Odaia Baclaan- Review of a Qualitative Article: Learning on the Job: An Analysis of the Acquisition

of a Teachers Knowledge by Paul G. Schempp

1
RESEARCH CRITIQUE

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to provide a thorough review and critique of a
qualitative research related to education and to summarize the findings to
understand and evaluate its qualitative nature. The title of the research in
review is Learning on the Job: An Analysis of the Acquisition of a Teachers
Knowledge by Pau G. Schempp. This article focuses on the criteria used by
an experienced teacher, Robert Halstop, in acquiring knowledge necessary
for him to teach. Robert Bob Halstop is one of the Physical Education (PE)
teachers at Hillcrest High School and has been teaching PE for the past 14
years in this institution. Qualitative techniques; such as participant
observation, artifact and document analyses, stimulated recall using
videotaped class, and both formal and informal interviews were used by the
author. The author took notes and also kept a record of his summary
statements. Apart from Bob, the author also interviewed Kathy who is Bobs
teaching colleague and other teaching personnel. Data analysis of this study
involves summarizing of data into themes and categories using procedures
recommended by Miles and Huberman (1984) and Patton (1980). Paul
Schempp also was influenced by Shulmans (1987) theory of knowledge base
for teaching. Paul used four of Shulmans seven categories to describe the
forms of knowledge Bob acquired as he pursue his professional practice. The
four categories are subject matter, general pedagogical (which was
subsequently renamed to teaching behavior), pedagogical content and
context (which was also renamed to external conditions). Apart from these
four, Paul also added classroom organization and operation. After
synthesizing his data, Paul presented a copy of the report to Bob for his
comments and reactions. The main purpose of this step is to check the
accuracy of data (reliability) and validate the findings of the report. Additional
revisions were then made based on the responses and reactions from the
study teacher.


Odaia Baclaan- Review of a Qualitative Article: Learning on the Job: An Analysis of the Acquisition
of a Teachers Knowledge by Paul G. Schempp
2
INTRODUCTION
It has been said that the body of knowledge currently used in a profession is
of major concern to those practicing the profession and preparing future
practitioners (Schon, 1983). According to Shulman (1987) this knowledge is
of three types: content knowledge (knowledge of the subject matter to be
taught), pedagogical knowledge (knowledge of how to teach in general terms)
and, finally, pedagogical content knowledge (knowledge of how to teach that
is specific to what is being taught). Shulman (1987) further explains
pedagogical content knowledge to include knowledge of how to structure and
represent academic content for teaching; knowledge of the common
conceptions, misconceptions and difficulties that learners may have when
learning particular content and knowledge of the specific strategies that can
be used to address learners needs in particular classroom circumstances.

It is therefore, evident that the study conducted by Paul is of high importance.
As Shulman (1986) noted, important questions such as Where do teacher
explanations come from? How do teachers decide what to teach, how to
represent it and how to deal with problems of misunderstanding? have gone
unanswered. Getting an insight from this study would be beneficial to those
practicing the teaching profession.

In an article by Dimitrios Thanasoulas (2002), he argued that knowledge does
not belong to a teacher. It is rather the result of social interaction and the
meanings the teacher and the students construct together. This statement of
Dimitrios reminds of what Cochran Smith and Lytle (1999, p. 249) argued
teachers who know more teach better and that this simple idea has governed
multiple attempts to improve education through policy, research and practice,
by focusing on what teachers know, or need to know.


REVIEW OF LITERATURE
It is evident that this study has a good amount of literature review. The
researcher did not only use literature support his study, he also attempted to
write of the relevance, the authority and the currency (Study and Learning
Odaia Baclaan- Review of a Qualitative Article: Learning on the Job: An Analysis of the Acquisition
of a Teachers Knowledge by Paul G. Schempp
3
Centre) of the literatures being used. He attempted to indicate the scope and
purpose of the review and has indicated the source of literature by referencing
it accurately. Moreover, he was able to somehow use literature review to
identify gaps in existing knowledge and researches done on similar topic
areas.

One of the major issues that is evident in this research with regards to the
review of literature is that there is very little critique and analysis of
information. The researcher did not give any argument or disagreements in
any literature being reviewed.

Although he was able to identify gaps in existing knowledge and researches, it
would have been more successful if he included most recent work as part of
his review.

METHODOLOGY
The research in study uses the interpretive approach. It focuses on
analytically disclosing those meaning-making practices of a high-school
Physical Education teacher of Hillcrest High School, while showing how those
practices configure to generate observable outcomes.

Data were collected using a variety of ethnographic techniques; including
nonparticipant observations, artifact and document analysis, stimulated recall
from videotapes, and formal and informal interviews. The researcher began
collecting data two days before the start of the school and officially ended just
before the Christmas break. He mentioned that he was present in the school
on a daily basis for the first month and made field trips twice a week on
average after that. Analyzing data, however, extended to over about a year.
When analyzing data, he categorized them into themes and categories using
procedures recommended by Miles and Huberman (1984), Goetz and
LeCompte (1984) and Patton (1980). He also used the constant comparison
method of analysis of Glaser & Strauss (1967) to identify patterns and
relationships. The final step of the analytic procedure was to present a copy
of the report to the teacher for his comments and reactions.
Odaia Baclaan- Review of a Qualitative Article: Learning on the Job: An Analysis of the Acquisition
of a Teachers Knowledge by Paul G. Schempp
4

In the study conducted by Liora Bresler, she discussed two ethical issues
central to the conduct of any ethnographic research like the one done by Paul
Schempp: the representation of truth and confidentiality. The first issue is
regarding truth and reality and that they are perspectival, contextual and
multiple. Pauls observations and interpretations could be shaped by his
knowledge, beliefs and commitments.on. The second issue of confidentiality
concerns the product and its dissemination.

There was no mention of strategies used in selecting the site of research and
in gaining entry to it. It would have been interesting to know why the
researcher chose to study Bob and not Kathy.

The research site is a High School in a small, rural community called Hillcrest.
It has approximately 470 students. Two years prior to this study, this school
received an educational excellence award from the United States Department
of Education. This school has two physical education teachers; one for the
boys and one for girls.

The main participant for this study is Robert Halstop. He has taught high
school physical education classes for the past fourteen years at this school.
He has coached many sports and has been involved in numerous school
clubs, groups, and projects. His usual working days starts at 7.30 a.m. and
ends at 3.30 p.m. There was no strategies mentioned on how he was
selected.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The researcher in this study was an observer and an interviewer. He
observed, videotaped and conducted interviews to the research participant
Bob, Kathy (Bobs colleague) and other school personnel (e.g. students,
teachers, administrators).

Odaia Baclaan- Review of a Qualitative Article: Learning on the Job: An Analysis of the Acquisition
of a Teachers Knowledge by Paul G. Schempp
5
Data were collected using a variety of qualitative techniques. As mentioned a
bove, among these techniques were participant observations, artifact and
document analyses, stimulated recall using videotaped classes, and both
formal and informal interviews.

The researcher has employed strategies to ensure data trustworthiness
including triangulation of methods, member checks, disconfirming case
analyses and cultivating reactions from the case-study teacher to the themes,
categories and events to be included in the final report. Cross checking of
stories and events described by Bob was done in cases where discrepant
information occurred, Kathy often provided valuable insights.

As mentioned above (ethical issues concerning the study), the observers
observation and interpretations could be affected by his own knowledge,
beliefs and commitments.

The researcher has ensured that he could reduce being biased in data
collection by presenting a copy of the report to Bob for his comments and
reactions. This was done to check accuracy of data and validate the findings
of the report. Additional revisions were then made based on the responses
and reactions from Bob. Events contained in the report seen by Bob as either
inaccurate or threatening to confidentiality were rechecked and eliminated
where appropriate.

When analyzing the data, the researcher used five knowledge categories: (a)
classroom organization and operation, (b) teaching behaviour, (c) subject
matter, (d) pedagogical content knowledge, and (e) external conditions. The
researcher came up with these themes and categories using procedures
recommended by Miles and Huberman (1984), Goetz and LeCompte (1984)
and Patton (980). The constuction of these categories were influenced by
Shulmans (1987) theory of knowledge base for teaching.



Odaia Baclaan- Review of a Qualitative Article: Learning on the Job: An Analysis of the Acquisition
of a Teachers Knowledge by Paul G. Schempp
6
RESULTS
The researcher presented his findings based on the five categories that
emerged during the analysis of data.

Class organization and operation. Bob is comfortable in having his students
in a structured setting. He relied on practical rules and principles, routines,
and habits to guide classroom operation.

Teaching behaviour. Much of Bobs teaching behaviour was characterized by
well rehearsed, time-worn rituals.

Subject matter. There was a sense of flexibility in Bobs program. Much of
the content of the program is based on his personal understanding and
interest.

Pedagogical-Content Knowledge. Years of experience have forged a mode of
operation, a routine, which frames the knowledge Bob imparts to his students.
He seeks curricular content that fits his teaching style.

External conditions. Bob passively resisted school and state imperatives that
ran counter to his personal beliefs and his interpretation of the community
moral standards.

The researcher had in more than one occasion referred to Bob as like most
teachers and that like most teachers, he is adamant to total revamping of the
curriculum, rather, he would continue making only token modifications to
existing practice.


DISCUSSION
The researcher concluded and I quote, Bobs professional knowledge
appeared personal and idiosyncratic (Carter, 1990; Zeichner, Tabachnick, &
Densmore, 1987). Little changed in the observable practices of Bobs day-to-
Odaia Baclaan- Review of a Qualitative Article: Learning on the Job: An Analysis of the Acquisition
of a Teachers Knowledge by Paul G. Schempp
7
day activities as a teacher and he became fairly predictable in his course of
action.

There was a direct relationship between the conclusions and the initial
problem. The important questions noted by Shulman (1986) were in a way
addressed by this study. Questions such as Where do teacher explanations
come from? How do teachers decide what to teach, how to represent it and
how to deal with problems of misunderstanding? It was evident that teacher
explanations came from the content knowledge of Bob gained through
experience. He decides what to teach based on his personal perception of
his own competence, his personal interest and perceptions of his students.


REFERENCES

Bresler. L (1996). Ethical Issues in the Conduct and Communication of
Ethnographic Classroom Research. National Art Education Association.

Carter, K. (1990). Teachers knowledge and learning to teach. In W.R.
Houston (Ed.) Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (pp. 291 310).
New York: Macmillan.

Cochran-Smith, M. and Lytle, S. (1999). Relationships of knowledge and
practice: teachers learning in communities. Educational Researcher, 249.

Dimitrios Thanasoulas (2002). What do teachers bring to the teaching-
learning process? TEFL Articles.

Glaser,B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The Discovery of grounded theory:
Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago: Aldine.

Goetz, J.P., & LeCompte, M.D. (1984). Ethnography and qualitative design in
educational research. Orlando; Academic Press.

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of a Teachers Knowledge by Paul G. Schempp
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Miles, M.B., & Huberman A.M. (1984). Qualitative data analysis: A
sourcebook of new methods. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.

Patton, M. (1980). Qualitative evaluation methods. Beverly Hills: Sage
Publications

Schon, D.A. (1983). The reflective practitioner. New York: Basic Books.

Shulman, L.S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in
teaching. Educational Researcher, 15, 4-14.

Shulman, L.S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new
reform. Educational Review, 57, 1-22.

Zeichner, K. Tabachnick, R., & Densmore, K. (1987). Individual, institutional
and cultural influences on the development of teachers craft knowledge. In J.
Calderhead (Ed.) Exploring teachers thinking (pp.21-59). London: Cassell.