Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang 1

1) KH L TNG:
* Kh l tng l cht h ! h"#ng c$ch g%&a c$c 'h(n t) h *a nhau+ c, th- ./ 0ua t1ng t$c g%&a ch2ng3
* 45% h l tng th6 c, th- $' 78ng 9
: ;h1ng tr6nh tr<ng th$%9 ;34 = n>T ?> = @+A1B CD!"l3K = E+E@F l3at!D!"l3KG
- Trong bnh c hn h p khth: P = P
i
=
V
n
i
.RT
cn
P
i
= N
i
.P = .P
n
i
n
i

2) H V MI TRNG:
- H m: hH tra" I% cht J nKng lLng J5% !M% trNng3
- H kn: HH chO tra" I% nKng lLng J5% !M% trNng3
- H on n!"#: HH hMng tra" I% nh%Ht J5% !M% trNng3
* Quy c:
HH nhPn nKng lLng cQa !M% trNng nKng lLng !ang 7u R
HH nhNng nKng lLng ch" !M% trNng nKng lLng !ang 7u :
$) %I&N '(I TH)*N NGH+,H:
NSu hH chuy-n tT tr<ng th$% c(n .Ung ny Vang tr<ng th$% c(n .Ung h$c !Wt c$ch JM cXng chP! 0ua l%n t%S'
c$c tr<ng th$% c(n .Ung th6 VY .%Sn I% ny Lc gZ% l thuPn ngh[ch3 \(y l VY .%Sn I% l tng hMng c, tr"ng
thYc tS3
-) ./ %I&N '(I %0T TH)*N NGH+,H: l VY .%Sn I% Lc t%Sn hnh J5% JPn t]c $ng -3 Nh&ng 'h#n
^ng tr"ng thYc tS u l .%Sn I% .t thuPn ngh[ch3
1) HM TR2NG TH3I: l h! ! g%$ tr[ cQa n, chO 'h8 thuWc J" c$c thMng V] tr<ng th$% cQa hH+ hMng 'h8
thuWc J" nh&ng VY .%Sn I% tr5c ,3
4 789 ;34 = h! tr<ng th$%
;
1
34
1
= n3>T
1
_ ;
F
34
F
= n3>3T
F
4) NG)56N L I ,78 NHIT '9NG H:,: ;./ %I&N '(I N9I N<NG ,78 H)=
* Nhit phn ng: H \1n J[ calD!"l h"`c aD!"l
bct 1 hH n tr"ng , c, 'h#n ^ng9 aA R .d cC R 7e
Nh%Ht 'h#n ^ng cQa 'h#n ^ng ny l nh%Ht lLng tra" I% J5% !M% trNng h% a !"l A 'h#n ^ng J5% . !"l d t<"
ra c !"l C J 7 !"l e T = c"nVt3
Quy c:
Phn ng to nhit l nhng phn ng ha hc m khi xy ra h mt !i m"t l#ng n$ng l#ng %i %&ng
nhit' Nhit !#c ph(t ra )uy c mang %u *+, hay fH- .'
;h#n ^ng thu nh%Ht l nh&ng 'h#n ^ng h,a hZc ! h% *#y ra hH nhPn th! !Wt lLng nKng lLng 75% 7<ng
nh%Ht3 Nh%Ht Lc h' thu 0uy 5c !ang 7u ?RG hay fHg E3
N!"# #o #!>n!?V%nh nh%HtG K h%Hu H
V
N!"# #o #!>n! cQa !Wt cht l lLng nh%Ht Lc 'h$t ra hay thu J" tr"ng 'h#n ^ng t<" thnh !Wt !"l cht ,
tT c$c 1n cht3
4 789
/
*than ch0,
1 2
3*k,
4 /2
3*k,
H 4+567.8kal9mol
3:
3*k,
1 2
3*k,
4 3:
3
2
*l,
H 4+;<=7=kcal9mol
:
3*k,
1;93 2
3*k,
4 :
3
2
*l,
H 4 + =>7<kcal9mol
C
?than ch6G
R 1DFh
F?G
= Ch
?G
H =:Fi+BEalD!"l
N!"# ?# @!AB K h%Hu H
c
N!"# ?# @!AB cQa !Wt cht l lLng nh%Ht 'h$t ra hay thu J" tr"ng 'h#n ^ng ]t ch$y !Wt !"l cht ,
.Ung "*y 'h(n t) ly Q - t<" thnh c$c V#n 'hj! 7<ng .n J&ng nht %u %Hn chujn3
4 789
CH
B
?GRFh
F
?G

Ch
F
?GRFH
F
h H =:F1F+@EcalD!"l
V CD 1:
b$c [nh h%Hu ^ng cQa 'h#n ^ng9 Al
F
h
A?rG
R A kh
A?G
Al
F
?kh
B
G
A?rG
3 d%St9
Al
F
h
A?rG
kh
A?G
Al
F
?kh
B
G
A?rG
k%nh nh%Ht H
V
?calD!"lG :All+1 :lB+m :@F1+E
H%Hu ^ng nh%Ht cQa 'h#n ^ng l9
H = :@F1+E n ?: lB+m3AG n ?: All+1G =
V CD 2:
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang F
b$c [nh h%Hu ^ng nh%Ht cQa 'h#n ^ng9
F Ch R B H
F
H
F
h R C
F
H
m
hH
H
"
t
? calD!"l G : io+i :i@+A :AFi+o
%>" #EF AF CDnG #n! !"H InG n!"#
1= b$c [nh h%Hu ^ng cQa 'h#n ^ng ]t ch$y gluc"Vp %u %Hn t%u chujn3 d%St9
C
i
H
1F
h
i
?gluc"VpG Ch
F?G
H
F
h?lG
k%nh nh%Ht H
V
?calD!"lG :AEB+E :lB+m :i@+A
2= b$c [nh h%Hu ^ng cQa 'h#n ^ng thQy 'h(n urp thnh Ch
F
J NH
A
3 d%St9
?NH
F
G
F
Ch77?urpG H
F
h
?lG
Ch
F?77G
NH
A
?77G
k%nh nh%Ht H
V
?calD!"lG :oi+A :i@+A :l@+o :1l+A
$= Cqn t%u t]n nh%Ht lLng .Ung .a" nh%u - %u chS 1EEE g can*% cac.ua rrn tT Cah ?rrnG J C ?rrnG s
Cah ?rG R A C ?rG CaC
F
?rG R Ch ?G
H
"
V
?CD!"lG : iAm+m :ml+B : 11E+m \k9 oFom C
'AF J?: - K1LK k@MN
-= b$c [nh h%Hu ^ng nh%Ht cQa 'h#n ^ng9
C
i
H
1F
h
i
?rG R i h
F
?G i H
F
h?lG R i Ch
F
?G
H
"
V
? calD!"l G : AEB+i :i@+A :lB+B
'AF J?: - 4O1L4 k@MN
1= b$c [nh h%Hu ^ng nh%Ht cQa 'h#n ^ng9
C R FN
F
h FN
F
R Ch
F
H
"
V
? calD!"l G 1o+o : lB+B
NSu chO c, FF g N
F
h tha! g%a 'h#n ^ng th6 lLng nh%Ht g%#% 'h,ng l .a" nh%us
'AF J?: $2L-1 k@MN
O) '+NH L)*T HP..: H ?tG cQa 1 0u$ tr6nh chO 'h8 thuWc J" tr<ng th$% qu J tr<ng th$% cu]% cQa hH !
hMng 'h8 thuWc J" Nng %3
H' = HV ?V#n 'hj!G : HV ?cht quG = Hc ?cht quG : Hc ?V#n 'hj!G
H QHR

n
1
A R n
F
d n
A
C R n
B
e
T
F
H
F
H
a
H
.

n
1
A R n
F
d n
A
C R n
B
e
T
1
H
1
1= uu$ tr6nh k"lJay - V#n *ut Na
F
Ch
A
.a" gv! c$c 'h#n ^ng Vau9
CaCh
A
Cah R Ch
F
?1G

FCh
F
R

FH
F
h

R F NaCl RF NH
A
F NaHCh
A
R F NH
B
Cl ?FG
FNaHCh
A
Na
F
Ch
A
R Ch
F
R H
F
h ?AG
Cah R H
F
h

Ca?hHG
F
?BG

Ca?hHG
F
R

F NH
B
Cl CaCl
F
R F NH
A
R

FH
F
h ?mG
M= b$c [nh .%Sn th%n pntan'% ch" !w% 'h#n ^ng trn3
S= b$c [nh .%Sn th%n pntan'% ch" t"n .W 0u$ tr6nh3
@= 4%St 'h1ng tr6nh .%-u 7%xn 'h#n ^ng tIng cWng3
C= b$c [nh yH cQa 'h#n ^ng tIng cWng+ V" V$nh J5% c(u .3
Ch"9
Cht H
"
V+Fl@
?C D !"lG Cht H
"
V+Fl@
?C D !"lG
CaCh
A
?rG :1FEo+E@ NH
A
?G : Bi+1l
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang A
Cah ?rG : iAm+mm NaHCh
A
?rG : o1E+BB
Ch
F
?G :AlA+m1 NH
B
Cl?rG : A1m+Al
H
F
h ?lG :F@m+@m Na
F
Ch
A
?rG : 1BAE+El
NaCl ?rG : B1E+ll CaCl
F
?rG :olB+li
Ca?hHG
F
?rG : l@i+ml
'.
M= Tnh H
"
'
thp" V%nh nh%Ht9
H
"
'

?1G
= 1o@+EF C
H
"
'

?FG
= FF1+BF C
H
"
'

?AG
= : i@@+mo C
H
"
'

?BG
= : im+1l C
H
"
'

?mG
= 1m@+AA C
S= H
"
'

?tIngG
= H
"
' ?1G
R H
"
' ?FG
R H
"
'

?AG
R H
"
'

?BG
R H
"
'

?mG
= :1lm+ll C
@= CaCh
A
R F NaCl CaCl
F
R Na
F
Ch
A
?iG

C= H
"
'

?iG
= :1lm+ll C = H
"
'

?tIngG
%>" #EF AF CDnG Tn! NHE# HP..
1= Tnh h%Hu ^ng nh%Ht cQa 'h#n ^ng9
Cah R Ch
F
CaCh
A
?aG+ H
"
Ch"9
Ca R ?1DFG h
F
Cah ?1G+ H
"
1
= : 1mF+AA cal
C R h
F
Ch
F
?FG+ H
"
F
= : lB+BB cal
C R Ca R ?ADFG h
F
CaCh
A
?AG+ H
"
A
= : F@i+oo cal
?Trch V$ch d% tP' h,a hZc <% c1ng cQa e1ng 4Kn \#!G
G"R":
Thp" [nh luPt HpVV ta c, V1 v9

Thp" V1 v trn+ ta c,9 H
"
A
= H
"
1
R

H
"
F
R

H
"
=g H
"
= H
"
A
:

H
"
F
:

H
"
1
= : BE cal
2= Tnh h%Hu ^ng nh%Ht cQa 'h#n ^ng pVtp h,a a*%t "*al%c J rLu !ptyl%c3 Ch"9
?ChhHG
F
R ?1DFG h
F
F Ch
F
R H
F
h ?1G + H
"
1
= : BE+lm cal
CH
A
hH R ?ADFGh
F
Ch
F
R FH
F
h ?FG + H
"
F
= : 1oB+Eo cal
?ChhCH
A
G
F
R ?oDFG h
F

B

Ch
F
R AH
F
h ?AG + H
"
A
= : A@F+io cal
G"R":
?ChhHG
F
R F CH
A
hH ?ChhCH
A
G
F
R FH
F
h

?.G +

H
"

C R Ca R ?ADFG h
F

CaCh
A
H
"
A
H
"
1
Cah+
Ch
F
H
"
F
H
"
?ChhHG
F
R F CH
A
hH ?ChhCH
A
G
F
R FH
F
h
H
"
H
"
1
R FH
"
F

B

Ch
F
R mH
F
h


R ?oDFGh
F
H
"
A

R ?oDFGh
F
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang B
Thp" [nh luPt HpVV ta c, V1 v9
Thp" V1 v trn+ ta c,9 H
"
A
R H
"
= H
"
1
R F

H
"
F

=g H
"
=

F

H
"
F
R

H
"
1
: H
"
A
= : i+BF cal
$= b$c [nh V%nh nh%Ht cQa a*pt%lpn nSu .%St th%u nh%Ht cQa n, l nA1A+i cal J V%nh nh%Ht cQa H
F
h J Ch
F
t1ng ^ng
.Ung n i@+A cal J n lB+B cal3
G"R":
Cqn tnh h%Hu ^ng nh%Ht cQa 'h#n ^ng9
F C R H
F
C
F
H
F
?cG+ H
"

Thp" .% ta c, 9
C
F
H
F
R ?mDFGh
F
F Ch
F
R H
F
h ?1G+ H
"
t?CFHFG
= : A1A+i cal
C R h
F
Ch
F
?FG+ H
"
V?ChFG
= : lB+BB cal
H
F
R ?1DFGh
F
H
F
h ?AG+ H
"
V?HFhG
= : i@+A cal
;h#n ^ng ?FG+?AG ch" H
"
t
?CG = : lB+BB cal J H
"
t
?H
F
G = : i@+A cal
Tnh H
"
thp" th%u nh%Ht9
H
"
= H
"
t
?H
F
G

R F H
"
t
?CG :

H
"
t
?C
F
H
F
G

= mi+BF cal

-= b$c [nh V%nh nh%Ht chujn Fm
"
C cQa 'r"'an %u %Hn zng $'+ zng tch3 d%St th%u nh%Ht cQa n, l n FFFE CD!"l J
V%nh nh%Ht cQa H
F
h J Ch
F
t1ng ^ng .Ung n F@i CD!"l J n AlA+m CD!"l3
G"R":
Cqn tnh h%Hu ^ng nh%Ht cQa 'h#n ^ng9
A C R B H
F
C
A
H
@
H
"

Thp" .% ta c, 9
C
A
H
@
R mh
F
A Ch
F
R B H
F
h ?1G+ H
"
t
?C
A
H
@
G = : FFFE CD!"l
H
F
R ?1DFGh
F
H
F
h

?FG+ H
"
V
?H
F
hG

= : F@i CD!"l
C R h
F
Ch
F
?AG+ H
"
V
?Ch
F
G = : AlA+m CD!"l
;h#n ^ng ?FG+?AG ch" H
"
t
?H
F
G = : F@i CD!"l
H
"
t
?CG = : AlA+m CD!"l
: { %u %Hn zng $'9
Tnh H
"
thp" th%u nh%Ht9
H
"
= BH
"
t
?H
F
G

R AH
"
t
?CG : H
"
t
?C
A
H
@
G

= : 1EB+m C
: { %u %Hn zng tch9
H
"
= t
"
R n >T =g t
"
= H
"
: n >T
= :1EB+m n ?1 : BG3@+A1B3?1E : AG3l@ = : lo+1 C
1= b$c [nh nKng lLng !<ng l5% t%nh th- cQa NaCl ?rG+ .%St9 ?nKng lLng chuy-n NaCl
?rG
thnh NaCl
?h1%G
G
: Nh%Ht thKng h"a cQa Na9 Na ?rG Na ?G+ H
1

= 1E@+o CD!"l
: Nh%Ht 'h(n l% cQa Cl
F
9 Cl
F
?G F Cl ?G+ H
F

= FBB+A CD!"l
: NKng lLng %"n h,a cQa Na9 Na ?G Na
R
?G R p+ H
A

= mEF CD!"l
: |% lYc J5% plpctr"n cQa Cl"9 Cl ?G R p Cl
:
?G+ H
B

= : AoE+F CD!"l
: Nh%Ht cQa 'h#n ^ng9 Na ?rG R?1DFG Cl
F
?G NaCl ?rG+ H
m

= : B1E+@ CD!"l
\V9 ooA+Bm CD!"l

4= b$c [nh nKng lLng !<ng l5% t%nh th- cQa daCl
F
tT ha% l"<% 7& %Hn Vau9
M= : k%nh nh%Ht cQa daCl
F
t%nh th-9 :@iE+FA CD!"l ?H
1
G

: Nh%Ht 'h(n l% cQa Cl
F
9 FA@+Bl CD!"l ?H
F
G
: Nh%Ht thKng h"a cQa da %! l"<%9 1lF+Bi CD!"l ?H
A
G
: ThS %"n h,a th^ nht+ th^ ha% cQa da9 mE1+FB CD!"l ?I
1
G_ liF+AF CD!"l ?I
F
G \V9 FEAl+F@ CD!"l
: |% lYc J5% plpctr"n cQa Cl"9 :Amo+oA CD!"l

?H
B
G

S= : Nh%Ht h}a tan cQa daCl
F
9

:1E+1o CD!"l

?H
m
G

: Nh%Ht h%7rat h,a cQa %"n da
FR
9 :1ABA+l@ CD!"l

?H
i
G

: Nh%Ht h%7rat h,a cQa %"n Cl
:
9 :AiF+l@ CD!"l

?H
o
G

\V9 FEml+oo CD !"l
o3 Tnh nKng lLng !<ng l5% cQa ~ph ?ttG 7Ya J" c$c V] l%Hu Vau9
: ntan'% nguyn t) h,a cQa ~p ?ttG l BEB CD!"l3
: NKng lLng %"n h,a th^ nht+ th^ ha% cQa ~p9 oi1 CD!"l_ 1mml CD!"l
: NKng lLng l%n St tr"ng 'h(n t) h
F
l BlB CD!"l3
: NKng lLng grn St plpctr"n th^ nht J th^ ha% cQa "*% l n 1BF J o@E CD!"l3
: ntan'% t<" thnh cQa ~ph ?ttG l n FoA CD!"l3
\V9 A@@F CD!"l
K) PNTRUVI ;.)
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang m
: Tr"ng VY .%Sn I% thuPn ngh[ch JM cXng nh/ T = c"nVt hH tra" I% J5% !M% trNng !Wt lLng nh%Ht u
TN
th6 VY .%Sn
th%n pntr"'% tr"ng 0u$ tr6nh ny l9 7
k
=
T
Q
TN

k l h! tr<ng th$% ?CD!"l3KG

: NSu VY .%Sn I% l .t thuPn ngh[ch th6 7
k
g
T
Q
TN

: 46 l h! tr<ng th$% nn h% chuyn tT tr<ng th$% 1 Vang tr<ng th$% F .Ung .%Sn th%n thuPn ngh[ch hay .t thuPn ngh[ch
th6 k
F
: k
1
= k =

F
1
T
Q
TN

?k
TN
= k
dTN
G
W) NG)56N L II ,78 NHIT '9NG H:,:
7k
T
Q
: Tr"ng hH cM lP' u = E3 nn9
R 7k = E9 tr"ng hH cM lP' pntr"'% cQa hH hMng I% nSu *#y ra 0u$ tr6nh thuPn ngh[ch3
R 7k g E 9 tr"ng hH cM lP'+ 0u$ tr6nh tY *#y ra ?dTNG thp" ch%u tKng pntr"'% cQa hH J tKng ch" t5% h% <t g%$ tr[ !a* th6
hH V <t tr<ng th$% c(n .Ung3
* ntr"'% l th5c " W hwn Wn cQa hH9 \W hwn Wn cQa 1 hH hay 1 cht cng l5n h% hH hay cht , gv! nh&ng h<t J
VY 7a" Wng cQa c$c h<t cng !<nh ?h% l%n St g%&a c$c h<t cng ySuG3
4e9 k k k
k k k
H
F
?G h
F
?G h
A
?G
H
F
h?rG
H
F
h ?lG
H
F
h ?hG
k l 1 <% lLng 7ung W3
1X) ./ %I&N THI6N . TRUNG Q)3 TRYNH %I&N '(I TR2NG TH3I ,78 ,H0T:
Kh% cht nguyn cht n,ng ch#y h"`c VM% ; = c"nVt th69
T = c"nVt k =

F
1
T
Q
=
T
H
H = nh%Ht .%Sn th%n tr<ng th$% =
nDc
h"`c
h
11) . TRUNG Q)3 TRYNH GIZN N '[NG NHIT KH L TNG:
bct n !"l h l tng g%n n th- tch tT 4
1
4
F
t
"
= c"nVt3 46 nW% nKng cQa h l tng chO 'h8 thuWc nh%Ht W nn
tr"ng VY .%Sn I% ny9
t = u
TN
R
TN
= u
dTN
R
dTN
= E
u
TN
= :
TN
= n>T3 ln
1
F
V
V
? = :?: ;3 4G = dV
V
nRT
3
F
1

G3
T = c"nVt k =
T
Q
TN
= n>ln
1
F
V
V
= n3>3ln
F
1
P
P
12) ./ %I&N THI6N PNTRUVI ,78 ,H0T NG)56N ,H0T THPU NHIT '9=
: uu$ tr6nh ; = c"nVt9 \un n,ng 1 cht nguyn cht tT T
1
T
F
+ hMng c, VY chuy-n 'ha9
k =

F
1
T
T
TN
T
Q
45% u = u
;
= 7H = n3C
;
37T
k =
T
dT
C n
T
T
P
3 3
F
1

* Tr"ng h"#ng nh%Ht W h'+ c"% C

;
= c"nVt k = n3C
;
3ln
1
F
T
T
: uu$ tr6nh9 4 = c"nVt k = n 3C
4
3ln
1
F
T
T
1$) PNTRUVI T)5T '\I
] NGHB^n N III @_M n!"# `nG !a@:
: ntr"'% cQa cht nguyn cht 75% 7<ng t%nh th- h"n chOnh E?KG .Ung E9 k
?T = EG
= E
* but 'h$t tT t%n trn ta c, th- tnh Lc pntr"'% tuyHt ]% cQa c$c cht c$c nh%Ht W h$c nhau3
4e9 Tnh k cQa 1 cht nh%Ht W T n" ,+ ta h6nh 7ung cht , Lc un n,ng tT E?KG T?KG *ct ;=c"nVt3 NSu tr"ng
0u$ tr6nh un n,ng c, VY chuy-n 'ha th69
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang i
k = k
T
: k
?T = EG
= k
T
=

m
1 i
i
S
k
T
=
T
dT
C n
T
L
n
T
dT
C n
T
L
n
T
dT
C n
T
T
h P
S
S
T
T
l P
nc
nc
T
r P
S
S
nc
nc
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
G ? G ?
E
G ?
1

+ + + +
%$ tr[ pntr"'% Lc *$c [nh ; = 1 at! = c"nVt J nh%Ht W T n" , Lc
gZ% l g%$ tr[ pntr"'% chujn+ h%Hu l k
E
T
+ thNng T = Fl@K k
E
Fl@
1-) ./ %I&N THI6N PNTRUVI TRUNG VHbN cNG HU3 H:,:
R Kh% 'h#n ^ng thYc h%Hn ; = c"nVt+ T = c"nVt th69 k = k?V'G : k?tDcG
R NSu %u %Hn chujn J Fm
E
C th69 k
E
Fl@
= k
E
Fl@
?V'G : k
E
Fl@
?tDcG
R 46 k cQa cht h gg cht rrn+ l/ng nn nSu V] !"l h V#n 'hj! ?V'G g V] !"l
h tha! g%a th6 k g E J ngLc l<%3 C}n tr"ng trNng hL' V] !"l h F JS
.Ung nhau h"`c 'h#n ^ng hMng c, cht h th6 k c, g%$ tr[ nh/3
11) TH& NHIT '9NG
M)T!d enG AF G:
bct hH *#y ra VY .%Sn I% ;+ T u hMng I% tr"ng 0u$ tr6nh ny !M% trNng nhPn cQa hH !Wt nh%Ht lLng H
!t
7" hH
t"# ra H
!t
= : H
hH
= : H
k
!t
= :
T
H
R \%u %Hn tY 7%xn .%Sn cQa hH9
k
cM lP'
= k
hH
:
T
H
g E H n T3 k E
R HH tr<ng th$% c(n .Ung h% H n T3 k = E
R \`t = H n Tk nh%Ht W+ ; hMng I% th6 fHA #ghn! iRB gM #!jo @!"kH @l
= H n T3 k E
4 <t t5% tr<ng th$% c(n .Ung h% = E3
14) M9T .\ TNH ,H0T ,78 HM G:
7 = 437; n k7T ? c"% = EG
M) .m F!D #!H`@ @_M G n>o T:

dT
T
G
T
G
T
G
T
T
T T
3
F
1
1 F
F
1 F

NSu c"% H
"
hMng 'h8 thuWc J" nh%Ht W th69
,
_

Fl@
1 1
Fl@
Fl@
T
H
G
T
G
o
o
T
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V
P
G
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,
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( ) ( )


F
1
1
F
1
F
3 3
F
1
P
P
P T
P
P
P T
dP V G G dP V dG
: 45% cht rrn+ l/ng c"% 4 = c"nVt h% ; .%Sn th%n ?trT !%n $' Vut l5nG th69
( ) ( )
G ?
1 F
1 F
P P V G G
P T P T
+
: 45% cht h l tng 4 =
P
nRT

( ) ( )
1
F
ln 3
1 F
P
P
nRT G G
P T P T
+
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1
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"
= 1.ar ?1 at!G
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=
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T
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1
F
P
P
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F
1
V
V
S) Tg`n Nrn enG n!"#L enG AF 2 k! N #qnG:
= n
A
3>Tln*
A
R n
d
3>Tln*
d
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c
= E
C) QHA #ghn! @!HBsn F!M #!HEn nG!T@! T T
@t
Nguyn trc9 $' 78ng chu tr6nh nh%Ht Wng3 46 l h! tr<ng th$% nn chO 'h8 thuWc tr<ng th$% qu+ tr<ng th$% cu]%+
hMng 'h8 thuWc J" 0u$ tr6nh .%Sn th%n3
j) G @_M F!Rn InG !oA !a@:
"
'
=
"
k?V#n 'hj!G
:
"
k?tha! g%aG
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang o
1=
Ch" 'h#n ^ng9 CaCh
A
Cah R Ch
F

CaCh
A
Cah Ch
F
k%nh nh%Ht H
V
?calD!"lG :F@@+m :1m1+l :lB+1
ntr"'% k ?calD!"l3
"
KG FF+F l+m m1+1
b$c [nh ch%u tY *#y cQa 'h#n ^ng ? tcG3
b$c [nh nh%Ht W t<% , CaCh
A
.[ 'h(n hQy3
2=
Tnh .%Sn th%n nKng lLng tY 7" chujn ?G

cQa 'h#n ^ng trXng ngng ha% 'h(n t) a*t a!%n9
e lpuc%n R glyc%n e lpucylglyc%n R H
F
h
d%St9 e lpuc%n lyc%n e lpucylglyc%n H
F
h
k%nh nh%Ht H
V
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ntr"'% k ?calD!"lG Bl+m F1+i io+F 1i+o
b$c [nh ch%u tY *#y cQa 'h#n ^ng ? tcG3
$=
Tnh .%Sn th%n nKng lLng tY 7" chujn ?G

cQa 'h#n ^ng9
~u!arat R H
F
h alpat d%St9
~u!arat H
F
h alpat
NKng lLng tY 7"

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-=
;h#n ^ng nh[ hL' Nh
F
9 FNh
F

?G
N
F
h
B

?G
d%St H
E
k
?calD!"lG 9 @+El1 F+AEl
k
E
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n1
3K
n1
G 9 mo+F oF+F
n Tnh .%Sn th%n nKng lLng tY 7" cQa ' E
E
C J 1EE
E
C3 Ch" .%St ch%u tY 7%xn .%Sn t<% nh&ng nh%Ht W ,3
n b nh%Ht W n" th6 = E s b$c [nh ch%u cQa 'h#n ^ng nh%Ht W ca" h1n J th' h1n nh%Ht W ,3
%# th%St H J k cQa c$c cht thay I% thp" nh%Ht W hMng $ng -3
G"R"
{ %u %Hn chujn ?1 at! J Fm
E
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H
E
'
=
F B
E
k?N h G
H n F
F
E
k? Nh G
H = FAEl n F3@El1 = n1A@oA ?calD!"lG33
k
E
'
=
F B
E
? N h G
k n F
F
E
? Nh G
k = oF+o n F3mo+m = nBF+F ?cal3!"l
n1
3K
n1
G 3
|' 78ng 9
E
T
= H
E
'
n Tk
E
'
- tnh c$c nh%Ht W h$c nhau3 ?46 H
E
J k
E
.%Sn th%n hMng $ng - thp" nh%Ht
W+ nn c, th- V) 78ng - tnh c$c nh%Ht W h$c nhau thp" cMng th^c nu ra3G
aG { E
E
C+ t^c FoAK 9
E
FoA
= n1A@oA R BF+F3FoA = nFAmF ?calD!"lG

E
FoA
E+ JPy nh%Ht W ny 'h#n ^ng 7%xn ra thp" ch%u thuPn.G
{ 1EE
E
C+ t^c AoAK 9
E
AoA
= n1A@oA R BF+F3AoA = R1@i@ ?calD!"lG g E
4Py 'h#n ^ng l2c ny 7%xn ra thp" ch%u ngh[ch
cG Kh% 'h#n ^ng <t tr<ng th$% c(n .Ung nh%Ht W T n" , th6
E
T
= E3
Kh% , 9 n1A@oA R BF+F3T = E
T =
1A@oA
BF+ F
= AFl ?KG hay mi
E
C { nh%Ht W t g mi
E
C ?hay T g AFlKG th6 9

E
T
= n1A@oA R BF+FT g E+ 'h#n ^ng 7%xn ra thp" ch%u ngh[ch
{ nh%Ht W t mi
E
C ?hay T AFlKG th6 9

E
T
= n1A@oA R BF+FT E+ 'h#n ^ng 7%xn ra thp" ch%u thuPn
%>" 1: Tnh
E
tr"ng VY h6nh thnh 1!"l n5c l/ng3 d%St c$c g%$ tr[ pntr"'% chujn cQa H
F
_ h
F
J H
F
h lqn lLt .Ung
1AE+i@B_ FEm+1A@ J il+lE1 CDK3!"l J H
E
cQa VY h6nh thnh n5c l/ng .Ung :F@m+@A CD!"l3
%>" 4: Tnh k
E
Fl@
+ H
E
Fl@
J
E
Fl@
]% J5% 0u$ tr6nh 'h(n hQy nh%Ht CaCh
A
+ .%St9
CaCh
A
Cah R Ch
F
?*G
k
E
Fl@
?CDK3!"lG RlF+l A@+1 F1A+o
H
E
ht
?CD!"lG : 1FEi+lE :iAm+1E :AlA+mE
%>" O: T<% nh%Ht W n" , VY chuy-n 1!"l n5c l/ng thnh h1% n5c $' Vut h 0uy-n 1at! l !Wt 0u$ tr6nh tY 7%xn
.%Sn3 d%St nh%Ht h,a h1% 1!"l n5c l/ng .Ung BEm@o+@E C J .%Sn th%n pntr"'% cQa VY chuy-n tr<ng th$% ny .Ung 1E@+i@
CDK3!"l3
%>" K:\]% J5% 'h#n ^ng9 Ch?G R H
F
h?G = Ch
F
?G R H
F
?G
Ch" .%St nh&ng g%$ tr[ cQa .%Sn th%n pntan'% J .%Sn th%n pntr"'% chujn AEEK J 1FEEK nh Vau9
H
E
AEEK
= :B1+1i CD!"l H
E
1FEEK
= :AF+lA CD!"l
k
E
AEEK
= :BF+BE CDK3!"l k
E
1FEEK
= :Fl+i CDK3!"l
H/% 'h#n ^ng tY 7%xn .%Sn thp" ch%u n" AEEK J 1FEEKs
%>" #EF #m G"R":
%>" 1: Tnh
E
AoA
cQa 'h#n ^ng9 CH
B
R H
F
h?G = Ch R AH
F
3 d%St9
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang @
Nh%Ht h6nh thnh chujn H
E
ht Fl@
cQa CH
B
+ H
F
h?G J Ch lqn lLt .Ung :oB+@_ :FB1+@ J :11E+m CD!"l3 ntr"'% chujn cQa
CH
B
+ H
F
h?G J Ch lqn lLt .Ung 1@i+F_ 1@@+o J 1lo+i CDK3!"l ?Tr"ng tnh t"$n g%# th%St rUng H
E
J k
E
hMng 'h8
thuWc TG3
M= TT g%$ tr[
E
t6! Lc c, th- St luPn g6 J h# nKng tY 7%xn .%Sn cQa 'h#n ^ng AoAK3
S= T<% nh%Ht W n" th6 'h#n ^ng ch" tY *#y ra %u %Hn chujn3
'AF J?: M= G
X
u 1L24=1X
1
vwmoNx S= T y W41K
%>" 2: Tnh
E
cQa VY Mng `c :m
E
C ]% J5% n5c l/ng chP! Mng+ .%St rUng k
E
cQa 0u$ tr6nh ny .Ung F1+A
CDK3!"l J H
E
= :m+@ CD!"l t<% nh%Ht W :m
E
C3 TT St 0u# t6! Lc+ hy ch" .%St J J%Hc c, hay hMng tr<ng th$% c(n
.Ung g%&a n5c l/ng J n5c $ :m
E
C3
'AF J?: G
X
u -W2 vwmoN
%>" $: bct 0u$ tr6nh n,ng ch#y cQa n5c $ E
E
C J 1at! ta c, c$c 7& %Hn Vau (y9
H
nc
?H
F
h+ E
E
C+ 1at!G = i+EE@ CD!"l
C
'
?H
F
h+ rG = Ao+FA@ CDK3!"l
C
'
?H
F
h+ lG = om+A1F CDK3!"l
Hy *$c [nh .%Sn th%n pntan'% H+ .%Sn th%n pntr"'% k J .%Sn th%n cQa hH tr"ng 0u$ tr6nh trn nhng *#y ra
zng $' t<% 1 at! J :1E
E
C3
'AF J?: H
24$K
u 1L42O kvwmoNx .
24$K
u 2XL1-$ vwK=moNx G
24$K
u 222 vwmoN
%>" -: T<% nh%Ht W :m
E
C J $' Vut h1% ." h}a trn .pnpn rrn .Ung 1o+1 !!Hg J $' Vut h1% ." h}a trn .pnpn
l/ng chP! Mng .Ung 1l+@ !!Hg3 Tnh .%Sn th%n h! %'*" cQa tr"ng 0u$ tr6nh h,a rrn 1!"l .pnpn l/ng chP!
Mng t<% nh%Ht W ch" trn3 H1% .pnpn Lc ch' nhPn l h l tng3
'AF J?: G u -$24LOO vwmoN
%>" 1: ntr"'% cQa n%t"+ "*% J "*%t n%t" nh%Ht W Fm
E
C J $' Vut 1at! lqn lLt .Ung 1l1+mB CDK3!"l_ FEm+Fo CDK3!"l
J F1E+iF CDK3!"l3 Hy *$c [nh .%Sn th%n h! %'*" nh%Ht W FEE
E
C J $' Vut 1at! ]% J5% 'h#n ^ng9
1DFN
F
R 1DFh
F
= Nh
d%St rUng $' Vut ch"
Fl@
= @i+BB1 CD!"l3 Ch' nhPn rUng t]c W thay I% cQa thp" T tr"ng h"#ng nh%Ht W
tT Fl@K Sn BoAK l hMng $ng -3
'AF J?: K-L$X$ kvwmoN
%>" 4: { nh%Ht W Fm
E
C pntr"'% cQa lu hunh r"!.%c .Ung A1+@@F CDK3ntg J pntr"'% cQa lu hunh 1n t .Ung
AF+mmF CDK3ntg3 Th%t nh%Ht cQa ch2ng t1ng ^ng .Ung :Fli+@1A CD!"l J :Flo+1B@ CD!"l3 Hy *$c [nh J ~
tr"ng 0u$ tr6nh9 k
r"!.%c
k
1n t
3 Tr"ng tnh t"$n ch" 'hc' ./ 0ua VY h$c nhau g%&a tO h]% cQa F 7<ng lu hunh n,% trn3
TT St 0u# thu Lc c, th- St luPn tr"ng %u %Hn ch" g%&a F 7<ng lu hunh n,% trn+ 7<ng n" .n h1ns
?Trch tr"ng V$ch d% tP' h,a l cQa Trqn H%H' H#%G
'AF J?: G
2WK

z
2WK
u 1$1L2 vwmoNx G
2WK
y XL nEB 21
X
, .
gomS"@
Skn !{n=
%>" O: Nh%Ht n,ng ch#y cQa n5c $ E
E
C .Ung AAA+Bi CDg3 TO nh%Ht cQa n5c $ J n5c l/ng lqn lLt .Ung F+EE@
CDK3g J B+1@B CDK3g3 Tnh h% l! Mng `c 1!"l n5c nh%Ht W :m
E
C3
'AF J?: 1L-O$ vwmoN
%>" K: { Fm
E
C pntr"'% cQa 1 nguyn t) ga! than ch6 .Ung m+BB CDK3ntg J cQa %! c1ng .Ung F+m1 CDK3ntg3 d%Sn
th%n pntan'% ]t ch$y cQa %! c1ng l5n h1n .%Sn th%n pntan'% ]t than ch6 l B1@+B CDntg3 Tnh cQa 0u$ tr6nh9
C
than ch6
C
%! c1ng
'AF J?: -1-L$K2 vwn#G
%>" W: Ch" 1!"l n5c $ E
E
C J 1at! chuy-n zng $' thnh h1% n5c 1EE
E
C3 d%St rUng nh%Ht n,ng ch#y cQa n5c
$ E
E
C J 1at! l H
nc
= AAB+oF CDg_ nh%Ht h,a h1% cQa n5c l/ng 1EE
E
C J 1at! l H
hh
= FFA@+BB CDg_ nh%Ht 7ung
zng $' cQa n5c l/ng tr"ng h"#ng nh%Ht W ch" Lc ch' nhPn hMng I% J .Ung om+A1F CDK3!"l_ g%$ tr[ trung .6nh
pntr"'% cQa n5c l/ng cXng tr"ng h"#ng nh%Ht W , Lc ch' nhPn .Ung g%$ tr[ pntr"'% t%u chujn cQa n5c l/ng Fm
E
C
t^c l9 k?H
F
h+lG = k
E
Fl@
?H
F
h+lG = il+@oA CDK3!"l3
Tnh H+ k J cQa hH tr"ng 0u$ tr6nh ch"3
'AF J?: H u 1$LK-K kvwmoNx . u 11$L1W1 vwK=moNx G u -4LWKO kvwmoN
G"R" S>" 1
;h1ng tr6nh 'h#n ^ng9 H
F
R 1DFh
F
= H
F
h
Ta c,9
E
= H
E
n T3 k
E
Tr"ng ,9 k
E
= k
E
?H
F
hG n k
E
?H
F
G n 1DFk
E
?h
F
G
= il+lE1 n 1AE+i@B :1DF3FEm+1A@ = :1iA+Am CDK3!"l
=g
E
= :F@m+@A31E
A
n Fl@3?:1iA+AmG = FAo1m1+o CD!"l = FAo+1mF CD!"l
G"R" S>" 4
Thp" 'h1ng tr6nh 'h#n ^ng ?*G ta tnh Lc9
k
E
= k
E
?CahG R k
E
?Ch
F
G n k
E
?CaCh
A
G
= A@+1 R F1A+o n lF+l = 1m@+l CDK3!"l
H
E

= H
E
ht
?CahG RH
E
ht
?Ch
F
G : H
E
ht
?CaCh
A
G
= ?:iAm+1EG R ?:AlA+mEG n ?:1FEi+lEG = 1o@+AE CD!"l
=g
E
Fl@
= H
E
Fl@
n T3 k
E
Fl@
= 1o@+AE n Fl@31m@+l31E
:A
= 1AE+lm CD!"l

E
Fl@
gE ch^ng t/ Fm
E
C J 1at! VY nh%Ht 'h(n CaCh
A
hMng *#y ra Lc3
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang l
G"R" S>" O
T%u chujn $nh g%$ ch%u h5ng tY 7%xn .%Sn cQa c$c 0u$ tr6nh *#y ra %u %Hn zng nh%Ht+ zng $' l nKng lLng tY 7"
9 = H n T3k
= H n T3 k ]% J5% 0u$ tr6nh zng nh%Ht3
Kh% .ay h1% cQa n5c ; = 1at!9
H
F
h ?lG = H
F
h ?hG
H = BEm@o+@E C
k = 1E@+i@ CDK3!"l
=g = BEm@o+@E n T3 1E@+i@
Hy t6! nh%Ht W t<% , c(n .Ung l/ng n h1% cQa n5c3 u]n JPy hy ch" = E 7" ,9 BEm@o+@E n T3 1E@+i@ = E =g T =
AoA+BiK
\(y l nh%Ht W VM% cQa n5c3 \%u %Hn - n5c l/ng chuy-n thnh h1% chO *#y ra thp" !Wt ch%u th6 E3 \%u ny V
th/a !n nSu T g BEm@o+@ED1E@+i@ = AoA+BiK3
G"R" S>" K Tnh
E
F nh%Ht W 7Ya J" hH th^c9
E
= H
E
n T3 k
E
{ AEEK9
E
AEEK
= ?:B1+1i31E
A
G n AEE3?:BF+BEG = :F@BBE CD!"l
{ 1FEEK9
E
1FEEK
= ?:AF+lA31E
A
G n 1FEE3?:Fl+iG = FmlE CD!"l
KSt luPn
E
AEEK
E JPy 'h#n ^ng ch" tY *#y ra AEEK thp" ch%u thuPn+ V"ng 1FEEK
E
1FEEK
g E 'h#n ^ng tY
7%xn .%Sn thp" ch%u ngh[ch3
% - H TH\NG ,3, ,|) H}I V %I T*V VH~N NHIT H8 H:, :
%>" 1:
Ch" 1EE g N
F
E
"
C+ 1at!3 Tnh u+ + t+ H tr"ng c$c .%Sn I% Vau (y Lc t%Sn hnh thuPn ngh[ch nh%Ht Wng9
aG Nung n,ng zng tch t5% ; = 1+mat!3
.G %n zng $' t5% 4 = F4 .an qu3
cG %n zng nh%Ht t5% 4 = FEEl
7G %n "<n nh%Ht t5% 4 = FEEl
Ch' nhPn rUng N
F
l h l tng J nh%Ht 7ung zng $' hMng I% tr"ng 0u$ tr6nh th ngh%H! J .Ung Fl+1CD!"l3K
?ii
aG 4 = c"nVt =

E 3dV P
t = u4 = n
V
C 3T = ?
P C
: >G3?T
F
n T
1
G 3n
= ?
P C
: >G3?
1
F
P
P
:1G3T
1
3n = ?Fl+1 : @+A1BG3? G 1
1
m + 1
3FoA+1m = 1B1lB+EB?CG
.G 4
"
= G ? @E B + FF 3
F@
1EE
l 4= F4
"
= 1iE ?lG
= :;3 4 = :1?1iE n @EG = :@E ?l3atG = :@E 31E1+AA = :@1Ei+B?CG
u
;
= H =
P C
3n 3T =

,
_

1 1
1
F
3 3 1 + Fl 3
F@
1EE
T T
V
V
= Fl+13
F@
1EE
?F3FoA+1m n FoA+1mG = F@A@@+1?CG
t = u R = F@A@@+1 = @1Ei+B = FEF@1+o?CG
cG T = c"nVt t = E_ H = E
= :

F
1
3
V
dV
nRT = : n>T3ln
1
F
V
V
= :
F@
1EE
3@+A1B 3FoA+1m3ln
@E
FEE
= :oBA1+io?CG
t = u R = E u = : = oBA1+io?CG
7G u = E ?k = c"nVtG
Thp" ;T '"%VV"n9 T
1
3 4
1
1

= T
F
3 4
1
F

T
F
= T
1
3?
F
1
V
V
G
:1
45% B + 1
A1B + @ 1 + Fl
1 + Fl

+

P
P
V
P
C R
C
C
C

= t = n3
V
C ?T
F
nT
1
G =
F@
1EE
?Fl+1:@+A1BG3?1@l+AA :FoA+1mG = iFFF+B?CG
H = n
P
C 3T =
F@
1EE
3Fl+1?1@l+AA n FoA+1mG = : @o11+A?CG
%>" 2:
Tnh
o
S
H
Fl@ +
cQa Cl
:
?a0G
3 d%St9
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang 1E
?aG9
F
1
H
F
R
F
1
Cl
F?G
HCl
?G

o
S
H
Fl@ +
= :lF+F?CG
?.G9 HCl
?G
R a0 H
R
?a0G
R Cl
:
?a0G

o
S
H
Fl@ +
= :om+1A?CG
?cG9
F
1
H
F
R a0 H
R
?a0G
R p
o
S
H
Fl@ +
= E
?ii:
y ?aG R ?.G n ?cG 9
F
1
Cl
F
R p R a0 = Cl
:
?a0G

o
S
H
Fl@ +
= : 1io+AA?CG
%>" $:
Tnh h%Hu ^ng nh%Ht cQa 'h#n ^ng9
A~p?Nh
A
G
F?a0G
R BHNh
A?a0G
A~p?Nh
A
G
A?a0G
R Nh
?G
R FH
F
h ?lG
e%xn ra tr"ng n5c Fm
"
C3 Ch" .%St9
~p
FR
?a0G
~p
AR
?a0G
Nh
A
:
?a0G
Nh
?G
H
F
h
?lG
o
S
H
Fl@ +
?CD!"lG :@o+@i : Bo+o :FEi+mo lE+Fm :F@m+i
?ii:
;h1ng tr6nh %"n cQa 'h#n ^ng9
A~p
FR
?a0G
R BH
R
?a0G
R Nh
A
:
?a0G
A~p
AR
?a0G
R Nh
?G
R FH
F
h
?lG
H=A3
o
S
H
Fl@ +
?~p
AR
+a0
GR
o
S
H
Fl@ +
?NhGRF3
o
S
H
Fl@ +
?H
F
h
?lG
GnA3
o
S
H
Fl@ +
?~p
FR
+a0
G:
o
S
H
Fl@ +
?Nh
A
:
+ a0
G
= A3?:Bo+oG R lE+Fm R F3?:F@m+iG R A3@o+i R FEi+mo = :1mA+l?CG
%>" -:
1G k" V$nh H+ t cQa c$c 'h#n ^ng9 C
n
H
Fn
R H
F
C
n
H
FnRF
FG Kh% ]t ch$y h"n t"n F an"!p J cQa e n gluc"1 !w% th^ 1 !"l $' Vut hMng I%+ ngN% ta " Lc
h%Hu ^ng nh%Ht cQa c$c 'h#n ^ng mEEK lqn lLt .Ung9
:FolE+EC J : F@Em+1C
aG Tnh t ]% J5% !w% 'h#n ^ng3
.G Tr"ng F 7<ng gluc"1+ 7<ng n" .n h1ns
?ii:
1G H = t R ;3 4 = t R n3>T
;h#n ^ng trn c,9 n = 1:F = :1 H = t n >T H t
FG C
i
H
1F
h
i
R ih
F
iCh
F
R iH
F
h
t
?G
= H
?G
: n3>T = : Foll n i3@+A1B31E
:A
3mEE = :F@FB?CG
t
?G
= H
?G
: n3>T = : F@Em+1 n i3@+A1B31E
:A
3mEE = :F@AE ?CG
o
H

= i3
o
CO S
H
G ?
F
R i3
o
O H S
H
G ?
F
:
o
S
H
G ?

o
H

= i3
o
CO S
H
G ?
F
R i3
o
O H S
H
G ?
F
:
o
S
H
G ?

o
S
H
G ?
:
o
S
H
G ?
=
o
H

:
o
H

= :F@Em+1 R Foll = :i+1?CG

o
S
H
G ?

o
S
H
G ?
e<ng : gluc"1 c,
o
S
H nh/ h1n nn .n h1n3
%>" 1:
1G ThS n" l pntan'% V%nh cQa 1n chts Tnh
o
O S
H
G ?
A
J
o
kimcuong S
H
G ?
J 7Y "$n h"<t tnh h"$ hZc cQa ch2ng tT c$c
7Y %Hn Vau9
?aG9 C
than ch6
R h
F?G
Ch
F?G

o
H
Fl@
= :AlA+1B?CG
?.G9 C
%! c1ng
R h
F?G
Ch
F?G

o
H
Fl@
= :Alm+EA?CG
?cG9 AAV
F
h
A ?rG
R Ah
F?G
AAV
F
h
m?rG

o
H
Fl@
= :@11+AB?CG
?7G9 AAV
F
h
A

?rG
R Fh
A?G
AAV
F
h
m?rG

o
H
Fl@
= :1ElE+l@?CG
FG TT St 0u# trn J c$c 7& %Hn Vau9
H
?h nhG
tnh tT h
F
= : BlA+FBCD!"l_ H
?h nhG
tnh tT H
F
h
F
= : 1Ao+lBCD!"l
Ch^ng !%nh rUng9 KhMng th- g$n ch" h
A
cu tr2c J}ng n3
?ii:
1G: ntan'% V%nh cQa c$c 1n cht .n %u %Hn chujn = E
: \]% J5% nh&ng nguyn t] c, nh%u 7<ng thX h6nh th6 h% chuy-n tT 7<ng ny Vang 7<ng h$c .a" g%N cng ! thp" 1
h%Hu ^ng nh%Ht3 H%Hu ^ng nh%Ht cQa 0u$ tr6nh h6nh thnh 1n cht ?7<ng thX h6nh c! .nG tT 7<ng thX h6nh .n %u
%Hn nht [nh Lc c"% l nh%Ht V%nh cQa 1n cht tr"ng nh&ng %u %Hn ,3

o
S
H cQa h
A
J %! c1ng l h%Hu ^ng nh%Ht 0uy J %u %Hn chujn cQa c$c 0u$ tr6nh9
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang 11

F
A
h
F
h
A?G _
C
than ch6
C
%! c1ng
: y ?aG n ?.G9
C
than ch6
C
%! c1ng

o
kc S
H
G ?
= 1+@l CD!"l
: y ?cG : ?7G9

F
A
h
F?G
h
A?G

o
O S
H
G ?
A
= 1Al+@F CD!"l
FG NSu c"% h
A
c, cu tr2c J}ng n9

o
O S
H
G ?
A
=
o
O lk
H
G ?
A
:
F
A
o
O lk
H
G ?
F

= A3?:1Ao+lBG :
F
A
3?: BlA+FBG = AFi+EB ?CD!"lG g 1Al+@F?CD!"lG
h
A
c, cu tr2c J}ng n rt hMng .n cu tr2c ny hMng ch' nhPn Lc3
%>" 4:
ntan'% V%nh t%u chujn cQa CH
B?G
J C
F
H
i?G
lqn lLt .Ung :oB+@E J :@B+iE CD!"l3 Tnh pntan'% t%u chujn cQa C
B
H
1E

?G
3
d%Hn luPn J St 0u# thu Lc3 Ch" .%St pntan'% thKng h"a cQa than ch6 J nKng lLng l%n St H: H lqn lLt .Ung9 o1E+i
J : BA1+im CD!"l3
?ii:
* ?1G C
than ch6
R FH
F ?G
CH
B?G

o
CH S
H
B
+
=:oB+@C
?FG C
than ch6
C
?G

o
th
H
= o1E+i C
?AG H
F ?G
FH
?G

lk
H = BA1+im C
y ?1G n ?FG R F3?AG ta Lc9
C
?G
R BH
?G
CH
B?G

o
CH tu ng S
H
B
+ D +
= :1iB@+o?CD!"lG
NKng lLng l%n St trung .6nh cQa l%n St C n H l9
B
1
?:1iB@+oG = : B1F+1om ?CD!"lG3
* ?BG FC
than ch6
R AH
F
C
F
H
i?G

o
K H C S
H
G + ?
i F
= :@B+i ?CD!"lG
y ?BG n F 3?FG R A3?AG ta Lc9
FC
?G
R iH
?G
C
F
H
i

?G

o
H C tu ng S
H
i
F
+ D +

= :F@EE+om ?CD!"lG
C"%
C nH
tr"ng CH
B
J C
F
H
i
nh nhau th69

C: C
= =1@EE+om n i?: B1F+1omG = :AFo+o?CD!"lG
* C"%
C:H
_
C: C
tr"ng c$c cht CH
B
+ C
F
H
i
+ C
B
H
1E
u nh nhau th69
o
H C tu ng S
H
1E
B
+ D +

= A3
C: C
R 1E3
C: H
= A3?: AFo+oG R 1E? :B1F+omG = :m11E+i ?CD!"lG
* ?mG BC
?G
R 1E H
?G
C
B
H
1E

?G

o
H C tu ng S
H
1E
B
+ D +

= :m11E+i ?CD!"lG
y ?FG3 B R ?AG3m R ?mG ta Lc9
BCthan ch6
R mH
F?G
C
B
H
1E?G

o
H C S
H
1E
B
+

= :1El+lm?CD!"lG
* KSt 0u# thu Lc chO l gqn 2ng 7" c"%
l?C n CG
+
l?C: HG
tr"ng !Z% trNng hL' l nh nhau3 4 J6 JPy V hMng tnh r
Lc
o
S
H
cQa c$c vng 'h(n h$c nhau3
%>" O: Tnh H
"
cQa c$c 'h#n ^ng Vau9
1G ~p
F
h
A?rG
R FAl
?rG
F~p
?rG
R Al
F
h
A?rG
? 1G
Ch" .%St
o
O ! S
r
H
G ? A F
+

= :@FF+F CD!"l_
o
O "l S
r
H
G ? A F
+

= :1ioi ?CD!"lG
FG k
?rG
R
F
A
h
F?G
kh
A?G
?FG
d%St ?AG 9 k
?rG
R h
F?G
kh
F?G

o
H
Fl@

= :Fli+i C
?BG9 Fkh
F?G
R h
F?G
Fkh
A?G

o
H
Fl@

= :1lm+li C
TT St 0u# thu Lc J h# nKng 7%xn .%Sn thYc tS cQa F 'h#n ^ng trn c, th- r2t ra St luPn g6s
?ii:
1G
o
#u
H
G 1 ?
=
o
O "l S
r
H
G ? A F
+

:
o
O ! S
r
H
G ? A F
+

= :1ioi R @FF+F = : @mA+@?CG

Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang 1F
FG
o
#u
H
G F ?
=
o
#u
H
G A ?
R
F
1
o
#u
H
G B ?
= :Fli+i :
F
1
31lm+li = :AlB+m@ ?CG
K9 Ha% 'h#n ^ng ?1G+ ?FG u t"# nh%Ht !<nh3 k"ng trn thYc tS F 'h#n ^ng , hMng tY *#y ra3 Nh JPy+ chO 7Ya J" H
hMng Q - hzng [nh ch%u cQa 1 0u$ tr6nh h"$ hZc ?tuy nh%n tr"ng nh%u trNng hL'+ 7Y "$n thp" t%u chujn ny l
2ngG3
%>" K:
1G Tnh h%Hu ^ng nh%Ht zng tch t%u chujn cQa c$c 'h#n ^ng Vau Fm
"
C3
aG ~p
F
h
A?rG
R ACh
?G
F~p
?rG
R ACh
F?G

o
H
Fl@

= F@+1o ?CG
.G C
than ch6
R h
F?G
Ch
F ?G

o
H
Fl@

= :AlA+1?CG
cG n
?rG
R k
?rG
nk
?rG

o
H
Fl@

= :FEF+l?CG
7G Fkh
F?G
R h
F?G
Fkh
A?G

o
H
Fl@

= :1lm+li ?CG
FG Kh% ch" AF+ilg n t$c 78ng J5% 7ung 7[ch H
F
kh
B
l"ng 7 tr"ng ."! nh%Ht lLng S Fm
"
C+ ngN% ta thy c, th"$t ra
!Wt nh%Ht lLng l o1+B@ C3 Tnh h%Hu ^ng nh%Ht nh%Ht W ,3 Ch" n = im+A@
?ii:
1G H = t R n3>T
e" c$c 'h#n ^ng aG+ .G+ cG c, n = E nn t
"
= H
"
;h#n ^ng 7G9 t
"
= H
"
: n3>T = :1lm+li R 13@+A1B3 Fl@+1m3 1E
:A
= :1lA+m ?CG
FG n
?rG
R H
F
kh
B

?77G
H
F?G
R nkh
B?77G
Tr"ng ."! nh%Ht lLng S c, 4 = c"nVt3
t = : o1+B@3
A@ + im D il + AF
1
= :1BF+li ?CD!"lG
H = t R n3>T = : 1BF+li R 13 @+A1B 3Fl@+1m 31E
:A
= : 1BE+m ?CD!"lG
%>" W: Tnh H
"
cQa 'h#n ^ng tIng hL' 1 !"l a7pn%np C
m
H
m
N
m?rG
tT m !"l HCN
?G
3
Ch" .%St
o
k CH S
H
G + +
B

= : oB+@ ?CD!"lG_
o
k NH S
H
+ +
A

= :Bi+1CD!"l_
o
r $d!nin S
H
G ? +

= l1+1 CD!"l
4 CH
B?G
R NH
A?G
HCN
?G
R AH
F?G
H
"
= Fm1+F C3!"l
:1
?ii:
?aG 9 C
gr
R FH
F?G
CH
B

o
k CH S
H
G + +
B

= :oB+@ ?CD!"lG
?.G 9
F
1
N
F?G
R
F
A
H
F?G
NH
A?G

o
k NH S
H
+ +
A

= : Bi+1CD!"l
?cG 9 mC
gr
R
F
m
H
F?G
R
F
m
N
F?G
C
m
H
m
N
m?rG

o
r $d!nin S
H
G ? +

= l1+1 C3!"l
:1
?7G 9 CH
B?G
R NH
A?G
HCN
?G
R AH
F?G
H
"
= Fm1+F C3!"l
:1
Ta ly9 :m 3?aG R :m 3?.G R ?cG R :m3?7G ta Lc9
mHCN
?G
C
m
H
m
N
m?rG
H
"
?BG
= Fm1+F CD!"l
%>" 1X:
Tnh nh%Ht th"$t ra h% tIng hL' 1og NH
A
1EEEK3 d%St
o
k NH S
H
G + ? Fl@ +
A

= :Bi+F C3!"l
:1
G + ?
A
k NH P
C
= FB+o R Ao+B@31E
:A
T C!"l
:1
K
:1
G + ?
F
k N P
C
= Fo+@ R B+1@B31E
:A
T C!"l
:1
K
:1
G + ?
F
k H P
C
= F@i R 1+1o31E
:A
T C!"l
:1
K
:1
?ii:
F
1
N
F?G
R
F
A
H
F?G
NH
A?G

o
k NH S
H
+ +
A

= : Bi+FCD!"l
C
;
=
G + ?
A
k NH P
C
:
F
1
G + ?
F
k N P
C
:
F
A
G + ?
F
k H P
C
= : FB+o R Ao+B@31E
:A
T :
F
1
Fo+@ R B+1@B31E
:A
:
F
A
F@+i R 1+1o 31E
:A
T
= : AF+1 R A1+mB131E
:A
T
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang 1A

o
H
1EEE
o
H
Fl@

R dT C
P
+
1EEE
Fl@

=
o
H
Fl@

R dT TG 1E 3 mB1 + A1 1 + AF ?
1EEE
Fl@
A

+
=
o
H
Fl@

R G
F
1E 3 mB1 + A1 1 + AF ?
F 1EEE
Fl@
A
T
T

+
= : Bi+F31E
A
RA1+mB1 31E
:A
3
F
1
?1EEE
F
:1l@
F
G n AF+1?1EEE n Fl@G= : mBAiB+1@A ?CD!"lG
Kh% tIng hL' 1o g NH
A
th6 nh%Ht lLng t"# ra l9
u =
1o
1oEEE
3?:mBAiB+1@A 31E
:A
G = :mBAiB+1@A ?CG
%>" 11:
Tnh nKng lLng !<ng l5% t%nh th- daCl
F
tT F tI hL' 7& %Hn Vau9
1G ntan'% V%nh cQa daCl
F
t%nh th-9 : @ml+B1 CD!"l
ntan'% 'h(n l% cQa Cl
F
9 FA@+Fi CD!"l
ntan'% thKng h"a cQa da9 1lF+F@ CD!"l
NKng lLng %"n h"$ th^ nht cQa da9 mEE+oi CD!"l
NKng lLng %"n h"$ th^ ha% cQa da9 li1+BE CD!"l
$% lYc plpctr"n cQa Cl 9 : AiA+ii CD!"l
FG H%Hu ^ng nh%Ht cQa 0u$ tr6nh h" tan 1 !"l daCl
F
J" !"l H
F
h l9 :1E+1iCD!"l3
Nh%Ht h%rat h"$ %"n da
FR
9 : 1ABB CD!"l
Nh%Ht h%rat h"$ %"n Cl
:
9 : AiA CD!"l
Tr"ng c$c St 0u# thu Lc+ St 0u# n" $ng t%n cPy h1n3
?ii:
Ba
(r)
!"
#(k)
Ba!"
#

(tt)
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aG %n zng nh%Ht thuPn ngh[ch3
.G %n "<n nh%Ht thuPn ngh[ch3
cG %n "<n nh%Ht hMng thuPn ngh[ch3
Ch" nh%Ht 7ung zng tch cQa Hp C
4
=
F
A
> J chP' nhPn hMng I% tr"ng %u %Hn ch" cQa .% t"$n3
Tnh th- tch cu]% cXng cQa hH+ nh%Ht u+ .%Sn th%n nW% nKng t J cMng tr"ng !w% 0u$ tr6nh n,% trns
?ii:
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang 1B
aG T = c"nVt t = E_ H = E
t = u R = E u = :
= :


F
1
F
1
3
V
dV
nRT dV P = : n>Tln
1
F
V
V
45% h l tng9 ;
1
34
1
= ;
F
34
F

1
F
V
V
=
F
1
P
P
4
F
=
F
1
P
P
3 4
1
=
1
1E
3 1E = 1EE?lG
= :?n>TG3ln
F
1
P
P
= :1E31E 3ln 1E = FAE+Fml ?l3atG
= FAE+Fml 31E1+AA 31E
:A
= FA+AAF ?CG
u = : = :FA+AAF ?CG
.G u = E
t = = n3
V
C 3 T =
F
A
3
3
3
1
1 1
T R
V P
3>?T
F
n T
1
G
t = =
F
A
3
3
1
1 1
T
V P
?T
F
n T
1
G
Thp" ;T '"%VV"n9 T34
: 1
= c"nVt
4 =
P
nRT
T3
1

,
_

P
nRT
= c"nVt T

3;
: 1
= c"nVt
T
(
.P
(
=T
#
.P
#
T
(
T
#
=
P
#
P
(

T
(
T
#
P
#
P
(
=

1:
1:

1:

1:

T
#
=T
(
.
=#2/-(+ .
P
#
P
(

1:
(1
(

1:
=
!
P
!
V
!
V
R
!
V
/
#
R R
R
=
+
/
=
( -
=- 1-.
=
=
/
#

1:
+
/
+
/
/
#
T
#
=#2/-(+ .((1)
-1-.
=(1*-2. (7)
% =8 = . ((1*-2. - #2/-(+) .(1(-// =,(.*-0(3 )
#2/-(0
(1 .(1

V
#
= = /,-*( (")
( .#2/-(+
(1.(1.(1*-2.
P
#
.T
(
P
(
.V
(.
T
#

cG u = E t =
n3
V
C ?T
F
n T
1
G = :;
ng
3?4
F
n 4
1
G = :;
F
3

,
_

1
1
F
F
P
nRT
P
nRT
n3
F
A
>?T
F
n T
1
G = :n>31
,
_

1E 1
1 F
T T
T
F
= E+iBT
1
V
#
= = 0.(")
T
(
. (
(1.(1.1-0.T
(
P
#
.T
(
P
(
.V
(.
T
#
=
t = = :;
ng
?4
F
n 4
1
G = :1?iB n 1EG = :mB?l3at!G
= :mB?l3at!G 31E1+AA 3CDl3at! = : mBo1+@F ?CG
%>" 1$ :
;h#n ^ng Vau9 Ag R
F
1
Cl
F
= AgCl
b#y ra 75% $' Vut 1 at! J Fm
"
C t"# ra 1 nh%Ht lLng l 1Fi+mii C3
NSu ch" 'h#n ^ng , *#y ra tr"ng 1 nguyn t] ganJan% ;+ T = c"nVt th6 h"$ nKng V Lc chuy-n thnh %Hn nKng J V#n
ra cMng = 1El+iFF C3
Hy ch^ng t/ rUng tr"ng c# F trNng hL' trn+ .%Sn th%n nW% nKng cQa hH Jn chO l !Wt+ c}n nh%Ht th6 h$c nhau J tnh
g%$ tr[ .%Sn th%n nW% nKng ,3
?ii:
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang 1m
: e" t l h! tr<ng th$% nn t = t
F
n t
1
= c"nVt+ ch" 7X VY .%Sn I% Lc thYc h%Hn .Ung c$ch n"3 46 JPy t tr"ng F
trNng hL' trn chO l !Wt3
: 46 t = u R = u R : ;4 = u R : n3>T
e" n>T = c"nVt_ t = c"nVt
Nn h% ?cMng c, chG thay I% th6 u cng thay I%
: t = H : n>T = :1Fi+mii R
F
1
3 @+A1B 3Fl@+1m31E
:A
= : 1Fm+AFo ?CG
%>" 1-:
Tnh cMng cQa VY .%Sn I% zng nh%Ht thuPn ngh[ch J .t thuPn ngh[ch BFg h N
F
AEEK h%9
aG %n n tT mat! Sn 1at!3
.G Ncn tT 1at! Sn mat!3
?Kh Lc c"% l l tngG3 k" V$nh c$c St 0u# J r2t ra St luPn3
?ii:
aG *
TN
= :
1
F
1
F
F
1
F
1
ln ln
P
P
nRT
V
V
nRT
V
dV
nRT PdV

TN
=
F@
BF
3@+A1B 3AEE3 ln
m
1
= :iFE1+Al?CG
*
dTN
= : ;
ng
3 4 = :;
ng
?4
F
n 4
1
G = :;
ng

,
_

1
F
1 1
V
P
V P
= : ;
F
34
1

,
_

1
F
1
P
P
= : ;
F
3

,
_

,
_

1
F
F
1
1
1 1 3
P
P
nRT
P
P
P
nRT
= :
F@
BF
3@+A1B 3AEE
,
_

m
1
1 = :FllA+EB ?CG
.G
TN
= n>Tln
1
F
P
P
=
F@
BF
3@+A1B 3AEE3ln
1
m
= iFE1+Al?CG

dTN
= : ;
ng
3 4= :;
ng
?4
F
n 4
1
G = :;
ng

,
_

1 F
P
nRT
P
nRT
= :n>T3;
F

,
_

1 F
1 1
P P
= :n>T

,
_

1
F
1
P
P
= :
F@
BF
3@+A1B 3AEE
,
_

1
m
1 = 1Blim+F ?CG
K9 : CMng ! hH thYc h%Hn ?V%nhG tr"ng 0u$ tr6nh .%Sn th%n thuPn ngh[ch tT tr<ng th$% 1 Sn tr<ng th$% F .Ung cMng ! hH
nhPn h% tT tr<ng th$% F J tr<ng th$% 13 C}n tr"ng 0u$ tr6nh .%Sn th%n .t thuPn ngh[ch th6 cMng hH V%nh nh/ h1n cMng hH
nhPn3
: Tr"ng VY .%Sn th%n thuPn ngh[ch th6 hH V%nh cMng l5n h1n tr"ng 0u$ tr6nh .%Sn th%n .t thuPn ngh[ch3
%>" 11: ;h#n ^ng9 C
i
H
i
R
F
1m
h
F?G
iCh
F?G
R AH
F
h
AEEK c, u
;
n u
4
= 1FBm?CG3 H/% C
i
H
i
J H
F
h tr"ng 'h#n ^ng tr<ng th$% l/ng hay h1%s
?ii:
u
;
n u
4
=n>T = 1FBm?CG n =
AEE 3 A1B + @
1FBm
= E+m
H
F
h J C
i
H
i
'h#% th- h1% th6 n = E+m
%>" 14:
Tnh nh%Ht lLng cqn th%St - n(ng nh%Ht W cQa E+m !"l H
F
h tT :mE
"
C Sn mEE
"
C
; = 1at!3 d%St nh%Ht n,ng ch#y cQa n5c FoAK l
nc
= iEEBCD!"l+
nh%Ht .ay h1% cQa n5c AoAK l
h
= BEiiE CD!"l3
o
h O H P
C
G + ?
F
= AE+F R 1E
:F
T?CD!"lKG _
o
r O H P
C
G + ?
F
= Am+mi?CD!"lKG_
o
l O H P
C
G + ?
F
= om+A?CD!"lKG
?ii:
H
F
h
?rG
H
F
h
?rG
H
F
h
?lG
H
F
h
?lG
H
F
h
?hG
H
F
h
?hG
?mEE
"
CG
H
1
H
F
H
A
H
B
H
m
:mE
"
C E
"
C E
"
C 1EE
"
C 1EE
"
C

H
"
=
h
o
l P nc
o
r P
L n dT C n L n dT C n H 3 3 3 3 3 3
AoA
FoA
G ?
FoA
FFA
G ?
m
1
+ + +

ooA
AoA
G ?
3 3 dT C n
o
h P
= E+m 3Am+mi?FoA n FFAG R E+m 3iEEB R E+m 3om+A 3?AoA n FoAG R E+m 3BEiiE R
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang 1i
R E+m3AE+F 3?ooA n AoAG R
F
1E
F
3E+m ?ooA
F
n AoA
F
G = Am1oF?CG
%>" 1O: Tnh VY .%Sn th%n pntr"'% cQa 0u$ tr6nh un n,ng E+m !"l H
F
h tT n mE
"
C Sn mEE
"
C ; = 1at!3 d%St nh%Ht n,ng
ch#y cQa n5c FoAK = iEEBCD!"l_ nh%Ht .ay h1% cQa n5c FoAK = BEiiECD!"l3 Nh%Ht 7ung !"l zng $'
o
P
C cQa n5c
$ J n5c l/ng lqn lLt .Ung Am+mi J om+ACD!"lK_
o
P
C cQa h1% n5c l ?AE+F R 1E
:F
TG CD!"lK
?ii:
H
F
h
?rG
H
F
h
?rG
H
F
h
?lG
H
F
h
?lG
H
F
h
?hG
H
F
h
?hG
k
1 k
F
k
A
k
B
k
m

ooAK
AoAK AoAK FoAK FoAK
FFAK
"
" " " "
k
F
k
A
k
B
k
m

" " " "
= R R R R
k
"
k
1

"
= n3
1
]
1

+ + + +

FoA
FFA
AoA
FoA
ooA
AoA
G ? G ? G ?
3
AoA
3
FoA
3
T
dT
C
L
T
dT
C
L
T
dT
C
h P
h
l P
nc
r P
=E+m3
1
]
1

+ + + + +

G AoA ooA ? 1E
AoA
ooA
ln 3 F + AE
AoA
BEiiE
FoA
AoA
ln 3 A + om
FoA
iEEB
FFA
FoA
ln 3 mi + Am
F
u W$LK1;vwK)
%>" 1K:Tnh VY .%Sn th%n pntr"'% h% trWn ln FEEg n5c 1m
"
C J5% BEEg n5c iE
"
C3 d%St rUng hH l cM lP' J nh%Ht
7ung !"l cQa n5c l/ng l om+A CD!"l3K
?ii:
Z% T l nh%Ht W cQa hH Vau h% 'ha trWn3
e" u
thu
= u
t"#
nn9
1@
FEE
3
P
C ?T n F@@G =
1@
BEE
3
P
C ?AAA n TG
T n F@@ = F3AAA n FT T =
A
F@@ AAA 3 F +
= A1@?KG
k
hH
= k
1
R k
F
=
T
dT
3 A + om 3
1@
FEE
A1@
F@@

R
T
dT
3 A + om 3
1@
BEE
A1@
AAA

=
1@
FEE
3om+A ln
F@@
A1@
R
1@
BEE
3om+A ln
AAA
A1@
= m+o@ ?CDKG g E
uu$ tr6nh Van .Ung nh%Ht W ny tY *#y ra3
%>" 1W: Tnh VY .%Sn th%n pntr"'% J cQa VY h6nh thnh 1 !"l hwn hL' h l tng gv! FE N
F
_ mEH
F
J AENH
A
thp" th- tch3 d%St rUng hwn hL' h Lc t<" thnh 7" VY huSch t$n A h J" nhau .Ung c$ch n]% A .6nh Yng A h
thMng J5% nhau3 Nh%Ht W J $' Vut cQa c$c h l2c qu u c ?FoAK+ 1at!G3
?ii:
46 h l tng huSch t$n J" nhau nn 0u$ tr6nh l zng nh%Ht3
Z% th- tch cQa 1 !"l hwn hL' h l 4 th- tch !w% h .an qu ? cXng %u %HnG l
F
N
V
= E+F4_
A
NH
V
= E+A4_
F
H
V
=
E+m43
e" 4 = n
F
N
n
= E+F !"l_
F
H
n
= E+m !"l_
A
NH
n
= E+A!"l3
: kY .%Sn th%n pntr"'% Lc tnh thp" CT9 k = n>ln
1
F
V
V
F
N
S
= E+F 3@+A1B3ln
V
V
F + E
= F+ioiCDK
F
H
S
= E+m3@+A1B3ln
V
V
m + E
= F+@@1CDK
A
NH
S
= E+A3@+A1B3ln
V
V
A + E
= A+EEACDK
k =
F
N
S
R
F
H
S
R
A
NH
S
= @+mi?CDKG
* uu$ tr6nh huSch t$n h l tng l zng nh%Ht nn H = E

FoA
= H n T3 k = :FoA3@+mi = :FAAi+@@?CG
%>" 2X: Tr"ng c$c 'h#n ^ng Vau+ nh&ng 'h#n ^ng n" c, k g E_ k E J k E t3
C
?rG
R Ch
F?G
FCh
?G
?1G
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang 1o
Ch
?G
R
F
1
h
F?G
Ch
F?G
?FG
H
F?G
R Cl
F?G
FHCl
?G
?AG
k
?rG
R h
F?G
kh
F?G
?BG
?ii:
;h#n ^ng ?1G c, n h = F :1 = 1 g E k g E
;h#n ^ng ?FG c, n h = 1 :1:
F
1
E k E
;h#n ^ng ?AG+ ?BG c, n h = E k E t3
%>" 21: Ch" .%St '9

!
#
$
.(k)
$
#
9
(h)
!
#
$
+
9$
(h)
:; c<c => "i?@ =a@:
C
F
H
m
hH C
F
H
B?G
H
F
h
?hG
G D ?
Fl@ +
mol k% G
o
S
1i@+i i@+1F : FF@+ml
G D ?
Fl@
mol k% S
o
F@F+E F1l+Bm 1@@+oF
aG H/% %u %Hn chujn cQa 'h#n ^ng ny l %u %Hn nh thS n"s
.G %u %Hn chujn J Fm
"
C 'h#n ^ng % thp" ch%u n"s
cG Tnh
o
H
Fl@
cQa 'h#n ^ng3 ;h#n ^ng t"# nh%Ht hay thu nh%Hts
?ii:
aG \%u %Hn chujn9
G ?
B F
k H C
P
=
G ?
F
h O H
P
=
G ?
m F
h OH H C
P
= 1at! J 'h#n ^ng Lc thYc h%Hn t
"
+ ; hMng I%3
.G

A
p
= A
o
- A
o
- A
o
o
5-#,*(!
#
$
+
9$
h
)
5-#,*(!
#
$
.k
) 5-#,*($
#
9
h
)
=(0*-0 - 0*-(# ##*-+, = - *-(/ (k3 )
A
p (#,*)
=-*-(/k3 B1 PhCn Dng ECF ra thGo chiH@ th@In
o

cG
o
5
#,*-p
=5
o
- 5
o
- 5
o
#,*($
#
9)
#,*(!
#
$
.
)
#,*(!
#
$
+
9$)
=#*# - #(,-.+ - (**-2# =- (#0-(2(3 47)
A = $ - T. 5
$
#,*-p
= A
#,*-p
T. 5
#,*-p
=-*-(/ #,*(- (#0-(2 .(1
-/
) =- .+-2#*00(k3 )
$
#,*-p
B1 phCn Dng toC nhi?t

o
o
o o
%>" 22: Wt !"l h l tng 1n nguyn t) AEEK J 1mat! g%n n t5% $' Vut 1at!3 kY g%n n Lc thYc h%Hn
.Ung c"n Nng9
aG \zng nhH%t J thuPn ngh[ch nh%Ht Wng3
.G \zng nh%Ht J hMng thuPn ngh[ch3
cG \"<n nh%Ht J thuPn ngh[ch3
7G \"<n nh%Ht .t thuPn ngh[ch3
Tr"ng c$c 0u$ tr6nh .t thuPn ngh[ch+ VY g%n n ch]ng l<% $' Vut 1at!3 Tnh u+ + t+ H+ k
t'
ch" !w% trNng hL'3
?ii:
aG T = c"nVt t = E _ H = E
TN = :

F
1
PdV = : n>Tln
1
F
V
V
= :n>Tln
F
1
P
P

TN
= :1?!"lG3@+A1B ?C3!"l
:1
K
:1
G 3ln
1
1m
3AEE?KG = :iomB+BF?CG
u = : = iomB+BF?CG
uu$ tr6nh g%n n thuPn ngh[ch9 k
t'
= k
!t
R k
hH
= E
.G T = c"nVt t = E _ H = E

dTN
= :;
ng
?4
F
: 4
1
G = :;
F
?
F
P
nRT
:
1
P
nRT
G = n>T?
1
F
P
P
: 1G = 13 @+A1B3AEE3?
1m
1
: 1G= :FAFo+lF?CG
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang 1@
u
dTN
= : = FAFo+lF?CG
k
t'
= k
!t
R k
hH
k
hH?dTNG
= k
hH?TNG
=
T
Q
TN
=

T
& '

F
1
T
dT
nC
V
R dV
V
nR

F
1
= n>ln
1
F
V
V
= n>ln
F
1
P
P
= 13@+A1B 3ln
1
1m
= FF+m1m?CDKG
k
!t
=
T
Q
mt
= :
T
Q
h!
=
AEE
lF + FAFo
= :o+oi?CDKG k
t'
= FF+m1m : o+oi = 1B+omm ?CDKG
? uu$ tr6nh g%n n ny tY *#y raG
cG \"<n nh%Ht u = E
\"<n nh%Ht thuPn ngh[ch Thp" ;"%VV"n T34
: 1
= c"nVt
4 =
P
nRT
T3
1

,
_

P
nRT
= c"nVt T

3;
1:
= c"nVt
T
(
.P
(
=T
#
.P
#
T
(
T
#
=
P
#
P
(

T
(
T
#
P
#
P
(
=

1:
1:

1:

1:
T
#
=T
(
.
P
#
P
(

1:
45% h l tng 1n nguyn t) th6 C
4
=
F
A
>_ C
;
=
F
m
>

= =
C
;
C
4
m
A
1 :
=
1 :
= :E+B
T
F
= AEE3
:E+B
= 1E1+mm?KG

m
A
m
A
1m
1
t = = nC
4
?T
F
: T
1
G = 13
F
A
3@+A1B3?1E1+mm : AEEG = :FBoB+@o?CG
H = nC
;
?T
F
: T
1
G = 13
F
m
3@+A1B 3?1E1+mm : AEEG= : B1FB+o@?CG
k
TN
=
T
Q
= E
7G \"<n nh%Ht u = E
\"<n nh%Ht+ hMng thuPn ngh[ch hMng $' 78ng Lc ;T '"%VV"n
t = nC
4
3 T = :;
ng
3 4
n3
F
A
3>?T
F
: T
1
G = :;
F
?
F
F
P
nRT
:
1
1
P
nRT
G

F
A
?T
F
: AEEG = :? T
F
:
1
F
P
P
3T
1
G

F
A
T
F
: BmE = :T
F
R
1m
1
3AEE
4
F
=
F
F
P
nRT
=
1
1@@ 3 E@F + E 3 1
= 1m+B1i?lG
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang 1l
4
1
=
F
F
P
nRT
= 1+iB?lG
t = = 13
F
A
3@+A1B3?1@@: AEEG = :1Ali+omF?CG
k
t'
= k
hH
=
T
Q
TN
=

T
& '

F
1
T
T
V
T
dT
nC
R
dV
T
P
V
V

F
1
=

F
1
ln
T
T
V
T d nC
R
dV
V
nR
V
V

F
1
= nC
4
ln
1
F
T
T
R n>ln
1
F
V
V
= 13
F
A
3@+A1B3ln
AEE
1@@
R 13 @+A1B 3ln
iB + 1
B1i + 1m
= 1F+@E1?CDKG g E
%>" 2$: Tnh
E
FoA
G cQa 'h#n ^ng9 CH
B?G
R H
F
h
?G
Ch
?G
R AH
F?G
d%St9 CH
B?G
H
F
h ?G Ch?G H
F?G
E
Fl@ + S
H ?CD!"lG : oB+@ : FB1+@ :11E+m E
E
Fl@
S ?CD!"lKG 1@i+F 1@@+o 1lo+i 1AE+i@B
aG TT g%$ tr[
E
t6! Lc c, th- St luPn g6 J h# nKng tY 7%xn .%Sn cQa h# nKng 'h#n ^ng AoA
"
Ks
.G T<% nh%Ht W n" th6 'h#n ^ng ch" tY *#y ra %u %Hn chujns
?C"% H
E
+ k
E
hMng 'h8 thuWc TG
?ii:
E
#u
H = A3E R 1?:11E+mG :?:oB+@G :?:FB1+@G = FEi+1?CG
E
#u
S = A3?1AE+i@BG R 1lo+i : 1@@+o : 1@i+F = F1B+omF ?CDKG
e" H
E
+ k
E
hMng 'h8 thuWc J" T nn9

E
FoA
G = H
E
: T3 k
E
= FEi+1 = AoA3F1B+omF31E
:A
=1Fm+llom?CG g E
c J T = AoAK ;h#n ^ng hMng th- tY 7%xn .%Sn3
.G \- 'h#n ^ng tY 7%xn .%Sn nh%Ht W T?KG th69
E
T
G E H
E
: T3 k
E
E
T g
E
E
S
H

=
omF + F1B
1E 3 1 + FEi
A
= lml+o1?KG
%>" 2-: ntan'% tY 7" chujn cQa 'h#n ^ng t<" thnh H
F
h tT c$c 1n cht 'h8 thuWc J" T thp" 'h1ng tr6nh Vau9
E
+T S
G = :FBEEEE R i+lmT R 1F+lTlgT ?CD!"lG
Tnh
E
+ k
E
J H
E
cQa 'h#n ^ng t<" thnh H
F
h FEEEK
?ii:

E
FEEE + S
G = :FBEEEE R i+lm3FEEE R 1Fl3FEEElgFEEE= :1BElAA+BFi?CD!"lG
7 = 47; : k7T
P
T
G

,
_

= :k

E
FEEE
S = :
P
T
G

,
_

E
= i+lm R 1F+m3lgT R 1F+lT3
1E ln 3
1
T
= i+lm R 1F+llgT R
1E ln
l + 1F
= i+lm R 1F+llgFEEE R
1E ln
l + 1F
= mm+1Amo?CD!"lKG

E
FEEE
H =
E
FEEE
G R T3
E
FEEE
S = :1BElAA+BFi R FEEE3 mm+1Amo = :AEiiF+EmB ?CD!"lG
%>" 21: Wt HZc V%nh h% l! .% tNng tr6nh th ngh%H! " nh%Ht W ]t ch$y !Wt hL' cht h&u c1 ch" rUng9 H =
t R ;3 43 kY ]t ch$y tr"ng ."! nh%Ht lLng S l! ch" 4 = E+ 7" , H = t3 KSt luPn ny Va% (us
?ii:
H = t R ;34 H = t R ?;4G = t R ;3 4 R 43 ;
Hay H = t R ?n>TG
Tr"ng ."! nh%Ht lLng S th69 4 = E nn9 H = t R 43 ; = t R ?n>TG
%>" 24: Hy chO ra nh&ng !Hnh Va%9
aG \]% J5% 1 hH n+ 0u$ tr6nh g%n n h l "<n nh%Ht hH l cM lP' u = E_ k = E3
.G Wt hH .t c, th- tY 7%xn .%Sn t5% tr<ng th$% c, pntan'% th' h1n ?H EG J pntr"'% l5n h1n ?k g EG3 Hay hH c, th-
7%xn .%Sn thp" ch%u g%#! pntan'% tY 7" ? EG3
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang FE
cG
E
T
G =
E
T
H : T3
E
T
S
45% 'h#n ^ng h"$ hZc T = c"nVt3 NSu
E
G g E ;h#n ^ng tY 7%xn .%Sn thp" ch%u ngh[ch3
E
G = E 9 ;h#n ^ng tr<ng th$% c(n .Ung3
E
G E 9 ;h#n ^ng tY *#y ra thp" ch%u thuPn3
?ii:
aG ka% 3 e" k = E chO h% 0u$ tr6nh .%Sn I% thuPn ngh[ch3
C}n J5% 0u$ tr6nh .%Sn I% .t thuPn ngh[ch th6 k g
T
Q
k g E3
.G ka% 3 e" !Hnh ny chO 2ng tr"ng %u %Hn T+ ; = c"nVt3
C}n J5% 0u$ tr6nh .%Sn I% ! 4+ T = c"nVt th6 'h#% *ct ~3
cG ka%3 e" J5% 0u$ tr6nh h"$ hZc th6 'h#% *ct g%$ tr[9
=
E
R >Tlnu ch^ hMng 'h#% 7Ya J"
E
3
*@uy nhiAn7 c thB coi rCng
E
T
G -- . th0 )u( tr0nh c thB xy ra !#c c D !iEu kin chuFn G !iEu kin thHc' Ihi
E
T
G -- . th0 GE nguyAn tJc chK c )u( tr0nh ng#c l&i mi xy ra7 khLng thB x(c !Mnh !#c chNnh x(c gii h&n cOa
E
T
G m thPo ! )u( tr0nh xy ra thPo chiEu ny hay chiEu kh(c' Q"t c(ch gRn !Sng c thB coi rCng c(c gii h&n ny
khong chTng t 6. kU9mol,'
%>" 2O: Wt h l tng c, C
4
= A> hMng 'h8 thuWc T Lc g%n n "<n nh%Ht tr"ng ch(n hMng t5% th- tch g' M%3
HZc V%nh A l luPn rUng ]% J5% 0u$ tr6nh "<n nh%Ht th6
1
F
1
1
F

,
_

V
V
T
T
J5% =
A
B
7" , T
F
=
A
1
1
F
T
HZc V%nh d ch" rUng9 t = u R A = E R E = n3C
4
3 T T = E T
F
= T
1
HZc V%nh n" n,% 2ngs Hy chO ra lw% Va% cQa HZc V%nh %a3
?ii:
: HZc V%nh d n,% 2ng3
: HZc V%nh A n,% Va% 9 46 0u$ tr6nh g%n n tr"ng ch(n hMng l 0u$ tr6nh .t thuPn ngh[ch nn hMng V) 78ng Lc 'h1ng
tr6nh '"%VV"n3
%>" 2K: Tnh cht nh%Ht Wng cQa !Wt V] 'h(n t) J %"n tr<ng th$% t%u chujn t<% Fm
"
C nh Vau9
C
A
H
@?G
h
F?G
Ch
F?G
H
F
h
?lG

F
A
CO ?a0G hH
:
?a0G
E
S
H ?CD!"lG :1E1+@m E : AlA+m1 : F@m+@A : ioo+1B : FFl+ll
k
E
?CD!"lKG Fil+l1 FEm+1A@ F1A+oB il+l1 : mi+l : 1E+om
bct 0u$ tr6nh "*% h"$ h"n t"n 1 !"l C
A
H
@
?G J5% h
F
?G t<" thnh thp" F c$ch 9
aG dt thuPn ngh[ch
.G ThuPn ngh[ch ?tr"ng 1 tS ." %Hn h"$G
1G Tnh H
E
+ t
E
+ k
E
+
E
cQa 'h#n ^ng tr"ng !w% c$ch n,% trns
FG Tnh nh%Ht+ cMng th- tch+ cMng 'h% th- tch ?t^c l cMng h&u chG ! hH tra" I% J5% !M% trNng tr"ng !w% c$chs
AG Tnh k cQa !M% trNng J k tIng cWng cQa J tr8 h% t%Sn hnh 0u$ tr6nh thp" !w% c$ch3
BG Wt !M h6nh tS ." %Hn h"$ h$c l! J%Hc 7Ya trn 'h#n ^ng "*% h"$ C
A
H
@
?G .% h
F
?G h% c, !`t 7ung 7[ch KhH
m J5% %Hn cYc ;t3 C$c l"<% 'h(n t) J %"n ?trT KhHG u tr<ng th$% t%u chujn3 Hy J%St c$c n)a 'h#n ^ng cat"t J
an"t J 'h#n ^ng tIng cWng tr"ng tS ." %Hn h"$3 NSu tT tS ." %Hn h"$ ,+ Fm
"
C+ ta thu Lc 7}ng %Hn 1EE!A3 Hy
tnh cMng Vut cYc <% c, th- <t Lc3
?ii:
C
A
H
@?G
R mh
F?G
ACh
F?G
R BH
F
h
?lG
1G e" c$c h! H+ t+ k+ l h! tr<ng th$% nn 7X t%Sn hnh thp" c$ch n" th6 c$c g%$ tr[ t+ H+ k+ cng nh nhau
J5% cXng tr<ng th$% qu J cu]%3 4Py9
E
#u
H = A
E
G ? +
F
k CO S
H R B3
E
G ? +
F
l O H S
H :
E
G ? +
@ A
k H C S
H : m3
E
G ? +
F
k O S
H
= :A3 AlA+m1 : F@m+@A 3B R 1EA+@m = :FFFE ?CG
E
#u
H = F1A+oB3 A R B3il+l1 : Fil+l1 : m3 FEm+1A@ = :AoB+oB ?CDKG
E
#u
G = H
E
: T3 k
E
= :FFFE R Fl@+1m 3AoB+oB31E
:A
= :F1E@+Fo ?CG
t
E
= H
E
: ?;4G = H
E
: n>T = :FFFE : ?:AG3@+A1B3Fl@+1m31E
:A
= :FF1F+mi?CG
FG aG uu$ tr6nh .t thuPn ngh[ch9
: Nh%Ht ! hH tra" I% J5% !M% trNng l u
dTN
= H
E
= :FFFE ?CG
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang F1
:
tt
= :

F
1
3dV P = :;3 4 = :n
?G
3>T
= A3 @+A1Bm3Fl@+1m = oBAi+l?CG
: = E
.G uu$ tr6nh thuPn ngh[ch9
: u
TN
= T3 k = Fl@+1m ?:AoB+oBG = : 111oF@+oA1?CG
:
!a*
= = :F1E@+Fo?CG E 9 HH V%nh cMng
:
tt
= : n
?G
3>T = oBAi+l?CG g E9 hH nhPn cMng
AG aG uu$ tr6nh .t thuPn ngh[ch9
k
!t
=
T
Q
mt
= :
T
Q
(TN
= :
T
H
E

= :
1m + Fl@
1E 3 FFFE
A
= oBBm+ l1i ?CDKG
k
J tr8
= k
!t
R k
hH
= oBBm+l1i : AoB+oB = oEo1+1oi?CDKG
.G uu$ tr6nh thuPn ngh[ch9
k
!t
=
T
Q
mt
= :
T
Q
TN
=
G D ? oB + AoB
1m + Fl@
oA1 + 111oF@
K %
k
J tr8
= k
!t
R k
hH
= E
BG C$c n)a 'h#n ^ng9
An"t9 C
A
H
@
R FihH
:
A
F
A
CO R 1oH
F
h R FEp
Cat"t9 h
F
R FH
F
h R Bp BhH
:
;h#n ^ng tIng cWng9
C
A
H
@?
G R mh
F?G
R ihH
:
?a0G
A
F
G ? A $)
CO R oH
F
h
?lG
k1 v '%n9
?:G ;t+ C
A
H
@
?1at!GDKhH?mG+ K
F
Ch
A
?1GD h
F
?1at!G+ ;t ?RG
E
#u
H = A?:ioo+1BG R o3?:F@m+@AG R 1EA+@m : m3E : i?:FFl+llG = :FmB@+BB?KCG
E
#u
S = A3?:mi+lG R o3il+l1 : Fil+l1 : m3FEm+1A@: i?:1E+oBG = :l1F+BA?KCG
E
#u
G =
E
#u
H = T3
E
#u
S = :FmB@+BB R Fl@+1m3l1F+BA31E
:A
= : FFoi+All?KCG

E
#u
* = :
n
G
E

=
liB@m 3 FE
FFoiAll
= 1+1@?4G
=
E
:
m i
A F
A
F @ A
3 3

lg
FE
EmlF + E
O H C
P P OH
CO

= 1+1@ :
FE
EmlF + E
lg?mG
:i
= 1+1l?4G
; = 3I = 1+1l 3E+1 = E+11l?G
%>" 2W: Tnh .%Sn th%n pntr"'% h% chuy-n B1@+BC nh%Ht tT JPt c, t
E
= 1mE
"
C Sn JPt c, t
E
= mE
"
C3
?ii:
uu$ tr6nh .%Sn I% trn l hMng thuPn ngh[ch Lc c"% nh gv! A 0u$ tr6nh .%Sn th%n thuPn ngh[ch9
1G 4Pt 1mE
"
C truyn nh%Ht thuPn ngh[ch T = c"nVt3
k
1
=
T
Q
=
1m + FoA 1mE
B + B1@
+

= : E+l@l?CDKG
FG HH .%Sn th%n "<n nh%Ht tT 1mE
"
C Sn mE
"
C
k
F
= E
AG 4Pt mE
"
C nhPn nh%Ht thuPn ngh[ch T = c"nVt
k
A
= :
T
Q
=
1m + FoA mE
B + B1@
+
= 1+Flm?CDKG
e" k l h! tr<ng th$% nn9
k
dTN
= k
TN
= k
1
R k
F
R k
A
= E+AEi?CDKG
%>" $X: d%St :1m
"
C+ ;
h1%
?H
F
h+ lG = 1+BF@ ?t"rrG
:1m
"
C+ ;
h1%
?H
F
h+rG = 1+F1m?t"rrG
Hy tnh cQa 0u$ tr6nh Mng `c 1 !"l H
F
h
?lG
thnh n5c $ :1m
"
C J 1at!3
?ii:
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang FF
(+
o
!- ( &o" $
#
9 "
-(+
o
!- (&o" $
#
9(r)
(/)
A
BTN
=J
(()
(K@< trnh TN Lo
$
#
9 hMi- bN o ho;
nO& cPn bOng :Q i $
#
9("))
- (+
o
!- (&o" $
#
9
(-.#* Torr
(#)
-(+
o
!- (&o" $
#
9 (h)
(-#(+ Torr

?1G+ ?AG l 0u$ tr6nh chuy-n 'ha thuPn ngh[ch

1
=
A
= E
=
F
= n>Tln
1
F
P
P
= 13@+A1B3 Fm@+1m ln
BF@ + 1
F1m + 1
= :ABi+i@o?CG
%>" $1: C, 1 !"l h
F
nguyn cht Fm
"
C+ Fat!+ 1 !"l h
F
nguyn cht Fm
"
C+ 1at!
1 !"l h
F
Fm
"
C tr"ng hMng h trn !`t t ?; = 1at!+ h
F
ch%S! F1 4 hMng hG
: k" V$nh g%$ tr[ h! cQa 1 !"l h
F
tr"ng A trNng hL' trn h1n c! nhau .a" nh%u Cs3 TT , r2t ra St luPn9 Kh# nKng
'h#n ^ng cQa h
F
tr"ng !w% trNng hL' trn ca" hay th' h1n V" J5% trNng hL' h$cs
?ii:
*
E
l h! %.. cQa 1 !"l h
F
1at!
: 1 !"l h
F
+ 1at!+ Fm
"
C 1 !"l h
F
+ Fat!+ Fm
"
C
?
E
G ?
1
G

1
=
1
:
E
= n>Tln
1
F
P
P
= 13 @+A1Bm 3Fl@+1m3ln
1
F
= 1o1@+Fl?CG

1
g
E
3
: Z%
F
l h! %.. cQa 1!"l h
F
Fm
"
C tr"ng hMng h ?E+F1 at!G
1!"l h
F
+ Fm
"
C+ 1at! 1 !"l h
F
+ Fm
"
C+ E+F1at!
?
E
G ?
F
G

F
=
F
:
E
= 13 @+A1Bm 3Fl@+1m3ln
1
F1 + E
= :A@i@+@?CG

F

E
3
4Py9

F
?1!"l h
F
+ Fm
"
C+ E+F1at!G
E
?1 !"l h
F
+ Fm
"
C+ 1at!G
1
?1 !"l H
F
h+ Fm"C+ Fat!G
: 1 cht c, h! cng ca" th6 cng c! .n 1 !"l h
F
Fm
"
C+ Fat! c, h# nKng 'h#n ^ng ca" nht c}n 1 !"l h
F
nU!
tr"ng hMng h th6 . nht c, h# nKng 'h#n ^ng c! nht3
%>" $2: Nh%Ht h" tan ?H
ht
G E+ioFg 'hpn"l tr"ng 1Am+lg cl"r""! l :@@C J cQa 1+mig 'hpn"l tr"ng 1B@+ilg
cl"r""! l :1oFC3
Tnh nh%Ht 'ha l"ng ]% J5% 7ung 7[ch c, nvng W nh 7ung 7[ch th^ F ch^a 1 !"l 'hpn"l h% 'ha l"ng Sn nvng W cQa
7ung 7[ch th^ nht .Ung cl"r""!3
?ii:
,.g phGno" !$!"
/
LL # LL (
$ pha "oN ng
!$!"
/
$
ht (#)
$
ht(()
$
pha "oN ng
= $
ht(()
- $
ht(#)
=- .(-(2#) (-**) =- #11.-*2(3 )
1-02#
,.
(-+0,
,.

%>" $$: Nh%Ht h" tan 1 !"l KCl tr"ng FEE !l n5c 75% $' Vut ; = 1a!t l9
t
E
C F1 FA
H 1@+1mB 1o+@FB ?CG
b$c [nh H
Fl@
J V" V$nh J5% g%$ tr[ thYc ngh%H! l 1o+mo@ ?CG
?ii:
Thp" [nh luPt K%rchh"9
H
FlB
= H
Fl@
R C
;
3?FlB : Fl@G = 1@+BmB ?CG
H
F@i
= H
Fl@
R C
;
3?Fli : Fl@G = 1o+@FB?CG
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang FA

H
Fl@
= 1o+BlB ?CG
C
;
= :E+1im ?CDKG
H
Fl@?TG
: H
Fl@?TNG
H
Fl@?TNG
E+B@

4Py H
Fl@
tnh Lc thp" l thuySt Va% h$c J5% g%$ tr[ TN l E+B@3
%>" $-: Tnh k cQa 0u$ tr6nh h"$ h1% A !"l H
F
h ?lG Fm
"
C+ 1at!3
Ch"9 H
hh
+
HFh?lG
= BE+imi CD!"l_
G ? +
F
l O H P
C
= om+Fl1 ?CDK3!"lG_
G ? +
F
h O H P
C
= AA+m@ ?CD!"lKG
?ii:
bct chu tr6nh9
#+
o
!- / &o" $
#
9
(")
- (at& #+
o
!- / &o" $
#
9
(r)
- (at&
(11
o
!- /&o" $
#
9
(")
-(at& (11
o
!- /&o" $
#
9
(h)
-
(at&
5
5
(
5
#
5
/
k
1
=
T
Q
1
=

F
1
3 3
G ?
T
T
l P
T
dT
C n
= nC
;?lG
ln
1
F
T
T
= A3 om+Fl13ln
1m + Fl@
1m + AoA
= mE+i@FF?CDKG
k
F
=
T
Q
F
=
T
H n
l hh3
3
= A3
1m + AoA
1E + imi + BE
A
= AFi+@iEm?CDKG
k
A
=
T
Q
A
=

1
F
3 3
G ?
T
T
h P
T
dT
C n
= nC
;?hG
ln
1
F
T
T
= A3 AA+m@3ln
1m + AoA
1m + Fl@
= : FF+iEBB?CDKG
k = k
1
R k
F
R k
A
= AmB+lA@A ?CDKG
%>" $1:
aG Tnh cMng tr"ng 0u$ tr6nh ]t ch$y 1 !"l rLu ptyl%c c J Fm
"
C3
.G NSu H
F
h 7<ng h1% th6 cMng ! thp" 0u$ tr6nh ny l .a" nh%us
?ii:
aG C
F
H
m
hH
?lG
R Ah
F ?G
FCh
F ?G
R AH
F
h
?lG
n = :1
= :;
ng
3 4 = :;
ng
3
ng
P
RT n3
= >3T = @+A1B3Fl@1m = FBo@+@F ?CG
.G NSu H
F
h 7<ng h1% th69 n = F3
= : n3 >T = :F 3@+A1B 3Fl@+1m = : Blmo+iB?CG
%>" $4: Tnh k+ tr"ng 0u$ tr6nh g%n hMng thuPn ngh[ch F !"l h l tng tT Blt Sn FE lt mB
"
C3
?ii:
46 k+ l c$c h! tr<ng th$% nn k+ hMng 'h8 thuWc J" 0u$ tr6nh .%Sn th%n l thuPn ngh[ch hay .t thuPn ngh[ch
! chO 'h8 thuWc J" tr<ng th$% qu J tr<ng th$% cu]%3 46 JPy9
k = n>ln
1
F
V
V
= F3 @+A1B3ln
B
FE
= Fi+oi ?CDKG
T = c"nVt H = E_ t = E
= H : T3 k = E :?FoA+1m R mBG 3Fi+oi = : @omm+1 ?CG
%>" $O: Wt .6nh c, th- tch 4 = m?lG Lc ngKn l! F 'hqn .Ung nhau3 ;hqn 1 ch^a N
F
Fl@K J $' Vut Fat!+ 'hqn
F Fl@K J $' Vut 1at!3 Tnh + H+ k cQa 0u$ tr6nh trWn ln F h h% ngN% ta ./ J$ch ngKn %3
?ii:
T = Fl@K _ 4
.
?N
F
G = 4
.
?h
F
G =
F
m
?lG
k = k?N
F
G R k?h
F
G =
F
N
n
3>ln
1
F
V
V
R
F
O
n
>ln
1
F
V
V
=
RT
V P
N N
F F
3
>ln
m + F
m
R
RT
V P
O O
F F
3
>ln
m + F
m
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang FB
= F ln
3 3
F F F F
T
V P V P
O O N N
+
= E+E1oB?l3atDKG = E+E1oB 31E1+AFm = 1+oiA ?CDKG
: uu$ tr6nh zng nh%Ht H = E
= H : T3 k = : Fl@ 31+oiA = : mFm+AoB ?CG
%>" $K: Ch" c$c 7& l%Hu Vau (y Fl@K
Cht
E
S
H ?CD!"lKG k
E
?CD!"lKG 4?!
A
D!"lG
C
than ch6
E+EE m+ili m+A131E
i
C
%! c1ng
1+lE F+BFo A+B1i31E
:i
1G Fl@K c, th- c, !Wt 'hqn rt nh/ %! c1ng cXng tvn t<% J5% than ch6 Lc hMngs
FG Tnh $' Vut t]% th%-u 'h#% 7Xng - c, th- %u chS Lc %! c1ng Fl@Ks
?ii
1G

!
ki& c Mng
!
than ch
A
1
=J
Fl@

H
"
= H
"

than ch6
: H
"

%! c1ng
= E : 1+l = :1+l ?CG
k
"
= k
"

than ch6
: k
"
%! c1ng
= m+ili : F+BFo = A+Fil ?CDKG

E
+ Fl@ #u
G = H
"
: T3 k
"
= :1lEE : Fl@3A+Fil = :F@oB+1iF?CG

"
E ?Tuy nh%n
"
hMng 0u$ (!G
;h#n ^ng tY *#y ra thp" ch%u thuPn hMng tvn t<% !Wt lLng nh/ %! c1ng cXng J5% than ch63
FG

A
1
=#*2.-(0# (3 )
Fl@

!
than ch
!
ki& c Mng
4 = 4
KC
: 4
TC
= A+B1i31E
:i
: m+A131E
:i
= 1+@lB31E
:i
?!
A
D!"lG
Ta c,9 7 = 47; : k7T

T
P
G

,
_

= 4
T
P
G

,
_

= 4

F
P
G
:
1
P
G
= 4?;
F
: ;
1
G
\- %u chS Lc %! c1ng tT than ch6 th69
F
P
G
E

1
P
G
R 4?;
F
: ;
1
G E
;
F
: ;
1
:
V
G
P

1
?e" 4 EG
;
F
;
1
:
V
G
P

1
= 1 R
AFm + 1E1 3 1E 3 @lB + 1
1iF + F@oB
A
;
F
1Bloo+im ?at!G
4Py $' Vut t]% th%-u 'h#% 7Xng - %u chS Lc %! c1ng tT than ch6 l 1Bloo+imat!3

Nh :IF R #+
o
!- cPn bOng than ch ki& c Mng tSn tTi R <p =@Ut khoCng
1mEEE at!3 $' Vut ca" h1n 0u$ tr6nh chuy-n than ch6 thnh %! c1ng l tY 7%xn .%Sn+ !`c 7qu J5% t]c W rt chP!3
u]n tKng t]c W 'h#% tKng nh%Ht W J $' Vut+ tr"ng thYc tS 0u$ tr6nh chuy-n than ch6 thnh %! c1ng Lc t%Sn hnh
h% c, *2c t$c ?N% R Cr R G nh%Ht W trn 1mEE
"
C J ; mEEEEat!3
%>" $W: ;h#n ^ng g%&a n J 77 Cukh
B
*#y ra tr"ng ]ng ngh%H! t"# ra lLng nh%Ht FAE+oAiC3 Cng 'h#n ^ng trn
ch" *#y ra tr"ng '%n %Hn th6 !Wt 'hqn h"$ nKng chuy-n thnh %Hn nKng3 CMng %Hn cQa '%n l F1E+ioFC3 Ch^ng !%nh
rUng9 t cQa F 0u$ tr6nh hMng I%+ nhng nh%Ht t"# ra thay I%3 Tnh k cQa 'h#n ^ng+ k
!t
J k
t'
s Ch" T = AEEK
?ii:
n R Cukh
B
= nkh
B
R Cu
: Kh% thYc h%Hn tr"ng ]ng ngh%H!9 ?T%Sn hnh .t thuPn ngh[chG
4
n
4
Cu

tt
= E _ = E
t
dTN
= u
dTN
= H = :FAE+oAiC
: Kh% thYc h%Hn 'h#n ^ng tr"ng '%n %Hn ?0u$ tr6nh thuPn ngh[chG

!a*
= : F1E+ioF ?CG =
!a*
= :F1E+ioF?CG
H
TN
= H
dTN
= : FAE+oAi?CG
u
TN
= T3 k = H : = :FAE+oAi R F1E+ioF = :FE+EiB?CG
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang Fm
t
TN
= u R R ;3 4 = :FE+EiB = F1E+ioF R E = :FAE+oAi ?CG = t
dTN
: k
hH
=
T
Q
TN
= :
AEE
1E 3 EiB + FE
A
= ii+@@?CDKG
k
!tdTN
= :
T
Q
(TN
=
AEE
1E 3 oAi + FAE
A
= oil+1F?CDKG
k
t'?dTNG
= oEF+FB?CDKG
k
!t?TNG
= :
T
Q
TN
= :k
hH
k
t'?TNG
= E
%>" -X:
:
'
=
!a*
bct 1 'h#n ^ng thuPn ngh[ch tr"ng '%n %Hn th6
'
=
!a*
E
: Nhng !Wt hZc V%nh J%St rUng9
Tr"ng !Z% 0u$ tr6nh luMn c,9 k
J tr8
= k
!t
R k
hH
?1G
H
!t
= : H
hH
?FG
k
!t
=
T
H
mt

= :
T
H
h!

k
J tr8
= :
T
H
h!

R k
hH
T3 k
J tr8
= : H
hH
R T3 k
hH
= :
hH
45% 0u$ tr6nh thuPn ngh[ch th6 k
J tr8
= E
hH
= E
'
= E
Hy g%#% thch !(u thun ny3
?ii:
?FG chO 2ng h% ng"% cMng g%n n hH hMng thYc h%Hn cMng n" h$c9
H = t R ;3 4 t = H : ;3 4
u = t : = ?H : ;3 4G : ?:;3 4 R G
u
hH
= H
hH
: = : H
!t
ChO h% = E th6 H
!t
= : H
hH
* Tr"ng '%n9
!a*
= E nn H
!t
H
hH
3
%>" -1: bct 'h#n ^ng9 n
?rG
R Cu
FR
?a0G
n
FR
?a0G
R Cu
?rG
7%xn ra tr"ng tc Fm
"
C3
aG Tnh + u+ t+ H+ + k cQa 'h#n ^ng %u %Hn trn3
d%St9 n
FR
?a0G
n
?rG
Cu
?rG
Cu
FR
?a0G
E
Fl@ + S
H ?CD!"lG :1mF+B E E iB+Al
E
Fl@
S ?CD!"l3KG : 1Ei+m B1+i AA+A : l@+o
.G bct h# nKng tY 7%xn .%Sn cQa 'h#n ^ng thp" F c$ch h$c nhau3
cG NSu thYc h%Hn 'h#n ^ng trn 1 c$ch thuPn ngh[ch tr"ng '%n %Hn th6 c$c St 0u# trn c, g6 thay I%s Tnh
'%n
s
?ii:
aG
E
#u
H =
E
+
F+

+n S
H
R
E
+Cu S
H : +
E
++n S
H
E
+
F+

Cu S
H
= :1mF+B : iB+Al = :F1i+ol ?CG

E
#u
S =
E
G ?
F
$) +n
S
+ R
E
G ?r Cu
S :
E
G ?r +n
S :
E
G ?
F
$) Cu
S
+ = :1Ei+m R AA+A : B1+i R l@+o = :1i+1 ?CDKG

E
#u
G =
E
H : T3
E
S = :F1i+ol R Fl@+1m 31i+131E
:A
= :F11+ll?CG
t
"
= u
;
=
E
#u
H = :F1i+ol ?CG
= E_ 0u$ tr6nh dTN_ = E
.G *
E
#u
G = :F11+ll ?CG E ? : BE CG
e"
E
#u
G rt (! nn 'h#n ^ng tY *#y ra hMng nh&ng c ! c}n c# c$c %u %Hn h$c n&a3
* k
!t
=
T
Q
mt
=
T
H
h!
E

=
1m + Fl@
1E 3 ol + F1i
A
= oFo+1F ?CDKG
k
J tr8
= k
hH
R k
!t
= :1i+1 R oFo+1F = o11+EF ?CDKG
46 k
hH cM lP'
= k
J tr8
= o11+EF ?CDKG g E
uu$ tr6nh l .t thuPn ngh[ch 'h#n ^ng tY *#y ra3
cG Kh% thYc h%Hn 'h#n ^ng trn TN tr"ng '%n %Hn th6 c$c g%$ tr[ H
E
+ k
E
+
E
+ t
E
hMng thay I% 7" H+ k+ + t l c$c
h! tr<ng th$% nn hMng 'h8 thuWc 0u$ tr6nh .%Sn I% l thuPn ngh[ch hay .t thuPn ngh[ch nhng c$c g%$ tr[ u+ th6
thay I%3
C8 th-9
tt
= E_
!a*
= E = :F11+ll?CG
u = T3 k = Fl@+1m 3?:1i+1G = : B@EE+F1m ?CG
Chuyn NHIT HA HC Trang Fi
k
!t
=
T
Q
mt
=
T
Q
h!

= 1i+1 ?CDKG k
J tr8
= k
!t
R k
hH
= E

'%n
= :
n
G
E

=
liB@m 3 F
F11llE
1+1?4G
%>" -2:
\]% J5% nguyn t] \an%pn 1m
"
C ngN% ta *$c [nh Lc V^c %Hn Wng = 1+ElAAo4 J hH V] nh%Ht W cQa V^c %Hn
Wng
T
*

= E+EEEBFl 4DK3 Hy tnh h%Hu ^ng nh%Ht cQa 'h#n ^ng h"$ hZcs
?ii:
= : n~
T
G

= : n~3
T
*

= : k k = n~ 3
T
*

H = R T3 k = n~3?T3
T
*

: G
H = F3 liB@m 3?Fl@+1m3E+EEEBFl : 1+ElAAoG : : 1@o1iF+m?CG
%>" -$: Ch" 'h#n ^ng h"$ hZc9 n R Cu
FR
n
FR
R Cu
*#y ra !Wt c$ch thuPn ngh[ch zng nh%Ht+ zng $' Fm
"
C tr"ng nguyn t] anJan%3
k^c %Hn Wng cQa nguyn t] " Lc l 1+14 J hH V] nh%Ht W cQa V^c %Hn Wng l
P
T
*

,
_

= A+A31E
:m
?4DKG3
aG Tnh h%Hu ^ng nh%Ht u+ .%Sn th%n %'*1 J .%Sn th%n pntr"'% k cQa 'h#n ^ng h"$ hZc ch"3
.G Tnh u
tn
cQa 0u$ tr6nhs
cG NSu cng 'h#n ^ng h"$ hZc trn thYc h%Hn cXng nh%Ht W J cXng $' Vut nhng tr"ng !Wt .6nh cqu thNng th6 c$c g%$
tr[ cQa + k V l .a" nh%us
?ii:
aG = : n~ = : F 31+1 3liB@m = : F1FFio?CG
k = :
T
G

= n3~ 3
T
*

= F 3liB@m 3A+A 31E

:m
= i+Ai@ ?CDKG
H = R T3 k = F1FFio R Fl@+1m 3i+Ai@ = :F1EAi@+B?CG
.G u
tn
= T 3 k = Fl@+1m 3i+Ai@ = 1@l@+iF ?CG
cG NSu 'h#n ^ng h"$ hZc thYc h%Hn cXng nh%Ht W+ $' Vut nhng tr"ng 1 .6nh cqu thNng t^c l thYc h%Hn 0u$ tr6nh !Wt
c$ch .t thuPn ngh[ch th6 + k cQa 'h#n ^ng Jn nh c(u ?aG3 e" + k l c$c h! tr<ng th$% g%$ tr[ cQa + k
hMng 'h8 thuWc J" 0u$ tr6nh .%Sn th%n3
%>" --: Tnh cMng cQa VY .%Sn I% zng nh%Ht thuPn ngh[ch J .t thuPn ngh[ch cQa B@ ga! h h
F
Lc c"% l l tung
nh%Ht W Fm
E
C h%9
a3 %n n tT 1Eat! *u]ng 1at!
.3 Ncn tT 1at! Sn 1Eat!
\$' V]9
tn
= :@+i31E
:A
C_
.tn
=:A+A31E
A
C
.3

tn
= @+i31E
:A
_

.tn
= A+A31E
B
C3