Cu 1: Trnh by cu trc vng nng lng trong cc vt rn.

Trong mi nguyn t tn ti cc mc nng lng gin on. Cc in t xp thnh cc t!ng"C#ng $%i

cc &' lng t ch(nh n)*+,+-+../$ cc l%p c ch0 12i cc ch3 &+ p+ 4+ 5 "ng $%i cc &' lng t
6u7 o l)8+*+, $ -+./. Trong mi l%p li c9 tng ng ,l:*)*+-+; ho<c = >6u7 o? @hc nhAu.
Bhi cc nguyn t cng x(ch li g!n nhAu thC cc in t cng 1D @(ch th(ch 12i cc in t $ cc ht
nhEn cFA nguyn t lEn cGn. Hnh h2ng lm cho mi trng thi in t cFA nguyn t nIm &t nhAu
hCnh thnh nn $#ng nng lng in t. JK giLn n2 tM mNt mc nng lng in t trng nguyn t
thnh mNt $#ng nng lng trong $Gt rOn t#y thuNc $o @hoPng cch gi3A cc nguyn t. trong mi
$#ng+ cc mc nng lng ny l gin on+ tuy nhin @hoPng cch gi3A cc mc @Q nhAu l ht &c
nhR. S @hoPng cch nguyn t cEn 1Ing+ &K to thnh $#ng nng lng c9 thT xPy rA $%i cc l%p in
t 2 g!n ht nhEn nhUt. Vi3A cc $#ng @Q nhAu tn ti @hW nng lng"$#ng cUm/X 1Cnh thYng thC cc
in t @hZng c chim l[nh.
\] hCnh ;.,^trAng *8_.
S 8 N @ tn ti 1'n @iTu $#ng nng lng @hc nhAuX
Th *X $#ng h9A trD ch0 1D lUp !y mNt ph!n. nng lng cAo nhUt 1D chim 43 2 8 N @ l `
aWrmi bc cUu trdc iTm hCnh cFA @im loi.
Th ,X \#ng h9A trD 1D lUp !y $ cen phF ln $#ng 4fn bc cgng tCm thUyohr @im loi.
Th -+iX jAi cUu truc ny tkng tK nhAu. S mi cUu trdc thC tUt cAcr cc trng thi trong $#ng
h9A trD Q 1D chim 43 hon ton. Tuy nhin 2 Ey @o cen 4(nh $%i ph!n cen tr'ng nn to @hW
nng lng. JK @hc nhAu gi3A hAi $#ng l N rNng cFA @hW nng lng. ` aWrmi nIm 2 ch(nh
gi3A @hW.
\C th $Gt liu 4fn in l $Gt liu c9 in t 4l $t 6uA $#ng nng lng aWrmi. \Gt liu @o 4fn l
$Gt liu c9 nng lng $#ng cUm rUt l%n n mc in t @hZng thT no $t 6uA ` aWrmi.
Cu 2: !u cu trc vng nng lng c"# bn $%n v &'(n )*' t+ &, ch-ng )'nh t.nh cht $%n
&'(n c"# chng.
Li gii:
T(nh chUt 4fn in cFA cc $Gt liu rOn c giPi th(ch nhY lm thuyt $#ng nng lng. nh tA
1it+ in t tn ti trong nguyn t trn nh3ng mc nng lng gin on "cc trng thi 4Mng/.
nhng trong chUt rOn+ @hi m cc nguyn t @t hp li $%i nhAu thnh cc @h'i+ thC cc mc nng
lng ny 1D phF ln nhAu+ $ tr2 thnh cc $#ng nng lng $ &] c9 1A $#ng ch(nh.
CUu trdc nng lng cFA in t trong mng nguyn t cFA chUt 1n 4fn. \#ng h9A trD c lUp !y+ trong
@hi $#ng 4fn tr'ng. oc nng lng aWrmi nIm 2 $#ng tr'ng nng lng.
\#ng h9A trD "\AlWncW 1An4/X p $#ng c9 nng lng thUp nhUt thWo thAng nng lng+ l $#ng m
in t 1D lin @t mnh $%i nguyn t $ @hZng linh Nng.
\#ng 4fn "Con4uction 1An4/X \#ng c9 mc nng lng cAo nhUt+ l $#ng m in t &] linh Nng
"nh cc in t tK 4o/ $ in t 2 $#ng ny &] l in t 4fn+ c9 ngh[A l chUt &] c9 @hP nng 4fn in
@hi c9 in t tn ti trn $#ng 4fn. T(nh 4fn in tng @hi mGt N in t trn $#ng 4fn tng.
\#ng cUm "aor1i44Wn 1An4/X p $#ng nIm gi3A $#ng h9A trD $ $#ng 4fn+ @hZng c9 mc nng lng
no 4o 9 in t @hZng thT tn ti trn $#ng cUm. nu 1n 4fn phA tp+ c9 thT xuUt hin cc mc nng
lng trong $#ng cUm "mc phA tp/. BhoPng cch gi3A y $#ng 4fn $ 0nh $#ng h9A trD gqi l N rNng
$#ng cUm+ hAy nng lng $#ng cUm "rAn4 VAp/. T#y thWo N rNng $#ng cUm l%n hAy nhR m chUt c9 thT
l 4fn in ho<c @hZng 4fn in.
nh $Gy+ t(nh 4fn in cFA cc chUt 1n 4fn c9 thT lm giPi mNt cch kn giPn nhY lm thuyt $#ng nng lng
nh &AuX
Cc chUt 1n 4fn c9 $#ng cUm c9 mNt N rNng xc Dnh. S @hZng N tuyt 'i "8 B/+ mc aWrmi nIm
gi3A $#ng cUm+ c9 ngh[A l tUt cP cc in t tn ti 2 $#ng h9A trD+ 4o 9 chUt 1n 4fn @hZng 4fn in.
Bhi tng 4!n nhit N+ cc in t &] nhGn c nng lng nhit "kB.T $%i kB l hIng &' roltsmAnn/
nhng nng lng ny chA F T in t $t 6uA $#ng cUm nn in t $fn 2 $#ng h9A trD. Bhi tng
nhit N n mc F cAo+ &] c9 mNt &' in t nhGn c nng lng l%n hkn nng lng $#ng cUm $ n9
&] nhPy ln $#ng 4fn $ chUt rOn tr2 thnh 4fn in. Bhi nhit N cng tng ln+ mGt N in t trn $#ng
4fn &] cng tng ln+ 4o 9+ t(nh 4fn in cFA chUt 1n 4fn tng 4!n thWo nhit N "hAy in tr2 &uUt giPm
4!n thWo nhit N/.
tin mZiX tkng tK nh chUt 1n 4fn nhng 4o @hW nng lng rNng hkn cFA 1n 4fn rUt nhiQu bc W
aWrmi l%n $C $Gy &] rUt @h9 T c9 4c 4in t nhPy c t $#ng h9A trD &Ang $#ng 4fn nn c9 thT coi
nh chdng @hZng 4fn in.
Cu /: 01# vo 2h' n'() &3 l'nh &3ng c"# &'(n t4 v cu trc vng nng lng5 #nh 6ch78 h9y
n!u &:c &';) c"# &'(n tr< 2') lo='.
Li gii:
T(nh chUt 4fn in+ hAy cPn tr2 in cFA nhiQu $Gt liu c9 thT giPi th(ch 1Ing ck hqc lng t. oqi
$Gt liu Qu c to nn tM mng l%i cc nguyn t. Cc nguyn t chA cc WlWctron+ c9 nng
lng gOn @t $%i ht nhEn nguyn t nhGn cc gi trD rYi rc trn cc mc c' Dnh. Cc mc ny c9
thT c nh9m thnh , nh9mX $#ng 4fn $ $#ng h9A trD+ $#ng h9A trD thYng c9 mc nng lng thUp
hkn $#ng 4fn. Cc WlWctron c9 nng lng nIm trong $#ng 4fn c9 thT 4y chuyTn 4l 4ng gi3A cc
mng l%i nguyn t.
Bhi c9 hiu in th gi3A , !u ming $Gt liu+ mNt in trYng c thit lGp @uo thWo cc WlWctron 2
$#ng 4fn 4y chuyTn nhY lKc Coulum1 to rA 4eng in. veng in mnh hAy yu phw thuNc $o &'
lng WlWctron 2 c#ng 4fn
Cc WlWctron n9i chung &Op &p trong nguyn t tM mc nng lng thUp n cAo+ 4o $Gy h!u ht nIm
2 $#ng h9A trD. J' lng WlWctron nIm 2 $#ng 4fn t#y thuNc $o $Gt liu $ iQu @in @(ch th(ch nng
lng "nhit lng + 1c x in tM tM mZi trYng/. ChiA thWo t(nh chUt cc mc nng lng cFA
WlWctron c9 - loi $Gt liu ch(nh &AuX

Trong @im loi luZn c9 &xn WlWctron nIm 2 c#ng 4fn. Trn thKc t ho@ c9 @hoPng cch
gi3A $#ng 4fn $ $#ng h9A trD+ $ c9 thT coi , $#ng l mNt 'i $%i @im loi
Bim loi c9 $#ng 4fn $ $#ng h9A trD phF ln nhAu"@hZng c9 $#ng cUm/ 4o 9 luZn c9 in t trn $#ng 4fn
$C th m @im loi luZn luZn 4fn in
ong l%i cFA @im loi thKc t ho@ hon hPoX cc ch 1D &t my trong mng l%i tn x WlWctron+ gEy
nn &K cPn tr2 $%i &K 4y chuyTn cFA WlWctron"in tr2/. Bhi nhit N tng+ cc nguyn t 4Ao Nng mnh hkn
$ 4l $A chm $o cc WlWctron hkn @hin in tr2 tng thWo. \Gt 4fn in cng 4i+ &' lng $A chm cFA
WlWctron trn Yng y cng tng.
Cu >: !u v g'?' th.ch t.nh cht $%n &'(n c"# bn $%n t=@ cht lo=' @.
zut 1n 4fn nguyn t' &ilic. oNt nguyn t &ilic c9 i in t $eng ngoi mi in t ny lin @t
ng h9A trD $%i i nguyn t &ilic lEn cGn. ViP & * nguyn t tp chUt c9 h9A trD - c thAy th
$o" nguyn t nh9m {{{ |X |l+ r+ VA/. TA lUy 1o.oNt trong cc m'i lin @t ng h9A trD xung 6uAnh
mi nguyn t ny &] 1D thiu * in t. Ch thiu 9 c9 thT xWm nh * l tr'ng lin @t yu $%i nguyn
t tp chUt. C9 thT giPi ph9ng l trng ny @hRi nguyn t tp chUt 1Ing cch l in t $ l tr'ng }i
ch cho nhAu. oNt l tr'ng chuyTn Nng c coi nh l 2 trng thi @(ch th(ch. \Gy trong trYng hp
ny tp chUt 1o lm cho l tr'ng trong tinh thT tng ln rUt nhiQuX ch0 c!n mNt &' nguyn t tp chUt 1ng
mNt ph!n triu &' nguyn t 1n 4fn tinh @hit cgng lm cho &' l tr'ng tng ln hng $n l!n+ 4o 9 N
4fn in cFA 1n 4fn c9 tp chUt l%n hkn N 4fn in cFA 1n 4fn tinh @hit hng $n l!n.
oi * nguyn t tp chUt A $o @hW cUm mNt mc nng lng nIm &t ph(A trn 0nh cFA $#ng h9A
trD. oi l tr'ng &] c to rA trong $#ng h9A trD @hi @(ch th(ch nhit N * in t chuyTn tM $#ng h9A
trD ln trng thi in t tp chUt.
\%i * chuyTn 4Yi nh th ch0 c9 * ht tPi "* l tr'ng/ c &inh rA trong $#ng h9A trD m @hZng c9
in t tK 4o no c to rA hoc 2 mc tp chUt ho<c 2 trong $#ng 4fn. Tp chUt ny c gqi l
AcxWptk "tp chUt nhGn/. 12i $C n9 c9 @hP nng nhGn in t tM $#ng h9A trD $ T li 9 * l tr'ng .
t'i $%i 1n 4fn tp chUt loi ny+ l tr'ng c9 m<t $%i nng N cAo hkn nhiQu &o $%i in t "pccn/ $
trong trYng hp 9 $Gt liu c gqi l chUt 1n 4fn loi p 12i $C t(nh 4fn in chF yu 4o cc in t(ch
4kng Pm nhim. p tr'ng c gqi l ht tPi A &'+ in t l ht tPi tiTu &'.
Cu A: !u v g'?' th.ch t.nh cht $%n &'(n c"# bn $%n t=@ cht lo=' n.
Li gii:
zut 1n 4fn nguyn t' &ilic. oNt nguyn t &ilic c9 i in t $eng ngoi mi in t ny lin @t
ng h9A trD $%i i nguyn t &ilic lEn cGn. ViP & * nguyn t tp chUt c9 h9A trD ; c thAy th
$o" nguyn t nh9m \ |X ~+ |&+ J1/. Ch0 c9 i trong ; nguyn t tp chUt ny c9 thT thAm giA $o lin
@t. oNt in t thMA rA ch0 (nh * cch lRng lyo xung 6uAnh nguyn t tp chUt 12i lKc hdt t[nh in yu
nng lng lin @t cFA in t ny tkng 'i nhR "8+8* W\/ )c4l 1D tch @hRi nguyn t tp chUt )cn9
tr2 thnh in t tK 4o "tc in t 4fn/. nh $Gy+ trong trYng hp ny "tc / lm cho &' in t tK 4o
trong 1n 4fn tng ln rUt nhiQu. \ ch0 c!n mNt &' nguyn t tp chUt 1Ing mNt ph!n triu &' nguyn t
1n 4fn tinh @hit cgng lm cho &' in t tng ln hng $n l!n+ ngh[A l N 4fn in cFA 1n 4fn c9 tp
chUt l%n N 4fn in cFA 1n 4fn tinh @hit hng $n l!n.
oi in t lRng lyo 9 chim mNt mc nng lng kng nm trong @hW cUm $ ngAy 4%i y $#ng
4fn. tT @(ch th(ch in t nhPy tM * trong cc trng thi "mc/ tp chUt ny ln * mc trong $#ng 4fn
ei hRi * nng lng tkng ng $%i nng lng lin @t trong in t. C mi l!n @(ch th(ch &] cUp *
in t kn $o $#ng 4fn. Tp chUt loi ny gqi l Znk "tp chUt cho/.r2i mi in t Znk c @(ch
th(ch tM * tp chUt nn @hZng to rA l tr'ng 2 trong $#ng h9A trD 4o 9 trong 1n 4fn c9 tp chUt mGt N
in t rUt l%n &o $%i mGt N l tr'ng. \C l] 9 1n 4fn c9 tp chUt c gqi l 1n 4fn in t hAy 1n
4fn loi n. Trong 1n 4fn loi n cc in t l nhng ht tPi A &'+ cen l tr'ng l nh3ng ht tPi thiTu &'.
Cu B: h'(t $ung l g. Trnh by nguCn gDc c"# nh'(t $ung v E1 @hF thu3c c"# nh'(t $ung thGo
nh'(t &3.
Li gii:
nhit 4ung cho 1it @hP nng cFA $Gt liu hUp thw nhit tM 1n ngoi+ n9 1iTu thD ph!n nng lng c!n
thit T nEng nhit N ln * kn $D. rIng ngZn ng3 ton hqc+ nhit 4ung C c $it nh &AuX
4X nng lng c!n T gEy rA N 1in thin nhit N 4T
ThZng thYng nhit 4ung c t(nh thWo mol cFA $Gt liu"chPng hn ^mol.B ho<c cAl^mol.B/. nhit
4ung ring "thYng @m hiu 1Ing ch3 c/ l nhit 4ung cFA * kn $D @h'i lng $Gt liu c9 kn $D ^@g.B
hoc cAl^g.B.
Trong thKc t c9 , cch o nhit 4ung cFA $Gt liu tkng ng $%i cc iQu @in mZi trYng @m thWo
&K truyQn nhit. oNt l nhit 4ung ng t(ch C$ "thT t(ch mfu c gi3 @hZng }i/ $ hAi l nhit 4ung
ng p Cp luZn luZn l%n hkn C$. Tuy nhin &K @hc nhAu gi3A chdng l rUt (t 'i $%i A &' cc $Gt liu
rOn 2 nhit N pheng $ thUp hkn.
JK phw thuNc nhit N cFA nhit 4ung
rin thin thWo nhit N cFA nhit 4ung thWo ng t(ch cFA nhiQu chUt rOn tinh thT tkng 'i
kn giPn.C$ 1Ing 8 2 B nhng tng ln nhAnh thWo nhit N. tiQu ny tkng ng $%i @hP nng cFA
cc &9ng mng nEng cAo nng lng trung 1Cnh cFA mCnh. BhP nng ny c tng ln thWo nhit N.
2 cc nhit q thUp m'i 6uAn h gi3A C$ $ nhit q T lX C$)| T
-
Trong 9 | l hIng &' @hZng phw thuNc nhit N. S trn nhit N 4 gqi l nhit N vW1yW. C$
h!u nh @hZng cen phw thuNc nhit N n3A+ cen gi trD $o @hoPng -+ l hIng &' @h(. t'i $%i
nhiQu $Gt liu rOn+ gi trD cFA 4 xUp x0 nhit q pheng+ $ gi trD g!n dng hp lm cFA C$ 2 nhit N
pheng l *; ^mol.B
Cu H: 01# vo 2h' n'() &3 l'nh &3ng c"# &'(n t4 v cu trc vng nng lng5 #nh 6ch78 h9y n!u
&:c &';) c"# &'(n tr< c"# bn $%n t'nh 2h'ItJ
Trong 1n 4fn $ cch in cc nguyn t tkng tc $%i nhAu @hin cho @hoPng cch nng lng gi3A $#ng
4fn $ $#ng c9 h9A trD l%n+ h!u ht cc WlWctron @hZng nIm 2 $#ng 4fn. tT c9 F WlWctron 4fn in+ c!n cung
cUp nhCu nng lng cho W nhPy ln $#ng 4fn+ $( 4w nhit nng hAy 6uAng nng. oNt hiu in th l%n ch0 to
c 4eng in yu 4o c9 it in t 4fn in+ 4o 9 chUt 1n 4fn $ chUt cch in c9 in tr2 &uUt cAo.
Trong 1n 4fn @hi tng nhit N+ cc W c9 thT nhGn nhit nng T nhPy ln $#ng 4fn. jiu ng ny mnh hkn
hiu ng cPn tr2 4o 4eng 4Ao Nng mng+ @hin in tr2 giPm @hi nhit N tng.. tkng tK c9 thT chiu nh
&ng hAy 1c x in tM n9i chung $o mNt &' chUt 1n 4fn T truyQn nng lng cho cc W"&Au @hi hUp thw
cc photon/ nhPy ln $#ng 4fn $ tng t(nh 4fn in nh trong CCv cFA cAmWrA hAy pin o<t TrYi
C9 thT thAy }i @hP nng 4fn in cFA cc chUt 1n 4fn 1Ing $ic phA thm tp chUt lKA chqn <c 1it T to
rA cc li trong mng tinh thT c9 thMA W tK 4o"1n 4fn loi n/. nng N tp chUt 6uyt Dnh &' l tr'ng hAy
in t tK 4o trong $Gt liu+ 4o 9 6uyt Dnh t(nh 4fn in cFA $Gt liu
Cc chUt 1n 4fn c9 $#ng cUm c9 * N rNng xc Dnh. S 8 N tuyt 'i"8 N B/+ mc aWrmi nIm gi3A $#ng
cUm+ c9 ngh[A l tUt cP cc in t tn ti 2 $#ng h9A trD+ 4o 9 chUt 1n 4fn @hZng 4fn in. Bhi tng 4!n
nhit N+ cc in t &] nhGn c nng lng nhit" l hIng &' roltsmAnn/ nhng nng lng
ny chA F T $t 6uA $#ng cUm nn in t $fn 2 $#ng h9A trD. Bhi tng nhit N n mc F cAo+ &] c9
mNt &' in t nhGn c nng lng l%n hkn nng lng $#ng cUm $ n9 &] nhPy ln $#ng 4fn $ chUt rOn
tr2 thnh chUt 4fn in. Bhi nhit N cng tng ln+ mGt N in t trn $#ng 4fn &] cng tng ln+ 4o 9 t(nh
4fn in cFA 1n 4fn tng 4!n thWo nhit N"hAy in tr2 &uUt giPm 4!n thWo nhit N/. oNt cch g!n dng c9
thT $it &K phw thuNc cFA in tr2 chUt 1n 4fn $o nhit N nh &AuX
\%i o l hIng &'+ l N rNng $#ng cUm
ngoi rA t(nh 4fn cFA chUt 1n 4fn c9 thT thAy }i nhY cc @(ch th(ch nng lng @hc+ $( 4w nh nh &ng.
Bhi chiu &ng cc in t &] hUp thw nng lng tM photon $ c9 thT nhPy ln $#ng 4fn nu nng lng F
l%n. tEy ch(nh l nguyn nhEn 4fn n &K thAy }i $Q t(nh chUt cFA 1n4fn 4%i tc 4wng cFA nh
&ng"6uAngb1n 4fn/
Cu K: !u cL chI $%n nh'(t c"# vt l'(u. T+ &, g'?' th.ch t.nh cht $%n nh'(t c"# 2') lo='
CL chI $%n nh'(t c"# vt l'(u.
Trong cc $Gt liu rOn+nhit c truyQn 12i cP &ong 4Ao Nng mng $ in t tK 4o.tN 4fn nhit ton
ph!n l t}ng cFA , thnh ph!n thWo , ck ch 9.
B)Bl :BW
BlX tN 4fn in 12i 4Ao Nng mng
BWXtN 4fn in 12i 4Ao Nng in t
bThZng thYng thC * trong , thnh ph!n 9 chim u th.nng lng nhit cc phonon+tc l &ong mng c
truyQn i thWo h%ng chuyTn Nng cFA chdng.
bThnh ph!n Bl gEy 12i chuyTn Nng thu!n cFA cc phonon tM $#ng nhit q cAo t%i $#ng c9 nhit N thUp
trong $Gt thT.
bCc in t tK 4o cgng thAm giA 4fn nhit.S $#ng n9ng cFA $Gt liu in t tK 4o c9 Nng nng l%n
hkn+chdng 4i chuyTn n nh3ng $#ng lnh hkn $A5* ph!n Nng nng c chuyTn 1# thm cho cc nguyn t
nh l @t 6uP cc $A chm $%i phonon hAy l $%i @huyt tGt mng.~h!n 9ng g9p tkng 'i cFA BW tng thWo
nng N in t tK 4o $C c9 nhiQu in t hkn thAm giA $o 6u trCnh 4fn nhit.
M'?' th.ch t.nh cht $%n nh'(t c"# 2') lo='
:Trong @im loi $%i N &ch cAo+ck ch in t $Gn chuyTn nhit c9 u th hkn ph!n 9ng g9p cFA photon $C
in t @hZng 4l 1D tn x nh photon $ c9 t'c N l%n hkn.Bim loi l chUt 1n 4fn ht &c t't 4o c9 &'
lng @h l%n in t tK 4o thAm giA 4fn nhit.tN 4fn nhit thZng 4wng cFA @im loi l $o @hoPngX,8bi8 h
m.B.
:$C in t tw 4o chDu trch nhim cP 4fn nhit $ 4fn in trong @im loi tinh @hit+1iTu thcX
p)@ T
pXjIng &' p),+ii.*8 b ^"@,/
TXnhit N tuyt 'i
XtN 4fn nhit
:Tp chUt trong @im loi lm giPm N 4fn nhit+cw thT l trong cc nguyn t tp chUt+<c 1it l trong 4ung
4Dch rOn hot Nng nh nh3ng tEm tn x+h thUp hiu 6uP cFA chuyTn Nng in t.\C $Gy thup @hZng 40 4fn
nhit @um hkn &Ot ho<c thup hp @im thUp.
Cu N:!u cL chI $%n nh'(t c"# vt l'(u5t+ &, g'?' th.ch t.nh $%n nh'(t c"# @oly)G
CL chI $%n nh'(t c"# vt l'(u.
Trong cc $Gt liu rOn+nhit c truyQn 12i cP &ong 4Ao Nng mng $ in t tK 4o.tN 4fn nhit ton
ph!n l t}ng cFA , thnh ph!n thWo , ck ch 9.
B)Bl :BW
BlX tN 4fn in 12i 4Ao Nng mng
BWXtN 4fn in 12i 4Ao Nng in t
bThZng thYng thC * trong , thnh ph!n 9 chim u th.nng lng nhit cc phonon+tc l &ong mng c
truyQn i thWo h%ng chuyTn Nng cFA chdng.
bThnh ph!n Bl gEy 12i chuyTn Nng thu!n cFA cc phonon tM $#ng nhit q cAo t%i $#ng c9 nhit N thUp
trong $Gt thT.
bCc in t tK 4o cgng thAm giA 4fn nhit.S $#ng n9ng cFA $Gt liu in t tK 4o c9 Nng nng l%n
hkn+chdng 4i chuyTn n nh3ng $#ng lnh hkn $A5* ph!n Nng nng c chuyTn 1# thm cho cc nguyn t
nh l @t 6uP cc $A chm $%i phonon hAy l $%i @huyt tGt mng.~h!n 9ng g9p tkng 'i cFA BW tng thWo
nng N in t tK 4o $C c9 nhiQu in t hkn thAm giA $o 6u trCnh 4fn nhit.
g'?' th.ch t.nh $%n nh'(t c"# @oly)G
:tA &' cc polymW l $o c 8.- hm.B.t'i $%i $Gt liu ny+nng lng truyQn thWo 4Ao Nng+tDnh tin $
6uAy cFA cc phEn t mch.tN l%n cFA N 4fn nhit phw thNc $o mc q @t tinhX~olymW c9 cUu trdc tinh thT
$ trGt tK cAo &] c9 N 4fn nhit l%n hkn &o $%i cc $Gt liu $Z Dnh hCnh tkng kng.t9 l 4Ao Nng hiu
4wng hkn cFA cc mch phEn t 2 trng thi tinh thT.
:~olymW thYng c ng 4wng lm chUt ch& nhit nhY c9 N 4fn nhit thUp+t(nh cc nhit cFA chdng cgng
nh cFA g'm+c9 thT c nEng cAo hkn 1Ing cch A $o nh3ng l x'p nhR+thYng c to rA 1Ing cch
@huUy 1qt trong @hi polymW h9A.~oly&tryrWn L to 1qt c 4#ng ph} 1in 4#ng lm c'c u'ng $ hNp cch
nhit.
Cu 1O: Pnh 6ch78 h9y n!u h'(u -ng -ng Eut nh'(t c"# vt l'(u
ng &uUt nhit l ng &uUt c gEy rA trong $Gt thT 4o &K thAy }i nhit N. TCm hiTu ngun g'c $ 1Pn chUt
cFA ng &uUt nhit l rUt 6uAn trqng $C nh3ng ng &uUt ny c9 thT 4fn t%i &K nt $ ho<c 1in 4ng 4yo @hZng
mong mu'n.
Qng Eut $o E1 g'9n v co b7 h=n chI
TA hLy xut mNt thAnh ng chUt $ ng h%ng 1D nung n9ng ho<c lm lnh ng Qu+ ngh[A l @hZng c9
grA4iWn nhit N. Bhi giLn ho<c co tK 4o+ thAnh &] @hZng chDu ng &uUt. Tuy nhin nu chuyTn Nng 4qc trwc
cFA thAnh 1D gi%i hn 12i cc gi cng ch<n 2 hAi !u thC &] c9 ng &uUt nhit. tN l%n N 4fn in cFA ng
&uUt gEy 12i N 1in thin nhit N tM To n T5 lX
) `. * "TobT5/ "*/
Bhi nung n9ng "T5 c To/ ng &uUt &] l nun " 8/+ $C &K giLn n2 cFA thAnh L 1D gi3 li. tkng nhin @hi
thAnh 1D lm lnh "T5 To/ thC &] c9 ng &uUt @uo " c 8/. Cgng $Gy ng &uUt thWo 1iTu thc "*/ cgng l ng
&uUt c!n thit T nun "ho<c @uo/ n hi thAnh mfu tr2 $Q N 4i 1An !u &Au @hi n9 chDu giLn n2 4o 1in }i
nhit N To b T5
Qng Eut gy b<' gr#$'Gn nh'(t &3
Bhi mNt $Gt rOn 1D nung ho<c lm nguNi+ &K phEn 1' nhit N 1n trong &] phw thuNc $o @(ch th%c $ hCnh
4ng cFA n9+ $o N 4fn nhit cFA $Gt liu $ ch0 &' 1in }i nhit N. ng &uUt nhit c9 thT hCnh thnh 4o
grA4iWn nhit N gEy rA 12i &K nung n9ng ho<c lm nguNi nhAnh $ lm cho ph!n ngoi thAy }i nhit N
nhAnh hkn ph!n ph(A trong. Cc 1in }i @(ch th%c 1N phGn c9 tc 4wng hn ch &K giLn ho<c co cFA nh3ng
ph!n thT t(ch xung 6uAnh. Chng hn @hi nung n9ng+ ph!n ngoi cFA mfu &] n9ng hkn+ $ 4o 9 &] giLn
mnh hkn cc $#ng trong. nh $Gy ng &uUt 1Q m<t l ng &uUt nun+ xuUt hin $ 1D cEn 1Ing 12i cc ng
&uUt @uo 2 1n trong. o'i tkng 6uAn ng &uUt trong ngoi &] Po li @hi lm nguNi nhAnh+ lm cho 1Q m<t
chDu ng &uUt @uo.
RDc nh'(t c"# vt l'(u g'Sn
t'i $%i cc @im loi $ polymW 4l u'n+ ng &uUt &inh rA c9 thT c giPm nh nhY c9 1in 4ng n hi. tuy
nhin+ 'i $%i A &' $Gt liu g'm+ t(nh @h9 u'n &] lm tng @hP nng ph hFy gien 4o ng &uUt nhit. nguNi
nhAnh 4l gEy rA &'c nhit hkn l nung n9ng+ $C ng &uUt nhit &inh rA l ng &uUt @uo. JK to thnh $t nt $
&K lAn truyQn cc $t nt tM 1Q m<t xP rA 4l hkn @hi c9 ng &uUt @uo.
BhP nng cFA $Gt liu ch'ng li loi ph hFy ny c gqi l N 1Qn xung nhit. 'i $%i g'm 1D lm nguNi
nhAnh+ N 1Qn xung nhiWWy phw thuNc @hZng nh3ng $o N l%n cFA &K thAy }i nhit m cen $o t(nh chUt ck
$ nhit cFA $Gt liu. N 1Qn xung nhit t't nhUt 2 cc g'm c9 N 1Qn nt cAo $ N 4fn in cAo+ cgng nh
mo4un n hi $ h &' giLn n2 nhit thUp. N 1Qn cFA nhiQu $Gt liu ch'ng li loi ph hFy ny c9 thT %c
t(nh 1Ing thZng &' @hng &'c nhit TJ
TJ) 5. @^ `. * ",/
C9 thT pheng ngMA &'c nhit 1Ing cch 1in }i cc iQu @in ngoi T giPm 1%t t'c N nguNi ho<c nung
n9ng $ hn ch grA4iWn nhit N trong $Gt thT n mc t'i thiTu. cPi thin cc <c trng nhit $ ck trong
1iTu thc ",/ cgng c9 thT nEng cAo t(nh @hng &'c nhit cFA $Gt liu. trong cc thZng &' ny h &' giLn n2
nhit l 4l 1in }i $ 4l @h'ng ch nhUt. $( 4w+ thFy tinh nA ph} thZng+ thYng c9 * $o @hoPng .*8b_
"C/b <c 1it nhy $%i &'c nhit nh chdng tA $fn 1it. 1Ing cch giPm hm lng CA $ nA, ng thYi
1} &ung r,- $o T to thnh thFy tinh 1oro&ilicAt "~yrWx/ thC &] giPm c h &' giLn n2 xu'ng t%i
@hoPng -.*8b_ "C/b $Gt liu ny hon ton th(ch hp cho cc chu trCnh nung n9ng $ lm nguNi cFA le
nung. tA $o mNt &' l x'p tkng 'i l%n ho<c mNt phA th hAi mQm cgng x9 thT cPi thin <c t(nh &'c
nhit cFA $Gt liu. CP hAi 1in php ny Qu c9 tc 4wng ngn ngMA & lAn truyQn cc $t nt nhit.
ThYng c!n phPi @h ng &uUt nhit trong cc $Gt liu g'm nh l mNt 1in php T cPi thin N 1Qn ck $
<c t(nh 6uAng hqc cFA chdng. tiQu ny c9 thT thKc hin 1ng F.
Cu 11: Pnh 6ch78 h9y n!u nguCn gDc )o)Gn t+ c"# vt l'(u.
Cc t(nh chUt tM $[ mZ cFA $Gt liu Qu l h 6uP cFA cc momWn tM gOn $%i tMng in t. Bhi nim ny @h
phc tp $ 4KA trn cc nguyn lm ck hqc lng t nn 4%i Ey tA ch0 trCnh 1!y mNt &' lc 4kn giPn
h9A. oi in t trong mNt nguyn t Qu c9 cc momWn tM $%i hAi ngun g'c. oNt lin 6uAn n chuyTn
Nng 6u7 o cFA n9 xung 6uAnh ht nhEn. p mNt in t(ch chuyTn Nng + mi in t c9 thT c xWm nh
mNt 4eng in $eng nhR+ &inh rA mNt tM trYng rUt yu+ 4o 9 c9 mNt momWn tM h%ng 4qc thWo chiQu 6u7
o cFA n9+ nh minh hqA trn hCnh ;.-A
o<t @hc mi in t cen c9 mNt chuyTn Nng ring l chuyTn Nng xung 6uAnh trwc cFA 1Pn thEn "gqi l
&pin/. vo 9 xuUt hin momWn tM n3A 1Ot ngun tM &pin in t+ h%ng thWo trwc &pin nh trn hCnh;.-1.
oomWn tM &pin in t ch0 c9 thT nhGn hAi chiQu 'i &ong &ong+ ho<c h%ng >ln? ho<c h%ng >xu'ng?. nh
$Gy mi in t trong nguyn t c9 thT coi nh mNt nAm chEm $[nh cu nhR+ c9 momWn tM 6u7 o $
momWn tM &pin
oomWn tM 4kn $D l mAgnWton rohr c9 gi trD +,=.*8b,i |.m. 'i $%i mi in t trong nguyn t+
momWn tM &pin ch0 c9 thT nhGn mNt trong hAi gi trD "cNng cho &pin h%ng ln $ trM cho &pin h%ng
xu'ng/. Cen momWn tM 6u7 o thC 1Ing m*+ m* l &' lng t tM "&' lng t @hZng giAn/ cFA in t.
Trong mi nguyn t cZ lGp+ momWn tM 6u7 o cgng nh momWn tM &pin cFA c<p 4iWn4 t trit tiu lfn
nhAu.
\( 4w+ momWn &pin cFA mNt in t c9 &pin h%ng ln &] trit tiu momWn &pin cFA mNt in t c9 &pin
h%ng xu'ng. Cen momWn tM cFA mNt nguyn t &] ch(nh l t}ng momWn tM cFA mqi in t trong nguyn t
1Ao gm cP hAi thnh ph!n 6u7 o $ &pin. t'i $%i mNt nguyn t L c9 cc l%p in t hon ton !y+
momWn t}ng cFA n9 1D trit tiu. nh $Gy $Gt liu cUu to 12i nguyn t c9 cc l%p in t hon ton !y thC
@hZng thT 1D tM h9A $[nh cu. $( 4w+ cc @h( trk "jW+ nW+ |r./ cgng nh nhiQu $Gt liu ion @hc.
Trong $Gt liu tn ti cc 4ng tM t(nh &AuX nghDch tM+ thuGn tM $ &Ot tM. ngoi rA+ phPn &Ot tM $ 5Wri tM c
xWm l nh3ng 4ng phw cFA &Ot tM. mi $Gt liu Qu tn ti (t nhUt mNt trong 4ng tM t(nh 9 $ t(nh chUt tM
cFA $Gt liu phw thuNc $o hnh $i cFA cc lng cKc tM nguyn t $ in t 4%i tc 4wng cFA tM trYng
ngoi.
Cu 12: !u cL chI $%n nh'(t c"# vt l'(uJt+ &, M'?' th.ch t.nh cht $%n nh'(t c"# MD)
CL chI $%n nh'(t c"# vt l'(u
TTrong cc $Gt liu rOn+nhit c truyQn 12i cP &ong 4Ao Nng mng $ in t tK 4o.tN 4fn nhit ton
ph!n l t}ng cFA , thnh ph!n thWo , ck ch 9.
B)Bl :BW
BlX tN 4fn in 12i 4Ao Nng mng
BWXtN 4fn in 12i 4Ao Nng in t
bThZng thYng thC * trong , thnh ph!n 9 chim u th.nng lng nhit cc phonon+tc l &ong mng c
truyQn i thWo h%ng chuyTn Nng cFA chdng.
bThnh ph!n Bl gEy 12i chuyTn Nng thu!n cFA cc phonon tM $#ng nhit q cAo t%i $#ng c9 nhit N thUp
trong $Gt thT.
bCc in t tK 4o cgng thAm giA 4fn nhit.S $#ng n9ng cFA $Gt liu in t tK 4o c9 Nng nng l%n
hkn+chdng 4i chuyTn n nh3ng $#ng lnh hkn $A5* ph!n Nng nng c chuyTn 1# thm cho cc nguyn t
nh l @t 6uP cc $A chm $%i phonon hAy l $%i @huyt tGt mng.~h!n 9ng g9p tkng 'i cFA BW tng thWo
nng N in t tK 4o $C c9 nhiQu in t hkn thAm giA $o 6u trCnh 4fn nhit.
M'?' th.ch t.nh cht $%n nh'(t c"# MD)
b Cc $Gt liu phi @im loi Qu l nh3ng chUt cch nhit $C chdng @hZng c9 nhiQu in t tK 4o.nh
$Gy+phonon chDu trch nhim chF yu trong 4fn nhitX B rUt nhR &o $%i B.phonon $Gn chuyTn nng lng
nhit @hZng hiu 6uP nh in t tK 4o+4o phonon 1D tn x rt mnh 12i @huyt tGt mng.
btN 4fn in cFA * &' $Gt liu g'm nIm trong @hoPng ,bc;8^m.B 2 nhit N pheng .ThFy tinh $ cc g'm
$Z Dnh hCnh @hc c9 N 4fn in thUp hkn g'm tinh thT $C tn x phonon mnh hkn nhiQu @hi cUu trdc
nguyn t c9 mc N @hZng trGt tK cAo.
bTn x cFA cc 4Ao Nng nhit tr2 nn n}i 1Gt hkn @hi nhit q tng.vo $Gy+N 4fn nhit cFA A &' $Gt liu
g'm 1Cnh thYng Qu giPm 4!n 4!n @hi nhit N tng+(t nhUt l 2 nhit q tkng 'i thUp.
bp x'p trong $Gt liu g'm c9 thT gEy Pnh h2ng mnh n N 4fn nhit trong A &' trYng hp+&K tng thT
t(ch l x'p lm giPm N 4fn nhit.Trong thKc tXnhiQu g'm & 4wng lm $Gt liu cch nhit Qu c9 N x'p
cAo.JK truyQn nhit 6uA cc l x'p l chGm $ @hZng c9 hiu 6uP.Cc l x'p 1n trong cen chA @hZng
@h(+@h( ny c9 q 4fn nhit cKc @ thUp+@hoPng 8+8,^m.B.jkn n3A &K 'i lu @h( trong cc l x'p cgng
@hZng c9 hiu 6uP ng @T.
Cu 1/: !u &:c &';) c"# vt l'(u t+ c-ng.
\Gt liu tM cng l $Gt liu &Ot tM+ @h9 @h tM $ @h9 tM h9A. ngh[A cFA t(nh tM >cng? 2 Ey ch(nh l thuNc
t(nh tM @h9 @h tM $ @h9 1D tM h9A+ ch @o xuUt pht tM ck t(nh cFA $Gt liu tM.
bn9 l $Gt liu c pht hin $ & 4wng l%n nhUt trong lich & loi ngYi . Cc $Gt liu tM cng thkng
phm 4#ng T ch to nAm chEm $[nh cu xuUt hin l!n !u tin $o nh3ng nm *=i8b*=;8 2 chEu Eu $ &K
pht triTn mnh tM cu'i t@* !u th @ ,8 n nAy.
b\Gt liu tM cng c9 nhiQu <c trng tM hqc+ &K phw thuNc cFA t(nh chUt tM $o nhit N+ N 1Qn+ N ch'ng mi
men..4%i Ey lit @ mNt &' <c trng 6uAn trqng.
-Lc khng t.
pKc @hng tM @m hiu l jc l ED lng 6uAn trqng c trng cho t(nh tM cng cFA $Gt liu tM cng.$C $Gy $Gt
liu tM cng l @h9 tM h9A $ @h9 @h tM+ nn c9 lKc @hng tM cAo. tiQu @in t'i thiTu l trn *88 8W+ nhng
$Gt liu tM cng ph} 1in thYng c9 lKc @hng tM tM ngn W tr2 nn. ngun g'c cFA lKc @hng tM l%n trong
cc $Gt liu tM cng chF yu lin 6uAn n 4D h%ng tM tinh thT trong $Gt liu. Cc $Gt liu tM cng thYng c9
cUu trdc tinh thT c9 t(nh 'i xng @m hkn &o $%i cc $Gt liu tM mQm $ chdng c9 4D h%ng tM tinh thT rUt
l%n.
C9 thT lin h N cng tkng 'i cFA $Gt liu $%i tich &' rrjc. n9 1ng @hoPng , l!n nng lngT ph
hFy tM h9A mNt kn $D thT tich $Gt liu. \Gt liu c9 nng lng cng cAo nu t(ch rrjc cng l%n.
bTnh nng lng t cc i
p i lng <c trng cho N mnh yu cFA $Gt tM+ c <c trng 12i nng lng tM cKc i c9 thT tn ti
trong mNt kn $D thT tich $Gt tM.i lng ny c9 c9 kn $D l kn $D mGt N nng lng ^m-
-Nhit kurie
tEy l nhit N m ti 9 $Gt liu 1D mUt tM t(nh+ tr thnh chUt thuGt tM. oNt &' $Gt liu tM cng c 4#ng
trong cc nAm chEm hot Nng 2 nhit N cAo nn n9 ei hRi nhit N crriW rUt cAo. poi $Gt liu tM cng c9
nhit N curiW rUt cAo hin nAy l nh9m cc $Gt liu trn nQn JmCo c9 nhit N curiW tM ;88b*888 N c
bng 4wng $Gt liu tM cng c9 thT 4#ng T ch to cc nAn chEm $[nh cu ho<c c & 4wng lm $Gt liu ghi
tM trong cc } [A cng+ cc 1ng tM
Cu 1>: Pnh 6ch78 h9y n!u t.nh cht $%n &'(n c"# @oly)Gr.
b ~h!n l%n cc $Gt liu polymW Qu 4fn in @um $C @o thT c9 nhiQu in t tK 4o thAm giA $o 6u trCnh 4fn
in
bCk ch 4fn in phc tp
Cc @oly)G $%n &'(n:
b \Gt liu polymW c9 N 4fn in ngAng $%i lim loi c gqi l cc polymW 4fn in+ trong cc $Gt liu ny
L t n N cAo l *+;.*8
=
".m/
b*
b C9 thT thUy 2 nhiQu polymW 9 l polyxWtylWn+polypArAphWnylWn+polypyrol $A5plyAnilin L c phA $%i cc
phw giA th(ch hp
b Cc polymW ny c9 thT @ ch to thWo loi n ho<c loi p
b ~olymW tinh @hit cAo c9 <c trng cUu trdc $#ng in t cFA cc chUt cch in
b Ck ch &Pn &inh rA &' lng l%n in t tK 4o $ l tr'ng trong cc polymW ny rUt phc tp+ @hZng thT giPi
th(ch r rng.
Qng $Fng:
nh3ng polymW ny c9 u th trong ng 4wng 4o chdng c9 trqng lng ring thUp+ N 4yo cAo $ 4l ch
to $( 4w nh ch to pin ti &inh $%i in cKc polymW+ lm 4Ey 4fn trong cc cUu @in hng @hZng $ $g trw+
chW phF ch'ng nhilu in cho 6u!n o+ $Gt liu mu chOn in tM $ linh @in in t.
Cu 1A: ThI no l cht @h?n Et t+5 UGr' t+. !u &:c &';) c"# chng.
Vh?n Et t+ X l nh9m cc $Gt liu tM c9 trGt tK tM m trong cUu trdc gm c9 , phEn mng tM 'i &ong
&ong $ cEn 1Ing nhAu $Q m<t gi trD.
CL chI c"# t.nh @h?n Et t+
b\Gt liu phPn &Ot tM c lit $o nh9m $Gt liu c9 trGt tK tM.
b \Gt liu phPn &Ot tM l $Gt liu phi tM 12i tM t(nh cFA chdng cgng yu.
bT(nh chUt phPn &Ot tM 1Ot ngun tM tkng tc trAo }i gi3A cc &pin
b ~hPn &Ot tM l tkng tc trAo }i Em+ lm cho cc &pin phPn &ong &ong $%i nhAu.
Cc t.nh cht cL b?n
bS @hZng N tuyt 'i "8 BWl$in/+ cc &pin cFA $Gt liu phPn &Ot tM &Op xp 'i &ong &ong nhAu nn tM N.
b nhit N tng 4!n 4fn n $ic ph $ trGt tK tM @iTu phPn &ong &ong lm tng N tM h9A "$ N cPm tM+ /
cFA $Gt liu phPn &Ot tM.
b TM trYng ngoi cgng l nguyn nhEn ph $ trGt tK phPn &ong &ong cFA $Gt liu.
WGr' t+
WGr' t+ Xl tn gqi chung cFA nh9m cc $Gt liu c9 trGt tK tM m trong cUu trdc tM cFA n9 gm , phEn mng
'i &ong &ong nhng c9 N l%n @hc nhAu. aWrri tM cen c gqi l phPn &Ot tM 1# trM @hZng hon ton.
Cu trc c"# UGr' t+
aWri tM tM c9 tn gqi xuUt pht tM nh9m $Gt liu 5WrritW +l nh9m cc $Gt liu g'm c9 cZng thc h9A hqc chung
lX XY.Z2Y/
: z l mNt @im loi h9A trD ,+
: l @im loi h9A trD - .
kn $D cFA mNt 5WrritW &] chA -, Anion $ ,i cAtion. cAtion 2 $D tr( | "to thnh phEn mng tM |/ &] 1D
1Ao 6uAnh 12i i iZn Zxi thWo 4ng cc t 4in $ *_ cAtion cen l 2 $D tr( r "phEn mng tM r/ 1D 1Ao 6uAnh
12i _ ion Zxi 12i mng 1t 4in. tEy l nh9m 5WrritW c9 tn gqi chung l 5WrritW &pinWl + thYng mAng cUu trdc
lGp phkng tEm m<t. oNt &' nh9m 5WrritW @hc c9 thnh ph!n phc tp hkn mAng cUu trdc lwc gic
T.nh cht c"# UGr' t+
b aWri tM c9 , phEn mng tM 1# trM @hZng hon ton+ nn n9 c9 tM N tK pht $ tM N ny c 1# trM tM
mZmWn tM cFA , phEn mngX [.MA \ 61 \ [8.MB
:o|+ or l!n lt l mZmWn tM cFA , phEn mng | $ r+
: l t0 ph!n gi3A , phEn mng.
bnhCn chung+ t(nh chUt tM cFA 5Wri tM g!n gi'ng $%i &Ot tM+
b tiTm @hc 1it ck 1Pn nhUt l 4o n9 c9 , phEn mng ngc chiQu
b C9 mNt nhit N m ti 9 mZmWn tM tK pht cFA , phEn mng 1D 1# trM nhAu gqi l nhit N 1# trM.
b nhit N 1# trM thUp hkn nhit N CuriW "Zi @hi nhit N CuriW cFA 5Wri tM cgng c gqi l nhit N nuWl+ 2
trn nhit N CuriW chUt 1D mUt trGt tK tM $ tr2 thnh thuGn tM
Cu 1B. ThI no l vt l'(u t+ )])5 n!u t.nh cht5 &:c &';) c"# vt l'(u t+ )]).
Li gii:
\Gt liu tM mQm l $Gt liu &Ot tM+ mQm $Q phkng 4in tM h9A $ @h tM+ c9 ngh[A l 4l tM h9A $ 4l @h
tM.
b T(nh chUt
\Gt liu p in c9 tM trYng 1Lo heA $ N tM h9A ch0 phw thuNc $o thnh ph!n cFA $Gt liu.
j &' tM h9A $ N @h tM cFA jc li phw thuNc $o cUu trdc cFA $Gt liu ch @hZng phPi thnh ph!n
cFA $Gt liu.
T}n hAo nng lng tM phw thuNc $o in tr2 &uUt $ n9 th0 l nghDch $%i in tr2 &uUt.
b t<c iTm
C9 N tM thm cAo
C9 N @h tM thUp.
c9 t}n hAo nng lng tM trl thUp.
4l 1D tM h9A.
Cu 1H. Pnh 6ch78 h9y trnh by t.nh cht Et &'(n v @ &'(n c"# vt l'(u.
Li gii:
nh9m $Gt liu mAng t(nh phEn cKc tK pht tc l phEn cKc ngAy cP @hi $Ong m<t in trYng c gqi l $Gt
liu &Ot in.T(nh chUtX
b trong cc $Gt liu &Ot in+ c9 tn ti mZmWn lng cKc in cFA cc nguyn t+ oZmWn lng cKc in
trong chUt &Ot in c9 N l%n cAo+ ng thYi c9 tkng tc $%i nhAu nn to rA &K @hc 1it &o $%i cc chUt
&Ot in @hc.
b N phEn cKc c xc Dnh l mGt N cFA mZmWn lng cKc in trong mNt kn $D thT t(ch. tN phEn cKc
tng thWo gi trD cFA in trYng ngoi thWo mNt hm phi tuyn t(nh+ phw thuNc $o in trYng ngoi+
hIng &' in mZi.
b S cc chUt &Ot in+ hIng &' in mZi c9 gi trD rUt l%n+ $ phw thuNc $o gi trD cFA in trYng.
b Trong $Gt liu &Ot in c9 &K phEn chiA thnh cc ZmWn &Ot in. Trong mi ZmWn &Ot in+ cc mZmWn
lng cKc &Op xp hon ton &ong &ong $%i nhAu. Trn ton $Gt+ N phEn cKc trong nhiQu ZmWn c9 thT
Dnh h%ng hn lon nhAu.
p in l hin tng @hi lKc ngoi tc 4wng ln * mfu chUt thC &K phEn cKc &inh rA $ mNt in trYng c
thit lGp trong mfu.T(nh chUtX
b Bhi Po 4Uu cFA lKc ngoi "tc l @uo chuyTn &Ang nun/ thC chiQu cFA in trYng cgng thAy }i thWo.
b \Gt liu p in c9 , hiu ng thuGn $ nghDch.
b \Gt liu p in phw thuNc $o lKc ngoi tc 4wng. nu ldc ngoi tc 4wng l mNt in trYng thC n9 1in
}i hCnh 4ng.@hi lKc ngoi tc 4wng l mNt lKc ck hqc thC n9 to rA 4eng in.
Cu 1K:^nh h<ng c"# nh'(t &3 l!n t.nh cht t+ c"# vt l'(u
_`' g'?':
:Bhi tng nhit N+4Ao Nng nhit cFA cc nguyn t trong $Gt rOn &] tng+cc mZmWn tM nguyn t &]
6uAy 4l 4ng.vo 9 @hi nhit N tng+chuyTn Nng nhit cFA cc nguyn t 4fn t%i &K Dnh h%ng
hn lon cFA mqi mZmWn tM.
:t'i $%i cc $Et liu &Ot t phPn &Ot tM $ 5Wri tM+chuyTn Nng nhit ch'ng li lKc tkng tc ghup gi3A
cc mZmWn lng cKc nguyn t gEy rA &K xp h%ng l!m lfn cFA cc lng cKc+@T cP @hi c9 tM
trYng ngoi.vo 9 tM N 1Lo heA cFA chUt &Ot tM $ 5Wri tM Qu giPm.TM N 1A heA &] cKc i 2
nhit N 8B $C @hi 9 4Ao Nng nhit l cKc tiTu.Bhi tng nhit N tM N 1Lo heA giPm 4!n $ &Au 9
twt mnh t%i @o 2 nhit N CuriW T.S nhit N Tc lKc ghup &pin $%i nhAu mUt tc 4wng $ @hi nhit
N cAo hkn Tc $Gt liu &Ot tM $ 5Wri tM Qu tr2 thnh thuGn tM.nhit N CuriW thAy }i thWo $Gt liu.\(
4wX&Ot+cZ1An+ni@Wn $ aW-i c9 gi trD tkng ng lX=_+**,8+--;+$ ;;C
:T(nh phPn &Ot tM cgng phw thuNc nhit N +n9 1in mUt 2 nhit N nWWl.CAo hkn nhit N ny $Et liu
phPn &Ot tM cgng tr2 thnh thuGn tM.
Cu 1N. Pnh 6ch78 h9y n!u -ng $Fng c"# vt l'(u t+ trong lu tra.
"Trong ti liu/
Cu 2O: ThI no l cht thun t+5 ngh7ch t+. !u &:c &';) c"# chng
nghDch tMX l * 4ng rUt yu cFA tM t(nh @hZng $[nh cu $ ch0 tn ti @hi c9 * trYng ngoi
tc 4wng.trYng cPm ng &inh rA 4o c9 &K thAy }i chuyTn Nng 6u7 o cFA in t 12i trYng
ngoi.
ThuGn tMX l nh3ng chUt c9 tM t(nh yu "trong ngnh tM hqc xp $o nh9m phi tM+ c9 ngh[A l
chUt @hZng c9 tM t(nh/. T(nh chUt thuGn tM thT hin 2 @hP nng h2ng ng thuGn thWo tM trYng ngoi+
c9 ngh[A l cc chUt ny c9 mZmWn tM nguyn t "nhng gi trD nhR/+ @hi c9 tc 4wng cFA tM trYng
ngoi+ cc mZmWn tM ny &] 1D 6uAy thWo tM trYng ngoi+ lm cho cPm ng tM t}ng cNng trong chUt
tng ln.
t<c iTmX ThuGn tM $ nghDch tM c xp $o nh9m cc chUt phi tM+ ho<c nh9m @hZng c9
trGt tK tM. tN tM thm cFA cc chUt thuGn tM l l%n hkn * nhng xUp x0 * "ch0 trnh lch c *8
b_
/. TM
t(nh yu cFA thuGn tM 4o hAi yu t' Wm liX
b oZmWn tM nguyn t
b Cc mZmWn tM nguyn t ny nhR $ hon ton @hZng tkng tc $%i nhAu.
Cc chUt thuGn tM iTn hCnh lX Zxi+ nhZm...