phn b in t ny (cn gi l cu hnh in t) ch r: s lng

t chnh (cc s nguyn 1, 2, 3), k hiu phn lp (cc ch s, p, d), s in t thuc
phn lp (s m trn k hiu phn lp) v k hiu lp in t (hng ch hoa K, L, M, N
pha di). Cn lu thm rng, mt iu kin xc nh, in t c th chuyn t trng
thi ny sang trng thi khc (thay i phn lp hoc lp), khi n s pht ra hoc hp
th nng lng

di dng cc lng t nh sang c tn s :

h.

h- hng s planck (h

6.627.

ec.s)

[2]

(1.1)

1.1.2. Cc dng lin kt nguyn t trong cht rn

1.1.2.1. Lin kt ng ho tr
Lin kt ny to ra khi hai hoc nhiu nguyn t gp chung nhau mt s in t
c tm in t lp ngoi cng (in t ho tr). V d, nguyn t ca cc nguyn
t ho hc trong nhm VII B ( bng tun hon Menelv, bng 1.2) coa cu trc in t
lp ngoi cng l s2p5 (by in t), c tm in t cn kt hp hai nguyn t li
bng cch gp chung hai in t lp ngoi. Do vy to ra mt lien kt ng ho tr. Lin
kt ng ho tr gia hai nguyn t Clo (Cl) trong phn t Cl2 c m t trn hnh 1.1a.
Lin kt ng ho tr trong vt rn c thc hin nh s tp th ho in t gia mt
nhm cc nguyn t ln cn. Trn hnh 1.1b nu m hnh lin kt ng ho tr (tp th
ho in t ca bn in t lp ngoi cng s2p2) trong mng tinh th Ge.
Nhng c im ca lin kt ng ho tr l:
- Lin kt c tnh nh hng, ngha l sc xut tn ti cc in t tham gia lin
kt ln nht theo phng ni tm cc nguyn t (hnh 1.1);
- Cng lin kt ph thuc rt mnh vo c tnh lin kt gia cc in t ho
tr vi ht nhn. V d, Cacbon dng th hnh kim cng c lin kt ng ho tr rt
mnh v bn in t ho tr (trong tng s su in t) lin kt cu hnh nh trc tip vi
ht nhn, trong khi , Sn th hin tnh lin kt ng ho tr rt yu v bn in t ho tr
(trong tng s 50 in t) nm xa ht nhn, do c lc lin kt yu i vi ht nhn. V
vy kim cng c nhit nng chy trn 3550C trong khi Sn nng chy 270C;

Hnh 1.1 Lin kt cng ho tr trong phn t kh CH4

Lin kt ng ha tr c th xy ra gia cc nguyn t cng loi (ca mt nguyn

t ha hc trong cc nhm t IVA n VIIA). l lin kt ng ha tr ng cc, v d
trong phn t Cl2 hoc cc tinh th kim cng, Silic, Gecmani. Lin kt ng ha tr
gia cc nguyn t khc loi (cc nguyn t ha hc nhm IIIA vi VA hoc nhm IIA
vi VIA). V d GaAs, GaPgi l lin kt ng ha tr d cc.

[3]

1.1.2.2 Lin kt ion

Hnh 1.2. S biu din lin kt ion trong LiF v NaCl

y l loi lin kt mnh, cc nguyn t cho bt in t lp ngoi cng, tr thnh

ion dng (catrion) hoc nhn thm in t in y lp ngoi cng v tr thnh ion
m (anion). Hnh 1.2a m t lin kt ion gia Li v F to thnh LiF: nguyn t Li cho
mt in t v tr thnh Li+; nguyn t F nhn thm mt in t tr thnh F -; kt qu
l to thnh hp cht LiF. Lin kt ion thng to thnh gia cc nguyn t c nhiu in
t ha tr (nhm VIB, VII B) vi cc nguyn t c t in t ha tr (nhm IB, IIB). Cc
oxit kim loi (Al2O3, MgO, CaO, Fe3O4, NiO) c lin kt ch yu l lin kt ion.
Cng ging lin kt ng ha tr, lin kt ion cng mnh (bn vng) khi cc
nguyn t cha cng t in t, tc l cc in t cho hoc nhn nm gn ht nhn. V d,
hydro (H) to vi F, Cl, Br, I cc hp cht HF, HCl, HBr, HNH NH bng nng lng
lin kt ion tng ng 5.81, 4.44, 3.75, v 3.06 eV/mol
Lin kt ion l lin kt khng nh hng.
1.1.2.3 Lin kt kim loi
Cc ion dng, to thnh mt mng xc nh, t trong khng gian in t t do
chung. l hnh nh lin kt kim loi. Nng lng lin kt l tng cng lc y v
lc ht tnh in gia cc ion dng v my in t t do (hnh 1.3).

Hnh 1.3 S lin kt kim loi

[4]

Lin kt kim loi thng c to nn t nhng nguyn t c t in t ha tr.

Cc nguyn t nhm IA trong bng tun hon Mendeleev, vi mt in t ha tr c tnh
kim loi in hnh. Cng dch sang phi bng tun hon, tnh cht ng ha tr trong lin
kt ca cc nguyn t tng ng cng tng ln v n Bismut (Bi) xut hin lin kt
hn hp kim loi ng ha tr . Cu trc tinh th ca cc cht vi lin kt kim loi c
tnh i xng rt cao.
1.1.2.4 Lin kt hn hp
Thc ra, lin kt ng ha tr thun ty ch c c trong trng hp lin kt
ng cc (gia cc nguyn t ca cng mt nguyn t ha hc). Trong trng hp lin
kt d cc (gia cc nguyn t ca cc nguyn t khc nhau). in ha tr tham gia lin
kt chu hai nh hng tri ngc :
- B ht bi ht nhn ca mnh
- B ht bi ht nhn nguyn t th hai to nguyn t chung
Kh nng ca ht nhn ht in t ha tr c gi l tnh m in ca nguyn t.
S khc nhau v tnh m in gia cc nguyn t trong lin kt ng ha tr lm cho m
my in t chung b bin dng v to thnh ngu cc in , tin t ca lin kt ion.
Tnh ion ca lin kt s cng ln nu s khc nhau v tnh m in ca cc nguyn t
cng ln. V d, Na c tnh m in bng 0,9 cn Cl bng 3,0 . Do vy lin kt gia Na
va Cl trong hp cht NaCl gm khong 52% lin kt ion v 48% lin kt ng ha tr .
Tt c nhng lin kt d cc u mang tnh cht hn hp gia lin kt ion v ng ha tr.
1.1.2.5 Lin kt yu ( lin kt Van der Waals)
Lin kt ng ha tr cho php l gii s to thnh nhng phn t nh nc (
hoc polyetylen (

O)

) . Nhng khng cho php l gii s to thnh mt s vt rn t

nhng phn t trung ha nh nc polyme

Hnh v minh ha lin kt Vander Waals gia hai lng cc

Trong nhiu phn t c lin kt ng ha tr, do s khc nhau v tnh m in ca

cc nguyn t, trng tm in tch dng v in tch m khng trng nhau, ngu cc
in s to thnh, phn t b phn cc. Lin kt van der waals l lin kt do hiu ng ht
nhau gia cc nguyn t hoc phn t b phn cc trng thi rn. Lin kt ny l loi
lin kt yu, rt r b ph v do ba ng nhit (khi tng nhit ). V vy nhng cht rn
trn c s lin kt van der waals c nhit nng chy thp.

[5]

Hnh 1.4 M hnh lin kt Vander Waals

[6]

[7]

1.2. SP XP NGUYN T TRONG VT RN

1.2.1 Khng trt t hon ton, cht kh
Cht kh chim ton b th tch cha n c th nn c. Cc nguyn t (phn t)
trong cht kh lun lun chuyn ng do ba ng nhit s nguyn t (phn t) trn 1 n
v th tch thay i. Ph thuc vo nhit v p sut. V tr tng ng gia chng lun
thay i theo quy lut ngu nhin. Trung bnh mi nguyn t ( phn t) chim 1 th tch
tng ng hnh cu. ng knh trung bnh 4 nm.
Ly tm nguyn t (phn t) ca mt cht kh no lm gc ta , v ng
cong xc sut tm thy 1 nguyn t (phn t) khc. Ti khong cch d k t gc ta
(hnh 1.5). Thy rng vi 0 < d <
bng 0. T gi tr d

(tng ng ng knh nguyn t, phn t) xc sut

xc sut P(d) s tng lin tc bng mt ti gi tr d tng ng

ng knh trung bnh ca khng gian hnh cu b nguyn t (phn t) chim ch .

P(d)

Hnh 1.5. ng cong xc sut tm thy nguyn t P(d)

trong cht kh (ly t gc ta l mt nguyn t bt k)

1.2.2 Trt t l tng vt rn tinh th

Trong vt rn tinh th mi nguyn t c v tr hon ton xc nh khng ch so vi
nhng nguyn t gn nht m c nhng nguyn t khc bt k xa hn. Khng gian xung
quanh cc nguyn t c cu to hon ton ng nht. Ni cch khc tinh th c trt t xa.
Coi cc nguyn t l nhng qu cu rn ging nhau , xp xt nhau lin tip theo ba
trc vung gc x, y, z trong khng gian. Ni cc tm ca qu cu nguyn t s c hnh
nh ca 1 mng tinh th lp phng n gin. Hnh lp phng nh nht vi 8 nh l
tm ca 8 nguyn t c gi l c s. Mi nguyn t l nh chung ca 8 c s gi
l nt mng. Khong cch gn nht gia cc nt (gn bng ng knh khn gian hnh
cu b nguyn t chim ch) chnh bng cnh a ca c s. ng vi gi tr nh nht ca
nng lng lin kt.
Hnh 1.7 l th xc sut tm thy nguyn t t khong cch d so vi nguyn t
chn lm gc ta . Khc vi cht kh, trong cht rn tinh th , P(d)=1 (cc pic trn
th) ti nhng gi tr d hon ton xc nh l d = a,, tng ng khong cch gia cc
nguyn t theo cnh, ng cho mt v ng cho khng gian ca c s.
[8]

P(d)

Hnh 1.6. M hnh mng tinh th

a 2 a 3

Hnh 1.7. xc sut tm thy nguyn t trong

mng tinh th

rng ca cc pic trn hnh 1.7 c trng cho giao ng ca cc nguyn t

quanh v tr cn bng (v tr nt mng) hiu ng ca ba ng nhit. Do s sp xp c trt
t ca cc nguyn t, ln trong vt rn tinh th xut hin c tnh quan trng: tnh d
hng, tc l s khc nhau v tnh cht (c, l , ha tnh ) theo cc hng khc nhau
ca tinh th. minh ha mun Young (E) ca ng (Cu) bng 67 GPa v 192 GPa
tng ng theo cc hng cnh v ng cho khng gian ca c s.
Cui cng mun lu rng s sp xp cc nguyn t trong vt rn theo mng tinh
th ph thuc vo nhiu yu t nh: lin kt gia cc nguyn t s lng cc nguyn t
gn nht hoc l s sp xp m mi nguyn t c th chp nhn.
1.2.3 Cht lng, vt rn vi tinh th v v nh hnh.
Mt cch gn ng, th tch ca mt khi lng cht lng l i lng khng i.
Ging nh trong vt rn cc nguyn t c xu th tip xc vi nhau v chim mt khng
gian hnh cu kch thc khong 0.25 nm. Nn cht long khng c tnh chu nn.
S khc nhau gia cht lng v vt rn th hin nh sau :
Cc nguyn t lun lun chuyn ng do ba ng nhit, v vy v tr ca chng
khng c xc nh. Trn hnh 1.8a biu din s m t v tr cc nguyn t ca mt
cht lng ti mt thi im trong khn gian hai chiu. Nhn thy rng, trong mt vng
khng gian nh (c kch thc nguyn t), mt s nguyn t sp xp c trt t (gii hn
bi ng t on trn hnh 1.8a), nhng khng n nh lun lun b ph v do ba ng
nhit. Nh vy cht lng c trt t gn. c im trt t gn c th hin trn ng
cong xc sut P(d) ph thuc vo khong cch d: P(d) =1 ti im ng vi khong cch
trung bnh gia cc nguyn t trong vng trt t gn xa hn na, gi tr xc sut P(d)
lun bng 1, tc ging nh trong cht kh. Ngc vi tnh d hng trong cht rn ca
vt rn, cht lng c tnh ng hng v trong cht lng s lng nguyn t, phn t
trung bnh trn mt n v chiu di v lc lin kt gia chng nh nhau. Theo mt
hng trong khng gian:

[9]

 xp cht (t l gia th tch do cc nguyn t chim ch trn tng th tch)

ca cht lng km hn so vi vt rn (qu trnh kt tinh hoc ng rn thng km theo
s gim th tch).
Mt cch gn ng c th minh ha cht kh, cht lng, cht rn bng hnh nh
tng ng: hi trng ha nhc cht khn gi khi ci bo ng (kh), khi kt thc bui
ha nhc (lng) v hng ng b i chun b duyt binh trn mt qung trng (rn).
Hy lm quen vi m c trng na ca cht lng l tnh linh ng ca cc
nguyn t (phn t), nh gi bng st. Cht lng c st thp nn tnh chy (kh
nng in y th tch cha n) cao. Thc nghim chng minh, trong chuyn bin pha
lng - rn ( nhit nng chy) st khng thay i.
i vi mt s cht, trng thi lng c st cao, cc nguyn t (phn t) khng
linh hot sp xp li theo trt t xa khi chuyn pha lng - rn: vt rn to
thnh khng c cu trc tinh th v c gi l vt rn v nh hnh.V d, thu tinh
c cu to bi cc phn t
trong cc nh l cc ion

, c cu trc hnh khi 4 mt tam gic u (hnh 1.9),

, cn tm khi l ion

iu kin ch to thu tinh bnh thng, khi 4 mt [SiO 4]4- (n v cu trc

ca SiO2 c chung nh O2-) (hnh 1.9b) v cho cu trc v nh hnh. Nu gim tc
ngui ca thu tinh lng, sao cho cc phn t SiO 2 c thi gian sp xp theo trt t xa,
s c thu tinh c cu trc tinh th (hnh 1.9c).
Ging nh cht lng, vt rn v nh hnh c tnh ng hng.

a)

P(d)

b)

Hnh 1.8. S phn b nguyn t trong cht lng

(a) v xc sut tm thy nguyn t theo khong
cch (b)

[10]

Hnh 1.9. cu trc khi bn mt [SiO 4]4- (a)

v m hnh hai chiu ca thy tinh th SiO2
(b), tinh th SiO2 (c)

Cn lu rng, nu lm ngui kim loi hoc hp kim lng vi tc ln (ln hn

10 - 109 oC/s), vt rn nhn c s c cu trc v nh hnh hoc cu trc tinh th vi
kch thc rt nh (khong nanomet), gi l vt rn v nh hnh hoc vi tinh th .
4

1.2.4. Quan h cu trc v tnh cht

T nhng trnh by cc phn trn v s c lm r thm cc chng tip
theo, c th thy rng yu t quyt nh tnh cht ca vt liu l cc dng lin kt v cu
trc ca n
Hnh 1.10 m t cc dng lin kt gia cc nguyn t (phn t) v bng 1.3 cho
nhng gi tr minh ha mt vi c trng tnh cht c hc, vt l, ha hc ca mt s vt
rn.
Tnh do v gin ca vt liu c th gii thch d dng thng qua dng lin kt
tng ng. i vi vt liu c lin kt ng ha tr, vi gc nghing c nh gia cc
nguyn t (phn t), kh nng bin dng do rt km: di tc dng ca ngoi lc,vt
liu b ph hy (tch t ) khi ng sut t tr s ph v lin kt.Tng t nh vy vi
vt liu c lin kt ion.
Nhit nng chy rt cao v tr ha hc ln ca vt liu gm trn c s cc
oxit kim loi nh MgO, Al2O3 , SiO2 c gii thch bng nng lng lin kt ng ha
tr (hoc ion) rt cao ca nhng vt liu ny so vi vt liu kim loi.
Trong vt liu kim loi (lin kt kim loi), cu trc mng ca cc ion dng trong
khng gian in t t do chung cho php cc ion x dch di tc dng ngoi lc: vt
liu kim loi c tnh do cao. Ngoi ra, cc in t t do trong mng tinh th kim loi vi
tnh linh ng cao, d dng chuyn ng theo hng tc dng ca in trng bn ngoi
v gradient nhit . Kim loi do vy c dn in v dn nhit cao hn so vi cc vt
liu khc.
ng ho tr (Kim
cng, Si, Ge, GaAs

Ceramic
As
Sn

Graphit
Polyme

SiO2
Mica

Van der waals

Fe, Ni, Co
Cr
Kim loi
(Cu, Na, Ag

CsCl
Ion

Hnh 1.10 S m t cc dng lin kt trong mt s loi vt liu thng gp

Nh trnh by mc 1.1.2.4 v hnh 1.10, trong thc t phn ln cc loi vt

liu c dng lin kt hn hp (kim loi ng ha tr; kim loi ion; ng ha tr -

[11]

ion;.v..v..) v vy tnh cht ca vt liu s l tng hp ca cc tnh cht c trng cho

dng lin kt nu trn. c im lin kt v tnh cht va mt s vt liu nu bng 1.3.

Bng 1.3. c im lin kt v tnh cht va mt s vt liu

Dng
lin kt

Cht v nng
lng lin kt M hnh lin kt
(eV/nguyn t)

Tnh cht
Tc

Tnh
do

ng
ho tr

Kim cng (7,0)

Cao

Cao

Thp

Cao

Thp

Cho (hoc nhn)

Cao
in t ho tr

Cao

Thp

Cao

Thp

Lc ht, y tnh
in
Mng ca cc trung
ion trong khng bnhgian in t t
cao
do chung

trung
bnh-

trung
bnh-

trung
bnh-

Cao

cao

thp

thp

Lc ht ngu cc Thp

Thp

Cao

Cao

ion

Kim
loi

NaCl (3,3)

Na (1,1)
cu (3,5)
Ti (4,8)

H2 (0,01)
Van der
CH4
waals
Cl2

trung
bnh

(*) Tc nhit nng chy; E- m un Young, -h s gin di, -in tr sut

kt thc phn ny, xin lu rng tnh cht ca vt liu cn ph thuc rt nhiu
vo cu trc ca chng. Nhng nghin cu mi nht trong tinh th hc cho thy, bng
cch to ra hp kim v nh hnh v vi tinh th c th nhn c nhng vt liu c c, l,
ha tnh rt c bit, khc hn nhng tnh cht thng thng m cc vt liu ny c, vi
cu trc tinh th quen thuc.

1.3 KHI NIM V MNG TINH TH

nghin cu s sp xp ca cc nguyn t (ion, phn t) trong vt rn tinh th
v so snh cc kiu sp xp khc nhau, cn a ra khi nim v mng khng gian tinh th
(mng tinh th). Mng tinh th l i tng nghin cu u tin v quan trng ca vt
liu hc v n rt cn thit nghin cu nhiu vn khc. mc ny s trnh by
nhng khi nim c bn nht v mng tinh th.
1.3.1.Tnh cht i xng ca tinh th
i xng l mt trong nhng tnh cht quan trng ca tinh th, n th hin hnh
dng bn ngoi, cu trc bn trong cng nh cc tnh cht
Tnh i xng ca tinh th c c trng bi cc yu t i xng. Mi yu t i
xng tng ng vi mt thao tc i xng, tc l vi mt bin i hnh hc xc nh
mt h thng im, ng, phn t ,... t trng lp vi chnh mnh trong khng gian.
Nhng yu t i xng quan trng l
[12]

-Tm i xng (tm nghch o, k hiu C hoc i) : cc im a1, a2, a3 ,..gi l

i xng qua tm vi b1, b2, b3 ,.. tng ng nu chng trng lp nhau tng cp mt bng
php nghch o qua tm C (hnh 1.11a)
-Mt chiu gng (k hiu P hoc m): a1, a2, a3,.. c gi l i xng gng
vi b1, b2, b3 ,. .tng ng nu chng trng lp nhau tng cp mt bng php chiu gng
qua mt phng P (hnh 1.11b).T hp ca cc im a1 c gi l i xng gng vi t
hp ca b1 qua P nu tng im a1 i xng gng tng ng vi tng im b1 qua mt
phng P
-Trc i xng (k hiu L hoc n): cc im a1 c th trng lp nhau bng php
quay quanh trc L mt gc , khi chng c gi l i xng nhau qua trc L. S
nguyn n

2
gi l bc ca trc i xng. chng minh c rng ch tn ti trc

i xng vi n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 (khng tn ti trc i xng bc 5 v bc cao hn 6 (hnh

1.11c)

Hnh 1.11.

Cc yu t i xng: tm i xng (a),

mt i xng (b) v trc i xng (c)

- Php tnh tin (k hiu t) l mt trong nhng yu t i xng quan trng ca cu

trc mng tinh th, ng vi thao tc tnh tin mng tinh th theo mt hng no trong
khng gian i mt s nguyn ln trn di xc nh tinh th trng vi chnh n.S
trng lp y cn hiu l trng lp cc yu t hnh hc gii hn tinh th v c cc tnh
cht khc. di n v tin (

c gi l chu k tun hon ca mng tinh th theo

hng khng gian cho.

Ngoi nhng yu t i xng n, cn tn ti nhng yu t i xng phc hp
gm hai hay nhiu yu t i xng hn, l: trc quay chiu gng, trc quay chiu
tm, trc xon, mt nh trt. c gi quan tm c th tm hiu thm nhng ti liu
chuyn su v tinh th hc.

[13]

1.3.2. c s, h tinh th
c nhng khi nim u tin v mng tinh th,hy xut pht t khi nim n
gin v c s nh nu mc 1.2.2 v hnh 1.6. Thy rng, do tnh i xng ca tinh
th, t mt c s,bng thao tc i xng, tnh tin theo 3 chiu trong khng gian s
nhn c ton b mng tinh th.

H
th

tinh Quan h Quan h Cc kiu mng Bravais

gia cc gia cc
n gin
Tm y
trc
gc

Ba
nghing

a # b #c

# #
# 90

Mt
Nghing

a # b #c

= =
90 #

Trc
thoi

a # b #c

==
= 90

Ba
Phng
(thoi)

a=b=c

==
# 90

Su
Phng

a=b#c

= =
90 = =
120

Bn
Phng

a=b#c

==
= 90

a = b =c

==
= 90

Lp
Phng

Tm Khi

Bng 1.4 Cc kiu mng Bravais

[14]

Tm mt

 c s c xy dng trn 3 vect n v

tng ng 3 trc ta Ox,

Oy v Oz.Tm ca cc nguyn t (ion hoc phn t) nh l cc nt mng. Mdun

ca 3 vect a =

,b=

,c=

l kch thc c s,cn gi l hng s mng hay

chu k tun hon (chu k tnh tin) ca mng tinh th theo ba chiu tng ng.Cc gc
to bi 3 vect ,
gia

, gia

, , khi hp tng i mt k hiu l

v

( l gc gia

Thy rng trong cng mng tinh th c th chn c nhiu kiu c s khc
nhau (hnh 1.12a).Tuy nhin, v c s l n v tun hon nh nht ca mng tinh th
cho nn vic la chn phi tha mn nguyn tc sao cho n i din y cho tnh cht
v cu trc ca ton b tinh th. Cc nguyn tc l:
-Tnh i xng ca c s phi l Tnh i xng ca tinh th (v hnh dng bn
ngoi v cc tnh cht);
-S cnh bng nhau v s gc (gia cc cnh) bng nhau ca phi nhiu nht;
-Nu c cc gc vung gia cc cnh th s gc phi nhiu nht;
-C th tch nh nht hoc cc cnh bn ngn nht.
c s c th tch nh nht v ch c tm nguyn t (ion, phn t) nm nh
(nt mng) gi l c s n gin (hnh 1.12b).

a)

b)
Hnh 1.12. Cc loi c s c th (a) v c s n gin (b) ca mng tinh th

Ph thuc vo tng quan gia ba vect

; ba gc

ngi ta phn

bit by h tinh th khc nhau (bng 1.4).

Bng cch tnh tin, a cc phn t (nguyn t, ion hay phn t) ln tm cc mt
bn, tm y hoc tm cc c s n gin, hay ni cch khc, nu khng quan tm n
tnh i xng ca cc phn t ti nt mng tinh th, ch kho st v tr ca chng,thy
rng ch c mi bn cch tnh tin cc phn t trong khng gian nhn c mi

[15]

bn kiu mng tinh th khc nhau thuc by h tinh th ni trn. l mi bn kiu

mng tinh th Bravais.Tt c cc mng tinh th ca cht rn u biu din bng mt
trong mi bn kiu mng Bravais (bng 1.4).
1.3.3. Phng v mt tinh th
Phng php biu din tinh th bng c s nh trnh by trn c u im l
tnh trc quan cao nhng khng phi lc no cng d thc hin, nht l i vi cc mng
tinh th phc tp ca nhiu nguyn t (nhiu nguyn t, ion hay phn t to thnh). N
cng khng thun tin khi cn xc nh v tr tng i gia cc phn t hnh hc (im,
ng, mt) trong mng.
Mt phng php khc cng rt thng dng trong tinh th hc l biu din cc
phn t hnh hc ca mng tinh th bng cc k hiu ton hc phng php gii tch
m t tinh th - s c nhc n phn ny.
p dng thun li phng php biu din ny,thng chn h truc ta vi
ba trc Ox, Oy, Oz tng ng vi 3 vect

ca c s, nt O l gc ta (hnh

1.13). n v o trn ba trc l gi tr hng s mng a, b, c.

1.3.3.1 Ch s ca nt mng
V tr nt mng c k hiu bng ba s,tng ng ta ca nt mng trong h
trc ta chn, t trong ngoc vung kp ([[..]]); gi tr m ca cc ta c k
hiu bng du (-) trn ta tng ng .V d nt A trn hnh 1.13 c k hiu [[111]].
Do tnh i xng ca mng tinh th nn ta ca mi nt mng c th suy ra bng php
tnh tin cc nt trong c s vi cc bc bng s nguyn ln hng s mng a, b, c. V
d, nu ta ca mt nt trong c s l x0, y0, z0 th ta ca mt nt khc s l :
x1 = x0 + n1a
y1 = y0 + n2b

(1.28)

z1 = z0 + n3c
trong n1 ,n2 ,n3 - cc s nguyn
Ta cn c th biu din di dng vect :
=

+ n1

+ n2

+ n3

(1.29)

1.3.3.2. Ch s ca phng tinh th

Phng tinh th l ng thng i qua cc nt trong mng tinh th. Cch nhau
nhng khong cch theo quy lut xc nh v c k hiu bng ba s nguyn u, v, w t
l thun vi ta ca mt nt gn gc ta nht, nm trn phng . Ch s m c
k hiu (-) trn. Trn hnh 1.13 nu mt s phng [111]. [110]. [221] Vect n v
ca phng s l:

[16]

=u +v +w

(1.30)

Do tnh i xng, mun tm ch ca

mt phng no . Ch cn tm ch s ca
phng song song vi n. i qua gc ta
. Nhng phng song song nhng c tnh
cht ging nhau to thnh h phng, k
hiu [u v w], Nhng phng khng song
song nhng c tnh cht ging hnhau
Hnh 1.13 Ch s ng v im trong mng tinh th
to thnh h phng. K hiu
<uvw>. Cc phng trong mt h c
tr s tuyt i u, v, w ging nhau, ch i chon hay. V d (hnh 1.13) h phng <100>
gm su phng: [010], [001], [100], [0 0], [00 ] v [ 00].
1.3.3.3. Ch s Miller ca mt tinh th
Mt phng tinh th l mt phng trong khng gian mng tinh th c to nn bi
nhng nt mng, sp sp theo mt trt t xc nh.
Ch s Miller ca mt phng tinh th c k hiu bng ba s nguyn h, k, l t l
nghch vi nhng on thng, k t gc ta n giao im mt phng vi cc trc
ta tng ng Ox, Oy, Oz. C th xc nh nhng ch s h, k, l ca mt mt phng
tinh th theo cc bc (v d cc mt phng trn hnh 1.14) nh sau :
-

Tm giao im ca mt phng vi ba trc ta Ox, Oy, Oz;

- Xc nh di on thng t gc ta n cc giao im tng ng ni

trn(1; ; 1/3 trn hnh 1.14), ly gi tr nghch o ca chng (1; 2; 3).
- Quy ng mu s chung cc s nghch o tm c, ba s nguyn h, k, l, trn
phn t s s l ch s Miller ca mt phng ang xt. Cc mt Phng trn Hnh 1.14 c
ch s tng ng bn tri
Phng trnh ca mt Phng trong khng gian l:
(1.31)
Nu mt phng song song vi truc ta , ch s Miller tng ng s t l vi 1/
ngha kaf n bng (v d, mt (001) l mt ca c s song song trc Ox v Oy). Gi Tr
m c k hiu bng (-) trn ch s tng ng.
H mt phng tinh th, k hiu(h, k, l) l nhng mt song song, c tnh cht ging
nhau, v vy mun xc nh ch s ca mt mt bt k ch cn xc nh ch s ca mt
phng song song vi n, nm c s cha trc . Cc mt phng tuy khng song
song nhng c tnh chy ging nhau to mt h mt phng. Ch s Miller ca cc mt
phng trong h c k hiu di dng {hkl}. Gi tr tuyt i h, k, l ca chng l nh
nhau, ch i v tr cho nhau, v d {100} trong mng tinh th c c s l hnh lp

[17]

phng gm: (100), (101), (001). ( 00). (0 0) v (00 ) tc l cc mt bn v y ca

c s.

Hnh 1.14. Cch xc nh ch s Miller ca mt phng P

1.3.3.4. Ch s Miller-Bravais trong h su phng

Cc ch s Miller trong h ta ba trc t ra khng thch hp i vi h tinh th
su phng, v cc phng hoc mt cng h c ch s khc nhau.
biu din phng v mt tinh th trong h trong h su phng, phi dng ch
s Miller- Bravais, tng ng vi h ta gm bn trc: Ox, Oy, Oz v Ou (hnh 1.15),
Ba trc Ox, Oy, Ou nm trn cng mt phng y ca c s, tng cp hp vi nhau
mt gc 120 vung gc vi trc Oz. Gc ta O l tm ca mt y. Cch xc nh ch
s Miller-Bravais hon ton ging nh trng hp ch s Miller. k hiu mt tinh th,
cc ch s c vit trong ngoc n c dng (hkil). C th chng minh ng quan h:
i = - (h +k)

(1.32)

Trn hnh 1.15 ch s ca cc mt BCH, ABHG v AGLF tng ng l (010).

(10 0) v (1 00). Nhng mt phng ny thuc cng mt h, vi tp hp cc gi tr s
tuyt i ca cc ch s l nh nhau {01 10}. Nu dng ch s Miller. K hiu cc mt
phng tng ng l (010), (100) v (1 0). R rang ch s Miller-Bravais th hin ng
hn tnh i xng ca tinh th su phng.

[18]

1.3.4. Mt nguyn t trong mng tinh th, h s xp cht

1.3.4.1. Mt xp
Trong tinh th hc, vic xc nh mt xp theo mt phng trn mt mt hoc
trong khng gian (trong c s) nhiu kh rt cn thit. V d, nu bit mt sp xp
ca cc mt v phng trong tinh th c th xc nh kh nng bin dng do ca tinh
th, di tc dng ngoi lc bin dng do s xy ra trc tin theo nhng mt v
phng trnh tinh th c mt xp ln nht.
Mt sp xp theo phng trn mt mt hoc trong mt mng tinh th c trng
cho kh nng chim ch ca nguyn t trong khng gian mng, ln lt ng xc nh
theo cc biu thc :
(1.33)
Trong :Ml, Ms, Mu - mt xp theo phng, mt th tch (mng)
L, v, s

- chiu di, din tch hoc th tch b chim ch bi t

L, S,V

- tng chiu di, din tch, th tch ang xt trong tinh th.

[19]

Hnh 1.16. Cch xc nh mt sp xp Ml, Ms, Mv ca c s (mng tinh th)

Hnh 1.16 l v d cch tnh Ml, Ms, Mv cho mt tinh th lp phng tm mt

(bng 1.4). Coi cc nt mng l nguyn t hnh cu, bn knh r, c s kch thc , kh
:
Mt xp theo phng [010]:
(1.34)
Mt xp theo phng [ 10]:

(1.35)
Mt xp theo mt (100):
(1.36)
Mt xp theo mt (111):

(1.37)
Mt th tch ca mng lp phng tm mt
(1.38)
1.3.4.2. Cch sp xp nguyn t trong mng tinh th, s xp cht
Nh trnh by trn, mt xp
c trng kh nng xp cht (kh nng xp
st, tip xc vi nhau) ca cc nguyn t.
Gi s cc nguyn t l nhng qu cu rn
cng kch thc c sp xp sao cho mi
nguyn t tip xc vi su nguyn t xung
quanh, chng s to ra mt lp nguyn t
xp cht (mt xp cht) (lp A rn hnh
1.17). Mun m bo tnh xp cht (c li
v mt nng lng khi to mng tinh th).
Lp nguyn t tip theo ch c th xp vo
lm B (cho lp B) hoc lm C tng ng
lp C (hnh 1.17). Nh vy s c hai kh
nng nguyn t xp cht: theo trt t
ABABABhoc ABCABCABC.
[20]

Hnh 1.17. Cch sp xp nguyn t theo

nt phc (b.c)

S ph v trt t xp gi l khuyt tt xp, trt t sp xp s c cp li

mc 1.4.1.
Hy quay li khi nim nt mng, cho n by gi nt mng vn c quan nim
nh mt im trong khng gian mng tinh th, tng ng vi n ch mt nguyn t (hoc
ion). l trng hp mng tinh th cc kim loi nguyn cht vi lin kt kim loi.
Trong mng tinh th cc hp cht gm nhiu nguyn t khc loi vi lin kt ion
hoc ng ha tr, ng vi mt nt mng c th hai hoc nhiu nguyn t (ion), to thnh
nt phc. Cc nt phc hon ton tng ng vi nhau v s lng, s loi nguyn t,
nh hng v.v... Hnh 1.18 cho v d v cch sp xp nt mng trong mng tinh th ng
(Cu) v nt phc trong NaCl, cristobalit-B (SiO2).
1.3.5. L hng trong mng tinh th
L hng trong mng tinh th l khng gian trng, gii hn bi hnh khi nhiu
mt, mi nh khi l tm nguyn t (ion) ti nt mng tinh th.

Hnh 1.19. Cc loi l hng trong mng lp phng tm mt (a)

V lp phng tm khi (b)
Kch thc ca l hng c nh gi bng bn knh qu cu nht c th t vo
l hng . Hnh dng l hng ph thuc vo cu trc ca mng tinh th. V d, mng
lp phng n gin c l hng lp phng, nh l nt mng c s ngoi ra, l hng
hay gp c dng khi tm mt, bn mt. Trn hnh 1.19 m t hai loi l hng ny trong
mng lp phng tm mt v lp phng tm khi. Bng 1.5 cho thy cc dng v s
lng l hng trong mt vi mng tinh th in hnh.
L hng c vai tr quan trng trong nhiu trng hp, v d trong qua trnh to
thnh hp kim hoc chuyn pha (xem chng 3). Trong nhng iu kin xc nh mt s
nguyn t ca nguyn t hp kim chim ch trong cc loi l hng khc nhau ca mng
tinh th kim loi nn, nu chng c kch thc tng thch, kt qu s cho nhng hiu
ng mnh thay i cu trc v tnh cht ca vt liu.
[21]

Bng 1.5: dng v s lng l hng trong mt s mng tinh th

Cu trc mng tinh

th
Lp phng tm mt
Su phng xp cht
Lp phng tm khi
Lp phng n gin

S lng l hng
trn mt nguyn
t
2
1
2
1
6
3
1

S lng l hng
trong c s

Dng l hng
Khi 4 mt
Khi 8 mt
Khi 4 mt
Khi 8 mt
Khi 8 mt
Khi 4 mt
Khi lp phng

8
4
12
6
6
12
1

1.4 MT S CU TRC TINH TH IN HNH CA VT RN

phn ny, mt s cu trc tinh th in hnh ca vt rn vi cc dng lin kt
khc nhau s c cp.
1.4.1. Cu trc tinh th in hnh ca vt rn vi lin kt kim loi
Lin kt kim loi l lin kt khng nh hng (xem muc 1.1.2.3), cc nguyn t
(ion, phn t) lun c xu hng sp xp st cht, vi nhiu lin kt ngn, mnh. iu ny
gii thch ti sao vt rn vi lin kt kim loi (phn ln cc nguyn t kim loi trong
bng tun hon Menleev) c cu trc mng vi mt xp

v tnh i xng cao

so vi nhng vt rn khc.
Ba cu trc tinh th in hnh ca lin kt kim loi l lp phng tm khi
(lptk), lp phng tm mt

(lptm) v su phng xp cht

(spxc) (hnh 1.20).

1.4.1.1. Mng tinh th lp phng tm khi(A2)

c s l hnh lp phng vi cnh bng a, v vy mng ny ch c mt hng s
mng. Cc nguyn t nm nh v trung tm (hnh 1.20a) s nguyn t n ca c s
c tnh nh sau: mi nguyn t nh ng thi l ca 8 c s nn thuc v mt
ch c 1/8 nguyn t, nguyn t tm hon ton thuc c s.
n

.8 + 1

nguyn t

Trong m t tinh th. Thng quy c nguyn t nh c s trng vi gc ta

l mt trong nhng nguyn t gc, nh vy ta ca cc nguyn t gc trong mng
l

v [

]].

[22]

Hnh 1.20 Cch sp xp nguyn t trong c s mng

A2 (a) A1 (b) v A3 (c)
Mi nguyn t trong mng
cch

c bao quanh bi tm nguyn t vi khong

v 6 nguyn t khc xa hn vi khong cch l a. Nh vy s sp xp ca mng

k bng 8 ( hoc k

8+6)

T hnh 1.20a c th thy trong mng

, theo phng

111

v theo mt {110}

mt xp cao nht. tnh c mt xp p dng cng thc (1.33)

(theo(110)) = =

( theo c s)=
Trong

(1.39)

(1.40)

, n- s nguyn t trong mt (110) v trong c s;

r, a- bn knh nguyn t v kch thc c s.

Cho rng theo <111> cc nguyn t xp st nhau (hnh 1.20a), ta c quan h gia r
v a l:
4r = a

, suy ra r =

Kt hp (1.40) vi (1.38) v (1.39) tnh c:

Ms (theo (110)) = 83,4 %, Mv (theo mng) = 68%

[23]

(1.41)

C hai loi l hng trong mng A2. L hng khi tm mt, kch thc 0,154d (d
ng knh nguyn t), nm tm mt v gia cc cnh bn, s lng n8m (bng 1.5):
n8m =(1/4).12+(1/2).6=6.
L hng khi bn mt nm trn on thng ni im gia cc cnh i din
ca cc mt bn, kch thc 0,221 d vi s lng (bng 1.5):
n4m=(1/2).24=12.
Cc nguyn t kim loi nh Mo, cht rn, W, -Fe,c cu trc mng A2
1.4.1.2 Mng lp phng tm mt (A1: lptm)
Trong c s mng A1 ngoi tm nguyn t nh cn su nguyn t tm mt
bn (hnh 1.20b); s lng nguyn t trong mt l:

Ta cc nguyn t gc l

S sp xp ca mng A1 l K=12 v mi nguyn t bao quanh bi 12 nguyn t

ln cn vi khong cch a

2
(hnh 1.20 b) . Cho rng cc nguyn t xp kht nhau theo
2

phng <110>, c th rt ra quan h bn knh nguyn t r v kch thc c s l:

4r 2 r

a 2
2

(1.42)

Kt hp (1.42) vi (1.33), (1.34), (1.35), (1.36), (1.37) v (1.38) chng minh c

rng trong mng A1 phng xp cht l <110>, mt xp cht l {111} vi Ms=92%, mt
xp ca mng l Mv=74%.
Trt t xp cht (xem mc 1.3.4.2) nguyn t trong mng A1 l ABC ABC ABC
(hnh 1.21a). Mng A1 cng c hai loi l hng (hnh 1.19): bn l hng khi tm mt
(bng 1.5) kch thc 0,414d nm trung tm khi v im gia cc mt bn, tm l hng
khi bn mt nm trn cc ng cho <111> tnh t nh (hnh 1.19a) c kch thc
0,225d. chnh iu ny (kch thc l hng) mi l yu t quyt nh cho s ha tan di
dng xen k
Cc nguyn t kim loi -Fe, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Al,c trng bi cu trc mng
A1.

[24]

1.4.1.3 Mng tinh th su phng xp cht(A3)

c s ca mng su phng xp cht l khi lng tr lc gic vi hng s mng
l a v c, cc nguyn t nm 12 gc, tm hai mt y v tm ca ba khi lng tr tam
1
2

1
2

gic u cch nhau (hnh 1.20 c). S lng nguyn t gc n l: n 12 2 3 6 . Cc

nguyn t xp st nhau theo 2110 v 202 . V vy c th suy ra trong mng A3 quan h
a
2

gia r, a v c l r , c
Vi

c
2
a tc l 1, 6333.
a
3

c
1, 6333. , s sp xp ca mng s l K=12. (v d, nguyn t tm y
a

cch u su nguyn t cng y v su nguyn t hai pha trn v di). s sp

xp K s thay i (K12) khi c/a 1,6333, v vy t s c/a l ch tiu nh gi xp
cht ca mng su phng. Trong thc t, mng su phng c coi l xp cht nu c/a
nm trong khong 1.571.64.

[25]

Bng 1.6. cu trc mng tinh th ca mt s kim loi

Hng s mng, nm

Kim loi

Kiu mng

Mo

Lptk, A2

0,3147

Cr

Lptk, A2

0,2884

-Fe

Lptk, A2

0,3165

Lptk, A2

0,2866

-Fe(950oC)

Lptm, A1

0,3656

Ni

Lptm, A1

0,3524

Cu

Lptm, A1

0,3615

Al

Lptm, A1

0,4049

-Ti(880oC)

Lptk, A2

0,3306

-Ti

Spxc, A3

0,2951

0,4679

Mg

Spxc, A3

0,3209

0,5210

Zn

Spxc, A3

0,2664

0,4945

Mng A3 thc cht c to thnh do cch sp xp cc lp xp cht theo trt t

ABABAB, ch khc so vi mng A1 trt t tng ng l ABCABCABCV vy,
mng A1 v A3 c nhiu c tnh ging nhau, v d K=12, Ms theo <111> trong mng
A1 v (0001) trong mng A3 u bng 92%, M v=74%, v tr v kch thc cc l hng
trong nhng mng ny cng tng t (bng 1.5). Cch sp xp ging nhau gia mng A1
v A3 cho php chng c th thay i trt t xp cht chuyn t kiu mng ny sang
kiu mng kia trong iu kin xc nh. l mt trong nhng kh nng chuyn pha
quan trng ca vt liu.
Mt xp cao (Mv=74%) ca mng A1, A3 cho php hai mng ny c kh nng
bin dng do cao hn so vi mng A2
Cc nguyn t kim loi nh Be, Mg, Ca,c cu trc A3.
Trong bng 1.6 gii thiu mt s kiu mng tinh th ca cc kim loi in hnh.
1.4.2 Mng tinh th ca vt rn c lin kt ng ho tr
Trong vt rn ng ha tr s sp xp K xc nh theo nguyn tc:
K=8-N

[26]

trong N- s in t tham gia lin kt ng ha tr.

Nh xt mc 1.1.4 cc cht ca cc nguyn t ha hc thuc cc nhm IVB, VB,
VIB, VIIB trong bng tun hon Mendeleev c to nn bi lin kt ng ha tr thun
ty, sau y kho st cc cu trc tinh th tiu biu ca chng.
1.4.2.1 Mng tinh th kim cng (A4)
Kim cng l mt dng tn ti (th hnh) ca cacbon vi cu hnh electron l 1s 2
2s2 2p2, vy s e lp tham gia lin kt l N = 4, s sp xp s l 4 tc l mi mt nguyn
t cacbon c 4 nguyn t bao quanh gn nht.

Hnh 1.22 Mng tinh th ca kim cng a,b v lin kt trong tinh th c
c s mng kim cng (hnh 1.14a), c to thnh trn c s ca c s A1
c thm bn nguyn t bn trong vi cc ta (xem hnh 1.14b): 1/4, 1/4, 1/4 (1); 3/4,
3/4, 1/4 (2); 1/4, 3/4,3/4 (3); 3/4, 1/4, 3/4 (4). nm tm ca bn khi 1/8 c ch u
nhau. Cc nguyn t cacbon u c lin kt ng ha tr vi nng lng ln nn kim
cng c cng rt cao (cao nht trong thang cng).
1.4.2.2 Mng Graphit
C mng lc gic lp (hnh 1.15a), trong mt lp khong cch gia cc nguyn t
a = 0,246nm, lin kt ng ho tr . Khong cch gia cc lp c = 0,671nm, tng ng
vi lin kt yu Van der Waals, garafit rt d b tch lp, rt mm, n c coi nh l
mt trong nhng cht rn c cng thp nht.

Hnh 1.23. Cu trc mng ca grafit (a), si cacbon (b) v fullerene (c).
1.4.2.3. Cu trc si cacbon v fullerene
Si cacbon v fullerene l hai dng th hnh na ca cacbon. Thnh tu mi ca
cc cng trnh nghin cu trong lnh vc vt liu trong nhng nm gn y.

[27]

Si cacbon c s dng lm ct trong vt liu compozit vi nu l nhng

vt liu khc (xem mc 12.4). Cu trc si cacbon c th tng tng nh nhng lp
v nguyn t cacbon, sp sp theo hnh lc gic, c lin kt ng ha tr mnh (ging
nh lp y c s mng graphit). Cun xung quanh trc si (hnh 1.23b). Nng lng
lin kt ng ha tr mnh trn cc lp v ca si cho php to c nhng vt liu
compozit c bn gp ba ln nhng nh hn bn ln so vi thp.
Phn t cacbon C60, gi l fullerene, do hai nh bc hc ngi Anh H. Kroto v
M R.Smalley tng hp c ln u tin vo nm 1985. Tuy nhin gi thit v s tn
ti cu trc l ca phn t cacbon c cc nh vy l thin vn xng khi nghin
cu cu trc v thanh phn cc vt th v tr t nhng nm by mi ca th k ny.
Cu trc phn t fullerene (C60) trnh by trn hnh 1.23c: 60 nguyn t cacbon
sp xp trn mt mt cu theo nh ca 12 ng gic u v 20 lc gic u cc ng gic
lin kt nhau qua lc gic. Mt phn t fulleren c hnh dng ging nh qu bng
nhiu mi. Lin kt gia cc nguyn t cacbon trong fulleren lun lun l ng ha tr
thun ty.
Cu trc i xng trn, cng cao ca nhng qu bng mini fullerene ang
l ti nguyn cu hp dn ca cc nh vt liu hc khng nhng trong nghin cu c
bn m c nhng lnh vc ng dng trong k thut v cng ngh.
1.4.2.4. Cc cu trc mng tinh th lien kt ng ha tr khc
Ging trng hp kim cng cu trc mng tinh th ca cc hp cht c lin kt
ng ha tr mnh ph thuc vo gc gia cc lin kt, V d, mng tinh th ca
SiO2c cu to bi nhng kh t din tam gic u (hnh 1.9)b trong mi mt ion
Si4+ c bao quanh bng bn ion O 2- . m bo trung ha in, mi inon O 2- l nh
chung ca hai khi t din.
Ph thuc iu kin to thnh, cch xp xp cc khi t din. SiO 2 c th cho tinh
th thch anh vi cu trc su phng hoc -cristobalit vi cu trc lp phng (hnh
1.24). Trong iu kin ngui nhanh s nhn c thy tinh (cu trc v inh hnh) (xem
mc 1.2.3, hnh 1,9b).

Hnh 1.24 Sp xp khi t din (SiO4) trong thch anh (a), cristobalit (b).
Cu trc khi t din c m t trn lun lun l c s ca cc mng tinh th
silicat. Tuy nhin, ph thuc vo thnh phn ha hc v iu kin to thnh, khng phi
lc no cc khi t din cng lin kt vi nhau bng mt nh chung nh tinh th SiO 2 .

[28]

V d, trong tinh th forsterit, Mg2SiO4, khi t din (SiO4)4- khng lin kt bng nh
ching m bng ion Mg2+ lm trung gian (hnh 1.24c)
Slicat l u vo quang trng trong cng ngh ch to vt liu gm (ceramic)
nh s trnh by chng 9.
1.4.3. Mng tinh th ca vt rn c lin kt ion
Cu trc tinh th ca vt rn (hp cht) kin kt ion ph thuc vo hai yu t:
- T s ca s lng ion m (anion) trn s lng ion dng (cation): t s ny
c nh i vi tng hp cht, ph thuc vo s lng in t tham gia lin kt, m bo
tnh trung ha v in ca h thng;
- Tng quan kich thc gia anion v cation; lin kt ion l loi khng inh
hng (xem mc 1.1.4.3) v vy trong mng tinh th, cc ion lun c xu hng sp xp
t xp cht v tnh i xng cao nht.
Sau y nu mt s kiu mng in hnh.
1.4.3.1. Mng tinh th hp cht dng MX
Xt mng tinh th ca NaCL v CsCl (hnh 1.25). Mng tinh th NaCL ( kiu B1)
to nn trn c s mng lptm ca anion Cl - v ngc li. T s cc ion Cl- trn s ion Na+
lun lun bng 1. Khc vi mang NaCl, mng tinh th ca CsCl(kiu B2) c to nn
trn c s mng lp phng n gin ca ion CL - , ion Cs+ nm l hng khi lp
phng ( tm khi lp phng) (hnh 1.25b), t s lng ion Cl- trn ion Cs+ lun l 1
nhng trong mng NaCl. Mi ion Cs+ bao quanh bng tm ion Cl- v ngc li.

Cl

Cs

a)

b)

c)

Hnh 1.25. Mng tinh th ca hp cht MX ; a)NaCl; b) CsCl; C)ZnS

S khc nhau v cu trc mng tinh th gia NaCl v CsCl (mc d Na v CS c

cng ha tr) l do s khc nhau v tng quan kch thc gia cc ion Na + v Cs+ so vi
ion Cl- . T s tng ng l dNa/dCl = 0,91; cc ion trong mang CsCl sp xp theo kiu
B2 s c mt xp M V = 68% cao hn so vi sp xp theo kiu B1 ca NaCl (M v =
53%).
Mt mng tinh th tiu biu khc ca hp cht kiu MX l ca ZnS (kiu B3). To
bi mng lptm ca cc ion S2- , ion Zn2+ chim v tr trong ca mng kim cng (hnh
[29]

1.25c), t s lng ion ns/nZn= 4/4= , s ion S2- bao quanh ion Zn2+ bng bn v ngc
li.
1.4.3.2. Mng tinh th hp cht dng MX2 (hoc M2X)

b)

c)

d)

Hnh 1.26 c s mng tinh th : a) CaF2; b) Cu2O; c) TiO2 v BaTiO3

Cc iu kin nX = 2nM v KMX phi lun lun c m bo trong mng tinh th

hp cht ny. iu hnh c ba kiu mng sau:
Mng tinh th fluorit CaF2 (kiu C1), to bi c s mng lptm ca Ca 2+
tm ion F- nm tm ca tm hnh khi nh, c th tiinhs c d dng n F = 2 nc82+ = 8 v
KF-Ca= 2KCa-F = 8, t s 1:2 tha mn;
Mng tinh th cuprit Cu2O (kiu C3) : cc ion O 2- to mng lptk, bn ion
Cu+ chim v tr ging nh bn nguyn t bn trong c s kim cng (hnh 1.26b). n o2
= 2nCu+ = 4; KCu-O = 4, t s 2:1 lun lun tha mn;
Mng tinh th cuprit Cu2O (kiu C4), to thnh bi mng bn phng tm
khi ca Ti vi = 0.45 nm ; c = 0.29 nm, Cc ion O 2- chim v tr m tartreen hnh
1.26c. S ion Ti4+ trong c s l 1/8x8 + 1 =2, ca O 2- l 1/2x4 + 2 = 4.Mi ion Ti4+
c su ion O2- gn nht bao quanh ( KO-Ti = 6), cn mi ion O2- c bao quanh bi 3
ion Ti4+ .T s 1:2 tha mn.
1.4.3.3. Mng tinh th hp cht dng Mm Nn Xp
Mng tinh th mt s vt liu gm (ceramic) cng c th c tao thnh trn c
s mng tinh th ca hai hay nhiu li cation (M , N). Bari titanat c c hai loi cation
Ba2+ v Ti4+. Hp cht c cu trc mng lp phng 120C. (hnh 1.26d).

[30]

Nh vy , c th hnh dung mng tinh th hp cht ion c to thnh trn c s

c s ca anion, cc cation chim mt phn hoc ton b l hng ca mng anion
.Bng 1.7 l c trng cu trc ca mt s hp cht ion in hnh
Bng 1.7. Mt s hp cht ion v cu trc mng tinh th ca chng
Dng
hp cht

MX

MX2
M2X
M2X3
MNX3
MN2X4

Mng tinh
Dng l hng
th
ca
do cation chim
anion
lptm
Khi 4 mt
spxc
Khi 4 mt
lptm

Khi 8 mt

T l s l
hng
b Hp cht in hnh
chim
1/2
ZnS, SiC, ZnO, CdS
1/2
ZnS, ZnO
NaCl, MgO, CaO, MnS,
1
TiC
1
NiAs, FeS

spxc
Khi 8 mt
lp
n Khi
lp
1
gin
phng
lptm
Khi 8 mt
1/2
lp
n Khi
lp
1/2
gin
phng
lptm
Khi 4 mt
1
spxc
Khi 4 mt
2/3
lptm
lptm
-

CsCl
TiO, CdCl2
CaF2, ZnO2
Na2O, Li2O
Al2O3, Fe2O3, Cr2O3
BatiO3, SrZnO3
MgAl2O4, FeAl2O4

1.4.4 Cu trc polymer

Khc vi cu trc tinh th cc vt rn xt, trong mi n v cu thnh ( c
s) to nn t mt vi nguyn t (ion, phn t), polymer c to nn t rt nhiu phn
t, mi phn t li c th to bi hang triu nguyn t, ly polyetylen phn t, mi phn
t li c th to bi hng triu nguyn t, ly polyetylen (C 2H4)n lm v d: mi phn t
ca polyetylen cu to bi cc lin kt ng ha tr mnh v c hng gia cacbon v
hyro:

Lin kt theo (1.44) cho phn t polyetylen mch kn. Nu lin kt kp gia hai
nguyn t C m sang hai pha: lc c th s c v hn cc phn t (1.45) lin kt
vi nhau, cho mt mch h dng:
Mch polymer to thnh theo (1.46) gi l mch thng. Tuy nhin, khi nim
thng ch l tng i bi v gc to bi gia cc lin kt ca nguyn t cacbon l
109,5 ging nh trong kiem cng (hnh 1.27a v 1.27b).

[31]

Cu lu rng, khng phi lc no mch polymer cng thng, gi tr n trong cng

thc phn t y t 103 n 106, v vy c nhng mch di n 10m.
Lin kt gia cc mnh trong polymer thc hin bng lc van der Waals.Thng
thng polymer l vt liu v nh hnh (hnh 1.27b), tuy nhin khi cc mch sp xp
theo mt t xc nh s c polymer tinh th (hnh 1.27d). Qu trnhkt tinh ca
polymer ph thuc vo tng iu kin c th v cu trc ca cc mch thnh phn (xem
mc 1.1.2.4).
Trong thc t, khng c c polymer hon ton trt t (tinh th). Gia cc vng
trt t bao gi cng tn ti nhng vng khng trt t (v nh hnh). l polyme bn
tinh th(hnh 1.27c). vng sp xp trt t trong polymer cng cu to t cc c s
(hnh 1.27d).
1.4.5 Dng th hnh
l s tn ti hai hay nhiu cu trc mng tinh th khc nhau ca cng mt
nguyn t hoc mt hp cht ha hc. Qu trnh thay i cu trc mng t dng th hnh
ny sang dng th hnh khc gi l chuyn bin hnh. Cc dng th hnh thng c k
hiu bng cc ch ci Hy Lp nh : , , ,
Cacbon l mt trong nhng nguyn t c nhiu dng th hnh rt nhiu dng th
hnh rt khc nhai, khng nhng v cu trc mng m cn tnh cht: b hng (v nh
hnh), graphit (mng A9), kim cng (mng A4), s cacbon ( cu trc lp cun), fullere
(cu trc cu C60, C100,)(xem mc 1.4.2)
S tn ti cc dng th hnh ph thuc vo hai yu t c bn l nhit v p
sut. V d, graphit c th to c iu kin bnh thng, trong khi chuyn bin th
hnh graphit sang kim cng ch xy ra nhit v p sut rt cao.
Cc dng th hnh ca st (Fe) cng c th c coi l mt v d in hnh, c
nhiu ngha trong k thut. Cu trc mng A2 ca -Fe tn ti nhit thp hn
911C, -Fe l vt liu st t in hnh nhit di 769C. T 911C n 1392C l Fe, mng A1. Nhit 1932C l nhit chuyn bin th hnh -Fe -Fe (mng A2
ging -Fe).
S khc nhau v cu trc mng tinh th (s lng, kch thc l hng-xem mc
1.3.5, 1.4.1.1, 1.4.1.2) cho php -Fe c kh nng ho tan c nhiu hn ng k cc
nguyn t ca mt s nguyn t khc nhau (v d, 2,14% C (trng lng) 1147C) so
vi -Fe (tng ng o,02%C(trng lng) 727C). chnh l c s ca cc cng
ngh nhieeyj luyn nh ti, ram, ha nhit luyn nhm iu chnh tnh cht ca tho
theo yu cu v iu kin lm vic c th

1.5 SAI LCH MNG TINH TH

Cc cu trc tinh th trnh by trn gi l cu trc ca tinh th l tng v khi
xen k b qua dao ng nhit v cc sai hng trong trt t sp xp ca cc nguyn t
(ion, phn t). nhng sai hng c gi l sai lch mng tinh th hay khuyt tt mng
v ni dung phn ny mun cp n iu .
[32]

Mt s tnh cht ca vt rn tinh th nh mun Young (E), h s gin n nhit,

tnh cht t,ch ph thuc ch yu vo dng v lc lin kt , m hu nh khng thay
i do sai lch mng. Ngc li, i vi mt s tnh cht khc nh hnh vi ca tinh th
di tc dugnj ngoi lc (bin cng, bin dng do, xem chng 4), dn nhit ca cc
cht cch in, bn dn, th sai lch mng ng vai tr rt quan trng.
Ph thuc vo kch thc theo ba chiu trong khng gian, sai lch mng chia
thnh: sai lch im, ng, mt v khi.
1.5.1. Sai lch im.
l loi sai lch c kch thc rt nh (c kch thc nguyn t) theo ba chiu
khng gian (hnh 1.28).Mt s sai lch in hnh l nt trng,nguyn t xen k,nguyn t
tp cht.

1.5.1.1.Nt trng v nguyn t xen k.

Trong tinh th,nguyn t lun tham gia dao ng nhit quanh v tr cn bng ca
nt mng. nhit T xc nh, nng lng dao ng ca mi nguyn t tun theo l
thuyt thng k Maxwell_boltzman nn khng ging nhau.khi mt s nguyn t no
c nng lng cao, vi bin dao ng ln. Chng c kh nng bt khi nt mng,
li nt mng khng c nguyn t,gi l nt trng (hnh 1.28a,b). Sau khi ri khi nt
mng, nguyn t c th chuyn sang v tr gia cc nt (c ch to nt trng Frenkel)
(hnh 1.28a) to ra sai lch im dng nguyn t xen k. C ch th hai gi l c ch to
nt trng ca Schottky, khi nguyn t ri v tr cn bng ra b mt tinh th (hinh 1.28b).
S xut hin nt trng v nguyn t xen k lun lm xut hin trng ng sut
hnh cu (trng ng sut ko xung quanh nt trng v nn xung quanh nguyn t xen
k). Nng lng to nguyn t xen k ln hn nhiu so vi to nt trng (trong kim loi
tng quan ny vo khong 7:1) v vy nng thc t nguyn t xen k t hn nhiu so
vi nt trng (bng 1.7) v chng t nh hng n tnh cht ca mng tinh th.
Mt nt trng c th biu din theo cng thc:
[33]

Trong n, N _S nt trng v s nt mng;

Q _ nng lng to nt trng;
k _hng s Boltzman;
T _ Nhit tuyt i.
Nh vy nng nt trng ph thuc vo nhit theo hm m, tng nhanh theo
nhit v c gi tr ln nht kim loi lng.
Nt trng c nh hng ln n c ch v tc khuch tn ca kim loi (hp
kim) trng thi rn. V vy c ngha quan trng thc t, v d, khi ng u ha
thnh phn hp kim sau khi nu luyn hoc khi ha gi dung rn qu bo ha (xem 3.3,
3.4). Ngoi ra n cng nh hng n chuyn ng (leo) ca lch trong qu trnh bin
dng do nhit cao (hin tng do nhit cao, xem mc 4.5.4).
1.5.1.2.Nguyn t tp cht.
Trong thc t khng th c vt liu hoc kim loi sch tuyt i. Cc cng ngh
nu luyn hin i nht trong phng th nghim cng ch cho php t c sch
khong 99,999% hoc cao hn mt cht. Ph thuc vo kch thc cc nguyn t tp
cht c th thay th nguyn t nn nt mng (hnh 1.28d) hoc xen k gia cc nt
(hnh 1.28c) (xen k ca nguyn t tp cht khc so vi cc nguyn t t xen k mc
1.5.1.1). y cng l sai lch im v lun km theo trng ng sut hnh cu xung
quanh.
Nguyn t xen k d khuch tn hn so vi nguyn t thay th v khng cn nt
trng lm trung gian (xem mc 3.4).
Cc nguyn t tp cht, trong iu kin xc nh c th tng tc v cn tr
chuyn ng ca lch, v chng c nh hng n c ch,hnh thi qu trnh bin dng
do,ha bn (xem mc 4.2 v mc 1.5.2).
Trong tinh th ng ha tr, nguyn t tp cht nh hng n tnh cht in.V
d, trong mng Ge, bn in t ha tr to lin kt gia cc nt,nu nguyn t tp cht As
(nm in t ha tr) thay th nguyn t Ge, in t ha tr th nm (tha)ca As s c
t do chuyn ng di tc dng in trng ngoi. Ngc li nu nguyn t tp cht l
Ga (ba in t ha tr) th s thiu mt in t cho lin kt, chnh l c s ch to
cc cht bn dn (dng p hoc n) t Ge hoc hay Si.
Sai lch im trong mng ion lun mang tnh phc hp. Cu trc mng ion lun
phi m bo trung ha in tch,v vy mt nt trng cation lun tn ti song somg vi
mt nt trng anion bn cnh, l sai lch im Schottky (hnh 1.28e) hay mt cation
xen k s cnh mt nt trng cation (hnh 1.28f): sai lch im Frenkel.
Nng sai lch im trong mng ion nh hng n dn in ca vt rn ion.
Cui cng cn ni thm rng, trong thc t th rt t khi s dng kim loi tinh
khit m thng ch to hp kim bng cch ha tan mt nguyn t khc (tp cht c )
vo kim loi nn. Nguyn t ca nguyn t hp kim s sp xp theo cch xen k hoc
[34]

thay th nh trn trong mng tinh th, to dung dch rn xen k hoc thay th (xem mc
2.2).
1.5.2. Sai lch ng.
Sai lch ng, v sau s c gi l lch (dislocation) l loi sai lch c kch
thc nh (c kch thc nguyn t) theo hai chiu v rt ln theo chiu th ba trong
tinh th.
L thuyt lch l c s l thuyt bn, b phn quan trng ca vt l cht rn ni
chung v vt l kim loi ni ring. Da vo l thuyt lch ngy nay c th gii thch
nhiu vn v c tnh, l tnh ca kim loi v hp kim m trc y khng gii thch
c bng l thuyt c in. Hn na l thuyt lch cho php m ra trin vng mi ,to
ln trong vic ch to kim loi v hp kim c nhng tnh cht c bit (v d, bn cao,
tnh siu do).
1.5.2.1.Nhng khi nim chung
a) Lch bin
C th hnh dung bng cch chn them mt na mt phng nguyen t ABCD vo
na phn trn ca tinh th l tng (hnh 1.29a). S xut hin thm na mt lm cho cc
mt phng nguyn t khc nm v hai pha tr nn khng hon ton song song vi nhau
na.Na tinh th trn pha ng AB s chu mt ng sut nn, na di ng sut ko
(hnh 1.29 a, b). ng AB c chiu di hng vn hng s mng, gi l trc lch,l bin
gii pha trong ca na mt ABCD, v vy gi l lch bin. Nu nga mt nm pha
trn,lch bin c gi l lch dng k hiu l (hnh 1.29b) trong trng hp ngc
li s c lch m, k hiu du T.
Cng c th hnh dung lch bin c tp bng cch trt p m t trn hnh 1.29
nh sau: Ct tinh th theo mt phng P (hnh 1.29c), p phn pha trn mt P sao cho
pha phi dch i mt on bng hng s mng,pha tri vn gi nguyn v tr c. Kt qu
nhn c (hnh 1.29d) cng ging m hnh biu din hnh 1.29b, mt phng p, cha
trc lch gi l mt trt.

[35]

Hnh 1.29 M hnh to lch trong mng tinh th

b)Lch xon
C th hnh dung bng m hnh trt p (hnh 1.30) ct tinh th l tng theo mt
na mt phng ABCD (hnh 1.30a), x dch hai mp ngoi ngc chiu nhau sao cho cc
nguyn t mt ngoi x dch mt on bng hng s mng theo ng CD; nh vy cc
nguyn t s sp xp li quanh AB theo ng xon c (hinh 1.30b), AB goi l trc ca
lch xon.

Hnh 1.30 M hnh to lch xon (b) v s sp xp cc nguyn t xung quanh

ng lch xon (c)

Lch xon phi c k hiu, nu ng xon c nguyn t xung quanh trc lch
theo chiu kim ng h, ngc li s c lch tri. Mt ABCD mt trt ca lch
xon.Xung quanh lch xon cng tn ti trng ng sut n hi. C th c so snh v tr
cc mt phng tinh th trong mng l tng, cha lch bin v lch xon trn hnh 1.31.
c)Lch hn hp
Trong thc t rt nhiu trng hp mt lch c c trng ca c lch bin v lch
xon, l lch hn hp. Hnh 1.32 biu din cch to lch hn hp bng trt p.
ng AC l trc lch, cc thnh phn bin (CC)v xon (AA)cng nh m hnh sp
xp nguyn t xung quanh trc lch c biu din trn hnh 1.32b.

[36]

d)c trng v hnh thi ca lch

C th tng tng d dng rng do trt t sp xp nguyn t b ph v, tinh th
xung quanh lch b bin dng, cng gn ng lch,bin dng cng ln.vng tinh th
xung quanh ng lch (trc lch) vi bn knh c hng s mng gi l li lch (tm
lch), vecto Bugers ( b) l vector c trng x lch mng, xc nh phn nng lng
t do gia tng khi c lch (xem mc 1.5.2.2a).
C th xc nh vecto Bugers nh sau:Trn mt ngoi tinh th l tng chn nt A
bt k lm im xut pht, ln lt ni vecto t A n cc nt khc, theo chiu ty
to mt vng vecto khp kn xung quanh ng lch gi l vong Bugers ( hnh 1.33a).
Nu v li vng Bugers ny trn mt ngoi tinh th thc cha lch (hnh 1.32b,c)
n s khng khp kn,vecto BA =b l vecto cn thit khp kn vng Bugers gi l
vecto Bugers.
Lch bin c vecto Bugers vung gc vi ng lch, cn vecto Bugers ca lch
xon song song vi ng lch,vect b ca lch hn hp s c c hai thnh phn.
Ga tr ca vecto Bugers c tnh bng:
Trong a hng s mng:
U, v, w _ ch s phng tinh th cha b
Nu: n =1, ta c lch n v
n = s nguyn: lch hon chnh
n # s nguyn: lch khng hon chnh.

Mt lch, k hiu p, l tng chiu di trc lch trong mt n v th tch ca

tinh th, th nguyn. Bng 1.8 cho gi tri mt lch trong mt s kim loi v tinh th
ion.
1.5.2.2.Nng lng v chuyn ng ca lch
a) Nng lng ca lch (F)
Nng lng ca lch l phn gia tng nng lng t do ca mng do trng bin
dng n hi xut hin xung quanh lch, c tnh bng :
Trong a h s c gi tr t 0,5 n 1:
[37]

G _ mdun trt, c trng lin kt (kh nng chng li trt) ca mng

tinh th
b _ gi tr ca vecto Bugers
L _chiu di lch.
T ( 1.49) c nhn xt :
-

Khc vi sai lch im, nng lng ca lch khng ph thuc vo nhit .

- E t l vi chiu di lch, v vy lun tn ti lc cng T tc dng theo ng

lch vi:
Nhm ko dui thng ng lch, gim nng lng t do. Hiu ng ny c
ngha quan trng trong tng tc gia lch v chng ngi khi n chuyn ng di tc
dng ca ng sut bn ngoi (xem mc 1.5.5, 4.2.3 v 4.7).
- E t l vi bnh phng vecto Bugers (b) v vy lch vi vecto nb lun c xu
hng phn li thnh n lch vi vecto bn gim nng lng t do v (nb)
V d:

hoc

Kt qu ca cc phn ng lch phn

ly hoc tng hp c th to ra nhng li lch trong mng tinh th.

- Lch c th tng tc ln nhau (ht nhau khi khc du, y nhau khi cng du)
v vy chng c th hu ln nhau (khi cng vect b nhng khc du) hoc to ra nhng
tng lch, bc lch, vng lch.
- Cui cng, lch cng c tng tc vi cc loi khuyt tt khc (Xem mc 1.5.5)
nn c nh hng n tnh do, bn ca tinh th.
b) Chuyn ng ca lch
Mt khc bit gia lch v khuyt tt im l lch cn bng v nhit ng km
hn. V vy n lun c xu hng chuyn ng.
Gi s c mt lch bin (hnh 1.34a) trong tinh th, di tc dng ng sut ngoi
t, lch s chuyn ng theo c ch trt trn mt trt P. Lc na mt phng tha (A
trn hnh 1.35a.d) s ln lt i ch cho nhng na mt khc ng trc n pha trn
mt P, theo c ch tip sc (hnh 1.34b, e, f) cho n khi ra n mt ngoi, to mt bc
bin dng bng gi tr b (hnh 1.34c, g)
Ngoi trt nh trn, lch cn c th leo khi n thay i mt phng cha n (mt
trt). Chuyn ng leo c ch xy ra vi lch bin.
Gi s trong tinh th ch c lch, chng tn ti c lp, khng nh hng ln nhau
v khng c cc khuyt tt khc th lc tc dng ti thiu (fth) cn cho lch chuyn ng
(tinh th bt u bin dng do) l :
fth fp =

exp (9--

trong : b Vect Burgers

[38]

. )

( 1.51)

G - M un trt
- H s Poisson
- khong cch gia cc mt nguyn t, song song vi mt trt
b - khong cch gia cc nguyn t theo phng trt
fp - lc Peierls-Nabarro, c ngha tng t lc ma st trong chuyn
ng ca lch.
T (1.51) thy rng theo mt v phng xp cht nht ca tinh th, ti

t gi

tr max, fp l min, lch chuyn ng d dng nht, tinh th d bin dng nht (xem mc
4.2).
T nhng ni dung trnh by, c th rt ra rng tc bin dng do () ph
thuc vo chuyn ng ca lch. Theo Orowan, quan h nh sau:
= .b.

(1.52)

trong : - mt lch
b gi tr vect Burgers
- tc chuyn ng ca lch.
Nhng khi nim c bn v lch va m t l c s ca l thuyt bn, cho php
gii thch nhng tnh cht nh do, bn, ph hu, dos c cp t m chng
4.
1.5.3 Sai lch mt
Sai lch mt l loi sai lch c kch thc ln theo hai chiu v nh theo chiu th
ba. Trong tinh th, sai lch mt ch yu l bin gii ht, bin gii siu ht, sai lch xp,
mt i tinh v mt ngoi tinh th.
1.5.3.1. Bin gii ht v siu ht
a) Bin gii ht

Bin gii ht l vng tip gip gia cc ht trong a tinh th ( xem mc 1.6). Cc
nguyn t bin gii ht khng sp xp theo trt t mng v c th coi l vng cu trc
v nh hnh. Sc cng b mt bin gii ht () c trng phn gia tng nng lng t do

[39]

 vng bin gii so vi cc vng pha trong duy tr s cn bng nguyn t b mt.
Hnh 1.35 l m hnh sp xp nguyn t trn bin gii ht (hnh 1.25a.b) v nh chp t
vi bin giiht trong vt liu a tinh th (hnh 1.35c)
Chiu dy bin gii ht ph thuc vo d sch ca kim loi hoc vt liu, c th
t gi tr hng trm ln hng s mng. Kim loi cng tinh khit, bin gii ht cng
mng.
Do cu trc khng tinh th, tnh cht ca bin gii ht so vi cu trc tinh th nh
sau :
- C nhit nng chy thp hn so vi vng bn trong, v vy nhit cao
bin gii ht d b chy do, gy hin tng b nng.
- Hot tnh ho hc cao hn, d b n mn ho hc. Da vo c tnh ny, dng
phng php tm thc pht hin bin gii ht trn knh hin vi quang hc hoc knh
hin vi in t qut.
- Bin gii ht c tng tc mnh vi cc loi sai lch khc (nguyn t tp cht,
nt trng lch), v vy qu trnh khuych tn y xy ra mnh hn so vi vng bn
trong. Trong chuyn pha, bin gii ht l ni d to tm mm nht.
- Bin gii ht nh hng n in tr sut v n tn x in t dn. Ngoi ra,
lch rt kh vt qua bin gii ht nhit thp v vy kim loi c kch thc ht cng
nh (bin gii ht cng nhiu) in tr sut v bn cng cao ( xem mc 1.5.5.3)
b) Bin gii siu ht
Siu ht (block) l nhng vng tinh th nh (kch thc
trung bnh 102 104), vi cu trc tinh th kh hon chnh nh
hng lch nhau mt gc nh, ngn cch bng bin gii siu
ht.
Bin gii siu ht thc cht l nhng tng lch, to
nn do cc lch cung du, tng tc ln nhau khi chng trt
trn nhng mt trt song song (xem mc 1.5.2.2b) v gi
nhau v tr cn bng ( hnh 1.36). Hai siu ht ln cn nh
hng lch nhau mt gc :
=
Trong D l khong cch trung bnh gia cc lch
bin cng du trn trng lch.
Bin gii siu ht thng xut hin trong qu trnh kt tinh li (xem mc 4.2.6), c
tc dng cn tr lch trt v tng tc vi cc loi sai lch im khc nn cng ng
vai tr trong tnh do ca vt liu.
1.5.3.2. Sai lch xp, mt i tinh
Sai lch xp (SLX), (cn gi l khuyt tt xp) l s ph v tr t xp cht ca
tinh th ( xem mc 1.3.4.2). Gi s mng A1 c trt t sp xp l ABCABCABC, v l
[40]

do no , trt t b ph v, v d tha mt lp xp cht c SLX tha ABAC

(hnh 1.37a). Nu trong trt t sp xp thiu mt lp, s to SLX thiu (v d
ABCABABC, hnh 1.37b)
Sai lch xp c trng bng nng lng slx , gi l nng lng SLX (phn gia tng
nng lng t do c SLX).
SLX lun gii hn vi vng xung quanh bng nhng lch khng hon chnh

(hnh 1.37c). iu kin cn bng, rng (d0) ca SLX l:

d0=
Trong : G mun trt
h2.h3 vect Burgers ca cc lch khng hon chnh gii hn SLX
slx nng lng SLX.
SLX c vai tr rt ln trong lnh vc ho bn vt liu (xem mc 4.6), v vy mt
trong nhng phng hng quan trng nng cao bn lhp kim ho, lm gim slx ,
tng rng d0 ,tc l tng cn tr chuyn ng ca lch bng SLX.
Mt i tinh thung to thnh trong chuyn pha lng - rn hoc trng thi rn
(xem chng 3) cng l mt dng ca SLX. V d, tinh th mng A1 vi tr t
ABCACBAC(hnh 1.38) gm hai na tinh th hai pha mt A (lp A) i xng
gng vi nhau ( hnh 1.38a). Nh vy chng s nh hng lch nhau mt gc xc
nh. Mt A l mt i tinh, cng c tc dng cn tr chuyn ng ca lch. Trn t chc
t vi, cc mt i tinh th hin bng cc ng song song (hnh 1.38b)
1.5.3.3. Cu trc mt ngoi tinh th
Mt ngoi tinh th c hnh thi tn ti khc so vi nhng mt phng tinh th bn
trong. C th tng tng d dng rng i vi cc nguyn t mt ngoi (mt gii hn
tinh th) khng c s sp xp nh cc nguyn t bn trong, v vy mt ngoi chng
khng sp xp theo trt t quy nh ca tinh th (hnh 1.39) v to thnh vng sai lch.
Sc cng b mt tinh th (nng lng b mt) c trng phn gia tng nng lng t do
gi cc nguyn t b mt trng thi n nh.
Do c im cu trc sai lch cho nn lp
mt ngoi tinh th cng c nhng tng tc c
bit vi cc loi sai lch khc.
1.5.4 Sai lch khi
Nhng sai lch c kch thc ln
theo ba chiu trong mng tinh th gi l sai lch
khi. Sai lch khi v m l nhng sai hng sinh ra
[41]

khi nu, c hp kim nh r co, tp trung tp cht, x trong vt c. T kha cnh vi

m c th k nhng sai lch khi nh cc pha th hai to thnh khi tit pha t dung dch
rn. y l nhng sai lch c c to ra vi mc ch nng cao bn, ci thin
tnh cht theo mun. Tu thuc vo cu trc, hnh thi tn ti, kch thc (hnh 1.40)
m hiu qu ho bn ca nhng pha th hai ny s khc nhau (xem mc 1.5.5.4 v mc
4.7.3).
1.5.5. Vai tr ca sai lch i vi tnh cht
S c mt ca sai lch mng tinh th v tng tc gia chng nh hng n tnh
cht ca vt liu. Vai tr ca chng c gii thiu s b khi m t tng loi trn.
Quan h gia sai lch v cc tnh cht c hc, vt l v ha hc ca vt liu s c trnh
by cc chng sau.
gii thch tnh cht c hc (tnh do, bn, cng ) cn phi da vo l
thuyt bn, trong cc m hnh cu trc vi m c p dng l gii kt qu thc
t. Nhng vn s c cp chng 4. y, mun nhn mnh mt s v d
in hnh v tng tc gia lch vi nhau v vi cc sai lch khc trong hnh vi c tnh
ca vt liu.
Tng tc gia cc lch v khi nim v ho bn
Xt c ch bin dng do thng dng l trt ca lch (xem mc 4.2). mc
gn ng, tc bin dng do c th xc nh theo biu thc (1.52). Trong bin dng
s c hai hiu ng ngc nhau xy ra :
- Mt lch () tng do cc ngun khc nhau hot ng nh bin gii ht, ngun
Frank Read (hnh 4.9b)lm tng .
- Mt khc khi tng, tng tc gia lch vi nhau v vi cc sai lch khc tng
mnh, lm gim ng k, mun duy tr = const, cn tng ng sut bn ngoi mt i
lng d, chnh l hiu ng ho bn bin dng s c xt mc 4.2.3. H s ho
bn bin dng

c trng bi nghing ng cong trn gin th ko.

C s ca tt c cc phng php ho bn vt liu tinh th l lm gim tc

chuyn ng () ca lch.
Trt gp cc lch trong mt trt giao nhau khc, trn mi lch hnh thnh mt
bc lch. Bc cn tr chuyn ng lch hoc khi cng chuyn ng vi lch s sinh ra
khuyt tt im hoc cc vng lch pha sau n, gy ho bn ( hnh 1.41)

1.6. N TINH TH V A TINH TH

1.6.1 n tinh th
n tinh th (hnh 1.20a): l mt khi cht rn c mng ng nht (cng kiu v
hng s mng), c phng mng khng i trong ton b th tch. Trong thin nhin:
mt s khong vt c th tn ti di dng n tinh th . Chng c b mt ngoi nhn,
hnh dng xc nh, l nhng mt phng nguyn t gii hn (thng l cc mt xp
[42]

cht nht). Cc n tinh th kim loi khng tn ti trong t nhin, mun c phi dng
cng ngh "nui" n tinh th .
c im: c tnh cht rt c th l d hng v theo cc phng mt xp cht
nguyn t khc nhau. n tinh th ch c dng trong bn dn.
1.6.2 a tinh th
Trong thc t hu nh ch gp cc vt liu a tinh th. a tinh th gm rt nhiu
(n) tinh th nh (c m) c gi l ht tinh th, cc ht c cng cu trc v thng
s mng song phng li nh hng khc nhau (mang tnh ngu nhin) v li n kt vi
nhau qua vng ranh gii c gi l bin ht (hay bin gii ht) nh trnh by hnh
1.20b.
T m hnh thy r:
- Mi ht l mt khi tinh th
hon ton ng nht, th hin tnh d
hng.
- Cc ht nh hng ngu nhin
vi s lng rt ln nn th hin tnh
ng hng
- Bin ht chu nh hng ca cc ht xung quanh nn c cu trc trung gian v
v vy sp xp khng trt t (x lch) nh l v nh hnh, km xt cht vi tnh cht
khc vi bn thn ht.
- C th quan st cu trc ht a tinh th hay cc ht nh knh hin vi quang hc
(h nh 1.20c).
+ ht ca tinh th
ht c th quan st nh tnh qua mt gy, chnh xc phi xc nh trn t
chc t vi. Cp ht theo tiu chun ASTM: phn thnh 16 cp chnh nh s t 00, 0, 1,
2...., 14 theo trt t ht nh dn, trong t 1 n 8 l thng dng. Cp ht
N=3,322lgZ+1, vi Z l s h t c trong 1inch 2 (2,542 6,45cm2) di phng i 100
ln.
Ngi ta thng xc nh cp ht bng cch so snh vi bng chun phng
i (thng l x100) hoc xc nh trn t chc t vi.
Bin gii siu ht
Nu nh khi a tinh th gm cc h t (kch thc hng chc - hng trm m)
vi phng mng lch nhau mt gc ng k (hng chc ), n lt mi h t n cng
gm nhiu th tch nh hn (kch thc c 0,1 10m) vi phng mng lch nhau mt
gc rt nh ( 1-2o) gi l siu h t hay block (hnh 1.20d). Bi n gii siu h t cng b
x lch nhng vi mc rt th p.

[43]

1.6.3 Textua

H nh 1.22. M hnh textua trong dy nhm sau khi ko si

(vect V biu th hng ko, trc textua l [111]).
Do bi n dng d o lm phng mng nh hng to nn textua. V d, khi ko
si nhm (hnh 1.22), tinh th hnh tr khi c, khi ph. Cu trc a tinh th c textua
vt liu c tnh d hng. ng dng cho thp bin th, tnh cht t cc i theo chiu
textua, cc tiu theo phng vung gc gim tn tht.

[44]

CHNG II TNH CHT IN NHIT CA VT LIU

2.1. TNH CHT IN
2.1.1. S dn in
2.1.1.1. dn in
Mt trong nhng c tnh in quan trng nht ca vt liu rn l kh nng dn
in ca n. Hnh 2.1 nu s b tr th nghim o dn in.

Hnh 2.1 S b tr thit b o dn in

Theo nh lut Ohm, cng dng in I lin h vi in p (hiu s in th )

U theo biu thc:
U= I R

( 2.1)

Trong R- in tr ca mu vt li m dng in chy qua. Gi tr ca R ph

thuc vo hnh dng mu o v i vi nhiu loi vt liu, khng ph thuc vo cng
dng in
in tr sut

khng ph thuc v hnh hc ca mu o nhng lin h vi R qua

biu thc:

RS US

d
dU

( 2.2)

Trong d - khong cch gia hai im o in p;

S- tit din vung gcvi hng dng in
dn in

l nghch o ca in tr sut:

Biu th kh nng dn in ca vt liu. n v o

l: (

(2.3)

)-1

Cng vi phng trnh (2.1 ), nh lut Ohm cn c th biu din di dng vi

phn :

J=

( 2.4)

Trong J= I/S- mt dng in, tc l dng in i qua mt n v din tch

tit din mu, cn cng in trng: E
[45]

U
d

(2.5)

Cc vt liu rn c dn in tri rng trn 27 c s, c l khng c mt tnh

cht vt l no khc c c di bin i rng nh th!. Thc vy, cn c vo kh nng
dn in cc vt liu rn c phn thnh 3 loi: dn in, bn dn v in mi (cch
in. Cc kim loi l nhng cht dn in tt, thng c dn in c 10 7 (
Cc vt liu c dn in trung gian, ni chung t 10 -6 n 104 (

)-1 .

)-1), c gi l

nhng cht bn dn.

Dng in to thnh do chuyn ng ca cc ht mang in tch di tc dng
lc ca mt in trng ngoi t vo. Cc ht mang in dng c gia tc theo
hng ca in trng, cn cc ht mang in m th theo hng ngc li. Trong phn
ln cc vt liu rn, dng in c ti bi cc dng in t, l s dn in bng in
bng in t. Ngoi ra, trong cc vt liu ion, s chuyn ng thun ty ca cc ion cng
c th to ra dng in, gi l s dn in bng ion. Di y ta ch ni s dn in bng
in t, cn dn in bng ion s c nu tm tt trong mc 2.1.3
2.1.1.2. Cu trc vng nng lng trong cc vt rn
Trong tt c cc cht dn in, bn dn v trong nhiu vt liu in mi, ch tn ti
s dn in bng in t v dn in ny ph thuc mnh vo s lng cc in t c
kh nng tham gia dn in. Tuy nhin khng phi mi in t trong nguyn t u c
gia tc khi c mt in trng. Trong mt loi vt liu cho, s in t c kh nng dn
in lin quan ti s xp xp cc trng thi in t (hay l mc nng lng in t ) v
cn vi cch thc m cc in t chim lnh trong cc trng thi . S kho st c bn
v cc vn ny kh phc tp, cn vn dng nguyn l ca c hc lng t, iu
vt qua khi khun kh ca cun sch ny. Cch trnh by di y b qua mt s khi
nm n gin v n gin ho mt s khi nim khc.
Trong ring mi nguyn t tn ti cc mc nng lng gin on. Cc in t sp
xp thnh cc tng (cng vi cc s lng t chnh m= 1,2,3... ) v cc lp c ch bi
cc ch s, p, d, v f (ng vi cc s lng t qu o

). Trong mi

lp li c tng ng 2 +1= 1.3,5 v 7 qu o khc nhau. Trong s phn t, in t

chim lnh, cc trng thi c nng lng thp nht, c hai c spin i song chim mt:
qu o. Ph hp vi nguyn l loi tr. Cu hnh lng t ca mt nguyn t c lp
biu th sp xp in t vo cc trng thi cho php.
Ta hy ngoi suy mt s quan h quan nim cho cc vt liu rn. Mt cht c th
xem nh cu to bi mt s ln, gi s l N nguyn t, c a vo sp xp vi nhau
c trt t trong mt mng tinh th. nhng khong cch tng i xa, mi nguyn t l
c lp vi cc nguyn t khc v s c mc nng lng trong nguyn t v cu hnh
in t ging nh nguyn t ng c lp. Tuy nhin, khi cc nguyn t cng xch li gn
nhau th cc in t cng b kch thch ( hay l nhiu lon) bi cc in t v cc ht
nhn ca cc nguyn t ln cn. nh hng ny lm cho mi mt trng thi in t trong

[46]

nguyn t ring bit b phn tch thnh mt lot cc trng thi in t nm st nhau, hnh
thnh nn mt vng nng lng in t. S gin ( m rng ) t mt mc nng lng
in t trong nguyn t hnh thnh mt vng nng lng trong vt rn tu thuc vo
khong cch gia cc nguyn t, s gin ny bt u t cc in t ngoi cng ca
nguyn t bi v chng b nhiu lon trc tin khi cc nguyn t lin kt li vi nhau
( hnh 2.2 ). Trong mi vng cc mc nng lng vn l gin on, tuy nhin khong
cch gia cc mc k nhau l ht sc nh. khong cch nguyn t cn bng, s to
thnh vng nng lng c th xy ra vi cc lp in t gn ht nhn nht, nh minh ho
trn hnh 2.2 b. Ngoi ra gia cc vng k nhau c th tn ti nhng khe nng lng
( hay cn gi l nhng vng cm): bnh thng th cc in t khng c php chim
lnh nhng mc nng lng nm trong cc khe ny. Cch thc thng thng biu din
cu trc vng nng lng in t trong vt rn ch nh trn hnh 2.2a.

Hnh 2.2. Cu trc vng nng lng in t trong vt rn (a) l kt qu ca s gin (m rng )
cc mc nng lng in t (b) khi cc nguyn t ng gn nhau

S cc trng thi nng lng in t (hay l s mc nng lng in t) trong mi

vng s bng tng s tt c nhng trng thi do N nguyn t ng gp.
[47]

Chng hn vng s s chim N trng thi, cn vng p cha 3N trng thi , mi mt

trng thi nng lng in t c th cha c hai in t, chng phi c spin i song.
Khi xp tt c cc cc in t vo mc nng lng s xut hn cc vng cn trng v
cng c th xut hin nhng vng ch b lp y mt phn.
Cc tnh cht in ca vt rn ph thuc vo cu trc vng nng lng in t ca
n, c th l vo s sp xp cc vng ngoi cng v cch thc lp y chng bi cc in
t . Theo quan im ny, vng cha cc in t c nng lng cao nht (hay cc in t
ho tr) c gi l vng ho tr . Cn vng dn s l vng c nng lng cao hn k trn
m trong a s cc trng hp, v c bn l b trng. nhit 0K, c th c bn
kiu cu trc vng khc nhau. loi th nht ( hnh 2.3a ). Vng ho tr ch mi b lp
y mt phn. Nng lng ng vi mc cao nht b chim 0K c gi l nng
lng Fermi EF. y l cu trc vng in hnh cho cc kim loi, c bit l cc in t
kim loi c mt ho tr s ng n l ( v d ng ). Mi nguyn t Cu c mt in t 4s
. Vng 4s c kh nng cha ti 2N in t. Nh vy ch mi c mt na s mc nng
lng c trong vng ho tr 4s l b lp y.
loi cu trc vng th hai, cng tm thy trong cc kim loi ( hnh 2.3b. ) vng
ho tr b lp y cn ph ln c vng dn: vng ny nu nh khng b ph th hon ton
cn trng. Magi c cu trc vng kiu ny. Mi nguyn t Mg c hai in t ho tr 3 s
nhng khi to thnh vt rn th cc vng 3s v 3p ph ln nhau. Trong trng hp ny
0K, nng lng Fermi c chp nhn m mc di c N nguyn t, N trng thi b
chim, c hai in t cha mt trng thi.

Hnh 5.3 Cc cu trc vng in t khc nhau c th c trong cc vt rn O K;

Hai cu trc vng cui cng tng t nh nhau: mi cu trc tt c cc trng

thi trong vng ho tr u b in t chim ht. Tuy nhin y khng c s dn ph
vi vng cn trng; iu ny to ra mt khe nng lng xen gia. i vi cc kim loi
rt tinh khit, cc in t khng th c nng lng trong khe ny. S khc nhau gia
hai cu trc vng l ln ca khe nng lng. i vi vt liu cch in, khe vng
tng i rng ( hnh 2.3.c ). Nng lng Fermi i vi hai cu trc vng ny nm
chnh gia khe.

[48]

2.1.1.3. Tnh cht dn in lin quan vi m hnh vng v lin kt nguyn t .

Ch c nhng in t no c nng lng ln hn mc Fermi th mi chu tc dng
v c gia tc khi c mt in trng. y l nhng in t tham gia vo qa trnh dn
in. Chng c gi l nhng in t t do. Trong cc cht bn dn v cht cch in
cn tm thy mt thc th in t khc gi l l trng, c nng lng thp hn E F v
cng tham gia dn in bng in t. Nh sau ny s thy dn in l mt hm s trc
tip ca s in t t do v l trng, thm na s phn bit gia cc cht dn in v
khng dn in ( cch in v bn dn ) nm cc ht ti in (in t t do hoc l
trng ).
Kim loi
cho in t tr nn t do, cn phi kch thch n ln mt trong nhng trng thi
nng lng cho php v cn trng trn E F . i vi cc kim loi c cu trc vng nh
hnh 2.3a hoc 2.3b sn c mc nng lng trng nm st k ngay mc b chim cao
nht ti EF . Do vy ch cn mt nng lng rt nh a in t ln cc trng thi trng
nm di nh nu trn hnh 2.4. Ni chung nng lng do mt in trng cung cp l
kch thch c mt s ln in t ln nhng trng thi dn in ny.

Hnh 2.4. S chim cc trng thi thi in t trong kim loi (a) trc v (b) sau kch
thch in t

Theo m hnh lin kt kim loi, tt c in t ho tr u c th chuyn ng t

do, chng to thnh kh in t phn b ng u khp trong mng li cc li ion
dng. Mc d nhng in t ny khng b lin kt nh x vi bt c mt nguyn t
ring r no, chng vn phi nh mt kch thch nht nh mi c th tr thnh in t
dn thc s t do. Khi ch c mt b phn b kch thch cng gy nn mt s tng
i ln in t t do v hu qu c mt dn in cao.
Cch in bn dn
i vi cc cht cch in v cht bn dn, khng c nhng trng thi cn trng
nm ngay bn trn ca vng ho tr y. Do tr thnh t do cc in t phi
c nng mc vt qua khe vng nng lng, nhy vo trng thi cn trng vng
dn. iu ny ch c th xy ra bng cch cp cho in t mt nng lng bng hiu
nng lng gia hai trng thi xp x bng nng lng khe E g .Qu trnh kch thch
[49]

ny c biu din trn hnh 2.5 . i vi nhiu vt liu, khe vng ny rng vi
Electronvon. Thng nng lng kch thch l t ngun phi in nh nhit hoc nh
sng.

Hnh 2.5. s chim cc trng thi in t trong cht cch in v cht bn dn (a) trc
v (b) sau mt kch thch in t t vng ha tr ln vng dn

S cc in t b kch thch nhit chuyn ln vng dn ph thuc vo b rng khe

v nhit . Ti mt nhit cho E g cng ln th sc xut chuyn in t ln mt
trng thi nng lng nm trong vng dn cng thp. kt qu l c t in t dn hn.
Vng cng rng th dn in cng thp. Nh vy s phn bit gia cc cht bn dn
v cc cht cch in l ch rng ca cc khe nng lng: i vi cc cht bn dn khe
ny l hp , cn trong cc cht cch in th li kh rng.
Tng nhit ca cht bn dn hoc cht cch in u lm tng nng lng nhit
kch thch in t. Nh vy c nhiu c nhiu in t c nng ln vng dn, iu ny
lm tng dn in.
dn in ca cc cht cch in v cc cht bn dn cng c th c nhn
nhn t gc m hnh lin kt nguyn t. i vi cc vt liu cch in, lin kt gia
cc nguyn t l lin kt ion hoc lin kt ng ho tr mnh. Nh vy cc in ho b
gn cht hoc l phn chia vo cc nguyn t ring l. Ni cch khc, cc in t nh x
cao v khng th no t do di chuyn trong khp tinh th c. Cn lin kt trong cc
bn dn l ng ho tr ( hoc chim u th ng ho tr ) v tng i yu, c ngha cc
in t ho tr khng lin kt mnh vi nguyn t. Hu qu l cc in t ny d b ly i
bi kch thch nhit hn l cc in t ho tr trong cht cch in.
2.1.1.4. linh ng ca in t
Di tc dng lc ca in trng t vo, tt c mi in t t do u thu c
gia tc theo hng ngc vi hng in trng . Theo c hc lng t trong mng
tinh th hon ho s khng xy ra tng tc gia in t ang gia tc v cc nguyn t.
Trong iu kin , tt c mi in t t do c gia tc chng no in trng cn tc
dng, do s gy ra s tng lin tc ca dng in theo thi gian. Tuy nhin ta li thy
dng in t ti mt gi tr khng i ngay sau khi t in trng, nh l c mt lc
ma st chng li s gia tc bi in trng ngoi. Nhng lc ma st ny l kt qu ca

[50]

s tn x ca cc in t bi cc sai lch mng tinh th, bao gm cc nguyn t tp cht,

l trng, cc nguyn t xen k v ngay c cc dao ng nhit ca chnh bn thn cc
nguyn t. C mi mt ln tn x li lm cho in t mt ln mt ng nng v thay i
hng chuyn ng ca mnh, nh minh ho trong . Tuy nhin vn c mt s chuyn
ng nht nh ca in t theo hng ngc ca in trng v dng in tch ny
chnh l dng in.

Hnh 2.6. S ng i ca mt in t

Hin tng tn x c biu th nh l lc cn i vi s i qua ca dng in.

C nhiu thng s c dng m t mc tn x, trong c tc y v linh
ng ca in t. Tc y vd biu th tc trung bnh ca in t theo hng lc tc
dng ca in trng t vo. N t l thun vi in trng:
vd = e .

( 2.6 )

hng s t l e c gi l linh ng in t, c th nguyn m2/V.s.

dn in ca a s cc loi vt liu c th biu th bng :
= n | e| e.

( 2.7 )

y n-s in t t do tc n t dn trong mt n v th tch;

Nh vy d dn n t l vi s in t t do v linh ng in t.
2.1.1.5 in tr ca kim loi
Nh ni trn, a s cc kim loai l nhng cht dn in rt tt; dn in
nhit phng ca nhiu kim loi ph thng nht c cho trong bng 2.1.
Bng 2.1. dn in nhit phng ca cc kim loi v cc hp kim ph thng
Kim loi

dn in (.m)-1

Bc

6,8.107

ng

6,0.107

Vng

4,3.107

[51]

Nhm

3,8.107

St

1,0.107

ng thau (70Cu 30Zn)

1,6.107

Thp ccbon tm

0,6.107

Thp khng g

0,2.107

S d kim loi c dn in cao l v chng c mt s ln in t t do c

kch thch ln cc trng thi trng nm trn mc Fermi. Nh vy n trong trong biu thc
(2.7) c gi tr ln. tin trnh by, di y s dng khi nim in tr sut,nghch
o ca dn in.Cc khuyt tt mng tinh th chnh l nhng tm tn x i vi in
t dn trong kim loi, bi vy s khuyt tt tng ln s nng cao in tr sut (tc h
thp dn in). Nng cc khuyt tt ny ph thuc vo nhit ,thnh phn v tc
kt tinh ca mu kim loi.Qua thc nghim chng t rng cc c ch tn x l c
lp v in tr sut ton phn ca mt kim loi l tng cc ng gp t dao ng nhit ,
tp cht v bin dng n hi:
( Ton phn )= t +i +d.

( 2.8 )

Hnh 2.7. in tr sut ph thuc nhit ca ng v ba hp kim ng- niken

Trong t, , i v d ln lt l in tr sut ring ca nhit, tp cht v bin

dng..Phng trnh (2.8) i khi cn c gi l quy tc Mathiessen. Hnh 2.7 nu nh
hng ca cc tham s ti n tr sut ton phn.
nh hng ca nhit
nhit khong trn 2000C, in tr sut ca kim loi nguyn cht v tt c
cc hp kim ng- niken cho trn hnh 2.7 tng tuyn tnh theo nhit . Nh vy
[52]

t = 0 + aT,

( 2.9 )

Trong 0 v a- l cc hng s cho ring tng kim loi.

s ph thuc ny ca thnh phn in tr sut vo nhit l do tng theo nhit
ca cc dao ng nhit v cc khuyt tt khc trong mng ( v d, cc nt trng ) c
xem l nhng tm tn x in t.
nh hng ca tp cht
Khi pha thm mt tp cht n to dung dch rn, in tr sut tp cht i
lin h vi nng tp cht Ci ( tnh bng phn trm nguyn t ) nh sau :
i = A Ci (1- Ci ).

( 2.10)

Trong A - Mt hng s khng ph thuc thnh phn nhng ph thuc c tp

cht v kim loi nn.
Hnh 2.8 cho thy nh hng ca km ln in tr nhit phng ca dung dch
rn Cu Zn (pha ). Cc nguyn t Zn trong Cu tc dng nh nhng tm tn x, do
s nng cao in tr sut.
tnh gn ng in tr sut ca mt kim loi gm hai pha v c th s
dng biu thc theo ng quy tc hn hp sau y:
i = V + V

(2.11)

Trong VV v - phn trm th tch v in tr sut ring phn ca cc

pha tng ng.

Hnh 2.8. in tr sut nhit phng ca hp kim Cu-Zn (dung dch rn) ph thuc
thnh phn

nh hng ca bin dng n hi

Bin dng n hi cng lm tng in tr sut do tng s lng cc tn x in t.
nh hng ca bin dng ln in tr sut c biu th trn hnh 2.7

[53]

2.1.2. Bn dn in
Cc vt liu bn dn c dn in khng cao nh cc kim loi, nhng chng li
c mt s c trng in c o nn c ng dng rng ri. Tnh cht in ca cc vt
liu ny ht sc nhy cm vi s c mt ca cc tp cht ngay c nng thp. Cc
cht bn dn, trong tnh cht in c quy nh bi cu trc in t vn c trong vt
liu tinh khit, c gi l bn dn tinh khit. Cn khi cc c trng in do cc nguyn
t tp cht quyt nh th vt liu c gi l cht bn dn tp cht.
2.1.2.1. Bn dn tinh khit.
Cc cht bn dn tinh khit c c trng bi cu trc vng in t nu trn hnh
2.3d. OK hai cht bn dn nguyn t Silic (Si) v genmani (Ge) c khe nng lng
tng ng vo c 1,1 v 0,7 eV. C hai u nm trong nhm IV A ca bng tun hon
cc nguyn t v u c lien kt ng ho tr. Ngoi ra, nhiu hp cht cng c bn cht
bn dn tinh khit. Mt nhm vt liu nh th c hnh thnh gia cc nguyn t ca
cc nhm III A v V A, v d nh: gali asenit (GaAs) v ini antimonite (InSb); chng
thng c gi l cc tp cht III V. Cc hp cht ca cc nguyn t nhm II B v VI
A cng biu hin tnh bn dn, trong c catmi sunfit (CdS) v km telurit (ZnTe). Khi
hai nguyn t to thnh nhng hp cht ny nm v tr cch nhau cng xa trong bng
tun hon th lin kt nguyn t cng tr nn ion hn v ln ca nng lng khe tng
ln. Vt liu c xu hng tr nn cch in hn. Bng 2.2 cho bit khe nng lng ca
mt s hp cht bn dn.
Khi nim v l trng.
Trong cht bn dn tinh khit c khi mi in t c kch thch ln vng dn s
li mt ch thiu in t trong lin kt ng ho tr, tc l mt trng thi in t cn
trng trong vng ho tr nh ch trn hnh2.5b. C th tng tng rng, di nh hng
ca in trng, v tr thiu in t ny s chuyn ch trong mng tinh th do chuyn
ng ca in t ho tr khc ti, in vo mi lin kt cha (hnh 2.9)

[54]

Hnh 2.9. M hnh lin kt in t ca s dn in trong Silic tinh th khit

a) trc khi kch thch; b), c) sau khi kch thch.

Qu trnh ny xy ra trong min ho tr nh l chuyn ng ca mt ht mang

in dng gi l l trng . Mt l trng c xem nh c in tch vi ln bng in
tch ca mt in t nhng ngc du (+ 1,6.10-19C). Nh vy, khi c mt in trng,
cc in t v cc l trng u b tn x bi nhng ch khng hon ho trong mng tinh
th.
dn in tinh khit
V trong cht bn dn tinh khit c hai loi ht ti in (in t t do v l trng).
Cho nn biu thc (2.7) ca dn in phi c bin i bao gm c s hng ng
gp ca dng l trng.
Do ta c: = n

e + p

Trong : p - s l trng trong n v th tch

b- linh ng l trng

[55]

(2.12)

i vi cc cht bn dn, ln ca b lun lun nh hn e . Trong cht bn dn

tinh khit, c mi mt in t c kch thch nhy qua khe n li mt l trng
trong vng ha tr, nh vy:
n=p
v

=n

(2.13)
e+ b) = p

(e + b)

(2.14)

dn in tinh khit, linh ng in t v linh ng l trng nhit

phng ca mt s vt liu bn dn c trnh by trn bng 2.2Bng 2.2. Khe nng
lng, linh ng in t v l trng v dn in tinh khit nhit phng cu
mt s vt liu bn dn.
Vt liu

Khe
nng dn in, linh ng linh ng l
lng eV
(.m)-1
in t, m2/V.s
trng m2/V.s

Nguyn t
Si

1,11

4x10-4

0,14

0,05

Ge

0,67

2,2

0,38

0,18

GaP

2,25

0,05

0,002

GaAs

1,42

10-5

0,85

0,45

InSb

0,17

2x104

7,7

0,07

CdS

2,40

0,03

ZnTe

2,26

0,03

0,01

Hp cht III V

Hp cht II VI

2.1.2.2. Bn dn tp cht
Thc ra cc cht bn dn thng mi u l bn dn tp cht. Khi c mt tp cht
ngay c vi nng thp cng to ra in t hoc l d tha. Chng hn, mt nng
tp cht 10-12 (tc mt nguyn t tp cht trong 10 12nguyn t) cng lm cho silic
tr thnh bn dn tp cht nhit phng.
Bn dn tp cht kim loi n
minh ho tnh bn dn tp cht hnh thnh nh th no, ta li xt bn dn
nguyn t silic. Mt nguyn t silic c bn in t vng ngoi, mi mt in t ny lin
kt ng ho tr vi mt in t ca bn nguyn t silic ln cn. By gi gi s mt
nguyn t tp cht c ho tr nm c thay th vo, c th l nguyn t ca nhm V A
bng tun hon (v d, P, As, Sb). Ch c bn trong nm in t ho tr ca nhng nguyn
t tp cht ny c th tham gia vo lin kt.

[56]

Hnh 210. M hnh lin kt in t ca bn dn tp cht loi n

Mt in t tha ra ch nh theo mt cch lng lo vo vng xung quanh nguyn

t tp cht bi mt lc ht tnh in yu nh minh ho trn hnh 210a. Nng lng lien
kt ca in t ny tng i nh (vo c 0,01 eV), do d b tch khi nguyn t tp
cht, khi n s tr thnh in t t do, tc in t dn (hnh 210b v 2.10c)

Hnh 2.11. S vng nng lng in t i vi mt mc tp cht n trc (a) v

sau (b) kch thch

Mi mt in t gn lng lo chim mt mc nng lng n nm trong khe

cm v ngay di y vng dn (hnh 2.11a). kch thch in t nhy t mt trong cc
trng thi (mc) tp cht ny ln mt mc trong vng dn i hi mt nng lng tng
[57]

ng vi nng lng lin kt in t. V mi ln kch thch (hnh 2.11b) s cp mt in

t n vo vng dn. Tp cht loi ny c gi l n (tp cht cho). Bi v mi
in t n c kch thch t mt mc tp cht nn khng to ra l trng tng ng
trong vng ho tr.
nhit phng, nng lng nhit cng kch thch c mt s ln in
t ri khi cc trng thi n. Thm vo cn xy ra mt s chuyn di vng ho tr vng dn, nh trn hnh 2.5bl; nhng mc c th b qua. Nh vy s in t trong
vng dn vt xa s l trng trong vng ho tr (tc n >>p), v s hng th nht v
phi ca phng trnh (2.12) ln t s hng th hai, ngha l:

(2.15)

Vt liu loi ny c gi l bn dn tp cht loi n. Do nng ca chng, cc

in t l nhng ht ti a s, cn l trng l nhng ht ti thiu s. i vi cc cht bn
dn loi n, mc Fermi dch ln pha trn ti khu vc trng thi n; v tr chnh xc ca
n ph thuc vo c nhit ln nng n.
Bn dn tp cht loi p
Mt hiu ng i lp xut hin khi pha vo silic hoc gecmani cc tp cht thay
th c ho tr ba nh Al, B v Ga thuc nhm III A ca bng tun hon. Mt trong cc
mi lien kt ng ho tr xung quanh mi nguyn t ny s b thiu mt in t. Ch
thiu nh th c th xem nh mt l trng lin kt yu vi nguyn t tp cht. C th gii
phng l trng ny khi nguyn t tp cht bng cch iu chuyn mt in t t mt
mi lin kt cnh nh minh ho trn hnh 2.12. Thc cht l in t v l trng i
ch ln nhau. Mt l trng chuyn ng c xem nh l trng thi kch thch v tham
gia vo qu trnh dn in tng t mt in t n b kch thch, nh m t trn.

Hnh 2.12. M hnh (lin kt in t) cc bn dn tp cht loi p

Cng c th dng m hnh vng nng lng din t cc kch thch tp cht to
ra l trng. Mi mt nguyn t tp cht a vo khe cm mt mc nng lng nm rt
st pha trn nh ca vng ho tr (hnh 2.13a). Mt l trng s c to ra trong vng
ho tr khi kch thch nhit do mt in t chuyn t vng ho tr ln trng thi in t
tp cht ny nh biu th trn hnh (2.13b).

[58]

Vi mt chuyn di nh th ch c mt ht ti (mt l trng) c sinh ra trong

cng ho tr m khng c mt in t t do no c to ra hoc mc tp cht hoc
trong vng dn. Tp cht loi ny c gi l acxept (tp cht nhn, bi v n c kh
nng nhn in t t vng ho tr v li mt l trng sau ny gi mc nng
lng trong khe cm do loi tp cht ny dy ra l trng thi (mc) acxept.

Hnh 2.13. S vng nng lng in t i vi mt mc tp cht acxepto trc (a) v

sau (b) kch thch

i vi bn dn tp cht loi ny, l trng c mt vi nng cao hn nhiu so

vi in t (tc l p>>n), v trong trng hp vt liu c gi l cht bn dn loi p
bi v tnh dn in ch yu do cc ht tch in dng m nhim. tt nhin, cc l
trng l ht ti a s cn in t ch xut hin nng thiu s. iu lm cho s
hng th hai trong v phi ca phng trnh (2.12) chim u th, tc l:

(2.16)

i vi cc cht bn dn loi p, mc Fermi nm trong khe cm v gn mc

acxept.
Cc cht bn dn tp cht (c hai loi n v p) u c ch to t cc vt liu ban
u c tinh khit ht sc cao, ni chung c tng hm lng tp vo c 10 -7% nguyn
t. Sau , bng cch s dng nhng k thut khc nhau, ngi ta ch nh pha them
nhng nng n hc acxept c th. Quy trnh hp kim ho vt liu bn dn nh
vy c gi l ping (s pha tp)
Trong cc cht bn dn tp cht, s ln ht ti (hoc in t hoc l trng, tu
thuc loi tp cht) c to ta nhit phng do nng lng nhit cung cp. H
qu l cc cht bn dn tp cht c dn in nhit phng tng i cao. a s
cc vt liu ny c s dng trong cc linh kin in t hot ng trong iu kin mi
trng xung quanh.
2.1.2.3. S thay i nhit ca dn in v nng ht ti in.
Hnh 2.14 trnh by th s ph thuc nhit dn in ca silic tinh khit v
ca silic pha tp vi 0,0013 v 0,0052% nguyn t bo. dn in trong mu tinh
khit tng mnh theo nhit . S in t v s l trng u tng ln theo nhit bi v
[59]

c nhiu nng lng nhit hn kch thch cc in t chuyn t vng ho tr ln vng

dn. Nh vy, gi tr ca c n v p trong biu thc dn tinh khit (2.14) u tng ln,
cn linh ng in t v l trng th li gim nh khi tng nhit do s tng tn x
in t v l trng bi dao ng nhit.
Tuy nhin, s gim ev b rt nh so vi s tng n v p, nn hiu q ca s tng
nhit vn l s tng dn in.
Biu thc ton hc gn ng s ph thuc dn tinh khit vo nhit T l:
ln

C-

(2.17)

Thng s C l mt hng s, khng ph thuc nhit v E g v k ln lt l nng

lng khe v hng s Boltzmann. S ph thuc nhit ca nng ht ti ca bn dn
tinh khit trn thc t cng ging nh ca dn in, tc l:
ln n ln p

C -

(2.18)

Thng s C cng l mt hng s, khng ph thuc nhit .

Nh phng trnh (2.18) s c mt phng php khc biu din s ph thuc
nhit ca dn in ca cc cht bn dn nh trn hnh 2.15 vi cc s liu ly t
hnh 2.14. Hy ch ti on ng thng gy bi vt liu tinh khit c th nhanh chng
xc nh c nng lng khe.
Theo phng trnh (2.18), dc ca on thng ny l bng E g/2k, tc l Eg c
th c xc nh nh sau:
Eg = - 2k

= -2k

(2.19)

iu ny c ch r bng th trn hnh 2.16.

Mt c trng quan trng khc ca cc quan h nu trn hnh 2.14 v 2.15 l cc
nhit di khong 800K (5270C) cc vt liu pha tp bo u l bn dn tp cht loi p;
ngha l trn thc t tt c l trng ti in u c c t cc kch thch tp cht cc
chuyn di in t t vng ho tr ln cc mc acxept bo, li cc l trng trong vng
ho tr (hnh 2.13). Nng lng nhit c c cc nhit l thc hin mt s
ng k nhng kch thch ny nhng li cha kch thch c nhiu in t t vng
ho tr vt qua khe vng. Nh vy, dn tp cht vt xa dn ca vt liu tinh
khit. V d, 400K (1270C) dn in ca silic tinh khit v ca vt liu pha 0,0013
% nguyn t bo tng ng c 10-2 v 600 (.cm)-1(hnh 2.14). S so snh ny cho thy
dn in nhy vi ngay c nhng nng cc k nh ca mt s nguyn t tp cht.

[60]

Hn na, dn tp cht cng nhy vi c nhit , nh ch trn hnh 2.14 cho c

hai vt liu pha them bo. Bt u t khong 75K (-200 0C). Trc tin dn tng theo
nhit , t n mt cc i v sau li gim dn trc khi tr thnh dn tinh khit.
Ni theo thut ng nng ht ti (tc l trng, hnh 2.15), lnp lc u tng tuyn tnh
khi 1/T gim (tc T tng) c th xy ra s lng ln cc kch thch tp cht ngay nhng
nhit tng i thp ny bi v mc acxept nm st ngay trn nh ca vng ho tr,
khi nhit tng hn na (1/T gim), nng l trng c khi li tr nn c lp vi
nhit (hnh 2.15). im ny thc t tt c mi nguyn t bo u nhn c in
t t vng ho tr. Tc chng bo ho theo thut ng vng bo ho trn hnh 2.16 (i
vi cc tp cht n ngi ta ni chng tr nn cn kit thay cho bo ho). S l trng
trong vng ny gn bng s nguyn t tp cht pha vo (tc bo).
S gim dn kh tng nhit trong vng bo ho i vi hai ng cong tp
cht trn hnh 2.14 c th gii thch bng s gim linh ng l trng. Trn biu thc
dn tp cht (2.16), c n v p trong vng ny u c lp vi nhit v s ph thuc
nhit y ch l do linh ng.
Trn hnh 2.14 v 2.15 cng cn mt iu ng ch na l khong 800K
(527 C), dn in ca c hai vt liu pha tp bo u tr v dn tinh khit. ch bt
u c tnh bn dn tinh khit, s cc chuyn di tinh khit t vng ho tr ln vng dn
tr nn ln hn s l trng do tp cht sinh ra.
0

Vi nhn xt cui cng v nh hng ca hm lng acxept bo i vi tnh cht

in ca silic. Trc ht, cc dn tpk cht v bo ho cng nh cc nng l trng
u ln hn vt liu c hm lng bo cao hn (hnh 2.14 v 2.15). Mt kt qu nh
mong i, bi v c mt nhiu nguyn t bo hn th s l trng c sinh ra t chng
cng nhiu hn. Nh vy nhit bt u tnh bn dn tinh khit s nng cao khi hm
lng pha tp tng ln.
2.1.2.4. Linh kin bn dn
Do nhng tnh cht in c o ca mnh, cc cht bn dn c ng dng trong
nhng linh kin thc hin cc chc nng in t c bit. it v transito thay th
cc n in t chn khng kiu c, l hai v d quen thuc. u im ca cc linh kin
bn dn l kch thc nh, tiu th cng sut thp v khng cn thi gian ch nng my.
Cc con s khng l cc mch in cc k nh m mi mt mch li c to bi nhiu
linh kin in t, c th t hp trn mt chip silic nh b. S pht minh ra cc linh kin
in t dn n s vi mch ho, chnh l c s cho s xut hin v ln mnh cc k
nhanh chng ca mt ngnh ng u cc ngnh cng nghip mi trong my nm qua.
Ghp chnh lu p n

[61]

Hnh 2.17. Ghp chnh lu p-n. Biu din s phn b in t v l trng (a) khi khng
c in p; (b) ni thun v (c) ni ngc

Chnh lu l linh kin in t cho php dng in ch chy theo mt chiu. Trc
khi xut hin chnh lu bn dn p n , ngi ta s dng n it chn khng. Ghp
chnh lu p n cu to bi mt tm bn dn pha tp loi n trn mt mt v loi p trn
mt kia (hnh 2.17a). Nu em cc tm vt liu loi n v p ghp li vi nhau s c mt
chnh lu km, bi v s xut hin b mt gia hai phn lm cho linh kin km hiu qu.
Do vy trong tt c cc linh kin u phi s dng vt liu bn dn n tinh th trnh
cc hin tng in t xut hin bin ht s ph hu hot ng ca linh kin.
Trc khi t mt in p ln mu p n, ht ti chnh bn p l l trng, cn bn n
l in t nh minh ho trn hnh 2.17a. Mt in p ngoi c th thit lph trn ghp p
n bng hai phn cc khc nhau. Khi dung mt b pin, u dng c th ni vo bn p v
u m vo bn n, gi l ni thun. S u cc ngc li (m vo p v dng vo n)
c gi l ni ngc.

[62]

Hnh 2.18. c trng V-A ca mt ghp p-n

khi ni thun v ngc

Hnh 2.19. in p theo thi gian u vo

(a) v dng sau khi qua chnh lu bng ghp
p-n (b)

Di tc dng ca mt in p ni thun (hnh 2.17b), cc l trng bn p v in

t bn n u b ht v mt tip xc. Khi l trng v in t gp nhau gn , chng lin
tc ti hp v trit tiu ln nhau, tng ng vi:
in t + l trng nng lng

(2.20)

Nh vy kiu ni ny, s lng ln cc ht ti i qua cht bn dn v ti ch

tip xc, nh c minh chng bi mt dng in mnh v mt in tr sut thp. c
trng vn ampe khi ni thun c nu trn na bn phi ca hnh 2.18.
Khi ni nghch (hnh 2.17c), c l trng v in t l ht ti a s u b ko
nhanh khi ch tip xc. S phn cch in tch dng v m (tc l s phn cc) li
ch tip xc mt vng tng i t cc ht ti linh ng. S ti hp s khng xy ra
ng k, nh vy ch tip xc by gi tr nn cch in cao. Hnh 2.18 cng minh ho
c tnh vn ampe khi ghp ngc.
in p u vo v dng in u ra ca qu trnh chnh lu c biu th trn
hnh 2.19. y in p vo bin thin hnh sin theo thi gian (hnh 2.19a). Dng in
cc i IR khi ni ngc l ht sc nh so vi dng IF khi ni thun (hnh 2.19b). S
tng ng gia IF v IR v in p cc i Vo t vo c ghi ch trn hnh 2.18.
Vi cc in p lp ngc cao, c khi c hang trm vn, s pht minh s lng
ln cc ht ti in (in t v l trng). iu ny gy nn s tng vt ca dng in gi
l hin tng m xuyn, cng c ch ra trn hnh 2.18 v c cp chi tit hn
trong mc 2.1.4.5 ( bn in mi ).

[63]

Transitor
Transito, linh kin bn dn cc k quan trng mch vi in t ngy nay c th
m nhim hai chc nng c bn sau. Th nht, chng c th hot ng nh n in t
chn khng trc y, n triot, ngha l chng c th khuych i cc tn hiu in. Th
hai, chng cng c dng nh cc phng tin chuyn mch trong my tnh x l v
lu tr thng tin. C hai loi chnh l transito tip xc v transito hiu ng trng kim
loi oxyt bn dn (vit tt l MOSFET. Theo t ting Anh metal oxide
semiconductor field effect transistor).
Transito tip xc
Transito tip xc t hp bi hai tip xc p n ghp ta lng vo nhau theo cu
hnh n-p-n. Hnh 2.20 nu s ca mt transito tip xc p-n-p cng vi mch in ca
n. Mt vng (base) loi n rt mng c t xen k vo gia vng pht (emitter) v
vng gp (collector) loi p.
Mch bao gm tip xc pht - (tip xc 1) c lp thun, trong khi mt in
p lp ngc c t ln tip xc d - gp (tip xc 2).

Hnh 2.20. S ca transito tip xc p-n-p v mch in hot ng ca n, cc c

trng in p vo v ra cho thy s khuych i in p.

Hnh 2.21 minh ho cc c ch vn chuyn ca ht ti in. V cc pht thuc loi

p v tip xc 1 c ni thun nn c nhng s lng ln l trng i vo vng loi n,
y chng l nhng ht ti thiu s v mt s s ti hp vi cc in t a s. Tuy
nhin, nu nh cc ht sc hp v cc vt liu bn dn c ch to ring th a s
cc l trng s trn qua vng m khng b ti hp, sau qua tip xc 2 v i ti
cc gp loi p; By gi chng tr nn mt phn hp thnh ca mch pht gp. Mt s
tng nh in p u vo mch pht - s gy nn mt s tng mnh ca in p trn
in tr ph ti trong mch (hnh 2.20). Nh vy, mt tn hiu in p qua transito tip
xc th c khuych i ln. Hiu ng ny cng c minh ho trn hnh 2.20 bi hai
th in p thi gian.

[64]

Hnh 2.21. Phn b v hng chuyn ng ca in t v l trng trong mt transitor

tip xc p-n-p (a) khi khng c in p t vo v (b) khi ni mch khuch i in p

Hot ng ca transito n-p-n cng c l gii tng t trong thay cho l

trng, in t c n qua vng v i vo cc gp.
MOSFET

Hnh 2.22. S mt ct ca mt Transitor MOSFET

Hnh 2.22 nu mt ct ca mt mu MOSFET gm c hai o nh bn dn loi p

c to ra trong mt cht silic loi n; cc o thng vi nhau bng mt knh hp loi
p. Cc u ni kim loi thch hp (u ngun v u ra) t ln cc o mt lp cch
in silic ioxyt c to ra bng cch oxy ho b mt silic. Sau mt u mi kt thc
(ca) t ln trn b mt ca lp cch in .

Hot ng ca mt MOSFET khc vi transito tip xc ch l y ch c mt

loi ht ti (hoc l in t hoc l l) hot ng m thi. dn in ca knh c
bin i do s c mt ca mt in trng tng ng t ln ca s y cc ht ti
(trong trng hp ny l cc l) ra khi knh, do lm gim dn in. Nh vy, mt
bin i nh ca in trng ca s gy nn mt bin i tng i ln ca dng in
gia cc ngun v thot. Cc qu trnh khc trong MOSFET rt ging nh m t
transito tip xc. S khc nhau c bn l ch dng ca l rt nh vi dng c s (base)
ca transito tip xc. Do , cc MOSFET c s dng nhng ni m ngun tn hiu
cn khuych i khng th cho c mt dng in ng k.

[65]

Cc cht bn dn trong my tnh.

Cng vi kh nng khuch i tn hiu, cc transito cng c th hot ng nh
nhng linh kin chuyn mch, mt tnh nng c s dng cho cc x l s hc v logic
v cng s dng lu tr thng tin trong cc my tnh. Cc con s v hm s my tnh u
c vit thnh hai s: 0 v 1 thuc h m c s 2. By gi th cc transito v it trong
mch s s hot ng nh nhng chuyn mch vi hai trng thi ng v ngt. Nh vy,
mt s n c th biu din bng mt tp hp cc phn t mch cha cc transito c
chuyn mch thch hp.
Mch vi in t.
Trong my nm va qua, s chuyn di ca mch vi in t, trong hng ngn
phn t v mch in t c t hp trong mt khng gian rt nh, lm mt cuc cch
mng trong lnh vc in t hc. Cuc cch mng ny trc ht phc v cho ngnh hang
khng v t, ni cn c nhng my tnh, nhng cu kin in t rt nh v i hi cng
sut thp. Nh nhng thnh tu mi trong cng ngh ch to. c gi thnh ca
mch t hp mt cch ng ngc nhin. Kt qu l m y my tnh c nhn ( PC vit tt
l t ting Anh Personnal Computer) c s dng rt ph bin . ng dng cc mach
t hp cng xm nhp v nhiu lnh vc ca cuc sng hin nay : tnh ton thng tin,
cnh bo sn xut v iu khin cng nghip cng nh mi khu ca cng nghip in
t.
Nhng vi mch khng t c sn xut hng lot vi k thut ch to tinh
xo, bt u t vic nui n tinh th Silic hnh tr kh ln v tinh khit cao t
ct thnh nhng tm mng hnh trn. Nhiu mch vi in t ( mch t hp ). thng gi
l Chip , c ch to ngay trn mt tm n. Mt chip hnh vung kch c 1/4 inch (
6 mm ) trn mt mt cha ti hng ngn phn t nh it transito, in tr v t in.
Hnh 2.23b chp ton b mt chip vi x l khc cho thy r s phc tp ca mt mach
t hp nh th . Hin nay nhng chip vi 2.000 000 phn t ang c ch to vi c
nhng b nh cao hn cng s chc chn c pht trin trong tng lai

a)

b)

Hnh 2.23. nh chp mt chip x l 32 bit, phng i 3,5 ln (a) v nh chp mt phn
ca mt chip vi x l 32 bit khc, phng i khong 1250 ln (b)
[66]

Nhng mch vi in t gm nhiu lp nm trn qua tm silic theo mt s chi

tit chnh xc . D ng k thut quang khc ( Photolithographic ) v cc k thut vi tnh
khc ( v d, khuch tn, hoc cy ion ) v to ra cc khu vc bn dn kim loi n, loi p,
in tr hoc dn cao trn mt lp. Quy trnh ny c lp li t lp ny sang lp khc
cho n khi ton b mch t hp c ch to xong.
2.1.3. Tnh cht in trong gm ion v polyme
Phn ln cc polyme v gm ion u l vt liu cch in nhit phng v do
cu trc vng nng lng in t tng t nh biu din trn hnh 2.3 c: khe nng
lng tng i rng, thng ln hn 2 eV. Nh vy nhit bnh thng ch c rt t
in t nh c cung cp nng lng c th b kch thch nhy qua khe, iu ng vi
gi tr rt nh ca dn in. Bng 2.3 cho dn in nhit phng ca mt lot
vt liu nh th. ng nhin nhiu vt liu c s dng trn c s kh nng cch in
ca chng nh vy, in tr sut cao li l iu mong mun. Khi nng cao nhit
dn ca cc vt liu cch in c th ln hn ca cc cht bn dn.
Bng 2.3. dn in tiu biu nhit phng ca mt s vt liu phi kim loi
dn in ( . m)-1
105
10-10 - 10-12
10-10 - 10-12
<10-10
10-10 - 10-15

Vt liu
Graphit
Gm:
Nhm Oxyt
S
Thu tinh Na Ca
Mica
Polyme
Phenolformaldehyt
Nylon6.6
Polymetylmetacrylat
Polyetylen
Polystyren
polytetrafloetylen

10-9 - 10-10
10-9 - 10-12
<10-12
10-13- 10-17
<10-14
<10-16

2.1.3.1. Dn in trong cc vt liu ion

Cc cation v anion trong vt liu ion u c in tch v do chng u c kh
nng di chuyn hoc khuch tn khi c mt in trng. Nh vy mt dng in s c
to thnh do chuyn ng thun tu ca nhng ion ny. ng nhin, anion v cation s
chuyn di ngc hng nhau. dn tng ca mt vt liu ion bng tng ca cc ng
gp ca in t ion nh sau :
ton phn = in t + ion

( 2.21 )

ng gp no chim u th l tu thuc vo vt liu, tinh khit v ng nhin

cn vo nhit .
linh ng i ng vi mi lo ion l :

[67]

i =

(2.22 )

trong ni v Di - ho tr v s khuch tn ca mi ion

cn ch l Di t l vi lu tha bc cao ca nhit T. Do vy, cng nh thnh
phn in t, ng gp vo dn ton phn s tng ln khi tng nhit . Tuy th, a s
cc vt liu ion vn gi c tnh cch in ngay c nhit cao.
2.1.3.2. Tnh cht in ca polyme
Phn ln cc vt liu polyme u dn in km ( bng 2.3 ) v khng th c
nhiu in t t do tham gia vo qu trnh dn in. C ch dn in trong cc vt liu
ny rt phc tp, nhng bit r cc polyme c tinh khit cao dn in bng in t

Cc polyme dn in
Trong nhiu nm qua tng hp c nhiu polyme c dn in ngang vi
cc vt dn kim loi. Chng c gi l cc polym dn in. Trong cc vt liu ny
t c dn in cao ti 1.5 10 -7 ( . M)-1 Gi tr ny tnh theo th tch tng ng
vi mt phn t, cn tnh theo trng lng th tng ng vi hai ln dn ca ng.
Hin tng trn quan st thy trong nhiu polyme, trong c polyaxetylen,
polyparaphenylen, polypyrol v polyanilin c pha vi cc ph gia thch hp. ( tc
in t t do chim u th ) hoc theo loi p ( tc l trng chim u th ) tu theo cht
ph gia. Tuy nhin chng khc cc cht bn dn ch cc nguyn t hoc phn t pha
tp khng thay th hoc i ch mt nguyn t no ca polyme.Polyme tinh khit cao c
c trng cu trc vng in t ca cc cht cch in ( hnh 2.3 c ). C ch sinh sn ra
s lng in t v l trng trong cc polyme dn in ny rt phc tp, khng th gii
thch d dng, hiu mt cch n ginCc nguyn t pha tp dn n s to thnh nhng
vng nng lng mi ph ln vng ho tr v vng polyme tinh khit, to nn cc vng
dn hoc in t t do hoc l trng. Bng cch nh hng cc mch xch polyme trong
khi tng hp chng, hoc bng phng php c hoc s to ra c vt liu d hng
cao, c dn in cc i dc theo hng .
Nhng polyme dn in ny c u th trong mt lot ng dng do chng c trng
lng ring thp, do cao v d ch to. Cc pin ti sinh hin ang c ch to vi
in cc polyme c nhiu trin vng tt hn kim loi. Nhng ng dng khc nh lm

[68]

dy dn trong cc cu kin hng khng v v tr, che ph chng nhiu in cho qun o,
vt liu mn chn in t v linh kin in t.
2.1.4 in mi
in mi l vt liu cch in ( phi kim loi ), c cu trc lng cc in t nhin
hoc nhn to mc phn t hoc nguyn t. Vt liu in mi c s dng trong
cc t in nh kt qu ca tng tc lng cc vi in trng.
2.1.4.1. in dung
Khi in p V c t ln mt t in mt tm tr thnh in tch dng tm kia
in tch m vi in trng tng ng hng t tm m sang tm dng. in dung C
lin h vi in lng Q mi tm c tnh theo biu thc:
C =

( 2.23 )

n v in dung l culng/von, tc fara ( F).

Hnh 2.24. T in tm song song trong chn khng (a) v khi c mt mt vt liu in
mi

Xt mt t in tm song song vi chn khng trong vng gia hai tm ( hnh

2.24 a ) in dung c th tnh t biu thc :

[69]

C=

( 2.24 )

Trong s : din tch b mt tm;

l : khong cch gia chng;
0:

thm ca chn khng, l mt hng s v tr c gi tr bng 8.85.10-12F/m.

Nu mt vt liu in mi lp y vng gia hai tm ( hnh 2.24b ) th

C=

( 2.25 )

Trong thm ca mi trng in mi, c gi tr ln hn

thm tng i, thng gi l hng s in mi, l t s :

r

( 2.26 )

ln hn 1 v biu th tng in tch in do do a in mi vo gia hai

tm. Hng s in mi l mt tnh cht vt liu c xem xt trc tin thit kt t in.
Gi tri

ca mt vt liu in mi trong bng 2.4.

Bng 2.4. Hng s in mi v bn in mi ca mt s vt liu

Vt liu
Gm :
Gm tittanal
Mica
Steatit ( MgO- SiO2 )
Thu tinh natri
s
silica nung
polyme:
phenolfomaldehyt
nylon 6.6
polystyren
polyetylen
polytetrafloetylen

Hng s in mi
60Hz
1MHz

bn in mi

6.9
6.0
4.0

200 1 180
3940 7 875
790 1 380
985
160-1575
985

15 10000
5.4 5.7
5.5 7.5
6.9
6.0
3.8

5.3
4.0
2.6
2.3
2.1

4.8
3.6
2.6
2.3
2.1

1180-1575
1575
1970-2760
1770-1970
1600-1970

2.1.4.2. Vect in trng v s phn cc in mi

Mi lng cc c c trng bi mmen lng cc ( hnh 2.25 ):
=qd
[70]

(2.27)

Trong q - ln ca mi in tch;
d: khong cch gia chng .
Mmen lng cc l mt vect hng t in tch m ti in tch dng. Khi c
mt in trng E, mt ngu lc tc dng ln lng cc in lm n xp theo hng in
trng nh hnh minh ho trn hnh 2.26. Qu trnh xp lng cc nh vy goi nl s
phn cc.
Tr li vi t in, mt in tch mt D, tc l in lng trn mt n v in
tch ca tm t in ( C/m2 ), s t l vi in trng. Khi c chn khng th :
D=

E.

0.

( 2.28 )

Trong trng hp in mi, s c biu thc tng t :

D=

( 2.29 )

i khi D cn c gi l dch in mi

Hnh 2.25. S biu din mt lng

cc in vi vec t phn cc p

Hnh 2.26. Ngu lc do in trng tc dng ln

lng cc in (a), cui cng lng cc xp theo
hng in trng (b)

S tng in dung, tc tng hng s in mi. C th gii thch bng m hnh n

gin ho v s phn cc trong vt liu in mi. Hy xt t in trn hnh 2.27a. Trng
hp chn khng, tm trn c tch in + Q0 v tm di - Q0 khi a mt in mi vo
t in t ln mt in trng, ton b cht rn gia hai tm t in tr thnh in
mi b phn cc ( hnh 2.27c ). Kt qu l c mt s tch t thun in m Q b mt
in mi gn tm tch in dng, v cng bng cch tng t, mt in tch + Q xut
hin b mt gn tm m. Nh vy, nu xem mi tm cng vi b mt in mi gn n
nh mt vt th, c th cho rng in tch cm ng bi in mi( +Q v -Q) kh bt mt
phn in tch vn tn ti trn tm khi c chn khng ( +Q0 hoc-Q0 ) . in p gia
hai tm c gi gi tr nh khi chn khng bng cch tng in tch tm c gi
gi tr nh chn khng bng cch tng in tch tm m mt lng -Q v mt tm
dng +Q . in t chy t tm m sang tm dng bi ngun in ngoi sao cho in
p ring c khi phc li. V nh vy in tch trn mi tm by gi l Q 0 +Q, tc
tng ln mt lng Q.Khi c mt in mi, mt in tch mt trn cc tm t in
cng c th biu th bng :
[71]

D=

E +P

( 2.30 )

Trong P - phn cc hay l tng mt in tch mt so vi khi c chn

khng, t hnh 2.27c ta c P = QS, y S - in tch mi tm; P c th nguyn ging
nh D ( C/ m2).Cng c th xem phn cc P l mmen lng cc tng cng trong mt
n v th tch vt liu in mi, hoc l in trng phn cc bn trong in mi gy
bi s sp xp tng h ca nhiu lng cc nguyn t hoc phn t theo hng in
trng ngoi E t vo. i vi nhiu vt liu in mi, P t l vi E theo h thc :
P=
Trong trng hp

( r -1 ) E

( 2.31 )

, khng ph thuc vo ln ca in trng.

Hnh 2.27. S biu din :

a) in tch trn cc tm ca t in chn khng, b) s sp xp lng cc in trong
in mi khng phn cc, c) kh nng tch in c tng ln nh c s phn cc ca vt liu
in mi

[72]

2.1.4.3. Cc dng phn cc in mi

Phn cc l hin tng sp xp li cc mmen lng cc nguyn t hoc phn t
vnh cu hay cm ng theo hng ca in trng ngoi, c bao dng ( hay ngun gc )
phn cc : in t, ion v xoay hng. Thng thng cc vt liu in mi c t nht mt
trong ba dng phn cc tu theo vt liu cng nh theo cch t in trng ngoi. C
3 dng ( hay ngun gc ) phn cc in t, ion v xoay hng. Thng thng cc vt
liu in mi c it nht mt trong ba dng phn cc l tu theo vt liu cng nh theo
cch t in trng ngoi.
Phn cc in t
Phn cc in t c th xy ra vi nhng mc khc nhau tt c cc nguyn
t. N l kt qu dch chuyn trng tm ca m my in tch m so vi ht nhn in
tch dng
Hin tng ny c minh ho trn hnh 2.28b. ln P ca mmen lng cc
ca cp ion lag bng tch s ca dch chuyn tng i d v in tch ion, tc l :
i =q di

(2.32 )

Hnh2.28. S biu din cc trng thi phn cc in t (a), phn cc ion (b)v phn cc
xoay hng (c)

Phn cc xoay hng

[73]

Dng th ba, phn cc xoay hng ch tm thy trong nhng cht c mmen
lng cc vnh cu. S phn cc ny l kt qu ca s xoay cc mmen vnh cu theo
trng t vo ( hnh 2.28c ). Xu th sp xp ny b dao ng nhit ca nguyn t chng
li lm cho phn cc gim i khi nhit tng.
Phn cc ton phn P ca mt cht bng tng s cc phn cc in t, ion v
xoay hng ( tng ng l Pe,, Pi, P0) tc l:
P = Pe,+Pi+ P0

( 2.33)

C th mt trong nhng thnh phn vng mt hoc c ln khng ng k so

vi cc thnh phn khc. V d phn cc ion s khng tn ti trong cc vt liu lien kt
ng ho tr, trong khng c mt ion.
2.1.4.4. S ph thuc tn s ca hng s in mi
Trong nhiu trng hp thc t thng dung dng in xoay chiu (AC) . C mi
ln i hng, cc lng cc li phi nh hng li theo in trng nh hnh minh ho
trn hnh 2.29 qu trnh i hi mt thi gian xc nh. Vi mi phn cc c mt thi
gian ti nh hng ti thiu ph thuc vo kh nng sp xp li ca cc lng cc ring
l. Tn s hi phc c ly bng nghch o ca thi gian nh hng ti thiu .

Hnh 2.29. nh hng lng cc theo mt cc tnh xoay chiu (a) v theo tnh ngc li (b)

Nu nh tn s ca in trng vt qu tn s hi phc ca lng cc th n s

khng th theo kp s i hng v do s khng ng gp vo hng s in mi. S
ph thuc ca

biu din bng s trn hnh 2.30 cho in mi c c ba dng phn

cc . Khi mt c ch phn cc ngng hot ng, hng s in mi s gim t ngt, tc

r

v c bn khng cn ph thuc vo tn s na. Bng 2.4 cho cc gi tr ca hng s

in mi 60Hz v 1MHz ca mt s in mi.

[74]

Hnh 2.30. Bin thin ca hng s in mi theo tn s ca in trng xoay chiu

S hp th nng lng in bi vt liu in mi t trong in trng xoay c

gi l tn hao in mi. Tn hao ny c th l quan trng nhng tn s phc hi i
vi mi loi lng cc trong vt liu. Ngi ta lun mong mun c c tn hao in mi
thp tn s s dng.
2.1.4.5. bn in mi
Khi t ln vt liu in mi nhng in trng rt cao, s c mt lng
ln in t b kch thch chuyn ln nhng mc nng lng nm trong vng dn. Kt qu
l dng in chy qua in mi chuyn ng ca nhng in t ny tng ln mnh lit;
i khi s nng chy, chy hoc bay hi cc b gy ln s thoi ho bay hi bt thun
nghch v thm ch c th ph hu vt liu. y chnh l hin tng nh thng in mi.
bn in mi cn gi l bn nh thng biu th ln ca in trng cn thit
to ra s nh thng in mi. bn in mi ca mt s vt liu c gii thiu
trong bng 2.4.
2.1.4.6. Cc vt liu in mi
Mt s gm v polymer c dng lm cht cch in v trong cc t in. Nhiu
loi gm, k c thu tinh, s steatite v mica c hng s in mi nm trong khong t 6
n 10 ( bng 2.4 ). Nhng vt liu ny c n nh kch thc v bn c hc, c
nhng ng dng tiu biu nh cch in trng dy ti in, cu dao, l t nh sang.
Titan oxyt ( TiO2) v gm Titanat, nh bari titanat ( BaTiO3) c th c ch to vi hng
s in mi ht sc cao, lm cho chng c ng dng c bit trong t in.
ln ca hng s in mi ca phn ln cc polyme u nh hn ca gm l vt
liu c mmen lng cc ln hn : gi tr

c a polyme n i chung nm trong khong 2

5. Nhng vt liu ny c ng dng lm cch in cho dy, cp, ng c, my pht

in,, ngoi ra cng dng trong mt s t in.
[75]

2.1.5 Cc c tnh in khc ca vt liu

Hai c tnh in khc tng i quan trng v mi mt s vt liu s c nu
tm tt, l tnh st in v p in.
2.1.5.1. St in
Nhm vt liu in mi st in mang tnh phn cc t pht, tc l phn cc khi
vng mt in trng. Tng t nh vt liu st t c th cho t tnh vnh cu. Trong cc
vt liu st in phi tn ti nhng lng cc in vnh cu. Ta hy gii thch ngun gc
ca chng bari titanat, mt trong nhng cht st in ph thng nht. S phn cc t
pht l h qu ca s sp xp v tr cc ion Ba 2+, Ti4+ v O2- trong c s nh biu th
hnh 2.31. Cc ion Ba2+ nm cc nh gc ca c s mang tnh i xng tetrahonal
( hnh lp phung b gin nh theo mt phung ). Mmen lng cc sinh ra do x dch
tng i ca cc ion O2- v Ti4+ ra khi v tr i xng ca chng ( hnh 2.31b ). C c O2nm thp xung di mt cht, cn ion Ti4+ l i d ch l n tr n so vi tm im ca c
s. Tuy nhin khi nung nng bari titanat ln trn nhit Curie st in ca n ( 120 0C)
th c s s tr li khi lp phng, vt liu by gi c cu trc tinh th kiu perovskit
v tnh cht st in b bin mt.
S phn cc t pht ca nhm vt liu ny sinh ra nh l h qu tng tc gia
cc lng cc vnh cu `ln cn, chng sp xp vi nhau tt c theo cng mt hng. V
d, trong barititanat, s x dich tng i ca cc ion O 2-, Ti4+ u theo cng mt hng
cho tt c mi c s trong mt min th tch nht nh ca hp cht. Cc vt liu st
in khc nh mui Rochelle (NaKC4H4O64H2O). kali ihydrophotphat (KH2PO4), kali
niobit (KNbO3) v ch ziconat titanat (Pb[ZrO3, TiO3 ]). Cc cht st in c hng s
in mi cc k cao cc tn s in trng tng i thp, v d, nhit phng r
ca bari titanat c th cao ti 5000. Do vy, cc t in ch to bng nhng vt liu ny
c th c kch thc nh hn rt nhiu so vi cc t in lm bng vt liu in mi
khc.

[76]

Hnh 2.31. Mt c s ca bari titanat BaTiO3 (a) v s b tr ca cc ion Ti 4+ v O2- xung

quanh tm ca mt (b)

2.1.5.2. p in.

Hnh 2.32. Cc lng cc trong vt liu p in (a) v s xut hin in p khi vt liu chu nn

p in l mt tnh cht khc thng ca mt vi vt liu gm: khi lc ngoi tc

dng ln mt mu cht th s phn cc sinh ra v mt in trng c thit lp trong
mu. Khi o du ca lc ngoi (tc l ko chuyn sang nn) th chiu ca in trng
cng o theo. Hiu ng p in c th hin trn hnh 2.32.Vt liu p in c ng
dng trong cc linh kin chuyn i nng lng in thnh ng sut c hc v ngc li
nh u ghi m, microphone, my pht siu m, u o ng sut, u thu m. Trong mt
my ghi m. Khi u kim dch chuyn theo cc rnh trn mt a ht, bin thin ca p
sut ln vt liu p in trong u m chuyn i thnh tn hiu in v c khuch
i ln trc khi cho ra loa.Cc vt liu p in gm bari titanat, bari v ch ziconat
(PbZrO3), amoni ihydrophotphat (NH4H2PO4) v thch anh. Tnh cht ny l c trng
ca cc vt liu c cu trc tinh th phc tp vi i xng thp. Tnh cht p in ca
mu cht a tinh th c ci thin bng cch nung nng ln trn nhit Curie ca n
v sau lm ngui xung nhit phng trong mt in trng mnh.

2.2. TNH CHT NHIT

Mc ny s nu nhng tnh cht ca vt liu khi chu tc dng ca nhit. Khi mt
vt rn hp th nng lng di dng nhit, nhit ca n tng ln v cc kch thc
ca n gin ra. Nng lng c th c truyn ti cc vng lnh hn ca mu cht nu
tn ti gradient nhit v cui cng, mu cht c th chy ra. Nhit dung, gin n nhit
v dn nhit l nhng tnh cht thng c quan tm i vi cc vt liu rn.
2.2.1. Nhit dung
Nhit dung cho bit kh nng ca vt liu hp thu nhit t bn ngoi, n biu th
phn nng lng cn thit nng nhit ln mt n v. Bng ngn ng ton hc,
nhit dung C c vit nh sau:
C=
Trong dQ - nng lng cn gy ra bin thin nhit dT
[77]

(2.34)

Hnh: Nhit dung do dao ng mng

Thng thng, nhit dung c tnh theo mol ca vt liu (chng hn J/mol. K
hoc cal/mol.K). Nhit dung ring (thng k hiu bng ch c nh) l nhit dung ca
mt n v khi lng vt liu, c n v J/kg.K hoc cal/g.K).
Trong thc t, c hai cch o nhit dung ca vt liu tng ng vi cc iu kin
mi trng km theo s truyn nhit. Mt l nhit dung ng tch C v (th tch mu c
gi khng i) v hai l nhit dung ng p C p lun lun ln hn Cv. Tuy nhin, s khc
nhau gia chng l rt t i vi a s cc vt liu rn nhit phng v thp hn.
Nhit dung do dao ng mng.
Trong a s cc vt rn, dng cn bng nng lng nhit ch yu l bng s tng
nng lng dao ng ca cc nguyn t. Nguyn t trong vt liu rn khng ngng dao
ng tn s rt cao v vi bin tng i nh. Nhng dao ng ca cc nguyn t
ln cn phi hp vi nhau bng lin kt nguyn t v theo phng thc truyn sng
mng, c th xem l nhng sng n hi hay ni n gin l nhng sng m, c bc
sng ngn v tn s rt cao, lan truyn trong tinh th vi tc m thanh. Nng lng
dao ng nhit ca vt liu bao gm mt dy cc song n hi c phn b v tn s khc
nhau. Theo l thuyt lng t, nng lng dao ng nhit trong cht rn b lng t ho;
ch c mt s gi tr nng lng l c php. Mt lng t n ca nng lng dao
ng c gi l mt phonon (tng t nh lng t ca bc x in t phonon). Bn
thn song dao ng c khi cng c gi bng thut ng phonon.
Chnh nhng dao ng song (song n hi) ny gy nn tn x nhit ca cc in
t t do nh trong dn in in t (mc 2.1.1.4) v cng tham gia vn chuyn nng
lng trong dn nhit (xem mc 2.2.3).
S ph thuc nhit ca nhit dung

[78]

Hnh 2.33. S ph thuc nhit ca nhit dung ng tch

Bin thin theo nhit ca nhit dugn ng tch ca nhiu cht rn tinh th tng
i n gin nh nu trn hnh 2.33: C v bng khng OK nhng tng ln nhanh theo
nhit . iu ny tng ng vi kh nng ca cc song mang nng cao nng lng
trung bnh ca mnh. Kh nng ny c tng ln theo nhit . cc nhit thp, mi
quan h gia Cv, v nhit T l:
Cv = AT3

(2.35)

Trong A- hng s khng ph thuc vo nhit .

trn nhit

gi l nhit Debyte, Cv nhit phng l 25 J/mol.

K ( 6 cal/mol.K ). Bng 2.5 gii thiu nhit rung ring thc nghim ca mt s vt liu.
Bng 2.5. Tnh cht nhit ca mt s vt liu
Vt liu
Kim loi:
Nhm
ng
Vng
St
Niken
Bc
Volfram
Thp 1025
Thp khng g 316
Brng ( 70Cu 30 Zn)
Gm:
Nhm Oxyt (Al2O3)
Berili oxyt (BeO)
Magioxyt ( MgO)
Spilen ( Mg Al2O3)
Silic ioxyt (SiO2)
Thu tinh Na
Polyme:
Polyetylen

Cp
J/kg(1)

10-60C-1

K
W/m.K(2)

L
. W/(K)2.10-6

90
386
130
448
443
235
142
486
502
375

23.6
16.5
13.8
11.8
13.3
19.0
4.5
12.5
16.0
20.0

247
398
315
80.4
89.9
428
178
51.9
16.3 (3)
120

2.24
2.27
2.52
2.66
2.10
2.32
3.21
-

775
1050(3)
940
790
740
840

8.8
9.0(4)
13.5(3)
7.6(3)
0.5(3)
9.0(3)
60- 220
80- 100

30.1
220(4)
37.7(4)
15.0(4)
2.0(4)
1.7(4)
0.38
0.12

2100

[79]

Polyprotylen
Polystyren
Polytetrafloetylen (teflon)
Phenolphomaldehyt (bakelit)
Ninon 6.6
Polyizopren

1880
1360
1050
1650
1670

50- 85
135150
68
80- 90
220

0.13
0.25
0.15
0.24
0.14

Ghi ch: 1. chuyn i thnh cal/g, K cn nhn vi 2.39.10-4

2. chuyn i thnh cal/ s.cm, K cn nhn vi 2.39.10-3

3. Gi tr o 1000C
4. Gi tr trung bnh ly trong khong nhit 0

1 000 0C

Cc ng gp nhit dung khc

Cn c cc c ch hp th nng lng khc cng c th ng gp vo nhit dung
ton phn ca cht rn. Tuy nhin, trong a s trng hp nhng ng gp ny u nh
so vi thnh phn dao ng. C thnh phn in t v cc in t hp th nng lng do
s tng ng nng ca mnh. Tuy nhin, iu ny ch c th i vi cc in t dn.
Chng c kch thch t cc mc y ln cc mc cn trng trn nng lng Fermi
(mc 2.1.13). Trong kim loi, ch c nhng kim loi mi c kh nng chuyn di nh th
v s ny ch chim mt phn lng nh ca tng s. Mt t phn cn nh hn na ca
cc in t c kch thch trong cc vt liu cch in v bn dn. Do vy, phn ng
gp ca in t thng thng l khng ng k, ngoi tr trng hp gn nhit OK.
Ngoi ra, trong mt s vt liu, cc qu trnh hp th nng lng khc xy ra
mt s nhit , v d, s hn lon ho cc spin in t khi nung vt liu st t qua nhit
Curie lm xut hin mt pic mnh trn ng cong nhit dung - nhit .
2.2.2. Gin n nhit
a s cc vt liu rn u n ra khi nung v co li khi ngui. S thay i chiu di
theo nhit ca vt liu rn c th c biu th nh sau:
= 1 (Tr T0)

(2.36a)

Hay l
= 1

(2.36b)

Trong l0 l lr tng ng chiu di ban u v chiu di cui cng khi thay i

nhit t T0 n Tr
1 - h s di ca gin n nhit. oC-1

[80]

ng nhin, s nung nng hay lm ngui tc dng ln tt c cc kch thc ca

vt th, dn n s thay i th tch c th tnh theo biu thc:
(2.37)
Trong Vo v V tng ng th tch ban u v bin thin th tch.
- h s th tch ca gin n nhit
nhiu loi vt liu, gi tr ca

l d hng, c ngha l n ph thuc vo

hng tinh th. i vi cc vt liu m s gin n nhit c ng tch hng th

gn

ng bng 3

Hnh 2.34. S gii thch s gin n nhit khi ng cong th nng khng i xng (a) v
khng gin n nhit khi ng cong th nng i xng (b)

T gc cu trc, s gin n nhit c phn nh bi s tng khong cch trung

bnh gia cc nguyn t. Hin tng ny c th gii thch d nht bng cch xt ng
cong thay i th nng theo khong cch gia cc nguyn t trong vt liu rn (hnh
2.34). ng cong c dng mt h th nng, v khong cch nguyn t cn bng r o OK
tng ng vi cc tiu ca h. Nung nng tng dn nhit ln (T 1, T2, T3,) s lm
tng nng lng dao ng t E1 ln E2, E3, Bin dao ng trung bnh ca mt
nguyn t tng ng b rng ca h th nng tng nhit v khong cch trung bnh
gia cc nguyn t c biu th bi v tr trung bnh, khong cch ny tng ln theo
nhit ro n r1, r2, r3,
Thc ra, gin n nhit lien quan vi dng ng cong bt i xng ca h th
nng hn l vi cc bin dao ng dng nguyn t c tng ln. Nu ng cong th
nng l i xng (hnh 2.34b) th s khng c s thay i no v khong cch trung bnh
gia cc nguyn t, v h qu s khng c gin n nhit.

[81]

Hnh 2.34. S gin thch s gin n nhit khi ng cong th nng khng i
xng (a) v khng gin n nhit khi ng cong th nng i xng (b)
i vi mi loi vt liu (kim loi, gm v polymer), nng lng lien kt nguyn
t cng ln th h th nng ny cng su v cng hp hn; kt qa l vi mc tng nhit
cho, tng khong cch nguyn t s t hn, gy nn gi tr l nh hn. Bng 2.5
lit k h s gin n nhit di ca mt s vt liu. Ch n s ph thuc nhit ,
ln ca h s gin n tng theo nhit c bit nhanh khu vc gn OK. Cn cc gi
tr cho trn bng 2.5 l nhit phng, nu nh khng c ghi ch g khc.
Kim loi
Nh ghi bng 2.5 h s gin n nhit di ca mt s kim loi ph thng nm
trong khong t 5.10-6 n 25.10-6(oC)-1. Trong nhiu ng dng, n nh kch thc
cao khi nhit thng ging l rt quan trng. iu ny t c nh pht trin mt h
hp kim st niken v st coban c tr s l vo c 10-6(oC)-1. Mt hp kim nh th
c d kin c cc c trng gin n ging nh ca thu tinh Pyrex; khi c gn vi
Pyrex v chu bin thin nhit s trnh c ng sut nhit v s nt gy c th c
ch ni.

Hnh 2.35. dn nhit ca hp kim Cu-Zn

Gm
Trong nhiu vt liu gm, lc lin kt gia cc nguyn t kh mnh, v c phn
nh gi tr h s gin n nhit tng i thp, trong khong 0,5 10 -6 v 15.10-6(oC)-1.
cc gm khng tinh th v cc gm c cu trc tinh th lp phng. l l ng hng.
Ngc li, c mt s vt liu gm d hng, khi nung nng th chng co li theo mt s
hng tinh th v n ra theo mt vi hng khc. cc thu tinh hu c, h s gin n
ph thuc vo thnh phn. Thu tinh SiO2 tinh khit c h s gin n cc k nh: 0,5. 106 o
( C)-1. iu ny c gi thit bi mt nguyn t thp n mc s gin cch gia cc
nguyn t ch gy nn nhng bin i kch thc vi m tng i nh. Tp cht lm tng
h s gin n.

[82]

Hnh 2.36 S ph thuc nhit ca dn nhit ca mt s vt liu gm

Vt liu gm lm vic trong iu kin thng ging nhit cn phi c h s gin n

nhit tng i thp v ng hng. Ngoi ra, nhng vt liu gin ny c th b nt v
do thay i kch thc khng ng u, gi l sc nhit s c ni ti sau.
Polyme
Nhiu vt liu polymer gin n nhit rt mnh, h s l trong khong t 50.10-6
n 300. 10-6(oC)-1. Gi tr l cao nht tm thy cc polymer mch thng v phn nhnh
bi v trong cc lin kt th cp gia cc phn t l yu v ch c mt s ti thiu
mch lien kt ngang. Khi tng lin kt ngang h s gin n s gim v c tr s thp nht
trong cc polymer tinh th chu nhit nh bakelit, trong lin kt hu nh hon ton l
ng ho tr.
2.2.3. Dn nhit
Dn nhit l hin tng nhit c truyn t vng nhit cao ti vng nhit
thp ca vt liu. Tnh cht c trng cho kh nng dn nhit ca vt liu l dn nhit,
c nh ngha theo biu thc
q=-k

(2.38)

trong q - mt nhit thng, tc l dng nhit i qua mt n v din tch trong

mt n v thi gian (din tch c ly vung gc vi hng ca dng nhit):
k - h s dn nhit.
dT/dx graient nhit qua mi trng dn nhit.
[83]

n v ca q v k tng ng l W/m2 v W/m.K. Phng trnh (2.38) ch c gi tr

i vi dng nhit trng thi n nh, ngha l trong iu kin m mt dng nhit
khng thay i theo thi gian. Du tr trong biu thc ch dng nhit truyn t ch nng
n ch lnh, tc l theo hng gim graien nhit .
Phng trnh (2.38) c dng tng t vi nh lut Fick I ca hin tng khuch
tn nguyn t (chng 3), k tng t h s khuch tn D v graient nhit c vai tr
ca graient nng dC/dx.
Cc c ch dn nhit
Trong cc vt liu rn, nhit c truyn bi c song dao ng mng (phonon) v
in t t do. dn nhit ton phn l tng ca hai thnh phn theo hai c ch :
k = k1 + ke

(2.39)

trong : k1, ke - dn nhit bi dao ng mng v bi in t, thng thng th

mt trong hai thnh phn chim u th. Nng lng nhit cc phonon, tc l cc song
mng c truyn i theo hng chuyn ng ca chng. Thnh phn k 1 gy bi chuyn
ng thun ca cc phonon t vng nhit cao ti vng nhit thp trong vt th.
Cc in t t do (cc in t dn) cng tham gia dn nhit. vng nng ca vt
liu in t t do c ng nng ln hn. Chng di chuyn n nhng vng lnh hn, v
mt phn ng nng ny c chuyn b thm cho cc nguyn t (nng lng dao ng)
nh l kt qu ca cc va chm vi phonon hay l vi cc khuyt tt mng. Phn ng
gp tng i ca ke tng theo nng in t t do v c nhiu in t hn tham gia
vo qu trnh dn nhit.
Kim loi
Trong kim loi vi sch cao, c ch in t vn chuyn nhit c u th hn
phn ng gp ca phonon v in t khng d b tn x nh phonon v c tc ln
hn. Kim loi l cht dn nhit ht sc tt do c s lng kh ln in t t do tham gia
dn nhit. Bng 2.5 cho dn nhit ca nhiu kim loi thng dng, ni chung c gi tr
trong khong 20 400 W/m.K.
V n t t do chu trch nhim c dn nhit v dn in trong kim loi tinh
khit, tnh ton l thuyt cho thy hai dn c mi lien h ph hp vi nh lut
Wiedemann Franz:
L=

(2.40)

Trong : - dn in:
T - nhit tuyt i
L - hng s. Gi tr l thuyt ca L l 2,44.10 -8.W/(K)2, khng ph thuc nhit
v nh nhau i vi tt c mi kim loi nu nng lng nhit c vn chuyn hon

[84]

ton bng in t t do. ng ch l gi tr l thuyt ny ph hp rt tt vi cc gi tr

L thc nghim ca cc kim loi cho trong bng 2.5.
Tp cht trong kim loi lm gim dn nhit, l do ging nh i vi dn
in. C th l cc nguyn t tp cht, c bit l trong dung dch rn, hot ng nh
nhng tm tn x, h thp hiu qu ca chuyn ng in t. th dn nhit theo
thnh phn ca cc hp kim ng - km (hnh 2.35) cho thy hiu ng . Theo xu th
, thp khng g dn nhit km hn st hoc thp hp kim thp.
Gm
Cc vt liu phi kim loi u l nhng cht cch nhit v chng khng c nhiu
in t t do. Nh vy, phonon chu trch nhim ch yu trong dn nhit: k e rt nh so
vi k1. Phonon vn chuyn nng lng nhit khng c hiu qu nh in t t do, do
phonon b tn x rt mnh bi khuyt tt mng.
dn nhit ca mt s vt liu gm cho bng 2.5 nm trong khong 2 50
W/m.K nhit phng. Thu tinh v cc gm v nh hnh khc c dn nhit thp
hn cc gm tinh th, v tn x phonon mnh hn nhiu khi cu trc nguyn t c mc
khng trt t cao.
Tn x ca cc dao ng nhit tr nn ni bt hn khi nhit tng. Do vy,
dn nhit ca a s cc vt liu gm bnh thng u gim dn khi nhit tng, t nht
l nhng nhit tng i thp. Hnh 2.36 cho thy, dn nhit bt u tng ln
nhit cao hn, l do truyn nhit bc x; lng nhit bc x hng ngoi ng k c
th c vn chuyn qua mt s vt liu gm trong sut. Hiu qu ca qu trnh ny tng
ln theo nhit .
L xp trong vt liu gm c th gy nh hng mnh n dn nhit; trong a
s trng hp, s tng th tch l xp lm gim dn nhit. Trong thc t, nhiu gm
s dng lm vt liu cch nhit u c xp cao. S truyn nhit qua cc l xp thng
l chm v khng c hiu qu. Cc l xp bn trong thng cn cha khng kh, kh ny
c dn nhit cc k thp, khong 0,02 W/m.K. Hn na, s i lu kh trong cc l
xp cng khng c hiu qu ng k.
Polyme
Nh ghi trong bng 2.5 dn nhit ca a s cc polymer l vo c 0,3
W/m.K. i vi loi vt liu ny, nng lng truyn theo dao ng, tnh tin v quay ca
cc phn t mch. ln ca dn nhit ph thuc vo mc kt tinh, polymer c
cu trc tinh th v trt t cao s c dn nhit ln hn so vi vt liu v nh hnh
tng ng. l do dao ng hiu dng hn ca cc mch phn t trng thi tinh
th.
Polyme thng c ng dng lm cht cch nhit nh c dn nhit thp. Tnh
cch nhit ca chng, cng nh ca gm, c th c nng cao hn bng cch a vo
nhng l xp nh, thng c to ra bng cch khuy bt trong khi polymer ho.

[85]

Polystyren to bt (Styrofoam) c dng ph bin lm cc ung v hp cch

nhit.
2.2.4. ng sut nhit.
ng sut nhit l ng sut c gy ra trong vt th do s thay i nhit . Tm
hiu ngun gc v bn cht ca ng sut nhit l rt quan trng v nhng ng sut ny c
th dn ti s nt v hoc bin dng do khng mong mun.
ng sut do s gin v co b hn ch
Ta hy xt mt thanh c ng cht v ng hng b nung nng hoc lm lnh
ng u, ngha l khng c gradient nhit . Khi gin hoc co t do, thanh s khng
chu ng sut. Tuy nhin, nu nh chuyn ng dc trc ca thanh b gii hn bi cc gi
cng chn hai u th s c ng sut nhit. ln ca ng sut gy bi bin thin
nhit t To n Tr l:
= Er(To- Tr)

(2.41)

Trong E mun n hi
1- h s gin n nhit di
Khi nung nng (Tr > To) ng sut s l nn ( < 0), v s gin n ca thanh b
gi li. ng nhin, khi ithanh b lm lnh (T r < To) th s c ng sut ko (( > 0).
Cng vy, ng sut theo biu thc (2.41) cng l ng sut cn thit nn (hoc ko) n
hi thanh mu tr v di ban u sau khi n chu gin n do bin i nhit To Tr.
ng sut gy bi graient nhit .
Khi mt vt rn b nung hoc lm ngui, s phn b nhit bn trong s ph
thuc vo kch thc v hnh dng ca n, vo dn nhit ca vt liu v ch s bin
i nhit . ng sut nhit c th hnh thnh do graient nhit gy ra bi s nung
nng hoc lm ngui nhanh v lm cho phn ngoi thay i nhit nhanh hn phn
pha trong. Cc bin i kch thc b phn c tc dng hn ch s gin hoc co ca
nhng phn th tch xung quanh. Chng hn khi nung nng, phn ngoi ca mu s nng
hn, v do s gin mnh hn cc vng trong. Nh vy ng sut b mt v ng sut
nn, xut hin v b cn bng bi cc ng sut ko bn trong. Mi tng quan ng sut
trong ngoi s o li khi lm ngui nhanh lm cho b mt chu ng sut ko.
Sc nhit ca vt liu gin.
i vi cc kim loi v polymer d un, ng sut nhit sinh ra c th c gim
nh nh c bin dng n hi. Tuy nhin, i vi a s vt liu gm, tnh kh un s lm
tng kh nng ph hu gin do ng sut nhit. Ngui nhanh s gy ra sc nhit hn l
nung nng, v ng sut nhit sinh ra l ng sut ko. S to thnh vt nt v s lan
truyn cc vt nt t b mt xy ra d hn khi c ng sut ko.
Kh nng ca vt liu chng li loi ph hu ny c gi l bn xung nhit.
i vi gm b lm ngui nhanh, bn xung nhit ph thuc khng nhng vo ln

[86]

ca s thay i nhit m cn vo tnh cht c v nhit ca vt liu. bn xung nhit

tt nht cc gm c bn nt r cao v dn nhit cao, cng nh mun n hi v
h s gin n nhit thp. bn ca nhiu vt liu chng li loi ph hu ny c th c
tnh bng thng s khng sc nhit TSR (ting Anh Temperature Shock Resistance).
TSR

(2.42)

C th phng nga sc nhit bng cch bin i cc iu kin ngoi gim bt

tc ngui hoc nung nng v hn ch graient nhit trong vt th n mc ti
thiu. Ci thin cc c trng nhit v c trong biu thc (2.42) cng c th nng cao
tnh khng sc nhit ca vt liu. Trong cc thng s ny, h s gin n nhit l d bin
i v d khng ch nht. V d, thu tinh Na ph thng, thng c l vo khong 9. 106 o
( C)-1 c bit nhy vi sc nhit nh chng ta vn bit. Bng cahc gim hm lng
CaO v Na2O ng thi b sung B2O3 vo to thnh thu tinh borosilicate (tc Pyrex)
th s gim c h s gin n xung ti khong 3. 10-6(oC)-1; vt liu ny hon ton
thch hp cho cc chu trnh nung nng v lm ngui ca l nung. a vo mt s l xp
tng i ln hoc mt pha th hai mm cng c th ci thin c tnh sc nhit cu vt
liu, c hai bin php ny u c tc dng ngn nga s lan truyn cc vt nt nhit.
Thng cn phi kh ng sut nhit trong cc vt liu gm nh l mt bin php
ci thin bn c v c tnh quang hc ca chng. iu ny c th thc hin bng
.

CHNG III T TNH CA VT LIU

Hin tng cc vt liu biu hin lc ht hoc y hoc nh hng ln cc vt liu
khc c bit t hang nghn nm nay. Tuy nhin, nhng nguyn l v c ch su xa
gii thch hin tng t phc tp v b n n mi thi gian kh gn y cc nh khoa
hc vn cha hiu c. Nhiu loi thit b cng ngh hin i ca chng ta da trn t
hc v vt liu t: Cc my pht v cc my bin th in lc, cc ng c in, radio,
in thoi, my tnh, v cc thanh phn ca h thng ti to nghe nhn.
St, mt s loi thp v nam chm thin nhin l nhng vt liu v cc vt c
tnh t. Tuy nhin, trn thc t th tt c cc cht u phi chu tc ng mc ny
hay mc khc ca mt t trng hin hu. Phn ny trnh by tm tt v ngun gc
ca t trng , vector t trng v cc thng s t (Cc hin tng thun t, nghch t,
st t v ferit t) v mt s vt liu t khc nhau v hin tng siu dn.
3.1. Cc khi nim c bn
3.1.1. Lng cc t
Lc t l do cc ht mang in tch chuyn ng gy ra. Nhiu khi cn hiu lc t
l lc ca t trng. ch hng ca cc lc t ti cc v tr xung quanh ngun ca t

[87]

trng ngi ta v cc ng sc t. ng sc tu cho ta hnh nh c th v s phn

b ca t trng. V d trn hnh 2.37 l ca mt vng dy in v mt thanh nam chm.

c)
a)

b)

Hnh 2.37. ng sc t trng xung quanh mt vng dy in (a) v mt nam chm

Lng cc t tn ti trong cc vt liu t. V mt s mt chng tng t nh

nhng lng cc in(mc 2.1.4b). Lng cc t c th xem nh mt thanh nam chm
nh , gm hai u cc bc (N) v cc nam (S), thay cho in tch dng v m. n
gin ta ch biu din cc lng cc t bng nhng mi tn nh ch trn hnh 2.37c.
Lng cc t chu s tc ng ca t trng tng t nh lng cc in chu s tc
ng ca in trng ( hnh 2.26). Lc ca t trng lm xoay cc lng cc hng theo
trng. Mt hin tng rt quen thuc l hin tng kim la bn t hng theo t trng
tri t.
3.1.2. Vector t trng.
T trng ngoi c biu din bng H v gi l cng t trng . T trng
sinh ra trong mt ng dy hnh tr (solenoid),gm N vng dy qun kht nhau vi chiu
di l v ti mt dng in cng I (Hnh 2.38b) tnh bng
H = NI/l

(2.43)

T trng do vng dy in v thanh nam chm sinh ra nh trn hnh 2.37 l

trng H. n v o H l ampe vng/mt hoc l A/m.
Cm ng t hay mt t thng B, biu th t trng bn trong cht chu tc
dng ca trng H. n v o ca B l Tesla [ Tc Weber trn mt vung (Wb/m 2) ]
C B v H u l nhng vector trng c trng bi ln v chiu trong khng
gian ca trng.

[88]

Hnh 2.38. T trng H do dng in i qua ng dy hnh tr sinh ra (a) v khi c mt vt rn

bn trong

Cng t trng v mt t thong c quan h vi nhau theo biu thc.

B H

(2.44)

Tham s c gi l thm t, l tnh cht ring ca mi trng. Trong H

tc dng. i lng B c o minh ha trn hnh 2.38b. thm t dc o bng
Weber trn ampe mt (Wb/A.m) hay l henri trn mt (H/m)
Trong chn khng th

BO O H

(2.45)

Trong O - thm t ca chn khng . Mt hng s v tr c gi tr bng 4

.10 7 ( 1,257.10-6) H/m;
BO mt t thng trong chn khng nh minh ha trn hnh 2.38a
C nhiu thng s m t tnh cht t ca vt rn. V d t s gia thm t trong
vt liu v thm t trong chn khng :
r / 0

(2.46)

Trong r thm t tng i khng c th nguyn.

thm t hoc thm t tng i ca vt liu l s o mc t ha vt liu

hoc kh nng m trng B c cm ng trong vt liu khi c trng ngoi H .

Vector t ha ( T ) ca vt rn c xc nh theo biu thc.

B 0 H 0 M

(2.47)

Khi trong t trng H cc momen t ca vt liu nh hng theo trng v

tng cng n bng chnh t trng ring ca chng. S hng 0 M trong (2.47) chnh l
thnh phn ng gp .
ln ca

t l vi trng t vo l :

M mH

(2.48)

V m c gi l t ha ( h s t ha) khng c th nguyn . H s t ha

v thm t tng i lin h vi nhau theo:

[89]

m r 1

(2.49)

Cc n v t rt d nhm ln bi thc t c hai h c s dng ph bin. Mt l

SI (rationalized MKS [meter kilogram second ]); H kia l CGS EMU (centimeter
gram second electromagnectic unit ) . Cc n v ca hai h v cc h s chuyn
i cho trong bng 2.6
Bng 2.6. Cc n v t v cc h s chuyn i gia hai h SI v CGS EMU
i lng

K hiu

Cm ng t
(mt t
thng)

n v
2

Tesla(Wb/m )

CGS- EMU
gauss

Kg/s.C

Ampe.vng/m

C/m.s

oersted

Ampe.vng/m

C/m.s

Maxwell/cm2

( SI )
I
(CGS EMU )

thm t
ca
chn
khng

Khng n v

thm t (SI)
tng i
(CGS
EMU)

Henry/m

Kg.m/C

Khng n v

Khng
v

Khng n v

1Wb/m2 = 104
gauss

1ampe.vng/m
=4 .10-4
ersted

1ampe.vng/m
=
10-3
2
maxwell/cm
4 .10-7
henry/m =
emu

m (SI)
t ha
( h s t
ha)

Chuyn i

Gc

Cng t
trng

Vector
t
ha (T )

n v SI
Dn xut

Khng n v
Khng n v
Khng
v

(CGS EMU)

m 4 m

Ch :
n v Weber (Wb) L volt .second (V.s)
n v henry (H) l weber/ampe (Wb/A)
3.1.3.Ngun gc ca momen t
Cc tnh cht t v m ca vt liu u l h qu ca cc momen t gn vi tng
in t. Khi nim ny kh phc tp v da trn cc nguyn l c hc lng t nn vt
qu phm vi ca sch ny . Di y trnh by mt s c n gin ha. Mi in t
[90]

trong mt nguyn t u c cc momen t vi hai ngun gc. Mt lin quan n qu o

ca n chuyn ng quanh ht nhn. L mt in tch chuyn dng. Mi in t c th
xem nh mt dng in vng nh, sinh ra mt t trng rt yu . Do c mt momen
t hng dc theo hng qu o ca n, nh minh ha trn hnh 2.39a

Hnh 2.39. m men t do chuyn ng qu o ca in t (a)v do spin (in t t xoay)

Mt khc, mi in t cn c mt chuyn ng ring l chuyn ng xung quanh

trc ca bn thn ( gi l spin) .Do xut hin cc momen t na, bt ngun t spin
in t, hng theo trc spin nh trn hnh 2.39b.
Momen t spin in t ch c th nhn 2 chiu i song nhau, hoc hng ln,
hoc hng xung. Nh vy mi in t trong nguyn t c th coi nh mt nam
chm vnh cu nh, c momen t qu o v momen t spin
Momen t n v l Magneton Bohr c gi tr l 9,27.10-24 A.m2 . i vi mi
in t trong nguyn t, momen t spin ch c th nhn mt trong 2 gi tr ( cng
cho spin hng ln v tr cho spin hng xung). Cn momen t qu o th bng
m1 . l s lng t t ( s lng t khng gian) ca in t.
Trong mi nguyn t c lp, momen t qu o v spin. i vi mt nguyn t
c cc lp in t hon ton y , momen tng ca n b trit tiu. Nh vy, vt liu cu
to bi nguyn t c cc lp in t hon ton y th khng th b t ha vnh cu. v
d cc kh tr ( He, Ne, Ar.) cng nh nhiu vt liu in khc
Trong vt liu tn ti cc dng t tnh sau: Thun t, nghch t, v st t. Ngoi ra
phn st t v feri t c xem l nhng dng ph ca st t. Mi vt liu u tn ti t
nht mt trong dng t tnh v tnh cht t ca vt liu ph thuc vo hnh vi ca cc
lng cc t nguyn t v in t di tc dng ca t trng ngoi.
3.2. NGCH T V THUN T.
Nghch t l mt dng rt yu ca t tnh, khng vnh cu v ch tn ti khi c
mt trng ngoi tc dng. Trng cm ng sinh ra do c s thay i chuyn ng qu
o ca in t bi trng ngoi.
Momen t cm ng c tr s rt nh v hng ngc chiu vi t trng ngoi.
Nh vy thm t tng i r nh hn 1 ( tuy nhin ch rt t thi) v t ha l
m. Ngha l cng ca trng B trong vt rn nghch t s nh hn trong chn
khng. t ha th tch m ca vt rn nghch t vo khong 10-5. Khi t vo gia

[91]

hai cc ca mt nam chm in mnh. Cc vt liu nghch t s b ht v pha nhng khu

vc t trng yu.
Hnh 2.40a minh ha cu hnh cc lng cc t nguyn t ca mt vt liu nghch
t khi c v khng c t trng ngoi. y cc mi tn biu th cc momen lng cc
nguyn t, khc vi trnh by trc y, cc mi tn ch biu th cc momen in t . S
ph thuc ca B vo t trng ngoi H i vi vt liu nghch t biu din trn hnh
2.41. Bng 2.7 ghi t ha ca nhiu vt liu nghch t.

a)

[92]

Mt t thng B

Hnh 2.40. Cu hnh sp xp momen lng cc t trong vt liu nghch t (a) v thun
t (b) khi c v khng c t trng ngoi.

St t

Thun t
Chn khng

Nghch

Cng t trng H

Hnh 2.41. S mt t thng B v cng t trng H i vi cc vaatjlieeuj

thun t, nghch t v st t

Tnh nghch t c hu ht tt c cc vt liu, nhng v n rt yu nn ch c th

quan st c khi khng c cc dng t tnh khc, do chng t c ngha thc t.
Bng 2.7. H s t ha ca nhiu vt liu nghch t v thun t
Nghch t
Vt liu
Nhm xyt
ng
Vng
Thy ngn
Silic
Bc
Natri clorua
Km

H s t ha m
(th tch,n v SI)
-1.81.10-5
-0.96.10-5
-3.44.10-5
-2.85.10-5
-0.41.10-5
-2.38.10-5
-1.41.10-5
-1.56.10-5

Thun T
Vt liu
Nhm
Crm
Crm clorua
Mangan sulfat
Mlipden
Natri
Titan
Zicni

H s t ha m
(th tch,n v SI)
2.07.10-5
3.13.10-5
1.51.10-5
3.70.10-5
1.19.10-5
8.48.10-5
1.81.10-5
1.09.10-5

Trong nhiu vt, mi nguyn t c mt momen lng cc vnh cu do kt qu

trit tiu ln nhau khng hon ton ca cc mmen t spin v cc mmen t qu o.
Khi khng c t trng ngoi, cc mmen t nguyn t ny nh hng hn lon, do
[93]

vt liu s khng c vector t ha v m ring. Khi c t trng ngoi cc lng cc

nguyn t ny quay t do v tnh thun t ch th hin khi s quay ny to ra mt inh
hng u tin no nh trn hnh 2.40b. Kt qu lm tng t trng ngoi , gy ra
thm t tng i r ln hn 1 v do t ha tng i nh nhng dng ( xem
bng 2.7 v hnh 2.41)
C hai cht thun t v nghch t u c coi l vt liu khng t tnh bi v
chng ch b t ha khi c mt t trng ngoi . Mt t thng trong chng hu nh
ging trong chn khng.
3.3. ST T
Mt s vt liu kim loi c mmen t vnh cu ngay c khi khng c t trng
ngoi v c mt t rt ln. l hin tng st t, c trng cc kim loi chuyn
tip: St, cban, niken v mt s kim loi t him nh gadoli ( Gd). H s t ha ca
cc vt liu st t c th ti 106, lm cho H<<M v t biu thc 2.47 c th vit:
B 0M

(2.50)

Mmen t vnh cu trong cc vt liu st t do spin in t sinh ra- l cc spin

in t khng t trit tiu ln nhau. S ng gp ca mmen t qu o so vi mmen
spin. Hn na, trong vt liu st t , tng tc ghp lm cho cc mmen t spin ca cc
nguyn t ln cn nh hng song song vi nhau ngay c khi khng c t trng ngoi (
xem hnh 2.42). Ngun gc ca lc ghp ny cha c hiu y nhng c bit l
do cu trc in t ca kim loi . S nh hng spin song song vi nhau gi hn trong
cc min th tch tng i ln c gi l cc min t ha t nhin ( xem mc 2.3.6)
T cc i tc l t bo ha M s ca mt vt liu st t biu th t c
to ra khi tt c cc lng cc t trong vt rn c nh hng theo t trng ngo.
Khi mt t thng bo ha : Bs . t ha bo ha bng th tch mmen t ring
ca mi nguyn t v s nguyn t tng ng l: 2,22; 1,72; 0,60 magneton Bohr

Mn2+

[94]

O2-

Hnh 2.42. S minh ha s nh

hng ca cc lng cc t nguyn
t trong vt liu st t

Hnh 2.43. s sp xp phn song song ca cc

momen t spin trong mangan oxyt phn st t

3.4. PHN ST T V FERI T

3.4.1. Phn st t
Hin tng ny l kt qu ca s nh hng phn song song : S sp xp ca
cc mmen t spin ca cc nguyn t hoc cc ion ln cn theo cc hng i nghch
nhau mt cch chnh xc c gi l hin tng phn st t. Mangan xyt (MnO) lad
mt vt liu phn st t . l mt vt liu gm mang c trng ion, c c hai ion Mn 2+
v O2- khng c mmen t ring bi c mmen spin v mmen qu o u trit tiu
hon ton. Tuy nhin, cc mmen Mn2+ li c mmen t ring vi ngun gc spin chim
u th . Trong cu trc tinh th, nhng ion Mn 2+ ln cneeps mmen t phn song song
nhau ( hnh 2.43). Hin nhin l cc mmen t s trit tiu ln nhau v hu qu l ton
b cht rn s khng c mmen t ring
3.4.2. Feri t
Mt s vt liu gm cng th hin tnh t ha vnh cu gi l feri t. Cc c
trng t v m ca cc cht st t v feri t tng t nhau ngun gc ca cc mmen
t. Nguyn l ca feri t c minh ha bi nhng feri lp phng . Nhng vt liu ion
ny c th c iu din bng cng thc ha hc MFe 2O4. Trong M l mt hay nhiu
nguyn t kim loi . Ferit in hnh Fe3O4 (manhetit khong).
Cng thc ca Fe3O4 c th vit thnh Fe2+O2- - (Fe3+)2(O2)3 trong cc ion st
tn ti c hai trng thi ha tr +2 v +3 vi t s 1:2. Mi Ion Fe 2+ v Fe3+ c mt
mmen t spin ring tng ng bng 4 v 5 magneton Bohr. Ngoi ra cc ion O 2- l trung
ha v t . Gia cc ion st c s ghp cc ion t spin phn song song tng t nh
phn st t . Tuy nhin mmen t spin li do s trit tiu khng hon ton ca cc
mmen t spin.
Ferit lp phng c cu trc tinh th spinen o . Cu trc spinen c th xem nh
c to ra t cc mt phng xp cht ca cc ion O 2-. Ngoi ra, c hai loi v tr c th
b cc ion Fe chim ch (hnh 2.44. v bng 2.8). Mt loi c s phi tr bng 4 tc l
mi ion Fe c bao quanh bi 4 ion oxy gn nht. i vi loi kia, s phi tr bng 6.
Vi cu trc spinen o ny mt na s ion Fe 3+ nm cc v tr tm mt , cn na kia
nm cc v tr 4 mt,cc ion Fe2+ u nm cc v tr tm mt .

[95]

Hnh 2.44. S sp xp cc m men t spin ca cc ion Fe3+ v Fe2+ trong Fe2O3

Bng 2.8. S phn b t spin ca cc ion Fe2+v Fe 3+ trong mt c s ca Fe3O4

Cation

Nt mng tm mt

Nt mng 4 mt

Fe3+

Moomen t ring
Trit tiu hon ton

Fe2+

Ghi ch:Mi mi tn biu din inh hng ca mt cation

S sp xp cc mmen t spin c biu din trong bng 2.8. Mmen t spin ca

tt c ion Fe3+ kh ln nhau v do khng c s ng gp no vo s t ha ca cht
rn . Cn cc momen Fe 2+ vi momen spin sp xp theo cng chiu hng s c momen
tng m bo s t ha. Nh vy bo ha ca cht rn Feri t c th tnh bng tch
ca cc momen spin ring ca mi ion Fe2+ vi s ion Fe2+ tng ng.
Cc Ferit lp phng thanh phn mi c th to ra nh thay th mt s ion Fe
trong cu trc tinh th bng cc ion kim loi ph gia. Trong cng thc ha hc ca Ferit
M2+O2- - (Fe3+)2(O2-)3, thay th cho Fe2+, M2+ cng l cc ion ha tr hai nh : Ni 2+,Mn2+,
Co2+, Cu2+. Mi ion c mt momen t spin ring khc 4 ( xem bng 2.9)
Bng 2.9 :Momen t ring ca cation
Cation

Momen t
ring (magneton
Bohr)

[96]

Fe3+

Fe2+

Mn2+

Co2+

Ni2+

Cu2+

Nh vy bng cch iu chnh cc thnh phn to ra cc hp cht Ferit c tnh

cht t khc nhau. V d t Ferit Ni vi cng thc NiFe 2O4 c th to ra cc hp cht
Ferit hn hp cha 2 ion kim loi ha tr hai nh (Mn, Mg) Fe 2O3 trong t s
Mn2+:Mg2+ c th thay i
Cc vt liu gm khc c tnh cht Ferit gm cc ferit su phng v cc garnet .
Ferit su phng c cu trc tng t nh spinen o , vi i xng lc gic, cng thc
ha hc ca chng l AB12O19 trong A l kim loi ha tr hai nh :Ba, Pb, Sr. Cn B l
loi ha tr ba nh: Al, Ga, Cr hoc Fe. Hai ferit su phng ph bin l PbFe 12O19 v
BaFe12O19
Cc garnet c cu trc tinh th rt phc tp , c biu din bng cng thc tng
qut RE3Fe5O12. y RE l mt ion t him nh : Sm, Eu, Gd, hoc Y.Ph bin nht l
garnet Y3Fe5O12.
t ha bo ha ca cc vt liu feri t khng cao nh cc cht st t. Mt khc
cc ferit cc dng vt liu gm l nhng in mi in t tt. Trong mt s ng dng
t, chng hn nh cc bin th cao tn, dn in thp l iu mong mun nht.
3.5. NH HNG CA NHIT LN TNH CHT T
Khi tng nhit , dao ng nhit ca cc nguyn t trong vt rn s tng, cc
momen t nguyn t s quay d dng. Do khi nhit tng, chuyn ng nhit ca
cc nguyn t dn ti s hn lon ca mi momen t.
i vi cc vt liu st t , phn st t v feri t , chuyn ng nhit nhit nguyn
t chng li lc tng tc ghp gia cc momen lng cc nguyn t., gy ra s xp
hng lm ln ca cc lng cc, k c khi c t trng ngoi. Do t bo ha ca
cc cht st t v feri t u gim. T bo ha s cc i t OK v khi dao
ng nhit l cc tiu. Khi nhit tng, t bo ha gim dn v sau tt ti 0
nhit curie Tc. c tnh t - nhit ca Fe v Fe 3O4 c biu din trn hnh 2.45.
nhit Tc lc ghp spin vi nhau mt tc dng v khi nhit cao hn T c. Vt liu st
t v Feri t u tr thnh thun t. Nhit curie thay i theo vt liu , v d st,
coban, niken, Fe3O4 c cc tr s tng ng l ;: 768, 1120, 335, v 5850C..

[97]

Hnh 2.45. thi s ph thuc nhit ca t ha bo ha ca Fe v Fe3O4

Tnh phn st t cng ph thuc nhit . N bin mt nhit Neel. Cao hn

nhit ny cc vt liu phn st t cng tr thnh nghch t.
3.6. MEN ( MIN T ) V T TR
Mi vt liu st t v feri t nhit di T c c cu to bi nhng vng th
tch nh, trong tt c cc momen lng cc t u nh hng song song vi nhau vi
t ha t bo ha ( hnh 2.46). Mi vng gi l mt min t (men) mt min
t ha t nhin. Cc men ln cn phn cch nhau bi cc vng bin hay vch, qua
hng t ha thay i dn ( hnh 2.47).

Hnh 2.46. S cc men trong vt liu st

t hoc ferri t

Hnh 2.47. S thay i nh hng lng cc

t qua mt vch men

Thng thng cc men c kch thc vi m v trong a tinh th mi ht c th

cha cc men n. Do mt vt rn s c mt s lng ln men vi nhng hng

t ha khc nhau. T trng M ca vt rn s l tng vector t ha ca tt c cc

men. Phn ng gp ca mi omen ph thuc vo th tch ca n. Mt vt cha t
ha c tng vector t ha ca tt c cc men bng khng. i vi cht st t v feri t,
[98]

mt t thong B v cng t trng H khng t l vi nhau.Nu nh vy vt cha

c t ha s b th hm s B bin i theo H ging nh hnh 2.48. ng cong i t
gc ,khi H tng th B lc u cng tng chm, sau nhanh hn, cui cng nm ngang v
khng ph thuc vo H na. Ga tr cc i ny ca B c gi l mt t thong bo
ha Bs, tng ng vi t ha bo ha M s , nu trn. Theo phng trnh 2.44.
thm t l dc ca ng cong B-H.

Hnh 2.48. c trng B-H ca vt liu st t hoc ferri t vi s sp xp cc men trong

tng giai on t ha

Hnh 2.48 cho thy ph thuc vo H. dc ng cong B-H ti im H=0 l

mt c tnh ca vt liu, c gi l thm t ban u i .
Khi trng H tc dng, cc men thay i hnh dng v kch thc nh s dch
chuyn cc vch men. Trn hnh 2.48 l s cu trc min t ti nhiu im dc
theo ng cong B-H. Ban u, momen ca cc men nh hng hn lon khng c
trng B( Hoc M).Khi c t trng ngoi, nhng men no c nh hng thun li
(hoc gn song song) vi t trng ngoi s ln hn nh thu hp cc men khc hng
khng thun li. Qa trnh ny c pht trin theo cng t trng H cho n khi
vt rn tr thanh n men duy nht inh hng nh gn t trng ngoi. Bo ha t
bt u khi n men t quay nh hng theo t trng H.

[99]

Hnh 2.49. Mt t thng bin i theo

cng t trng trong vt liu st t t
bo ha thun v nghch (cc im S v S).
Vng t tr c biu din bng ng lin
nt cn ng t nt l ng t ha ban
u, Br l t d, Hc l kh t

Hnh 2.50. Mt ng cong t tr cha bo

ha (ng NP) nm trong vng t tr bo
ha ca vt liu st t. ng LM l c
trng B-H khi i t trng ti mt im trc
bo ha

T im bo ha S ( hnh 2.49), khi t trng H gim v i hng ng cong

khng trng vi ng ban u na v tr B gim chm hn trng t vo H. l
hin tng tr t. Ti im R khi trng H bng 0 vn cn mt trng B c gi l
t d hay l mt t thong d Br , tc l vt liu vn cn b t ha khi mt t
trng ngoi H.
Tnh tr v t ha vnh cu c th c gii thch bng s dch chuyn ca cc
vch men. Khi gim v i hng t trng t im bo ha S (hnh 2.49) th qu
trnh bin i cu trc men cng i li. Trc ht l s xoay hng ca c n men
theo trng hng mi. Tip , nhng men c momen xp theo trng hng mi s
hnh thnh v ln ln nh mt dn cc men c. Tuy nhin, s chuyn dch cc vch
min t tng t trng theo hng ngc li b cn tr, gy ra hin tng tr ca B
theo H. Khi trng ngoi bng 0, mt phn th tch ca cc men vn cn nh hng
theo trng c, l nguyn nhn tn ti ca t d Br .
gim trng B ( im C, hnh 2.49) cn t mt trng H c tr s - H c ngc
vi hng ban u; Hc c gi l kh t, hay l lc kh t. Tip tc tng cng
trng theo hng ngc li th cng t ti bo ha pha i din ng vi im S`.
Tip tc bin i trng ln na cho ti im bo ha ban u (S) s kt thc mt vng
t tr v c thm mt t d m (-Br) v mt kh t dng (Hc).
c tuyn B-H trn hnh 2.49 biu din mt vng t tr t ti bo ha. Tuy
nhin, vn c tr t m khng cn tng trng H cho n bo ha trc khi i hng
trn hnh 2.50 vng NP l mt ng t tr cha bo ha. Nh vy, c th i hng
trng ti mt im bt k trn ng cong v to ra nhng vng t tr khc nhau. Hnh
2.50 cho thy vng tr LM tng ng trng H c bin i ti khng. Mt phng
php ph b t ha ( kh t) mt cht st t hay feri t l t ha lp i lp li trong mt
trng H lun i hng v gim cng .
3.7. VT LIU T MM
Kch thc v hnh dng ca ng cong t tr ca cc vt liu st t v feri t c
tm quan trng thc t. Din tch bn trong vng t tr biu th tn hao nng lng trong
mt n v th tch vt liu, trong mt chu trnh t ha kh t. Tn hao nng lng
c tnh bng lng nhit sinh ra trong vt liu v lm tng nhit ca n.
Cc vt liu st t v feri t c phn ha thnh vt liu t mn hoc vt liu t
cng ty theo c tnh t tr ca chng . Vt liu t mn c s dng trong cc linh

[100]

kin chiu t trng xoay chiu vi tn hao nng lng phi thp; V d , lm li my
bin th. V l do ny din tch vng t tr phi nh, vng cn mnh v hp nh trn hnh
2.51. Do , vt liu t mn thm t ban u cao v kh thp. Vt liu c th t
c t ha bo ha bng mt t trng tng i thp( tc d b t ha v kh t)
v c tn hao nng lng t tr thp.

Hnh 2.51. ng cong t ha ca vt liu t mm v t cng

T trng bo ha v t ha ch ph thuc vo thnh phn ca vt liu. v d,

trong cc ferit lp phng, s thay th Fe2+ bng mt ion kim loi ha tr hai nh Ni2+
( trong FeO- Fe2O3) s lm thay i t ha bo ha. Ngc li h s t ha v kh
t Hc li nhy vi bin i cu trc hn l bin i thnh phn. V d, s dch chuyn d
dng ca cc vch men khi t trng thay i ln v hng lm cho trng (lc )
kh t nh. Trong khi cc khuyt tt cu trc nh cc ht khng t tnh hoc cc l
trng trong vt liu t li km hm s chuyn ng ca cc vch men v do lm
tng trng kh t. Nh vy, vt liu t mn phi khng c cc khuyt tt cu trc.
Mt tnh cht quan trng na ca vt liu t mn l in tr. Ngoi tn hao t tr
cn c tn hao nng lng gy bi dng in c cm ng trong vt liu do t trng
bin thin cng v hng theo thi gian, l dng in xoy. gim tn hao
nng lng ny c bit tn s cao cn s dng cc vt liu t mn c in tr sut ln.
Cc vt liu c th l cc hp kim ( dng dung dch rn) st- silic v st niken. Cc
ferit gm c dng ph bin v chng l nhng cht cch in thun ty. Tuy nhin, kh
nng ng dng hi b hn ch do chng c h s t ha tng i nh. Gn y vt liu
t mn v nh hnh v nanomet (finemet) dng bng mng ca cc hp kim h Fe ( Cr,
Ni, Co) B (Si) vi tnh t mn tt ang c khai thc s dng c bit trong tn s
chung v cao. Tnh cht ca cc vt liu t mn xem bng 2.10. Tnh t mn ca cc

[101]

vt liu c th c nng cao cho mt s ng dng nh x l nhit trong t trng. Bng

cch ny c th nhn c mt vng t tr ch nht rt thch hp trong mch khuch i
t v bin th xung. Ngoi ra vt liu t mn cn c dung trong cc my pht, ng
c, inam v mch chuyn i.

Bng 2.10. cc tnh cht tiu biu ca vt liu t mm

Vt liu

thm
Thnh phn t
tng
%
trng i
lng
ban
u

in
Tn hao t sut
Mt t
tr
trong
m
thng bo
mt
chu
ha, Tesla
trnh , J/m3
(Gauss)
( erg/ cm3)

99,95 Fe

2.14

270

(21 400)

( 2700)

2.01

40

(20 100)

(400)

1.60

120

(16 600)

(1200)

St thi thng mi

St silic ( inh hng)

45 permalloy

Supermalloy

97 Fe, 3Si

55 Fe, 45 Ni

79 Ni, 15 Fe

150

1400

2500

75000

5Mo, 0,5 Mn
Ferrox cube A

48 Mn Fe2O4

36 NiFe2O4

4.7.10-7

4.5.10-7

6.0.10-7

0.80
(8 000)

1400

52 ZnFe2O4
Ferrox cube B

1.0.10-7

650

64 ZnFe2O4

[102]

0.33

40

(3 300)

(400)

0.36

35

(3 600)

(350)

2 000

107

tr

3.8. VT LIU T CNG

Vt liu t cng c dng lm nam chm vnh cu, vt liu ny cn c t d,
trng kh t v mt t thng bo ha cao cng nh thm t ban u thp v tn
hao t tr cao. Cc c tnh t tr ca vt liu t cng cho trn hnh 2.51. C th lien h
cng tng i (nng lng t) ca vt liu vi tch s B r, Hc, n bng khong hai ln
nng lng cn ph hy t ha mt n v th tch vt liu. Nh vy, vt liu t c
nng lng cng cao nu tch B r, Hc cng ln. Nh nu, tnh cnh t tr lien quan ti
kh nng dch chuyn cc vch men t. Khi s dch chuyn ny b cn tr th t trng
kh t v h s t ha u tng ln, ph hy t ha cn mt trng ngoi ln. R rng
qu trnh ny c lien quan ti cu trc vi m ca vt liu. S dch chuyn vch men s
kh khn khi c nhng phn t tit ra nh mn. a s nam chm vnh cu c s dng
rng ri l thp st t hp kim vi volfram v crom khi x l nhit thch hp, kt hp vi
cacbon trong thp to thnh nhng ht volfram cacbit v crom cacbit phn tn. Chng
km hm c bit hiu qu s dch chuyn vch men. Mt s hp kim t cng c
pht trin sau ny c cha nhiu nguyn t hp kim nh st, coban, niken, nhm v
ng. Nh x l nhit thch hp s to ra nhng ht st- coban n men c t tnh cao
trong nn mt pha khng t tnh. Cc hp kim cha t him (Sm, Nd, Pr,) c v
khng c coban loi tinh th v vi tinh th c trin vng s dng ln nh cc c trng t
cng rt cao ca chng. Cc feri t c dng lm nam chm u l ferit su phng.
Bng 2.11 gii thiu tnh cht ca mt s loi vt liu t cng.
Bng 2.11. Gii thiu cc tnh cht tiu biu ca vt liu t cng

Trng kh
thnh phn t d
t
Hc
%
trng Br tesla
Ampe.vong/m
lng
(Gauss)
(oersted)

(BH)max
Nhit in tr
3
J/m
sut
curie

(Gauss
Tc 0C
m
Oersted)

Thp cacbon
Mactenxit

98,1 Fe
0,9 C1Mn

0,95
(9 500)

400
(50)

1 600
(0,2.106)

Thp volfram

92,8Fe6W
0,5 Cr

0,95
(9 500)

5 900
(74)

2 600
760
6
(0.33.10 )

3,0.10-7

Cunife

20Fe20Ni
60Cu

0,54
(5 400)

44 000
( 550)

12 000
(1,5.106)

410

1,8.10-7

Cunico

29Co21Ni
50Cu

0,34
(3 400)

54 000
(650)

6 400
(0,8.106)

860

2,4.10-7

Alnico 8 thiu 34Fe7Al

kt
14Ni35Co
4Cu5Ti

0,76
(7 600)

123 000
( 1 550)

36 000
(4,5.106)

860

Vt liu

[103]

Ferrox dur
( nh hng)

BaO6Fe2O3

0,32
(3 200)

240 000
(3 000)

20 000
(2,5.106)

450

104

3.9.LU TR T
Trong nhng nm qua vt liu t ngy cng quan trng trong lnh vc lu tr
thng tin, v d, i vi my tnh. Trong khi cc linh kin bn dn ch dng ln b nh s
cp, th cc a v bng t li c kh nng lu tr nhng lng thng tin ln v vi gi
thnh thp hn. Ngy nay ngnh cng nghip ghi m v truyn hnh ang hy vng nhiu
vo bng t lu tr v ci to cc chng trnh audio (nghe) v video (nhn).

[104]

Hnh 2.52. nh hin vi in t qut cu trc vi m ca mt a lu tr t

Cc d liu my tnh, m thanh hoc hnh nh di dng cc tn hiu in t u

c chuyn np ri lu gi li trong cc khu vc rt nh ca mi trng lu tr t. Vic
np thng tin v ly ra t bng hoc a c thc hin nh mt u t. l mt cun
dy qun xung quanh mt li (vt liu t) c x mt khe. D liu c a vo (hay
ghi) bng tn hiu in qua cun dy lm li t sinh mt t trng i qua khe. T
trng ny s t ha mt khu vc rt nh trn a hoc bng (nm trc tip bn trong u
t). Khi ngt trng, s t ha vn cn lu li v tn hiu c lu tr. Cng chnh
u t c dng ti hin (tc l c) thng tin lu tr. Khi bng hoc a i
qua khe ca u t, mi mt bin i ca t trng bng (a) s sinh ra mt in p cm
ng trong cun dy u t. in p ny c khuch i ri chuyn v dng (hoc c
trng) nguyn gc. a s cc t mi u gm nhng ht rt nh dng hnh kim hoc que
ca ferit Fe 2O3 hay cc hp kim pha tp ca n. Khi ch to nhng ht ny c sp
xp sao cho trc di ca chng song song vi hng chuyn ng qua u t (hnh 2.52).

[105]

Mi ht l mt n men, ch c th b t ha sao cho momen t ca n nm dc

theo trc . C th c hai trng thi t, tng ng vi vecto t ha bo ha theo hng
trc v hng ngc li. Hai trng thi ny c th lu tr thng tin dng s ( s 1 v s
0 ). Trong mt h thng, s 1 c biu din bng mt php i li hng t trng, t
mt khu vc nh trong mi trng lu tr sang mt khu vc khc, khi c nhiu ht hnh
kim ca mi mt khu vc nh vy i qua u t. Thiu php i hng gia cc khu vc
ln cn s c biu th bi s 0.
Vng t tr cho mi trng lu tr t phi tng i hp v ch nht. Yu cu
ny bo m cho s lu tr c vnh cu v s o chiu t ha ch xy ra trong mt
khong hp ca cng t trng t vo. Thng thng mt t thng bo ha nm
t 0,4 v 0.6 Tesla.
3.10. SIU DN
Siu dn v c bn l mt hin tng in : Tuy nhin c nhng vn phc tp
lin quan n trng thi siu dn v ngoi ra cc vt liu siu dn c ng dng trc
tin trong cc nam chm c kh nng to ra nhng t trng cao.
[106]

Hnh 2.53. S ph thuc in tr - nhit ca vt dn bnh thng v vt liu siu dn khu

vc gn O K

a s cc kim loi khi c lm lnh xung n nhit gn OK th in tr

gim xung t t , t ti mt gi tr nht nh, l c tnh ca ring kim loi. Tuy
nhin c mt s t vt liu, khi nhit rt thp, in tr gim t ngt t mt gi tr
xc nh xung ti khng v vn gi nh vy khi tip tc lm lnh na. l hin tng
siu dn (in). Cc vt liu c gi l cc cht siu dn. Cn nhit ti t ti
trng thi siu dn c goi l nhit gii hn T c. Hnh 2.53 cho bit c trng in tr
- nhit ca cc vt liu siu dn va khng siu dn. Nhit ti hn thay i ty theo
tnh cht siu dn nhng ch trong khong t di 1K cho n 20K i vi kim loi v
hp kim. Mi y ngi ta pht hin mt s gm oxyt phc hp c nhit ti hn
ti 100K hoc cao hn (siu dn nhit cao).

[107]

Hnh 2.54. Gin nhit - mt dng in-t trng ti hn phn chia cc trng thi siu
dn v dn in bnh thng (s )

nhng nhit di Tc trng thi siu dn s mt i khi t vo mt t trng

mnh, gi l t trng ti hn Hc, Hc ph thuc vo nhit v gim khi nhit
tng. Tng t c mt mt dng in ti hn J c thp hn n vt liu vn l siu dn .
Hnh 2.54 l s khng gian nhit - t trng mt dng in . Phn chia cc
trng thi dn thng v siu dn. V tr ca bin gii phn chia ng nhin ph thuc
tng vt liu. vng nhit , t trng v mt dng in nm trong khong gia
gc ta v bin gii ny, vt liu s l siu dn; Ngoi bin gii vt liu dn in bnh
thng.
Hin tng siu dn c gii thch bng mt l thuyt kh phc tp. V bn
cht, trng thi siu dn c c l do tng tc gia cp in t dn . Chuyn ng ca
nhng in t ghp cp ny hu nh khng b tn x bi dao ng nhit v cc nguyn t
tp cht. Nh vy, in tr vn t l vi cng tn x in t s bng khng.
Cn c vo hnh vi t cc cht vt liu siu dn, cc vt liu siu dn c th phn
chia thanh loi I v loi II. Vt liu loi I, khi ang trng thi siu dn l hon ton
nghch t tc l mi t trng t vo u b vt siu dn y ra ( hnh 2.54a). Cn khi
tr li trng thi dn in bnh thng th t trng li i qua ( hnh 2.54b). Hin tng
ny c tn gi hiu ng Mcissner ( hnh 2.55). Khi tng H , vt liu vn l nghch t cho
n t trng ti hn Hc. Ti im ny tnh dn in tr li bnh thng v t thng xm
nhp ton b vt liu. Nhiu kim loi nh nhm, ch ,thic thuc loi I.

Hnh 2.55. S minh ha hiu ng Meissner

Cc cht siu dn loi II nghch t hon ton khi t trng t vo thp v y

ton b t trng ra ngoi. Tuy nhin, s chuyn bin trng thi siu dn sang trng thi
dn thng din ra t t, gia t trng ti hn di v t trng ti hn trn, k hiu
tng ng l Hc1 v Hc2. Ti Hc1 cc ng t thng bt u xm nhp vo vt liu v qu
trnh s kt thc ti Hc2. Ti t trng ca Hc1 v Hc2, vt liu tn ti trong trng thi hn
hp gm nhng vng dn thng v vng siu dn.

[108]

Cc cht siu dn loi II u im hn siu dn loi I do nhit v t trng ti

hn ca chng cao. Hin nay, ba cht siu dn c s dng ph bin l hp kim niobi ziconi ( Nb Sn), niobi titan (Nb Ti) v hp cht lin kim loi niobi thic (Nb 3Sn).
Bng 2.12 cho bit mt s cht siu dn loi I v loi II cng vi mt v t thng ti
hn ca chng.
Rt gn y (1986-1987), mt loi vt liu gm cha ng oxyt, bnh thng l
cht cch in, c pht hin l cc cht siu dn c nhit ti hn cao mt cch
khc thng. Nghin cu u tin tp chung vo hp cht YBa 2Co3O7 Vi cu trc tinh
th phc tp kiu perovski v nhit ti hn khong 95K. Cc vt liu gm siu dn
mi c nhit ti hn cao hn cng v ang c pht trin. V d, H Bi- Ca- CuO c Tc 115K. H TI Ba Ca- Cu- O c Tc = 125K v h Hg- Ba- Cu- O c Tc=
130K. Cc vt liu ny thuc nhm vt liu siu dn c nhit cao. Bn cht v c ch
siu dn ca chng hin nay cha hon ton sng t.
Trin vng ng dng ca nhng vt liu ny kh ln, v nhit ti hn ca
chng trn 77K, tc cho php dng nit lng, mt cht lm lnh r so vi hydro lng
v heli lng. Tuy nhin, vt liu gm siu dn mi cng c nhiu nhc im. Trc ht
l tnh gin ca chng, hn ch kh nng ch to siu dn dng dy si.
Bng 2.12 . Nhit v mt t thng ti hn ca mt s vt liu siu dn chn lc.
Vt liu

Nhit ti Mt t Vt liu
Nhit
hn Tc, K
thng
ti
ti
hn

Tc, K
hn
c
(1
tesla )
Cc nguyn t
Cc hp cht v hp kim
Nhm
1.18
0.0105
Hp kim Nb- Ti 10.2

Mt t
thng
ti

hn
c
(1)
tesla

Ch

7.19

0.0803

Hp kim Nb- Zr

10.8

11

Thy ngn

4.15

0.0411

Nb3Sn

18.3

22

Thic

3.72

0.0305

Nb3Al

18.9

32

Titan

0.40

0.0056

Nb3Ge

23.0

30

Vofram

0.02

0.0001

V3Ga

16.5

22

Niobi (Nb)

9.26

Pb6Mo6O8

14.0

45

12

Ghi ch: 1) Mt t thng ti hn ( 0 H c ) ca cc nguyn t c o 0K. i vi

cc hp cht v hp kim ly l 0 H C 2 bng tesla o 0K.

Hin tng siu dn c nhng ng dng thc t a dng. Cc nam chm siu dn
c kh nng to ra nhng t trng mnh c cng sut tiu th thp hn hin ang c
s dng trong cc thit b th nghim v nghin cu khoa hc. Chng cng ang c
ng dng trong lnh vc cng hng t (MR) v chp nh cng hng t (MRI). Trong y
hc nh mt cng c chun on . Nhng bt thng trong cc m v c quan ni tng

[109]

c th c pht hin nu to c nhng nh ct cho. C th phn tch ha sinh cc m

c th nh ph cng hng t( MRS).
Vt liu siu dn cn c nhng ng dng quan trng khc . Cc lnh vc ang
c khai thc bao gm: 1) Truyn ti in nng bng vt liu siu dn vi tn hao cng
sut thp v trang thit b s c vn hnh in p thp; 2) Nam chm cho cc my
ht nng lng cao; 3) truyn tn hiu v chuyn mch tc cao hn cho my tnh; 4)
tu m t cao tc vi m nng nh lc y ca t trng
Tr ngi ln nht p dng cc vt liu siu dn l kh khn trong vic t v
lm ch nhit rt thp. Hy vng l cc kh khn ny s c khc phc cng vi s
pht trin cc th h mi ca cc cht siu dn c nhit ti hn cao hp l.

CHNG IV CC C TNH QUANG HC CA VT LIU

Tnh cht quang c hiu l hnh vi ca vt liu i vi tc dng ca bc x in
t v c bit l nh sng trng thy. Trong phn ny trnh by trc ht mt s nguyn
l v khi nim c bn lin quan n bn cht ca bc x in t v nhng tng tc c
th ca n i vi vt rn. Tip l cc tnh cht quang ca cc vt liu kim loi v phi
kim loi vi cc c trng hp th , phn x, v lan truyn ca chng. Mc cui cng s
nu khi qut v hunh quang, quang dn, laze, v ng dng thc t ca cc hin tng
.
4.1. CC KHI NIM C BN
4.1.1. Sng in t
Theo quan nim c in, sng (bc x) in t c xem nh l sng gm hai
thnh phn t trng v in trng vung gc vi nhau v vi c phng truyn ( hnh
2.56). nh sng nhit ( hay l nng lng bc x), sng rada, sng radio, tia R o ntgen tt
c u l dng bc x in t. Mi mt dng c c trng trc tin bi phm vi c
th ca bc sng v k thut to ra n. Ph ca bc x in t tri rng t tia ( do
cc cht phng x pht ra) c bc song c 10 -12m( 10-3 mm). Qua tia Rntgen, tia t
ngoi, nh sng nhn thy, tia hng ngoi v cui cng n sng radio ( sng v tuyn
in) vi bc sng di ti 105m. Ph ny c cho trn hnh 2.56 theo thang loga.

[110]

Hnh 2.56. Sng in t vi cc thnh phn in trng , t trng H v bc sng

nh sng nhn thy nm trong mt vng hp ca ph vi bc sng t 0,4 m

(4.10-7 m) n 0,7 m . Mu sc cm nhn c do bc sng xc nh, v d bc x c
bc sng c 0,4 m hin mu tm. nh sang trng n gin l hn hp ca cc mu sc
. Phn ny ch yu trnh by cc vn c lin quan n cc bc x nhn thy, theo nh
ngha ch l nhng bc x m mt ta nhy cm c.
Tt c cc bc x in t u truyn qua chn khng vi cng mt tc bng
tc anh sng (C=3.108 m/s).Tc ny lin h vi hng s in mi 0 v thm t
ca chn khng 0 bi h thc
C=1/
Hn na tn s

v bc sng

(2.51)

ca bc x in t u l hm s ca tc C

theo h thc:
C=

(2.52)

s c o bng (Hz), mt Hz bng mt chu k trong mt giy .Thang tn s ca

dng bc x in t khc nhau cng cho trn ph hnh(hnh 2.57)

[111]

Hnh 2.57. Ph bc x in t bao gm c phm vi bc sng ca cc mu sc khc nhau trong

ph nh sng nhn thy

Nhiu khi thch hp hn l xem bc x in t theo quan im c hc lng t.

Bc x in t khng phi l cc sng m l gm cc nhm hay cc b nng lng c
gi l cc photon. Nng lng E ca mt photon b lng t ha ,tc l ch c th c
nhng gi tr ring quy nh bi h thc:
E=hv=hc/

(2.53)

Trong d h: hng s Planck.c gi tr 6,63.10 -34J.s.Nh vy nng lng photon t

l vi tn s v t l nghch vi bc sng ca bc x. Nng lng photon cng c
cho trn ph in t (hnh 2.57)
Khi m t nhng hin tng quang hc lin quan n tng tc gia bc x v
cht th s l gii thng thun li hn nu xem xt nh sng theo quan im photon .
Trong mt s trng hp khc th quan nim sng li thch hp hn. i khi li s dng
c hai cch tip cn .
4.1.2 .Tng tc nh sng vi vt rn
Khi anh sng i t mi trng ny sang mi trng khc (chng hn t khng kh
vo vt rn ) th mt s bc x nh sng c th truyn qua mi trng . mt s b hp th

[112]

v mt s b phn x trn b mt phn cch gia hai mi trng .cng Io ca chm

sng truyn qua .hp th v phn x tng ng l IT,IAv IR.tc l :
I0= IA+IT +IR.

(2.55)

Trong T,A,R tng ng biu din truyn qua (I T/I0), hp th (IA/I0) v

phn x (IR/I0).tc l nhng t phn ca nh sng ti c truyn qua ,phn x v hp th
bi vt liu .
Nhng vt liu c kh nng truyn sng vi hp th v phn x tng i nh
l nhng vt ph trong sut. ngi ta c th nhn qua chng .Nhng vt trong m l
nhng vt liu m khi nh sng i qua chng s b tn x vo trong vt liu n mc m
khi qua mt mu vt liu th khng phn bit r rng c i tng .Cn nhng vt
khng cho nh sng nhn thy truyn qua gi l vt c .
Cc kim loi khi u c vi ton b ph nhn thy c ,ngha l tt c bc x
nh sng u b hoc l hp th hoc l phn x.Mt khc ,cc vt liu cch in u c
th lm trong sut .Ngoi ra mt s vt liu bn dn l trong sut cn s khc l c .
4.1.3.Tng tc nguyn t v in t
Cc hin tng quang hc xy ra bn trong vt rn u c lin quan n nhng
tng tc gia bc x in t v nguyn t ,ion v in t. Hai hin tng quan trng
nht trong nhng tng tc ny l s phn cc in t v s chuyn ri nng lng in
t.
Phn cc in t
Mt trong hai thnh phn ca sng in t l in trng bin thin nhanh .
phm vi tn s thy c in trng ny tng tc vi am my in t bao quanh
trng nguyn t v gy ra s phn cc in t . C mi ln thnh phn in trng thay
i hng l mt ln lm lnh m my in t so vi ht nhn nguyn t ,nh biu
th trn hnh 2.28a .Hai h qu ca s phn cc ny l 1)mt phn nng lng bc x b
hp th v 2) sng nh sng b chm li khi i qua mi trng .H qu th hai biu hin
s khc x s tho lun trong mc 2.4.3a
Chuyn di in t

[113]

Hnh 2.58. S minh ha s hp th phton ca mt in t trong mt nguyn t c

lp

S hp th v pht x in t c th gy nn s chuyn di cc in t t trng

thi ny sang trnh thi nng lng khc . d tho lun ta xt ring mt nguyn t ,
th nng lng nguyn t ca n c biu din trn hnh 2.58.Mt in t c th b kch
thch chuyn t mt trng thi chim mc nng lng E 2 ln mt trng thi nm
mc nng lng cao hn ,E4 chng hn bng ch hp th mt photon nng lng :
hv=
Trong

(2.56)

l hiu nng lng gia hai mc . y c mt s khi nim quan

trng cn lu :
-Th nht ,cc trng thi ca nguyn t l gin on nn ch tn ti nhng khong
cch

ring gia cc mc nng lng: nh vy ch c nhng photon no c tn s

tng ng vi nhng

cho php th mi c th c hp th bi cc chuyn di

in t. Hn na, trong mi ln kch thch. phi l tt c (ch khng th mt phn) nng

lng photon c hp th
-Th hai:in t ny khng th lu li v thi hn trng thi kch thch: sau mt
thi gian ngn, n li nhy tr v trng thi c bn ca mnh hoc mt mc nng lng
thp hn v pht x in t (thut ng bc x gi l s th pht). C th c nhiu con
ng nhy tr v, nhng trong bt c trng hp no cng phi c s bo ton nng
lng cho cc chuyn di in t hp th v pht x .
Nh s trnh by sau, cc c tnh quang hc ca vt rn lin quan n hp th
v pht x in t u c gii thch nh cu trc vng nng lng in t ca vt liu
v cc nguyn l lin quan n s chuyn di in t nh nu trn.
4.2. CC TNH CHT CA QUANG HC CA KIM LOI
Hy kho st s vng nng lng in t kim loi minh ha trn hnh 2.3a v
2.3b: trong c hai trng hp u c mt vng nng lng cao ch mi b cc in t
chim mt phn. Bc x nh sng ti s kch thch cc in t chuyn ln trng thi nng
lng cha b chim nm trn mc Fermi,nh cc biu th trn hnh 2.58a kt qu l
nh sng ti b hp th ph hp vi biu thc (2.56).Chnh v vy m kim loi l c.S
hp th hon ton ch xy ra trong mt lp mt ngoi rt mng thng thng nh hn
0,1m: nh vy ch c nhng mng kim loi mng hn 0,1m mi c kh nng truyn
nh sng nhn thy.
Kim loi hp th c mi tn s ca nh sng nhn thy bi v lin tc c nhng
trng thi in t cn trng ,chng cho php chuyn ri cc in t nh ch trn hnh
2.59a .Thc ra cc kim loi u c i vi tt c cc bc x in t vng tn s thp
ca ph t sng v tuyn in ,qua hng ngoi ,nh sng nhn thy cho n khong gia
[114]

bc x t ngoi .cc kim loi u trong sut i vi tt c cc bc x c tn s cao(Tia

Rnghen v tia gamma).
Phn ln bc x b hp th s c th pht b mt di dng nh sng nhn thy
c cng bc sng,ta c nh sng phn x .S chuyn ri in t c trn hnh
2.59b. phn x cu phn ln cc kim loi nm gia 0,90 v 0,95 ,mt phn nh nng
lng ca qu trnh ny nhy xung ca in t b chuyn thnh nhit .

Hnh 2.59. S biu din c ch hp th photon trong kim loi

(a); v s pht x tr li mt photon nh sng (b)

Bi v cc kim loi u c v phn x mnh nn mu cm nhn r ca chng

c xc nh phn b bc sng ca chm tia phn x .S xut hin ca mu bc khi
chiu nh sng chng t kim loi c phn x mnh trn ton b gii ph nhn thy .Ni
cch khc ,i vi chm tia phn x ,thnh phn tn s v s lng photon th pht ny
cng gn ging nh i vi chm tia ti .Nhm v bc l hai kim loi c tinh phn x
nh vy .Cn ng v vng li th hin hai mu -da cam v mu vng bi v c mt
phn nng lng gn vi cc photon nh sng c bc sng ngn khng c th
pht .
4.3. TNH CHT QUANG HC CA CC VT LIU PHI KIM LOI
Do cu trc vng nng lng in t ca mnh m cc vt liu phi kim loi c th
l trong sut i vi nh sng nhn thy.Do ngoi phn x v hp th cn cn kho st
cc hin tng khc x truyn qua .
4.3.1.Khc x
Tia sng truyn ti b mt ngoi ca cc vt liu trong sut th gim tc v kt
qu l b lnh hng ti mt gii hn .Hin tng gi l khc x .Ch s khc x
(chit sut ) n ca mt cht c nh l t s gia tc trong chn khng c v tc
trong mi trng v,tc l
n=c/v

[115]

(2.57)

 ln ca n phc thuc vo bc song nh sng .Hiu ng ny c chng minh

bng tn sc nh sng quen thuc,tc l s phn tch mt chm tia trng thnh cc tai
thnh phn khc mu khc nhau bng mt lng knh thy tinh .Chit sut khng ch nh
hng n quang l nh sng ca nh sng ,m nh gii thch di y s nh hng n
phn nh sng b phn x t b mt .
Ging nh biu thc (2.51) xc nh ln ca c ta c mt biu thc tng ng
cho tc nh sng v trong mt mi trng l:
(2.58)
y E v M tng ng l hng s in mi v thm t ca cht .t biu thc
(2.57) ta c:
=
Trong

(2.59)

tng ng l hng s in mi v thm t tng i. Bi v

phn ln cc cht ch c t tnh nh,

do :
(2.60)

Nh nu trn (mc 4.1.3) , hin tng khc x c lin quan n s phn cc

in t nhng tn s tng i cao ca nh sng nhn thy :nh vy thnh phn in t
ca hng s in mi c th c xc nh t cc php o chit sut ng dng biu thc
(2.60).
Bi v s truyn chm ca bc x in t trong mt mi trng l do s phn cc
in t gy ra ,nn kch thc ca cc nguyn t hoc ion cu thnh c nh hng ng
k n ln ca hiu ng ny .Ni chung cc nguyn t hoc ion cng ln th s phn
cc in t cng mnh ,tc nh sng cng chm v chit sut cng ln .Chit sut ca
thy tinh Na-Ca tiu biu gn bng 1,5.Cho thm cc ion ln bari v ch (bng BaO v
PbO) vo thy tinh s lm tng chit sut ln ng k .V d nh thy tinh nhiu ch
(chim ti 90% trng lng PbO) c chit sut khong 2,1.Cc gm tinh th c cu trc
lp phng v cc thy tinh c chit sut ng hng (ngha l khng ph thuc vo
hng tinh th ) mt khc cc tinh th khng lp phng nhng li c chit sut n bt
ng hng ,tc l chit sut ln nht dc theo nhng hng c mt ion cao nht.
Bng 2.13 cho chit sut ca mt s thy tinh ,gm v polyme trong sut.
Bng 2.13. Chit sut ca mt s vt liu trong sut
Vt liu

Chit sut
trung bnh

Gm
Thy tinh SiO2

Vt liu

Chit sut
trung bnh

Polyme
1.458

Polytetrafloetylen
[116]

1.35

Thy tinh Na-Ca

1.51

Polyetylen

1.51

Thy tinh Pyrex

1.47

Polystyren

1.60

Thy tinh Flint nn

1.65

Polymetylmetacrylat

1.49

Corunng (Al2O3)

1.76

Polypropylen

1.49

Periclaz (MgO)

1.74

Thch anh (SiO2)

1.55

Spinen(MgAl2O4)

1.72

4.3.2 Phn x
Khi bc x nh sng i t mi trng ny sang mi trng khc ,mt phn nh
sng b bc x trn mt phn cch gia hai mi trng. Ngay c khi mi trng u v
trong sut. phn x R biu th phn nh sng b phn x mt phn cch tc l :
R=IR/I0

(2.61)

Trong I0 v IR cng ca chm ti v chm phn x

Nu nh sng ti vung gc vi mt phng gii hn th:
(2.62)
Trong n1 v n2 chit ca hai mi trng .
Nu nh nh sng ti khng vung gc vi mt phn cch R s ph thuc vo gc
ti .Khi nh sng c truyn t chn khng hoc khng kh vo mt cht rn S thi:
(2.63)
V chit sut ca khng kh rt gn vi n v. Nh vy chit sut ca cht rn
cng cao phn x cng ln.i vi thy tinh silicat tiu biu , phn x vo khong
0,05 .Chit sut ca vt rn ph thuc vo bc sng nh sng ,do phn x cng
bin i theo bc sng.
Tn hao phn x i vi thu kinh v cc dng c quang hc khc c th gim
ng k nu ph ln b mt phn x nhng lp rt mng bng in mi nh magie fluorit
(MgF2)
4.3.3.Hp th
Cc vt liu phi kim loi c c hay trong sut i vi nh sng nhn thy v nu
l trong sut ,chng thng hin mu .V nguyn l ,bc x nh sng b hp th trong
loi vt liu ny theo ba c ch c bn c nh hng ln cc c tnh truyn qua .Mt
trong ba c ch ny l s phn cc in t (mc 2.4.1.3) .S hp th bi phn cc in t
ch quang trng nhng tn s ln cn tn s hi phc ca cc nguyn t cu thnh .Hai
c ch khc lin quan vi cc chuyn di in t ,chng ph thuc vo cu trc vng
nng lng in t ca vt liu ,cu trc vng ca cc cht bn dn v cc cht cch in

[117]

c trnh by trong mc 2.1.1.2. Mt trong cc c ch hp th ny c lin quan n

nhng kch thch in t nhy vt qua khe vng.Mt c ch na lin quan n chuyn
di in t vo mc tp cht hoc khuyt tt nm trong khe vng.
Hp th photon nh sng c th xy ra do kch thch in t t vng ha tr gn
y vt qua khe vng v ti mt trng thi cn trng trong vng dn nh biu din
trn hnh 2.60a: xut hin mt in t t do trong vng dn v mt l trng trong vng
ha tr .Nng lng kch thch

lin quan vi tn s photob b hp th vn theo biu

thc (2.56). Nhng kch thch ny ch c th xy ra nu nng lng photon ln hn

ln khe vng ER ngha l nu :
hv>ER

(2.64)

hay vit theo bc sng

hc/ >ER

(2.65)

Hnh 2.60: C ch hp th photon i vi cc vt liu phi kim loi(a)

V s pht x mt photon nh sng (b)

nh sng thy c c bc sng ngn nht

v ngn nht

do nng lng cc tiu ca nh sng nhn thy tng ng bng:

( 2.66a)

[118]

( 2.66b)

Nhng kt qu ny ni ln rng ,nhng vt liu phi kim no c khe vung ln hn

3,1 eV s khng hp th mt nh sng mt nh sng nhn thy no .Nu c tinh khit
cao chng s hin ra trong sut v c mu .Mt khc ,cc bn dn no c khe cng hp
hn 1,8eV s hp th ton b ph nh sng nhn thy nh cc chuyn di in t t vng
ha tr sang vng dn :nh vy chng u c ,Cn nhng vt liu c khe trong khong
gia 1,8eV v 3,1eV th ch hp th mt phn ph nh sng nhn thy ,do ta nhn thy
chng m v c mu.Mi vt liu phi kim loi tr nn c ti mt s bc sng nht
nh ,ty thuc vo ln E R.V d kim cng c khe vng 5,56eV ,l c i vi bc
x c bc sng ngn hn 0,22m .
S hp th bc x nh sng cng c th xy ra trong cc vt rn in mi c khe
vng rng do nhng chuyn ri in t khng phi t vng ha tr ln vng dn. Cc tp
cht hoc khuyt tt khc c th to nn nhng mc in t trong khe vng nh l nhng
mc on (cho) v acxepto (nhn) (xem 2.1.2.2.). Bc x nh sng c bc sng thch
hp c th b hp th bi kt qu chuyn di in t t hoc n nhng mc ny ,nh
minh ha trn hnh 2.61a. Nng lng in t b hp th bi cc kch thch in t phi
c tiu tn bng mt phng thc no theo nhiu c ch khc nhau.V d, bng s
ti hp trc tip in t v l trng thep phn ng (hnh 2.60b):
in t +l trng nng lng (E)

(2.67)

C th xy ra nhng chuyn di in t nhiu bc nh c cc mc tp cht nm

trong khe vng .Hnh 2.61b cho thy kh nng pht x hai photon bng s ging in t
t mt trng thi trong vng dn xung mt mc tp cht ,ri li t nhy v vng ha
tr .Hoc l mt trong cc bc chuyn di c th sn sinh mt photon (hnh 5.61c),
y phn nng lng tng ng c tiu tn di dng nhit

[119]

Hnh 2.61. C ch kch thch in t t mt mc tp cht nm trong khe vng do hp th mt

photon nh sng (a), pht ra hai photon (b) hoc sn sinh mt phonon v mt photon (c)

Cng nh ng i ca nh sng, cng bc x b hp th ph thuc vo c

tnh ca mi trng. Cng bc x T (truyn qua hay l khng b hp th) gim lin
tc theo khong cch x m nh sng i qua:
T 0 e x

(2.68)

Trong 0 - cng bc x ti khng phn x;

h s hp th (o bng mm -1) l c trng ring ca vt liu v thay
i theo bc sng bc x ti;
x- khong cch o c t mt ti trn vt liu
Cc vt liu c gi tr ln hn c coi l cc cht hp th mnh

4.3.4 .Truyn qua

Xt trng hp nh sng i qua mt vt rn trong sut(hnh 2.62). i vi mt
chm tia c cng I 0 chiu vo mt nc ca mu cht c dy l v h s hp th
,cng c truyn qua ti mt sau ca mu l:
IT=I0(1-R)2e-t

(2.69)

Trong R- phn x v gi thit rng c cng mt mi trng tn ti pha

ngoi c mt trc v mt sau ca mu.

Hnh 2.62. S truyn nh sng qua mi trng trong sut c phn x ti mt trc v mt sau
v hp th trong mi trng.

[120]

Hnh 2.63. S bin i theo bc sng ca cc t phn nh sng truyn qua, hp th v phn x
qua mt loi thy tinh xanh

Nh vy thnh phn ca tia ti truyn qua vt liu trong sut ph thuc vo nhng
tn hao do hp th v phn x. Hn na, cc thng s nh phn x, hp th v
truyn qua u ph thuc vo bc sng nh sng v phi tha mn biu thc(2.55).
Hnh 2.63 th hin cc mi quan h ny i vi thy tinh xanh. V d, vi nh sng c
bc sng 0.4m th t phn truyn qua,hp th v phn x ln lt vo khong
0.90;0.05 v 0.05. Tuy nhin vi bc sng 0.55m th cc t phn ny c cc gi tr
tng ng khong 0.5;0.48 v 0.02.
4.3.5 Mu sc
Cc vt liu trong sut hin mu l do c nhng di bc sng nh sng b hp th
chn lc, mu sc cm nhn c l kt qu t hp ca nhng bc sng c truyn
qua. Nu s hp th xy ra ng u vi tt c cc bc sng thy c th vt liu hin
ra khng mu, v d nh cc loi thy tinh v c tinh khit cao, kim cng v saphia
n tinh th tinh khit cao.
Thng thng, hp th chn lc l bng kch thch in t. Chng hn nh trng
hp cc cht bn dn c khe vng trng vi di nng lng photon nh sng nhn
thy(1.8eV n 3.1eV). phn nh sng nhn thy c nng lng ln hn E b hp th
chn lc bi cc chuyn di in t t vng ha tr ln vng dn. ng nhin, mt s
bc x b hp th ny li th pht khi cc in t kch thch nhy tr v nhng trng thi
nng lng thp ban u ca chng. S th pht ny xy ra khng nht thit cng tn
s nh khi hp th m trong trng hp chuyn ri bc x nhiu bc(hnh 2.61b) hoc
khng bc x (hnh 2.61c) th li l nh hn. Kt qu l mu sc ph thuc vo s phn
b tn s ca c chm sng truyn qua v chm sng th pht.
V d, cacmi sunfit(Cds) c khe vng khong 2.4V, do hp th nhng photon
c nng lng ln hn 2.4eV tng ng vi phn xanh v tm ca ph nh sng nhn
thy; mt s li th pht thnh nh sng vi nhng bc sng khc. Cn nh sng nhn
thy khng b hp th ch gm nhng photon c nng lng t 1.8eV n 2.4eV. Cds
hin mu vng da l do t hp chm truyn qua.
[121]

Hnh 2.64. truyn qua ca bc x nh sng l mt hm ca bc sng i vi

saphia v rubi

V d, nhm oxit hoc saphia n tinh th v tinh khit cao khng c mu. Nhng
rubi(saphia cha thm 0.5 n 2% crom oxit) li c mu chi. Ion Cr 3+ thay th Ion
Al+3 trong cu trc tinh th Al 2O3 v do a vo cc mc tp cht nm trong khe vng
rng ca saphia. C nhng bc sng c th s b hp th chn lc do h qu ca
nhng chuyn di hoc t nhng mc tp cht ny. truyn qua nh l mt hm s
ca bc sng i vi saphia v rubi c trnh by trn hnh 2.63. i vi saphia,
truyn qua t thay i trn ton ph nhn thy, to ra tnh khng mu. Tuy nhin, i vi
rubi c nhng pic(nh) hp th mnh xy ra, mt vng xnh-tm (gn 0.4Mm) v mt
vng vng lc (gn 0.6Mm). nh sng khng b hp th trn vi nh sng th pht a
li cho rubi mu thm.
Cc thy tinh v c c mu nh s c mt ca cc ion chuyn tip hoc t him.
C cc cp ion-mu in hnh nh Cu2+ xanh lc; Co2+ xanh tm, Cr3+ lc.
4.4 TNH C V TNH TRONG M CA CC CHT CCH IN
Mc trong m v c i vi cc vt liu in mi trong sut ph thuc rt
nhiu vo c tnh phn x bn trong v truyn qua ca chng. Nhiu vt liu in mi
vn l trong sut c th tr nn trong m hoc c nh phn x v khc x bn trong.
Mt chm sng lch hng v nha i l do nhiu ln tn x. Tnh c sinh ra khi mc
tn x mnh n mc trn thc t khng cn mt chm nh sng ti no c truyn
qua khng b lch ti c mt sau.
S tn x bn trong c th sinh ra theo nhiu nguyn nhn khc nhau. Cc mu a
tinh th vi chit sut khng ng hng thng l trong m. C phn x v khc x u
xy ra cc bin ht, gy nn s phn ta chm tia. l ssai khc v chit sut n gia
cc ht ln cn khng cng nh hng tinh th.

[122]

Hnh 2.65. S truyn nh sng qua ba mu nhm oxyt. T tri sang phi: vt liu n
tinh th (saphia) trong sut, vt liu a tinh th st cht (khng xp) trong m v vt liu a tinh
th (xp 5 %) c

Tn x cng xy ra trong cc vt liu hai pha, trong mt pha vi phn tn

cao nm trong pha kia. Tn x chm tia xy ra qua cc min bin gii pha khi c s sai
khc chit sut gia hai pha: sai khc ln th tn x cng mnh hn.
Do qu trnh ch to v x l, nhiu sn phm gm c cha mt xp d di
dng nhng l nh phn tn. Nhng l xp ny l nhng ni tn x nh sng c hiu qu.
Hnh 2.65 nu s khc nhau v c tnh truyn nh sng gia cc mu nhm oxit
n tinh th, a tinh th st cht v xp( xp = 5%). Trong khi mu n tinh th l
hon ton trong sut th cc mu a tinh th st cht v xp li trong m v c.
i vi cc polyme nguyn cht(khng c ph gia v tp cht) mc trong m
ph thuc trc ht vo s kt tinh. Tn x nh sng nhn thy xy ra ti cc bin gii
gia cc vng tinh th v v nh hnh chnh l do s khc nhau v chit sut.
i vi cc mu c t l tinh th cao, mc tn x tng dn n tnh trong m,
v thm ch trong mt s trng hp, n tnh c. Cc polyme v nh hnh li hon
ton trong sut.
4.5. NG DNG CA CC HIN TNG QUANG HC
4.5.1 Pht quang (hunh quang)
Mt s vt liu c kh nng hp th nng lng ri ppht ra nh sng nhn
thy(gi l s pht quang). Cc photon ca nh sng pht x c sinh ra t cc chuyn
ri in t trong vt rn. Nng lng hp th n khi in t b y ln trng thi nng
lng kch thch, cn nh sng nhn thy c pht ra khi n tt tr v mc nng lng
thp hn nu nh: 1.8eV <hv<3.1eV. Nng lng hp th c th c cung cp thnh
bc x in t nng lng cao (gy ra cc chuyn di t vng ha tr ln vng dn) nh
l nh sng t ngoi hoc cc ngun khc nh l chm in t nng lng cao hoc l
[123]

nng lng nhit, c hay ha hc. Hn na s pht quang cn c phn loi theo ln
ca thi gian tr gia hp th v th pht. Nu nh th pht xy ra sau mt thi gian nh
hn nhiu so vi mt giy th hin tng c gi l hunh quang, nu xy ra sau thi
gian lu hn th gi l ln quang. C mt s vt liu c th to thnh cht hunh quang
hoc ln quang , chng gm mt s sunfit,oxit, volframat v mt s t cht hu c.
Thng thng th cc vt liu tinh khit khng to c cc hin tng ny v to ra
chng cn phi pha thm cc tp cht vi nng xc nh.
S pht quang c mt s ng dng thng mi. n hunh quang cu to bi mt
ng thy tinh, b mt bn trong c ph bng cc volframat hoc silicat theo cng ngh
c bit. nh sng cc tm c to ra trong mt loi n thy ngn phng in. Hnh
nh nhn thy trn mn truyn hnh chnh l sn phm ca s pht quang. Mt trong ca
mn hnh c ph bng mt loi vt liu s pht hunh quang khi c mt chm in t
trong n hnh phng nhanh ti mn. Cng c th thu tia rnghen v tia gamma bng
cch dng photpho pht nh sng nhn thy khi chiu vo mt chm bc x khng
nhn thy.
Mt s lp tip xc chnh lu P-N nh m t trong mc 2.1.2.4 cng c th
dng to ra nh sng nhn thy nh mt qu trnh gi l in pht quang. Khi mt in
th thun t qua linh kin, cc in t v l trng s trit tiu ln nhau trong vng ti
hp theo biu thc 2.67. Trong trng hp nng lng c sinh ra di nh sng
nhn thy. Nhng diode pht quang quen thuc pht ra nh sng nhn thy c s dng
hin s. Mu sc c trng ca Led ty thuc vo vt liu bn dn c dng.
4.5.2.Quang dn
Tnh dn in ca cc cht bn dn ph thuc vo s in t t do trong vng dn
v s lng l trng trong vng ha tr theo biu thc 2.12. Nng lng nhit gn vi cc
dao ng mng c th thc y cc kch thch in t trong in t t do v l trng
c to thnh nh trnh by trong mc 2.1.1.3. C th sn sinh cc ht ti b sung
thm nh cc chuyn ri in t c kch thch bi photon: dn in tng. Hin
tng ny gi l quang dn. Nh vy khi mt vt liu quang dn c chiu sng dn
in s tng ln.

[124]

Quang dn c ng dng trong my

o nh sng chp nh. Dng in do nh
sng kch thch ra c o, v ln ca n
l mt hm s trc tip ca cng bc x
nh sng ti. Cacmi sulfit l vt liu c
dng ph bin trong cc my o nh sng.
nh sng mt tri c th chuyn i
trc tip thnh nng lng in trong cc
pin mt tri, chng cng s dng cc cht
bn dn. Hot ng ca cc linh kin ny
theo mt ngha no l ngc li vi
diode pht quang. Mt tip xc P-N c s
dng sao cho trong cc in t v cc l
trng c kch thch bi nh sng u b
ko ra khi tip xc theo nhng hng
ngc nhau v to ra dng in ngoi.

[125]

4.5.3 Laser
Tt c cc chuyn di in t bc x trnh by cc phn trn u kaf t pht ,
c ngha l mt in t tt t mt trng thi nng lng cao xung mt trng thi nng
lng thp hn m khng c mt kch thch bn ngoi no. Nhng ln chuyn di c
lp vi nhau v ti nhng thi im ngu nhin, to ra bc x khng kt hp, ngha l
cc sng nh sng khng trng pha vi nhau. Nhng vi tia Laze, nh sng kt hp c
sn sinh bi cc chuyn di in t khi u t mt tc nhn kch thch bn ngoi.
Tuy c nhiu kiu Laze khc nhau nguyn l hot ng ca chng u c gii
thch bng Lazer cht rn rubi. Rubi n gin l n tinh th Al 2O3(saphia) c pha thm
0.05% ion Cr+3. Nh gii thch trn (mc 2.4.3.5), nhng ion ny lm cho rubi c
mu c trng, quan trng hn l chng to ra cc trng thi in t quyt nh hot
ng ca Laze. Rubi c dng thanh vi hai u phng song song v c mi nhn bng.
C hai u c m bc sao cho mt phn c ton phn cn u kia truyn qua mt
phn.

Hnh 2.66. S ca laser rubi v n nhy sng xnhon

Thanh rubi c chiu sng bng mt n sng xenon(2.66). Do tc dng ny tt

c cc ion Cr+3 u trng thi c bn ca chng, ngha l cc in t chim nhng mc
nng lng thp nht nh biu din trn s hnh 2.66. Cc photon c bc sng 0,56
m do n xenon pht s kch thch cc in t ca Cr+3 chuyn ln cc trng thi nng
lng cao hn. Nhng in t ny c th tt v trng thi c bn ca chng bng 2 cch
khc nhau. Mt s in t ri trc tip tr v, photon pht ra khng nm trong vng tia
lase. Cc in t khc tt xung mt trng thi trung gian siu bn( con ng EM trn
hnh 2.67), chng c th lu li ti 3ms trc khi pht x t pht ( con ng MG).
Trong cc qu trnh in t 3ms l mt thi gian tng i di, iu ny cho thy mt s
ln cc trng thi siu bn c th b chim. Tnh hnh ny c ch r trn hnh 2.68b.
S pht x photon t pht khi u ca mt vi trong s in t l kch thch,
m ra c mt thc l dn dp nhng pht x t cc in t ang cn trng thi siu
bn( hnh 2.68c). Trong nhng photon hng song song theo nhng trc di ca thanh

[126]

Rubi, c mt s c truyn qua phn m bc mt phn, nhng photon khc i ti u

m bc ton phn s b phn x tr li.
Cn nhng photon khng c pht x theo hng trc ny th s b tht lac.
Chm nh sng i ti i lui lp li dc theo chiu di thanh Rubi, cng ca n tng
ln do c nhiu pht x hn c kch thch( Hnh 2.68d). Cui cng mt chm sng lase
cng cao, kt hp v tp trung cao trong mt thi gian ngn c truyn qua u
m bc mt phn ca thanh Rubi (Hnh 2.67e). Chm sng n sc ny c bc sng
0,6943m.

Hnh 2.67. S nng lng ca laser rubi (c nu cc con ng kch thch v ging
tt in t )

[127]

Hnh 2.68. S biu din pht x kch thch v khuch i nh sng ca laser rubi

[128]

Mt lot cc cht c th dng cho lase, trong c mt cht kh v thy tinh cng
nh cc it tip xc bn dn. Lase c nhiu ng dng khc nhau. Do cc chm tia lase
c th hi t to ra s lm nng cc b, chng c dng trong cc qu trnh phu
thut v ct gt, gia cng kim loi. Lase cng c dng lm cc ngun nh sng cho cc
h thng tin quang hc. Xa hn na, v cc chm tia lase l cc chm tia kt hp cao ,
chng c th c dng trong cc php o khong cch rt chnh xc.

[129]

CU HI N TP CHNG MN KHOA HC VT LIU I CNG

I.

Cu hi n tp chng 1

L thuyt:
1.Trnh by s khc nhau gia lin kt ion v lin kt cng ho tr. Nu r tc dng ca
lin kt ny trong cu to cht
2.Trnh by s sp sp cc nguyn t trong cht kh, cht lng v cht rn
3.K tn mt s trc tinh th ca vt rn. Nu c im chnh ca mng tinh th lp
phng tm mt (A1)
4.K tn mt s trc tinh th vt rn vi lin kt cng ho tr. Nu c im chnh ca
mng kim cng (A4)
5.C my loi sai lch ng trong tinh th. Nu c im ca sai lch xon.
6.Trnh by sai lch im trong mng tinh th.
7.C my loi sai lch ng trong tinh th. Nu c im ca sai lch bin
8.C my loi sai lch mt tinh th trong mng tinh th. Nu c im ca bin gii ht
9.Th no l n tinh th, a tinh th. Nu c tnh v ng dng ca chng
10.Trnh by cu trc ca polyme

II. CU HI V BI TP
Bi 1: Xc nh ch s phng sau ca cc vct A, B, C, D sau:

Bi 2: Xc nh ch s Miller ca cc mt A, B sau:

[130]

Bi 3: Xc nh ch s Miller - Bravais ca mt sau:

II. Cu hi n tp chng 2
1) Trnh by cu trc vng nng lng trong cc vt rn.
2) Da vo khi nim linh ng ca in t v cu trc vng nng lng hy nu c
im ca in tr kim loi, in tr ca bn dn tinh khit
3) Nu cu trc vng nng lng ca bn dn v in mi t chng minh tnh cht dn
in ca chng.
4) Nu v gii thch tnh cht dn in ca bn dn tp cht loi p.
5) Nu v gii thch tnh cht dn in ca bn dn tp cht loi n.
6) Trnh by tnh cht st in v p in ca vt liu.
7) Nu c ch dn nhit ca vt liu. T gii thch tnh cht dn nhit ca kim loi
8) Hy nu tnh cht dn in ca polymer.
9) Nu hiu ng ng sut nhit ca vt liu.
10)Nhit dung l g. Trnh by ngun gc ca nhit dung v s ph thuc ca nhit dung
theo nhit .
11)Nu c ch dn nhit ca vt liu. T gii thch tnh cht dn nhit ca gm, polymer
III. Cu hi n tp chng 3
1) Th no l cht thun t, nghch t. Nu c im ca chng
2) Hy nu ngun gc momen t ca vt liu.
3) Nu c im ca vt liu t cng.
4) Th no l cht phn st t, feri t. Nu c im ca chng.
5) Th no l vt liu t mm, nu tnh cht, c im ca vt liu t mm
6) nh hng ca nhit ln tnh cht t .
7) Hy nu ng dng ca vt liu t trong lu tr.
8) Gii thch ng cong t tr thng qua khi nim domen t
9) Phn bit t cng l g, t mm l g. Nu ng dng?
10)So snh s ging v khc nhau gia vt liu t cng v vt liu t mm
11)Nu c im ca siu dn, ng dng ca siu dn

[131]

IV. Cu hi n tp chng4
1) Laser l g, ng dng ca laser
2) Nu tnh cht quang hc ca vt liu phi kim loi
3) Nu tnh cht quang hc ca kim loi, gii thch
4) Nu cc ng dng ca cc hin tng quang hc
5) Tng tc nh sng vi vt rn
6) Tng tc nguyn t v in t
7) Trnh by c ch pht quang ca vt liu
8) Nu s b cu to my pht laser
9) Hot ng ca my pht laser
10)Tnh c v tnh trong m ca cc cht cch in

[132]

Mc lc
I. L THUYT............................................................................................................... 1
CHNG I CU TRC TINH TH CA VT LIU.........................................................1
1.1 CU TO V LIN KT NGUYN T......................................................................1
1.1.1 Khi nim v cu to nguyn t....................................................................1
1.1.2. Cc dng lin kt nguyn t trong cht rn..................................................2
1.1.2.1. Lin kt ng ho tr............................................................................... 2
1.1.2.2 Lin kt ion............................................................................................. 3
1.1.2.3 Lin kt kim loi...................................................................................... 4
1.1.2.4 Lin kt hn hp..................................................................................... 4
1.1.2.5 Lin kt yu ( lin kt Van der Waals).....................................................5
1.2. SP XP NGUYN T TRONG VT RN...............................................................7
1.2.1 Khng trt t hon ton, cht kh..................................................................7
1.2.2 Trt t l tng vt rn tinh th.....................................................................7
1.2.3 Cht lng, vt rn vi tinh th v v nh hnh...............................................8
1.2.4. Quan h cu trc v tnh cht.....................................................................10
1.3 KHI NIM V MNG TINH TH...........................................................................11
1.3.1.Tnh cht i xng ca tinh th...................................................................11
1.3.2. c s, h tinh th.................................................................................... 12
1.3.3. Phng v mt tinh th.............................................................................. 14
1.3.3.1 Ch s ca nt mng.............................................................................. 15
1.3.3.2. Ch s ca phng tinh th...................................................................15
1.3.3.3. Ch s Miller ca mt tinh th...............................................................16
1.3.3.4. Ch s Miller-Bravais trong h su phng............................................17
1.3.4. Mt nguyn t trong mng tinh th, h s xp cht..............................17
1.3.4.1. Mt xp............................................................................................ 17
1.3.4.2. Cch sp xp nguyn t trong mng tinh th, s xp cht..................19
1.3.5. L hng trong mng tinh th......................................................................19
1.4 MT S CU TRC TINH TH IN HNH CA VT RN.....................................21
1.4.1. Cu trc tinh th in hnh ca vt rn vi lin kt kim loi.......................21
1.4.1.1. Mng tinh th lp phng tm khi(A2)...............................................21
1.4.1.2 Mng lp phng tm mt (A1: lptm)....................................................22
1.4.1.3 Mng tinh th su phng xp cht(A3)................................................23
1.4.2 Mng tinh th ca vt rn c lin kt ng ho tr......................................24
1.4.2.1 Mng tinh th kim cng (A4)................................................................25
1.4.2.2 Mng Graphit......................................................................................... 25
1.4.2.3. Cu trc si cacbon v fullerene...........................................................25

[133]

1.4.2.4. Cc cu trc mng tinh th lien kt ng ha tr khc.........................26

1.4.3. Mng tinh th ca vt rn c lin kt ion....................................................27
1.4.3.1. Mng tinh th hp cht dng MX..........................................................27
1.4.3.2. Mng tinh th hp cht dng MX 2 (hoc M2X).......................................28
1.4.3.3. Mng tinh th hp cht dng M m Nn Xp..................................................28
1.4.4 Cu trc polymer......................................................................................... 29
1.4.5 Dng th hnh.............................................................................................. 30
1.5 SAI LCH MNG TINH TH.................................................................................. 30
1.5.1. Sai lch im.............................................................................................. 31
1.5.1.1.Nt trng v nguyn t xen k..............................................................31
1.5.1.2.Nguyn t tp cht................................................................................ 32
1.5.2. Sai lch ng............................................................................................ 33
1.5.2.1.Nhng khi nim chung.........................................................................33
1.5.2.2.Nng lng v chuyn ng ca lch....................................................35
1.5.3 Sai lch mt................................................................................................. 37
1.5.3.1. Bin gii ht v siu ht.......................................................................37
1.5.3.2. Sai lch xp, mt i tinh.....................................................................38
1.5.3.3. Cu trc mt ngoi tinh th..................................................................39
1.5.4 Sai lch khi................................................................................................. 39
1.5.5. Vai tr ca sai lch i vi tnh cht...........................................................40
1.6. N TINH TH V A TINH TH........................................................................40
1.6.1 n tinh th................................................................................................. 40
1.6.2 a tinh th................................................................................................... 41
1.6.3 Textua.......................................................................................................... 42
CHNG II TNH CHT IN NHIT CA VT LIU...............................................43
2.1. TNH CHT IN................................................................................................ 43
2.1.1. S dn in................................................................................................. 43
2.1.1.1. dn in.......................................................................................... 43
2.1.1.2. Cu trc vng nng lng trong cc vt rn.........................................44
2.1.1.3. Tnh cht dn in lin quan vi m hnh vng v lin kt nguyn t . 46
2.1.1.4. linh ng ca in t.......................................................................48
2.1.1.5 in tr ca kim loi.............................................................................. 49
2.1.2. Bn dn in............................................................................................... 51
2.1.2.1. Bn dn tinh khit................................................................................ 52
2.1.2.2. Bn dn tp cht.................................................................................. 54
2.1.2.3. S thay i nhit ca dn in v nng ht ti in..............57
2.1.2.4. Linh kin bn dn................................................................................. 59
2.1.3. Tnh cht in trong gm ion v polyme.....................................................65

[134]

2.1.3.1. Dn in trong cc vt liu ion.............................................................65

2.1.3.2. Tnh cht in ca polyme....................................................................66
2.1.4 in mi..................................................................................................... 67
2.1.4.1. in dung............................................................................................. 67
2.1.4.2. Vect in trng v s phn cc in mi..........................................68
2.1.4.3. Cc dng phn cc in mi.................................................................70
2.1.4.4. S ph thuc tn s ca hng s in mi...........................................72
2.1.4.5. bn in mi................................................................................... 73
2.1.4.6. Cc vt liu in mi............................................................................ 73
2.1.5 Cc c tnh in khc ca vt liu............................................................73
2.1.5.1. St in................................................................................................ 73
2.1.5.2. p in................................................................................................. 74
2.2. TNH CHT NHIT.............................................................................................. 75
2.2.1. Nhit dung.................................................................................................. 75
2.2.2. Gin n nhit.............................................................................................. 78
2.2.3. Dn nhit.................................................................................................... 81
2.2.4. ng sut nhit............................................................................................ 83
CHNG III

T TNH CA VT LIU......................................................................85

3.1. Cc khi nim c bn.................................................................................... 85

3.1.1. Lng cc t............................................................................................ 85
3.1.2. Vector t trng....................................................................................... 86
3.1.3.Ngun gc ca momen t.........................................................................88
3.2. NGCH T V THUN T................................................................................ 89
3.3. ST T........................................................................................................... 91
3.4. PHN ST T V FERI T.............................................................................. 92
3.4.1. Phn st t............................................................................................... 92
3.4.2. Feri t...................................................................................................... 92
3.5. NH HNG CA NHIT LN TNH CHT T...........................................94
3.6. MEN ( MIN T ) V T TR......................................................................95
3.7. VT LIU T MM.......................................................................................... 98
3.8. VT LIU T CNG...................................................................................... 100
3.9.LU TR T................................................................................................. 101
3.10. SIU DN................................................................................................... 103
CHNG IV CC C TNH QUANG HC CA VT LIU.......................................107
4.1. CC KHI NIM C BN............................................................................... 108
4.1.1. Sng in t.......................................................................................... 108
4.1.2 .Tng tc nh sng vi vt rn.............................................................109
4.1.3.Tng tc nguyn t v in t..............................................................110

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4.2. CC TNH CHT CA QUANG HC CA KIM LOI.......................................111

4.3. TNH CHT QUANG HC CA CC VT LIU PHI KIM LOI...........................112
4.3.1.Khc x................................................................................................... 112
4.3.2 Phn x................................................................................................... 114
4.3.3.Hp th................................................................................................... 114
4.3.4 .Truyn qua............................................................................................. 117
4.3.5 Mu sc.................................................................................................. 118
4.4 TNH C V TNH TRONG M CA CC CHT CCH IN.........................119
4.5. NG DNG CA CC HIN TNG QUANG HC.........................................120
4.5.1 Pht quang (hunh quang)....................................................................120
4.5.2.Quang dn.............................................................................................. 121
4.5.3 Laser....................................................................................................... 123
II. CU HI V BI TP.......................................................................................... 127

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