1 CHNG 1.

MA TRN - NH THC

1.1 Ma trn
1.1.1 nh ngha.
Ma trn A cp m n trn R l mt bng s hnh ch nht gm m hng v n ct c
biu din nh sau:
a11
a
21
A

am1

a12

...

a22

...

am 2

a1 n

= aij , i 1, m, j 1, n
m n

... amn
a2 n

Trong :
aij R : l phn t thuc dng i v ct j ca ma trn A.

m : s dng ca ma trn A.
n : s ct ca ma trn A.

ai1

ai 2 ... ain : dng th i ca ma trn A.

a1 j
a
2 j : ct th j ca ma trn A.
...

amj

K hiu M mn ( R ) l tp hp cc ma trn cp m n trn R .

1 0 2
V d. Xt ma trn B
. Ma trn B l ma trn cp 2 3 .
1 2 0
1.1.2 Cc dng c bit ca ma trn.
1) Ma trn dng
Ma trn dng l ma trn c mt dng v n ct, k hiu l A = a1 a2 ... an
V d. A 2 8 3
2) Ma trn ct

a1

a
Ma trn ct l ma trn c m dng v mt ct, k hiu l : A 2


am

1
2
V d. A
4

0
3) Ma trn khng:
Ma trn khng l ma trn c tt c cc phn t u bng 0, k hiu 0 0 mn

V d. 0 032

0 0
0 0
0 0 ; 0

0 0
0 0

4) Ma trn vung cp n:
Ma trn vung cp n l ma trn c s dng v s ct bng n, k hiu l
a11

a
A 21

an1

a12
a22

an 2

... a1n

... a2 n
aij
n

... ann

Tp hp cc ma trn vung cp n c k hiu : A M n ( R ) .

ng thng i qua cc phn t a11 , a22 , a33 ,..., ann c gi l ng cho chnh ca
ma trn A. ng thng i qua cc phn t a1n , a2( n1) , a3( n 2) ,..., an1 c gi l ng
cho ph ca ma trn A.
V d.
1 1 4
Ma trn A 1 2 0 l mt ma trn vung. ng thng i qua cc phn t 1,2,-3 l
4 0 3

ng cho chnh.
5) Ma trn tam gic
Ma trn tam gic trn l ma trn vung c cc phn t nm pha di ng cho chnh
u bng 0.

1 2 3
V d. A 0 2 4
0 0 1

Ma trn tam gic di l ma trn vung c cc phn t nm pha trn ng cho chnh
u bng 0.

1 0 0
V d. A 0 2 0
5 4 1

6) Ma trn cho
Ma trn cho l ma trn vung c cc phn t khng nm trn ng cho chnh bng 0
1 0 0
V d. A 0 2 0
0 0 3

7) Ma trn n v cp n
Ma trn n v cp n l ma trn cho c cc phn t nm trn ng cho chnh bng 1.
K hiu l I I n .
1
1 0 0
0
1 0
0 1 0 ;

V d. I 2
;
I

3
4

0
0
1

0 0 1

0 0 0
1 0 0
.
0 1 0

0 0 1

8) Ma trn chuyn v
Chuyn v ca ma trn A l ma trn c c t A bng cch vit cc hng ca ma trn A
theo th t thnh ct, k hiu l At .
1 1 4
1 1 5

t
V d. Cho A 1 2 1 . Khi A 1 2 2
5 2 3
4 1 3

9) Ma trn i xng
Ma trn vung A aij gi l ma trn i xng nu aij a ji , i, j 1, n , tc l A At
n

1 1 4
V d. Ma trn A 1 2 0 l mt ma trn i xng.
4 0 3

1.1.3 Cc php ton v ma trn

1) Hai ma trn bng nhau.

Hai ma trn cng cp A M nm ( R ) v B M nm ( R ) gi l bng nhau nu cc phn t tng

ng ca chng bng nhau, tc l: A B aij bij (i, j ) .
2
1
1 2
V d. Cho A
,B

. Tm a, b sao cho A B
a a b
2 1
Theo nh ngha trn gii c a 2, b 1 .
2) Php nhn mt s vi ma trn.
Cho c 0 v ma trn A aij

m n

M mn ( R ) . Khi : cA (caij )mn

1 2 3
V d. Cho A
. Khi
2 1 0
1 2 3 2 4 6
2 A 2

.
2 1 0 4 2 0
1 2 3
3 6 9
v 3 A
A

2 1 0
6 3 0
3) Php cng hai ma trn.
Cho A aij

m n

v B bij

m n

. Tng ca A v B l ma trn C cij

mn

c xc nh nh

sau:

cij aij bij , i 1, m, j 1, n

1 2 3
1 1 1
1 3 1
V d. Vi A
v B
, C

. Khi
2 3 1
0 1 0
0 4 0
0 3 4
2 3 2
A B
; A B 2C

2 4 1
2 4 1
Nhn xt. Php cng hai ma trn ch thc hin c khi hai ma trn cng cp.
4) Php nhn mt dng vi mt ct
Cho A M 1n ( R ) v B M n1 ( R )

A a1

a2 ... an

b1

b
; B 2

bn

Khi AB gi l tch (v hng) ca mt dng vi mt ct:

AB a1b1 a2 b2 ... an bn

 3
2
V d. A 1 2 0 7 v B th : AB (1).3 + 2.(2) + 0.6 + 7.2 7.
6

2
5) Php nhn hai ma trn
Cho A M mk ( R ) v B M k n ( R ) . Gi A1, A2, ..., Am l m dng ca A; B (1) , B (2) , ..., B ( n ) l
n ct ca B.
Ta vit:

A1

A
A 2 v B B (1)


Am

Vi Ai ai1

B (2)

... B ( n)

ai 2 ... aik v B( j )

b1 j

b2 j
.


bkj

Khi C = AB gi l ma trn tch ca A vi B v phn t cij ca C c xc nh nh

sau
cij Ai B ( j ) ai1b1 j ai 2b2 j ... aik bkj

Nhn xt
Php nhn hai ma trn AB ch thc hin c khi s ct ca ma trn A l s dng ca ma
trn B. Vi A M mk ( R) v B M k n ( R) th C M mn ( R)
Ni chung AB BA . Trng hp AB BA th ta ni A v B l hai ma trn giao hon.
1 0
1 2
1 2
3 2
V d. Cho A
v B
. Khi AB
BA

.
1 3
1 1
1 1
0 1
1 2
1 2 3 4
V d. Cho A 3 0 , B
.
2 1 0 3
2 4

Ta c: A1 1 2 , A2 3 0 , A3 2 4 v
1
2
3
4
B(1) , B (2) , B(3) , B (4) . Khi ma trn AB xc nh bi :
2
1
0
3

 1
c11 A1B (1) 1 2 1.1 2(2) 3 , tng t
2
c12 4, c13 3, c14 10, c21 3, c22 6, c23 9, c24 12
c31 6, c32 8, c33 6, c34 20

3 4 3 10
Vy AB 3 6 9 12
6 8
6 20

1 5 2
1 2 3
8 1 14

V d. A
, B 0 1 0 . Khi AB
; BA khng thc
3 1 0
3 14 6
3 2 4

hin c.
1.1.4 Cc tnh cht ca cc php ton trn ma trn
Php cng hai ma trn c cc tnh cht sau:
Cho A, B M mn ( R) v , R \ {0} . Ta c :

1) A B B A
2) ( A B) C A ( B C )

3) Omn A A Omn A
4) A ( A) Omn
5) ( ) A ( A)
6) ( A B ) A B
7) ( ) A A A
8)1A A, 0. A 0
Php nhn hai ma trn c cc tnh cht sau:

1) A( B C ) AB AC ,
2) A( BC ) ( AB)C ,

3) ( AB)t B t At ,
4) c( AB) (cA) B A(cB)
1.1.5 Cc php bin i s cp trn dng
Cc php bin i bin ma trn A thnh ma trn A sau c gi l cc php bin i
s cp trn dng.

Loi 1 : i ch hai dng cho nhau, k hiu :

d d

i
j
A
A'

Loi 2 : Bin dng i thnh c ln dng i (c 0) , k hiu :

di cdi
A
A'

Loi 3 : Bin dng i thnh dng i cng c ln dng j (c 0, i j ) , k hiu :

d d cd

i
i
j
A
A'

1 2 3
V d. Cho ma trn A 4 5 6 . Ta c
7 8 9

1 2 3
1 2 3

d2 2 d 2
A 4 5 6
A ' 8 10 12
7 8 9
7 8 9

1 2 3
1 2 3

d2 d 2 2 d1
A 4 5 6
A ' 6 9 12
7 8 9
7 8 9

1 2 3
4 5 6

d2 d1
A 4 5 6 A ' 1 2 3
7 8 9
7 8 9

1.1.6 Ma trn bc thang

1) Ma trn khc khng A M mn ( R), (m, n 2) c gi l ma trn bc thang dng, nu c
mt s nguyn r (0 r min m, n) , v mt dy cc ch s ct 1 j1 , j2 ,..., jr n , sao
cho :
1 i r
i) aij 0 nu r i m hoc
1 j ji
ii ) a1 j1 a2 j2 ...arjr 0

Cc phn t a1 j1 , a2 j2 ,...arjr gi l cc phn t c nh du ca A. Nu ngoi i) v ii)

cn c thm:
iii ) a1 j1 a2 j2 ... arjr 1
iv) akji 0,1 k i r

th A c gi l ma trn bc thang dng rt gn.

V d. Cc ma trn sau y l ma trn bc thang:

1
1 2 3
0

A 0 5 6 ; B
0
0 0 0

2 3 4
1 4 5
0 1 0

0 0 1

2) Ma trn khc khng B M mn ( R ), ( m, n 2) c gi l ma trn bc thang ct (bc

thang ct rt gn) nu chuyn v Bt ca B l mt ma trn bc thang dng (bc thang dng
rt gn).
1.1.7 Hng ca ma trn
Cho A M mn ( R) v B l ma trn bc thang nhn c t A bng mt s hu hn
cc php bin i s cp. Khi s dng (s ct) khc khng ca B c gi l hng ca
A, k hiu l rank(A) hoc r(A).
1 2 3
V d .Tm hng ca ma trn A 4 5 6 .
3 3 9

Dng php bin i s cp dng a ma trn A v dng bc thang:

1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3

d3 d3 3 d2
d 2 d2 4 d1
'
A 4 5 6
d3 d3 3 d1
0 3 6 0 3 6 A
3 3 9
0 9 18
0 0 0

Ma trn bc thang A c hai dng khc 0 nn rank ( A) 2

Nhn xt.
Ma trn bc thang c cc c im sau:
1) Phn t khc 0 u tin ca dng trn nm v bn tri so vi phn t khc 0 u tin ca
dng di.
2) Dng bng 0 (nu c) nm pha di so vi dng khc 0.
Ta c th dng php bin i s cp dng a mt ma trn bt k v dng bc thang.
V d. Hy a ma trn A v dng bc thang dng v bc thang dng rt gn
1 2 3 4
A 2 4 1 10
3 6 1 15

Dng php bin i dng a ma trn A v dng bc thang dng nh sau:


1 2 3
1 2 3 4
8
d3 d3 d2

d 2 d2 2 d1
7
A
0
0
7
2

0 0 7
d3 d3 3d1

0 0 8 3

0 0 0

1 2 3

B
0 0 1

0 0 0

1
d 2 d2
7
7
d3 d3
5

2 B
5

4
1 2 3 0
1 2 0 0

2 d2 d 2 27 d3
d1 d1 3 d2

0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 C
d1 d1 4 d3
7
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1

B l ma trn bc thang ca A, C l ma trn bc thang rt gn ca A.

1.2 nh thc
1.2.1 nh thc cp 2.
Cho A aij M 2 ( R ) , nh thc cp 2 ca ma trn A c xc nh v k hiu nh
2

sau
det A A

a11

a12

a21

a22

a11a22 a21a12

1 2
1 2
V d. Cho A
ta c : det A
1 1 2 (3) 7 .

3 1
3 1

1.2.2 nh thc cp 3.
Cho A aij M 3 ( R) . nh thc cp 3 ca ma trn A c xc nh v k hiu
3

nh sau :
a11

a12

a13

det A a21
a31

a22
a32

a23 a11a22 a33 a12a23 a31 a21a32 a13 a13a22 a31 a12 a21a33 a23a32 a11
a33

1.2.3 nh thc cp n
Cho A M n ( R ) , ta k hiu A(i,j) l ma trn c c t A bng cch b dng i v
ct j .
1 3 4
1 4
V d. Cho A 4 5 6 th A(2, 2)

3 3
3 2 3

Phn ph i s ca phn t aij l mt s c xc nh v k hiu nh sau:

Aij ( 1) i j det A(i, j )

Cho A aij M n ( R ) . nh thc cp n ca ma trn A c nh ngha l:

n

det A

a11

a12

... a1n

a21

a22

n
... a2 n
a pj Apj (khai trin theo dng p) hoc

j 1

an1

an 2 ... ann

det A aiq Aiq (khai trin theo ct q).

i 1

1
1
V d. Cho A
2

1 2 2
2 1 2
. Tnh det A .
1 2 1

2 2 1

Ta khai trin theo dng 1 ta c :

11

A11 (1)

2 1 2
1 1 2
1 2
1 2 1 3 ; A12 (1) 2 2 1 0 ;
2 2 1

1 3

A13 (1)

2 2 1

1 2 2
1 2 1
1 4
2 1 1 3 ; A14 (1) 2 1 2 0
2 2 1

2 2 2

Do det A a1 j A1 j 1.(3) 1.0 2.3 2.0 3

j 1

1.2.4 Cc tnh cht ca nh thc

Da vo nh ngha ca nh thc ta suy ra c cc tnh cht sau:
1) Nu i dng thnh ct, ct thnh dng th nh thc khng thay i , tc l

det A det At
2) Nu i ch hai dng cho nhau th nh thc i du, tc l:
d d

i
j
A
A ' det( A) det( A ')

3) T mt dng (mt ct) ta cng vo mt dng khc (ct khc) sau khi nhn mt s c 0
th nh thc khng i
d d cd

i
i
j
A
A ' khi det( A ') det( A) .

4) Ta c th a tha s chung c 0 ra ngoi nh thc, tc l:

di cdi
A
A ' khi det( A ') c det( A) .

5) Cho A M n ( R) , nu mi phn t trn dng (ct) ca A l tng ca hai phn t th nh

thc ca A tch ra c thnh tng ca hai nh thc.
V d.

aa' bb'
a b
a ' b'
aa' b
a b
a' b

hoc

c
d
c d
c d
c c' d
c d
c' d

6) Cho A, B M n ( R ) khi det AB det A det B .

Nhn xt.
1) Da vo cc tnh cht trn, ta c th dng cc php bin i s cp dng tnh nh
thc cp n.
1 2 5
V d. Cho A 1 1 2 . Khi :
1 2 1

1
det( A) 1

2 5
1 2 5
h2 h2 h1
1 3
h3 h3 h1
1 2
0 1 3 1
6
4 6
1 2 1
0 4 6

2) Cho A aij

m n

. Hng ca ma trn l cp cao nht ca nh thc con khc 0.

3) Cho A aij l ma trn vung cp n. Khi rank ( A) n det A 0

n

1 2 3
V d. Cho ma trn A 4 5 6 . Tm hng ca ma trn A theo m.
3 3 m

Ta c det A m 9. Nu m 9 th rank ( A) 2 ; nu m 9 th rank ( A) 3 .

1.3 Ma trn nghch o
1.3.1 nh ngha
Cho ma trn A M n ( R ) . Ta ni ma trn A kh nghch nu B M n ( R ) tho mn:
BA AB I n

Ta ni B (tn ti duy nht) l ma trn nghch o ca A. K hiu B A1

1.3.2 nh l
Cho A M n ( R ) . Khi A kh nghch nu v ch nu det A 0
1.3.3 Tnh cht
Nu A, B M n ( R) l hai ma trn kh nghch th :

1) ( A1 )1 A
2) ( AB)1 B 1 A1
3) ( At )1 ( A1 )t
4) (cA)1

1 1
A
c

5) Nu A kh nghch th det A1 det A

1.3.4 Phng php tm ma trn nghch o bng php bin i s cp

Ngi ta chng minh c kt qu sau: Cho A M n ( R) l ma trn kh nghch.
Khi nhng php bin i s cp trn dng no bin A thnh In th chng cng bin In
(theo th t ) thnh A1 .
T ta c phng php tm ma trn nghch o nh sau:
tm ma trn A1 vi
a11

a
A 21

an1

a12
a22

an 2

... a1n

... a2 n

... ann

Ta lp ma trn

A I
n

a11

a
21

an1

a12
a22

an 2

... a1n 1 0 ... 0

... a2 n 0 1 ... 0

... ann 0 0 ... 1

Dng php bin i s cp dng i vi A I n bin A thnh In khi In bin thnh

A1 .
1 3 2
V d. Tm A vi A 1 4 2 .
1 3 3

Ta c :

1 3 2 1 0 0 d d d 1 3 2 1 0 0
2
2
1

d 2 d 2 d1
0 1 0 1 1 0
A I3 1 4 2 0 1 0
1 3 3 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 1

 1 0 0 6 3 2

0 1 0 1 1 0 I3 A1 .
0 0 1 1 0 1

d1 d1 2 d3
d1 d1 3d 2

6 3 2
Vy A 1 1 0
1 0 1

1.3.5 Phng php tm ma trn nghch o nh nh thc

Ta gi ma trn ph hp PA ca ma trn A l ma trn c xc nh nh sau:

PA ij A ji ; i, j 1, n
tm A1 ta thc hin hai bc
Bc 1. Tnh D det A
Nu det A 0 th A khng kh nghch
Nu det A 0 th A kh nghch, chuyn sang bc 2.
Bc 2. Lp ma trn ph hp PA . Khi : A1

1
PA .
D

1 3 2
V d. Dng phng php nh thc tm A ca A 1 4 2
1 3 3

Ta c: D det A 1

A11 (1)11
A21 (1) 21
A31 (1)31

4 2
3 3

6; A12 (1)1 2

1 2
1 3

1; A13 (1) 13

1 4
1 3

1;

3 2
1 2
1 3
3; A22 (1)2 2
1; A23 (1) 2 3
0;
3 3
1 3
1 3
3 2
4 2

2; A32 (1)3 2

1 2
1 2

0; A33 (1)33

1 3
1 4

6 3 2
1
Khi : A PA 1 1 0 .
D
1 0 1

Trong chng ny chng ta lm quen mt i tng mi l ma trn, v cc vn

xoay quanh ma trn. Trong Ton hc c nhng vn dn n vic gii h phng trnh,
v gii h phng trnh ny sinh ra khi nim mi l ma trn. thy r iu
ta s nghin cu chng tip theo l H phng trnh tuyn tnh.

BI TP CHNG I
1.1 Thc hin cc php ton trn ma trn
4

1
a ) 1 2 3 4
0

5
1
2 4
c ) 3 1 3 2

4 3 1

2 2 1
1 3 2

b)
4 2 3
5 1 0

2 0 1
0
2 1 2
d)
4 1 2
3 4 1 3

2 2 1
2 1
1 1 2

e) Cho A
, B 4 2 3 ,C 7 2 .
5 1 3
2 0 1
1 6

Tnh 3A+2BT , AB,AB-BA, BC, ABC, BA-3C+I3

1 2
3
f) Cho f ( x) 2 x 2 3 x 1, g ( x) x 2 2 x , A
. Tnh f ( A), g ( A).
x
2 5
1 a
2 1
a 1
g) Cho A
, B
, C
. Tnh An , B10 , C 2011

0 1
1 3
0 a
1 0 3
2 2 1

1.2 Cho A 2 1 1 , B 4 2 3 . Tm ma trn nghch o A1 , B 1 (nu c)

3 2 2
2 0 1

bng 2 phng php hc.

1.3 Tnh cc nh thc sau:

a)

e)

2 3
1 2
1 2 3 4
2 3 4 1
3 4 1 2
4 1 2 3

2 3
b) 0
1

f)

2
3

1 0 3

2
m

0 a b c
a 0 c b
b b 0 a
c

1.4 Gii cc phng trnh sau:

a 0

c) 2 1 1 ,
3 2 2

2 1

d)B 4 2
2 0

1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
g) 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0

3
1

1
a ) 3
2

3
7
5

1
1
c) 0 1
1

2
5 0

b) 2

8
0
1

d)

0
1

1
0

0
2

0
1

1.5 Tm hng ca cc ma trn sau:

1 0 3

a) A 2 1 2 ,
3 2 2

1 2 1 2
2 3 7 1

c) C
1 1 3 5

10 2 4 15

2 CHNG 2.

1 2

b ) B 4 5
2 0

1
d ) D 1

1
1

3
1
1 1
1 1
1
1
1

1
1

1
1 1 1

1 1 1
1 1 1

H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH

2.1 H phng trnh tuyn tnh

2.1.1 H phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut.
H phng trnh gm m phng trnh n n c dng:
a11 x1 a12 x2 ... a1n xn b1
a x a x ... a x b
21 1 22 2
2n n
2

...

am1 x1 am 2 x2 ... amn xn bm

(3.1)

c gi l h phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut.Trong aij , bi R , x1 , x2 ,..., xn l cc n

s. Ta t

a11

a
A 21

am1
gi l ma trn h s ca (3.1)

a12
a22

am 2

... a1n

... a2 n

... amn

 b1
x1


b
x
B 2 : ct h s t do, X 2 : ct n s.




bm
xn

a11 a12 ... a1n

a
a
... a2 n
A B 21 22

am1 am 2 ... amn

b1

b2
gi l ma trn b sung (m rng) ca h (3.1).

bm

Vi cch t nh trn h (3.1) c vit li : AX B

Khi B=0 h (3.1) c gi l h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht. Ngc li ta gi l h
khng thun nht .
2.1.2 Nghim ca h phng trnh
c1

c
Nghim ca h (3.1) l b s C 2 sao cho AC B . Qu trnh i tm tp

cn

nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh gi l gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh.
Hai h phng trnh tuyn tnh c cng s n (s phng trnh c th khc nhau) gi l
tng ng nu chng c cng tp hp nghim.
V d. Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh sau:
x1 3 x2 2 x3 1

x1 4 x2 2 x3 2 (1)
x 3x 3x 3
1
2
3

Ma trn h s ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh l:

1 3 2
A 1 4 2
1 3 3

Ma trn nghch o ca A ( c c t v d trc) l

6 3 2
A 1 1 0
1 0 1

 6 3 2 1 6
H (1) AX B X A B 1 1 0 2 1
1 0 1 3 2

x1 6

Vy h phng trnh c nghim l: x2 1 .

x 2
3

V d. Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh sau:

x1 x2 x3 1

3 x1 4 x2 3 x3 3
2 x 2 x 3x m
1
2
3
1

H phng trnh tng ng At X C X At C

X A

1 t

6 1 1 1 3 m

C 3 1 0
3 0
2 0 1 m 2 m

2.2 Phng php gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh

2.2.1 Phng php Cramer gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh
H phng trnh tuyn tnh (3.1) c gi l h Cramer nu m n v det A 0
a11 x1 a12 x2 ... a1n xn b1
a x a x ... a x b
21 1 22 2
2n n
2
(3.2)

...

an1 x1 an 2 x2 ... ann xn bn

t D det( A) v D j ( j 1, n) l nh thc c c bng cch thay ct j ca D bi ct t

do. Khi h phng trnh Cramer c nghim duy nht xc nh theo cng thc:
x1

D
D1
D
, x2 2 , ..., xn n .
D
D
D

x1 x2 x3 1

V d. Gii h phng trnh : 2 x1 6 x2 x3 0 .

3 x 4 x 2 x 0
2
3
1
1 1 1
Ta c : A 2 6 1 , D det( A) 11 0 ,
3 4 2

1 1

D1 0 6 1 8 , D2 2 0 1 7 , D3 2 6 0 26 .
0 4 2
3 0 2
3 4 0
Vy h c nghim duy nht : x1

8
7
26
.
, x2 , x3
11
11
11

2.2.2 nh l Kronecker Capelli

H (3.1) c nghim khi v ch khi r ( A) r ( A B ) . Hn na
i) r ( A) r ( A B ) n : h (3.1) c nghim duy nht.
ii) r ( A) r ( A B ) n : h (3.1) c v s nghim ph thuc (n r ) tham s.
iii) r ( A) r ( A B ) : h (3.1) v nghim.
2.2.3 nh l
Cho hai h phng trnh tuyn tnh c cng m phng trnh v n n s vi ma trn
m rng ln lt l ( A B);( A' B ' ), (m 2) . Khi nu ( A' B ' ) nhn c t ( A B ) bi
mt s hu hn cc php bin i s cp dng th hai h phng trnh tuyn tnh cho
tng ng nhau.
T hai nh l trn ta i n phng php sau:
2.2.4 Phng php Gauss gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh
gii h (3.1) ta thc hin cc bc:
Bc 1: Lp ma trn m rng ca A:

a11

a
A B 21

am1

a12
a22

am 2

... a1n b1

... a2 n b2

... amn bm

Bc 2: Dng cc php bin i s cp dng a ma trn ( A B ) v ma trn ( A' B ' ) , trong

A' l ma trn bc thang (rt gn). Da vo nh l Kronecker Capelli kt lun
nghim.
x1 2 x2 x3 1

V d. Gii h phng trnh : 2 x1 5 x2 x3 6 .

x 4 x 2 x 2
2
3
1

Ma trn ho h phng trnh trn ta thu c :

 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 0 3 7 1 0 0 40

2 5 1 6 0 1 1 4 0 1 1 4 0 1 0 15
1 4 2 2 0 2 3 3 0 0 1 11 0 0 1 11

H c nghim duy nht l : x1 40, x2 15, x3 11

V d . Gii h phng trnh :
x1 2 x2 3 x3 x4 1

3 x1 x2 5 x3 3 x4 1 .
4 x 3x 8x 4 x 0
2
3
4
1

Ta c

1 2 3 1 1 1 2 3 1 1
A B 3 1 5 3 1 0 7 4 0 4 .
4 3 8 4 0 0 0 0 0 2

Suy ra : r ( A B ) 3 . M r ( A) 2 r ( A B) . Vy h v nghim.
V d . Gii h phng trnh :
x1 x2 x3 1
.

2 x1 x2 3 x3 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 4 1
Ta c : A B

.
2 1 3 2 0 1 5 0
0 1 5 0

Suy ra : r ( A) r ( A B ) 2 n 3 , vy h c v s nghim.
Ta vit h thnh

x1 4 x3 1
x1 1 4 x3
.

x2 5 x3 0 x2 5 x3
Vy tp nghim ca h c dng
x1 1 4t

x2 5t (t R) .
x t
3

Nh vy vic gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh bng phng php Crammer i hi h
phng trnh tuyn tnh c s phng trnh v s n bng nhau, ma trn h s phi l ma
trn kh nghch trong khi phng php Gauss li cho php ta gii mt h bt k. Thc
cht phng php Gauss l phng php cng m trc y ta hc nhng trong qa
trnh gii ch c h s thay i ch cc n s vn gi nguyn nn ta quan tm n nhng h
s v c vit thnh ma trn.

BI TP CHNG II
2.1 Gii cc h phng trnh tuyn tnh sau:

x1 x2 2 x3 3

a ) x1 x2 x3 1
x x 2
1 3

2 x1 x2 2 x3 1

b) 3 x1 2 x2 6 x3 5
x x 7x 3

1
2
3
x 2 y 3 z 2t 1

4 x y 3z 2t 2
c)
16 x 9 y z 3t 3
x 4 y 7t 7 z 4

2 x y z 2t 1

c ) x 3 y 2 z t 1
2 x y z 5t 0

1 0 1
2.2 Cho ma trn A 1 1 1 . Tm A1 , ri gii cc h phng trnh sau:
1 2 2

x z 1

a) x y z 2
x 2 y 2 z 5

x y z 1

b) y 2 z m 1
x y 2 z 2

x z 1

c) x y z 2
2 x 2 y z 5

2.3 Gii v bin lun cc h phng trnh tuyn tnh sau:

x y 3z 1

a ) 2 x y mz 2
x my 3 z 4

2 x y 3z 1

b) x y z m 1
x 3 y 2z 2

x 3y z 3

c) 2 x 6 y 2 z m
2 x 2 y z 2 m 1

2.4 Trong mt ngy, khu phn n ca mi ngi cn c 80g Protit, 50g Lipit, 450g
Gluxit. Hm lng cc cht trn c trong 1g thc n A v B nh sau:
Cht dinh dng

Thc n
A

Protit (g)

0,1

0,2

Lipit (g)

0,2

0,3

Gluxit (g)

0,6

0,4

Hy lp phng trnh ma trn cho bi ton trn. Hy cho bit cc n s trong phng trnh
ma trn trn cho bit iu g?

CHNG 3.

KHNG GIAN VECT

3.1 Khng gian Vc-t

3.1.1 nh ngha
Tp hp V c gi l mt khng gian vect trn R nu ta nh ngha hai php
ton cng (+) v nhn v hng (.) trn V tha 10 tin sau:

u , v, w V ; , R
1) u , v V , u v V
2) u v v u
3) (u v) w u (v w)
4) 0 V , u 0 0 u u
5) u V , (u ) : u (u) 0
1) u V , R, u V
2) ( u ) ( )u ( u)
3) ( )u u u
4) u v u v .
5) 1u u
3.1.2 Cc V d v khng gian Vc-t
1) R3 vi php cng vect v php nhn mt s thc vi mt vect l khng gian vect
trn R
2) Tp hp M mn ( R ) gm tt c cc ma trn cp m n trn R cng vi php cng cc ma
trn v php nhn mt s vi mt ma trn to thnh mt khng gian vect.
3) Tp hp P2 x gm cc a thc bc khng qu 2 cng vi php cng hai a thc thng
thng v php nhn mt s vi a thc l mt khng gian vct trn R .
3.1.3 Tnh cht.
T cc tin trn ta suy ra c vi tnh cht sau ca khng gian Vc-t:
1) 0 0
2) 0u 0
3) (1)u u
4) u 0 0 u 0

 u u, u 0
u v, 0 u v
5) Vect 0 v vect i (-u) ca u tn ti duy nht.
6) u , v, w V : u w v w u v
3.2 c lp tuyn tnh v ph thuc tuyn tnh
3.2.1 T hp tuyn tnh
Cho V l khng gian vect trn R v cc vect u , u1 ,..., un V . Ta ni u l t hp
tuyn tnh ca h vect {u1 ,..., un } khi v ch khi tn ti 1 ,..., n R sao cho

u 1u1 ... nun .

Ta cng ni u biu th tuyn tnh c qua h vect {u1 ,..., un }
V d. Trong R3 , xt cc vect u (2,3,1), u1 (2,1,3), u 2 ( 2, 0, 0 ), u3 (1,1, 1) . Khi
: u u1 u2 2u3 nn u l t hp tuyn tnh ca cc vect u1 , u2 , u3 .
V d. Trong R 2 xt cc vect u1 ( 1, 0), u2 (0, 1), u3 (1,1) . Khi :
vec t 0 0, 0 c t nht hai cch biu th tuyn tnh c qua h vect {u1 , u2 , u3 }

0 0u1 0 u2 0u3 ; 0 1u1 1u2 1u3 .

T hp tuyn tnh 1u1 ... nun ca h {u1 ,..., un } gi l tm thng nu
n

1 ... n 0 . Ngc li, nu tn ti i 0 (1 i n ) th t hp tuyn tnh

i i

gi

i 1

l khng tm thng.
3.2.2 Ph thuc tuyn tnh
H vect {u1 ,..., un } c gi l ph thuc tuyn tnh nu tn ti i i1,n R tha

2
i

0 sao cho 1u1 ... nun 0

i 1

V d.
Trong

R3

xt

cc

vect

u1 (1,1, 2) , u2 ( 2, 0,1) , u3 (1, 1, 3) .

Khi

u1 u2 u3 0 nn h cc vect { u1 , u2 , u3 } l ph thuc tuyn tnh.

Tp hp S V c gi l tp ph thuc tuyn tnh nu tn ti h cc vect
{u1 ,..., un } S sao cho h {u1 ,..., un } ph thuc tuyn tnh.

V d. Trong R3 tp S u1 (1,1, 2), u2 ( 2,0,1), u3 (1, 1, 3), u4 (1,5, 3) ph

thuc tuyn tnh v h vect u1 , u2 , u3 S v { u1 , u2 , u3 } l ph thuc tuyn tnh.

3.2.3 c lp tuyn tnh

H vect {u1 ,..., un } c gi l c lp tuyn tnh nu 1u1 ... n un 0 th

1 ... n 0 .
u1 (1,1, 2), u2 (1, 1, 1), u3 (2,1,1) l c lp tuyn tnh v t

V d. H

xu1 yu2 zu3 0 ta suy ra x y z 0 .

Tp hp S V c gi l tp c lp tuyn tnh nu vi mi h cc vect
{u1 ,..., un } S th {u1 ,..., un } l h cc vect c lp tuyn tnh.

3.2.4 Cc tnh cht.

1) Mi h cha vect 0 u ph thuc tuyn tnh.
2) Mi h cha mt h con ph thuc tuyn tnh th ph thuc tuyn tnh.
3) Tp hp S {u1 ,..., un } l ph thuc tuyn tnh khi ui S sao cho ui l t hp
tuyn tnh ca cc vect cn li trong S.
4) Mi h con ca h c lp tuyn tnh th c lp tuyn tnh.
5) Tp hp S {u1 ,..., u n } l c lp tuyn tnh nu mi ui khng l t hp tuyn tnh
ca cc vect cn li trong S.
6) Tp hp S V hoc l tp c lp tuyn tnh hoc ph thuc tuyn tnh.
V d. Cho cc vect u1 ( 2,1, 1), u2 (1, 1, 1) , u3 ( 1, 0, 2 ) . Ta c u1 u2 u3
nn h cc vect { u1 , u2 , u3 } ph thuc tuyn tnh.
3.2.5 nh l.
Trong khng gian R n cho h m vect

u a
1

11

, a12 ,..., a1n , u 2 a21 , a22 ,..., a2 n ,..., um am1 , am 2 ,..., amn

a11

a
A 21
...

am1

a12
a22
...
am 2

... a1n

... a2 n
,
... ...

... amn

Khi u1 ,..., um l c lp tuyn tnh khi v ch khi rank ( A) m .

Trong trng hp m n th

rank ( A) n det A 0 .

u1 ,..., um

l c lp tuyn tnh khi v ch khi

V d. Cho cc vect u1 ( 2,1, 1,1), u2 (1, 1, 1, 2 ) , u3 ( 1, 0, 2,1) . Khi ta c

ma trn
2 1 1 1
A 1 1 1 2 c r ( A) 3 nn h cc vect u1 , u2 , u3 l c lp tuyn tnh.
1 0 2 1

V d. Xt h vect u1 (2,1, 1), u2 (1,1, 1) , u3 (3, 2, 2 ) . Khi ma trn

2 1 1
A 1 1 1 c det A 0 nn h u1 , u2 , u3 l ph thuc tuyn tnh.
3 2 2

3.3 Khng gian Vect con

3.3.1 nh ngha.
Cho V l khng gian vect trn R v W V . W c gi l khng gian con
ca V nu W cng l khng gian vect trn R vi cc php ton cng v nhn nh trn V.
K hiu W V .
nh l sau cho ta iu kin cn v tp W l khng gian con ca V
3.3.2 nh l
Cho V l khng gian vect trn R v W V . W l khng gian con ca V khi
v ch khi u , v W , R : u v W v u W .
V d. Xt W x1 , x2 , x3 / x1 0 R 3 . Khi W l khng gian con ca R3 .
Tht vy x1 , x2 , x3 , y1 , y2 , y3 R 3 sao cho x1 y1 0 . Ta c

x1 y1 0 x1 y1 , x2 y2 , x3 y3 W ,

x1 0 x1 , x2 , x3 x1 , x2 , x3 R3 .
3.3.3 Tp sinh khng gian vect sinh bi mt tp hp.
Cho V l khng gian vect trn R v u1 ,..., un V . Gi S l tp tt c cc t hp
tuyn tnh ca u1 ,..., un . Khi S l mt khng gian con ca V, ta ni S l khng gian
con ca V sinh bi u1 ,..., un . K hiu l: S u1 ,..., u n
Quy c {0} . Nu S V th ta ni S sinh ra V hay S l tp sinh ca V.
3.3.4 nh l
Cho U u1 ,..., un l mt h hu hn cc vect thuc V v U l h vect nhn
c t U sau mt s hu hn cc php bin i s cp. Khi ta c U U ' .

V d. Tm (1,1,1); (2,3, 4) (4,5, 6)

Ta lp ma trn dng t ba vect trn
1 1 1
A 2 3 4
4 5 6

Dng php bin i s cp dng a A v ma trn bc thang:

1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

d3 d3 d 2
d 2 d 2 2 d1
A 2 3 4
d3 d3 4 d1
0 1 2 0 1 2
4 5 6
0 1 2
0 0 0

Vy (1,1,1);(2,3, 4) (4,5, 6) (1,1,1); (0,1, 2)

3.4 C s- s chiu- ta
3.4.1 C s, s chiu ca khng gian vct
Cho V l khng gian vect V . Tp B V c gi l c s ca V nu B c
lp tuyn tnh v sinh ra V .
Khi s vect ca B c gi l s chiu ca V . K hiu l dimV.
V d. Trong khng gian vect R 3 , h vect B (1, 0, 0);(0,1, 0);(0, 0,1) c lp tuyn
tnh ng thi B sinh ra V nn B (1, 0, 0);(0,1, 0);(0, 0,1) l c s ca R 3 v c gi l
c s chnh tc ca R3 .
3.4.2 nh l
Cho V l khng gian vect trn R v B u1 ,..., un l c s ca V, B ' V . Khi
:
i) Nu B c nhiu hn n vect th B ph thuc tuyn tnh nn B khng l c s ca V.
ii) Nu B c t hn n vect th B khng sinh ra V nn B khng l c s ca V.
iii) Nu B c ng n vect th B l c s ca V B sinh ra V B c lp tuyn
tnh.
3.4.3 nh l
Trong khng gian vect hu hn chiu mi h vect c lp tuyn tnh u c th
b sung thnh c s
V d. Cho S (1,1,1);(2,3, 4) (4, 5, 6) . Tm dim S.

Ta c S (1,1,1);(2,3, 4) (4, 5, 6) (1,1,1); (0,1, 2) v (1,1,1); (0,1, 2) c lp tuyn tnh

nn (1,1,1); (0,1, 2) cng l c s ca S. Vy dim S=2
3.4.4 Ta ca vc t trong c s
Mt c s c gi l c s c sp ca khng gian vect V l c s m ta quan
tm n th t ca cc vect trong .
V d. B (1, 0), (0,1) l c s c sp ca khng gian vect R 2 .
D dng thy rng i vi khng gian vect n chiu th c n! c s c sp. Khi ni n
c s m khng ni r l c s c sp th ta hiu l c s c sp theo th t m ta
vit trong c s .
Nu B {u1 , u 2 ,..., un } l c s c sp ca khng gian vect V trn R v u V . Khi
ta c mi vect u V u c vit duy nht di dng

u 1u1 2u2 ... nun .

K hiu l:

u B

1

2
...

n

v gi l ta ca vect u trong c s B.
V d. Cho cc vect u (1, 2,3), u1 (1,1, 0), u 2 (0,1,1), u3 (1,0,1) R 3 . Khi
B u1 (1,1, 0), u 2 (0,1,1), u3 (1, 0,1)

l c s ca R3 v ta c u 0u1 2u2 u3 nn

u B

0
2
1

Cho B l c s ca khng gian vect hu hn chiu trn R. Khi :

R , u , v V , ta c u v B u B v B (Sinh vin t kim tra nh bi tp)

3.4.5 Ma trn chuyn c s
Gi s B {u1 , u 2 ,..., un } v B ' {u '1 , u '2 ,..., u 'n } l 2 c s c sp ca khng
gian vect V. Ma trn P u1 'B

u2 'B

B sang B v ta k hiu l P( B B ')

... u n 'B c gi l ma trn chuyn c s t

V d. Cho
B e1 (1, 0, 0), e2 (0,1, 0), e3 (0, 0,1)
B ' u1 (1,1, 0), u2 (0,1,1), u3 (1, 0,1)

l hai c s ca R3 .
Ta c

u1 B

1
0
1
1 0 1

1 ; u 2 B 1 ; u 3 B 0 nn P( B B ') 1 1 0
0 1 1
1
0
1

3.4.6 nh l
Cho A, B, C l cc c s c sp ca khng gian vect V c s chiu n. Khi :
i) Ma trn chuyn c s t A sang B l duy nht.
ii) P ( A A) I n
iii) P ( A B ) 1 P ( B A)
iv) P( A B) P ( B C ) P( A C )
3.4.7 nh l (cng thc i ta )
Cho B {u1 , u 2 ,..., un } v B ' {u '1 , u '2 ,..., u 'n } l 2 c s c sp ca khng gian
vect V, P( B B ') l ma trn i c s t B sang B , u V . Khi :

u B P( B B ') u B '
Hay

u B ' P( B B ')1 u B
V d.
Trong R 3 cho hai c s B {u1 (1,1,1), u2 (1,1, 2), u3 (1, 2,3)} v
B ' u '1 (2,1, 1), u '2 (3, 2, 5), u '3 (1, 1,1) .
4
0
1
4 0 1

Khi u '1 B 1 ; u'2 B 4 ; u'3 B 4 . Vy P( B B ') 1 4 4 .

1 1 2
1
1
2

p dng cng thc trn ta c :

u B P( B B ') u B '

4 0 1 0 1
1 4 4 1 0 .
1 1 2 1 1

BI TP CHNG 3

3.1. Trong tp V ( x, y, z ) : x R, y R, z R v x y z 0 , xt php cng v

nhn nh sau u ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) V ; v ( y1 , y2 , y3 ) V , R
Php cng +: u v ( x1 y1 , x2 y2 , x3 y3 )
Php nhn .: u ( x1 , x2 , x3 )
a) Tp V vi php cng v php nhn nh trn c khng gian vect trn R
khng? Ti sao?
b) Tp V c l khng gian con ca R 3 khng? Ti sao?
3.2. Trong cc trng hp sau y xt xem W c khng gian con ca khng
gian vect R3 ( R3 l khng gian vect trn R ):
W ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) R 3 : x1 0
W ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) R 3 : x1 2 x2 x3

W ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) R3 : x1 x2 0

3.3 Trong cc trng hp sau y, hy xc nh tham s m vect x l t hp

tuyn tnh ca cc vect u, v, w.
Trong R 3 : u = (1,4,2); v = (6,0,7); w = (5,6,m); x = (1,3,5)
Trong R 3 : u = (1,4,3); v = (2,2,1); w = (4,1,6); x = (5,0,m).
Trong R 3 : u = (1,3,2); v = (2,-1,1); w = (3,-4,3); x = (1,m,5).
Trong R 4 : u = (1,0,-3,2); v = (4,1,3,-2); w = (16,9,1-3); x = (m,4,-1,1).
3.4 Gi W l khng gian con ca R 4 sinh ra bi cc vect: u1 (2, 1,3, 2) ,
u2 (1,1,1, 3) , u3 (1,1,9, 5) . Hi vect u (3, 1, 0, 1) c thuc khng gian

con ca W khng?
3.5 Cho x, y, z l ba vect c lp tuyn tnh trong khng gian vect V. Xt
tnh c lp tuyn tnh,ph thuc tuyn tnh ca h cc vc t sau:
S u x 2 z, v x y z, w x x z
S u x y, v y z , w z x

3.6 Xt tnh c lp tuyn tnh,ph thuc tuyn tnh ca cc tp vect sau:

M ( 1, 2, 0), (3, 6, 2) trong R3
M (1, 2, 6), (6, 3, 0) trong R 3
M (2, 3, m), (3, 2, 5), (1, 4,3) trong R 3

M (4, 5, 2, 0), (2, 2,1, 0), (0, 3,3,9), (4, 0,5, 6) trong R 4
M (1, 0,1,1), (0.1.1.1), (1,1, 0,1), (1,1,1, m) trong R 4

3.7 Trong khng gian R 4 cho cc tp:

W1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) R 4 : x1 x2 x3 , x1 x2 x3 2 x4

W2 ( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) R 4 : x1 x2 x3
W3 ( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) R 4 : x1 x2 0

a) Chng minh rng W1 ,W2 ,W3 l cc khng gian con ca R 4

b) Tm mt c s ca W1 ,W2 ,W3
3.8 Trong cc tp vect sau, xt xem tp no c s ca R3 :
M u1 (1, 2,1), u2 (1, 0,5)
M u1 (1, 2,3), u2 (1,1, 1), u3 (3, 4, 2), u4 (6, 2,1)
M u1 (0, 2,3), u2 (2, 3, 4), u3 (3, 4, 5)
M u1 (1,1, 2), u2 (1, 2,1), u3 (3, 2, 2)

3.9 Trong R4 cho tp B (1, 2, 1, 2), (2, 0, 0,1), (1,3,1, 4), (1,3, 1, 0) .
a) Chng minh rng B l c s ca R 4
b) Tm ta vect x (1, 2, 1, 2 ) i vi c s B.
b) Xc nh ma trn chuyn c s t B sang c s chnh tc ca R 4
Xc

nh

ma

trn

chuyn

sang

B ' (1,1, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0,1),(0,1,1, 0), (0, 0,1,1) v tm x B ' .

3.10 Trong khng gian R3 , cho:

B v1 (1, 0,1), v2 (1, 2, 2), v3 (0, 1, 1) ,
E u1 (1, 0, 1), u2 (1,1,1), u3 (1, 2, 2)

a) Chng minh B, E l cc c s ca R3 .
b) Tm ma trn chuyn c s t B sang E. Cho u = (1,2,3) , tm u , u E
c) Tm ma trn chuyn c s t E sang B. Cho v

3
2 , tm v, v E
1

3.11 Cho B u1 , u2 , u3 l mt c s ca R3 v cc vect v1 , v2 , v3 c ta i

vi c s B ln lt l: v1

1
1
1

1 , v2 0 , v3 2 .
1
3
1

a) Chng minh E v1 , v2 , v3 l c s ca R3 . Tm v1 , v2 , v3 theo u1 , u2 , u3 .

b) Tm ma trn chuyn c s t E sang B.

CHNG 4.

NH X TUYN TNH

4.1 nh x tuyn tnh

4.1.1 nh ngha
Cho V v U l hai khng gian vect trn trng K. nh x f : V U c gi l
nh x tuyn tnh nu tha mn hai iu kin :
i) f f f vi , V
ii) f a. a. f , a , V
Ta c th vit li thnh :
f a a. f f vi a , , V

Mt nh x tuyn tnh f : V V gi l mt php bin i tuyn tnh ca V.

V d.
1) nh x khng : 0 :V U , 0 0 l nh x tuyn tnh
2) nh x ng nht : id : V V , id l mt nh x tuyn tnh v cng l
mt php bin i tuyn tnh ca V
3) nh x o hm : : x x , f x f f ' x l mt nh x tuyn tnh
4) Php chiu p : 3 2 , x1 , x2 , x3 p x1 , x2 , x3 x1 , x2 l nh x tuyn tnh
5) nh x : T : 3 2 vi T x1 , x2 , x3 4 x22 x32 , x12 x2 x3 khng phi l nh x tuyn
tnh.
Tht vy, ly vect u x1 , x2 , x3 . Khi :
T cu T cx1 , cx2 , cx3

4c 2 x22 c 2 x32 , c 2 x12 c 2 x2 x3 c 2 4 x22 x32 , x12 x2 x3 c 2T u cT u

4.1.2 Cc tnh cht c bn ca nh x tuyn tnh
Cho U , V l cc khng gian vect v f : V U l nh x tuyn tnh. Khi :

1) f 0V 0U do : f f vi mi V
2) Vi mi a1 , a2 ,..., an , 1 , 2 ,..., n V :
f a11 a2 2 ... an n a1 f 1 a2 f 2 ... an f n

3) nh x tuyn tnh bin h ph thuc tuyn tnh thnh h ph thuc tuyn tnh. Tc l
nu 1 , 2 ,..., n l h ph thuc tuyn tnh trong V th f 1 , f 2 ,..., f n l h ph
thuc tuyn tnh trong U
4) nh x tuyn tnh khng lm tng hng ca mt h vect, ngha l vi mi

1 , 2 ,..., n V ta lun c : rank f 1 , f 2 ,..., f n rank 1 , 2 ,..., n

Ta chng minh 3) v 4)
3) Gi s 1 , 2 ,..., 3 V l mt h ph thuc tuyn tnh th tn ti a1 , a2 ,..., an khng
ng thi bng khng sao cho a11 a2 2 ... an n 0 . Do
f a11 a2 2 ... an n f 0 .

Suy ra a1 f 1 a2 f 2 ... an f n 0 m a1 , a2 ,..., an khng ng thi bng

khng nn f 1 , f 2 ,..., f n l h ph thuc tuyn tnh trong U
4) Gi s

f ,..., f
1

f i1 ,..., f ik
n

l mt h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h

th rank f 1 , f 2 ,..., f n k nn theo tnh cht 3), h

i1 ,...ik c lp tuyn tnh

Do h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h 1 , 2 ,..., n c khng t hn k vect, tc l
rank 1 , 2 ,..., n rank f 1 , f 2 ,..., f n .

4.1.3 nh l c bn v s xc nh ca nh x tuyn tnh

Cho V l khng gian vect n chiu ( dimV n ) v 1 , 2 ,..., n l c s ty
ca V , U l khng gian vect ty v 1 , 2 ,..., n l h vect ty ca U . Khi tn
ti duy nht mt nh x tuyn tnh f : V U tha mn f i i , i 1, n
Chng minh.
Tnh tn ti:
Vi mi x V th tn ti a1 , a2 ,..., an sao cho: x a11 a2 2 ... an n , ta nh
ngha nh x : f : V U nh sau :

f x a1 1 a2 2 ... an n th f l nh x tuyn

tnh tha mn iu kin ca nh l.

Tnh duy nht :
Gi s c hai nh x tuyn tnh f , g : V U tha mn iu kin ca nh l. Khi vi
mi x V ta c : x a11 a2 2 ... an n .

f x f a11 a2 2 ... an n

Suy ra :

a1 f 1 a2 f 2 ... an f n
a1 g 1 a2 g 2 ... an g n
g a11 a2 2 ... an n g x

Vy : f g
4.2 Nhn v nh ca nh x tuyn tnh
4.2.1 Cc nh ngha
Cho V, U l cc khng gian vect, f : V U l nh x tuyn tnh.
K hiu ker f f 1 OU x V | f x 0 V v gi l ht nhn ca nh x tuyn tnh

f.
K hiu Im f f V f x | x V U v gi l nh ca nh x tuyn tnh f .
C th chng minh c ker f , Im f ln lt l cc khng gian vect con ca V v U .
Nu l mt c s ca V th f

l mt tp sinh ca Im f

f V .

4.2.2 Tm c s cho Imf v Kerf

tm c s ca Im f ta tm c s 1 ,..., n ca V. Khi :

Im f f 1 ,..., f n v h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h f 1 ,..., f n l

c s ca Im f .
tm c s cho ker f ta ch cn tm c s cho khng gian nghim ca h PTTT
f x OU

V d : Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : 4 4 vi

f x, y , z , t x 2 y 4 z 7t , 3 x 2 y 5t , 2 x y z 2t , 3 x y 3 z t

Tm c s cho Im f v ker f
Gii.
Tm c s ca Im f
Chn mt c s a ty ca 4 , chng hn ta chn c s chnh tc nh sau :
f e1 f 1, 0, 0,0 1, 3, 2,3
f e2 f 0,1, 0,0 2, 2,1,1
f e3 f 0, 0,1, 0 4, 0, 1, 3
f e4 f 0,0, 0,1 7,5, 2, 1

Tm c s ca Im f t mt tp sinh :

Lp ma trn

f e1 1 3 2 3

f e2 2 2 1 1

f e3 4 0 1 3

f e4 7 5 2 1

Dng cc php bin i s cp trn dng a ma trn v dng bc thang

1 3 2 3
1 3 2 3
d 4 3 d2

dd34

d3 2 d2
d 2 d 2 2 d1
2 2 1 1
0 4 3 5
4
0 4 3 5
0 1 3

7 5 2 1
1 1 1 2
1 3 2 3 1
0 4 3 5
d 4 d 4 d3 d2
d 3 d3 d 2
2

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

Im f c mt c s l 1 1, 3, 2,3 , 2 0, 4, 3, 5 v dim Im f 2
Tm c s ca Kerf
Ta gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh
x 2 y 4 z 7t 0
3 x 2 y
5t 0

2 x y z 2t 0
3 x y 3 z t 0
Ma trn m rng ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh trn l :
1
2 4 7 0
1 2
4 7 0
d2 d 3

dd32

d3 2 d 2
d 4 d4 3 d1
3 2 0 5 0
0 1 3 4 0
2 1 1 2 0
0 3 9 12 0

3 1 3 1 0
0 5 15 20 0
1

0

0

0
d1 d1 2 d 2
d 2 d 2
d 3 d3 3d 2
d4 d4 5d2

0 2 1 0

1 3 4 0
0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

Nghim z , t ty , x 2 z t , y 4t z
Cho z 1, t 0 ta c : 1 2, 3,1, 0
Cho z 0, t 1 ta c : 2 1, 4, 0,1
Vy c s ca Kerf l 1 2, 3,1, 0 , 2 1, 4,0,1 , dim Im f 2

4.2.3 nh l (v mi lin h gia s chiu ca ht nhn v nh)

Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : V U . Khi : dim Kerf dim Im f dim V
4.3 Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh
4.3.1 nh ngha :
Cho V v U l cc khng gian vect, 1 ,..., n l c s ca V , 1 ,..., m l
c s ca U v f : V U l nh x tuyn tnh. Do f i U nn f i biu th tuyn
tnh c qua c s nn ta c h sau :
f 1 a11 1 a12 2 ... a1m m

f 2 a21 1 a22 2 ... a2 m m

...
f a a ... a
n
n1 1
n2 2
nm m

Khi ma trn

a11
a
A 12

a1m

a21
a22

a2 m

...

an1
... an 2

... anm

c gi l ma trn ca f trong cp c s , v k hiu l : A f

,

Trng hp c bit, khi f l php bin i tuyn tnh ca V , f : V V v

th ma trn ca f trong cp c s , c gi l ma trn ca f trong c

s v k hiu l : A f

V d. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : 2 3 , vi f x1 , x2 x1 2 x2 , x1 x2 , x2

: 1 1,1 , 2 1, 0

l c s ca 2

: 1 1,1,1 , 2 1, 2,1 , 3 1,3, 2

l c s ca 3

Tm ma trn ca f trong cp c s , (tc l : A f

)
,

Gii
Gi s : f 1 a11 a2 2 a3 3 (1)
v :

f 2 b11 b2 2 b3 3 (2)

Khi , ma trn ca nh x f trong cp c s , l :

Af
,

a1
a2
a3

b1
b2
b3

Ta cn gii cc phng trnh vect (1), (2) tm a1 , a2 , a3 v b1 , b2 , b3 .

T (1) v (2), ta c 2 h phng trnh sau :
a1 a2 a3 3
b1 b2 b3 1

1 a1 2a2 3a3 0 v : 2 b1 2b2 3b3 1

a a 2a 1
b b 2b 0
3
3
1 2
1 2

V ma trn h s ca 2 phng trnh trn l nh nhau nn ta s gii mt lc 2 h trn bng

ma trn m rng sau :

1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 3 1

1 2 3 0 1 0 3 2 3 0
1 1 2 1 0 0 2 1 4 1
1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 3 1

0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 2 1 4 1 0 0 1 6 3

T ma trn bc thang sau cng, ta c :

H (1) : a1 8, a2 5, a3 6
H (2) : b1 4, b2 2, b3 3
Vy: A f
,

8 4
5 2
6 3

BI TP CHNG 4
4.1 Cc nh x no sau y t 2 l nh x tuyn tnh ? ( 2 , l cc khng
gian vect)
a) x, y 3 x

b) x, y xy 2

c) x, y 2 x 3 y

d) x, y x y

4.2 Cc nh x no sau y t 2 2 l nh x tuyn tnh ?

a) x, y y, x
b) x, y 1 y, x

c) x, y y 2 , x

4.3 Cho nh x f : 4 3 xc nh bi
f x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 x1 x2 x3 , 2 x1 x4 , x3 2 x2 x4

a) Chng t rng f l nh x tuyn tnh

b) Tm Kerf v Im f
4.4 Xc nh nh x tuyn tnh f : 2 2 bit :

f 3,1 2,12 , f 1,1 0, 2

4.5 Xc nh nh x tuyn tnh f : 3 2 bit :

f 1, 2,3 1, 0 , f 1, 0,10 0,1 , f 2,3,5 15, 4

4.6 Xc nh nh x tuyn tnh f : 3 3 bit :

f 1, 2, 3 1, 0,1 , f 1,1,1 0,1, 0 , f 1,3, 4 1, 0, 2

4.7 Trong 3 cho 2 c s

u1 1, 0, 0 , u2 0,1,1 , u3 1, 0,1

v1 1, 1, 0 , v2 0,1, 1 , u3 1, 0,1

v nh x tuyn tnh : f : 3 3 , vi f ui vi , i 1,3

a. Tm cng thc ca Q2 ( x) x12 x22 2 x32 4 x1 x2
b. Tm cc ma trn sau : A

Af

e3

, Af

, Af

, Af

(vi e3 l c s chun tc trong 3 )

4.8 Tm vect ring, gi tr ring ca ma trn sau :
1 2
a. A

2 1

1 1
b. A

5 3

1 1 1
4.9 a. Tm a thc c trng ca ma trn: A 1 3 1
3 1 1

b. Da vo a thc c trng, chng minh A kh nghch v ch ra biu thc xc nh

A1
c. Tnh det A 2008 I 3
d. Tm GTR, vect ring ca A.
4.10 Tm vect ring, gi tr ring v cho ha cc ma trn sau :
1 0 1
a. 0 0 0
1 0 1

5 1 1
b. 1 2 2
1 2 2

1 2 1
c. 2 4 2
1 2 1

1 3
0 1
d.
0 0

0 0

1
1

2
3

2 5

0 2

4.11 Trong 3 cho c s : u1 1,1,1 , u2 1, 2,1 , u3 1, 3, 2

v cho nh x tuyn tnh f : 3 3 xc nh bi :
f u1 0,5,3 ; f u2 2, 4,3 ; f u3 0,3, 2

a) Xc nh nh x tuyn tnh f : 3 3
b) Tm mt c s ma trn f trong c s l ma trn cho.

5 CHNG 5.

DNG TON PHNG

5.1 Tr ring-vect ring

5.1.1 a thc c trng
Cho A l ma trn vung cp n A M n . Ta gi a thc c trng ca ma trn
A l a thc
p A x det A x.I n
V d. Tm a thc c trng ca ma trn
2 2 1
A 2 2 0
3 1 1

2x
2
p A x det A x.I 3 2
2 x
3

1
0 x3 5x 2 7x 8
1 x

5.1.2 nh l Cayley Hamilton:

Mi ma trn l nghim ca a thc c trng ca n.
5.1.3 Gi tr ring, vect ring
Cc nghim thc ca a thc c trng p A x gi l gi tr ring ca ma trn A
Nu o l 1 gi tr ring ca A th det xo .I n A 0 . Do , h phng trnh thun nht :
x1 0
A xo .I n
xn 0

c v s nghim. Khng gian nghim ca h o .I n A X 0 gi l khng gian con ring

ca ma trn A ng vi gi tr ring o . Cc vect khc khng l nghim ca h

o .I n A X

0 c gi l cc vect ring ca ma trn A ng vi gi tr ring xo .

5.1.4 Phng php tm gi tr ring, vect ring.

Bc 1 : Tm a thc c trng : p A x det A x.I n
Bc 2 : Gii phng trnh a thc cp n theo bin x : p A x 0 tm cc tr ring i
Bc 3 : i vi mi tr ring i , tm cc vect ring tng ng bng cch gii h phng
trnh tuyn tnh thun nht A i I X 0 .
1 3
V d. Tm gi tr ring, vect ring ca ma trn A:

2 4
Bc 1: Tm a thc c trng ca ma trn A:
P det A I

1
2

3
2 3 2
4

Bc 2: Gii phng trnh c trng : P 0 , ta c 2 gi tr ring : 1 1, 2 2

Bc 3: Tm cc vect ring :
Ta tm cc vect ring ng vi gi tr ring 1 1
x
2 x 3 y 0
0
2x 3y

y
2 x 3 y 0

A I

Khng gian con ring ca A ng vi 1 1 l E (1) 3a, 2a | a

Cc vect ring ca A ng vi 1 1 l tt c cc vect c dng: 3a, 2a vi a 0 (v
vect ring phi khc khng).
Ta c dim E (1) 1 v A c 1 vect ring LTT ng vi 1 1 l 1 3, 2 .
ng vi gi tr ring 2 2 . tm vect ring ta gii h phng trnh
x
3 x 3 y 0
0
xy

y
2 x 2 y 0

A I

Khng gian con ring ca A ng vi GTR 2 2 l E (2) b, b | b

Cc vect ring ca A ng vi 2 2 l tt c cc vect c dng : b, b vi b 0
Ta c dim E (2) 1 v A c mt vect ring LTT ng vi 2 2 l 2 1,1 .
5.1.5 nh l
Nu X 1 , X 2 ,..., X m ln lt l m vec t ring ng vi m tr ring phn bit

1 , 2 ,..., m (m n) ca ma trn vung A [aij ]nxm th h vect X 1

X 2 X m c lp

tuyn tnh. Ni cch khc, cc vec t ring ng vi cc tr ring khc nhau ca A to thnh
mt h vec t c lp tuyn tnh.
5.2 Cho ha ma trn
5.2.1 nh ngha
Ma trn vung A cp n c gi l cho ha c nu tn ti ma trn T vung cp
n khng suy bin sao cho T 1 AT l ma trn cho.
Ma trn T c gi l ma trn lm cho A, v ma trn A c cho ha bi ma trn T
Cu hi t ra l c phi ma trn vung no cng cho ha c khng, iu kin ma
trn vung cho ha c l g v tm ma trn T nh th no ? Ta bt u bng nh l sau:
5.2.2 nh l (iu kin cho ho c)
A M n K cho ho c khi v ch khi A c n vect ring c lp tuyn tnh
k

hay

dim E ( ) n , vi ,...,
i

l tt c cc gi tr ring ca A.

i 1

Ma trn T lm cho ha A l ma trn c cc ct l n vect ring c lp tuyn tnh ca A

ni cch khc cc ct ca T l cc c s ca cc khng gian con ring ca A.
T nh l trn ta suy ra phng php cho ho ma trn vung A nh sau:
Tm cc gi tr ring v cc vect ring c lp tuyn tnh ca A. Khi xy ra mt trong
hai kh nng sau :
Nu tng s vect ring LTT ca A b hn n th A khng cho ho c (tc l
khng tn ti T M n K T 1 AT l ma trn cho)
Nu tng s vect ring c lp tuyn tnh ca A bng n th A cho ho c. Khi
ma trn T cn tm l ma trn m cc ct ca n chnh l cc vect ring c lp tuyn
tnh ca A vit theo ct v :
1 0 ... 0
0 ... 0
2
1

T AT

0 0 ... n

l ma trn cho. Trong i l gi tr ring ca A ng vi vect ring l vect ct th i

ca ma trn T.
1 3
V d. Cho ho ma trn A
(nu c).
2 4
Ma trn A c 2 gi tr ring l : 1 1, 2 2 v c 2 vect ring c lp tuyn tnh l :

1 3, 2 v 2 1,1 . Do s vect ring bng cp ca A nn cho ha c.

3 1
1 0
Ma trn T cn tm l : T
. Khi T 1 AT

2 1
0 2
1 3
2 0
Nu chn T
th T 1 AT

1 2
0 1

5.3 Dng ton phng

5.3.1 Dng ton phng
nh ngha Dng ton phng trn Rn l a thc ng cp bc 2 ca n bin
x1 , x2 ,..., xn :

a11 a12 a1n x1

a21 a22 a2 n x2
T

Q( x) aij xi x j X AX x1 , x2 ,..., xn

i 1 j 1

an1 an 2 ann xn
n

trong A l ma trn i xng.

Ma trn A c gi l ma trn ca dng ton phng.
3 2 x1
V d. Q2 ( x) X T AX x1 , x2
3 x12 4 x1 x2 5 x22 l dng ton phng trn

2 5 x2

3 2
R2 vi ma trn A

2 5
V d.
1 1 3 x1
Q3 ( x) x Ax x1 , x2 , x3 1 4 2 x2 x12 2 x1 x2 6 x1 x3 4 x2 x3 4 x22
3 2 0 x

3
T

l dng ton phng trn R3 vi ma trn

1 1 3
A 1 4 2
3 2 0

V d.
Tm ma trn ca dng ton phng Q( x) 2 x12 2 x1 x2 x22 6 x1 x3 3 x32 2 x2 x3
Ta vit li
Q( x) 2 x12 x1 x2 x2 x1 x22 3 x1 x3 3 x3 x1 3 x32 x2 x3 x3 x2

Do
2 1 3
A 1 1 1
3 1 3

5.3.2 Phn loi dng ton phng

Dng ton phng Q(x) c gi l:

1)Xc nh dng, nu Q( x) 0, x 0
2) Na xc nh dng, nu Q( x) 0, x 0
3) Xc nh m, nu Q( x) 0, x 0
4) Na xc nh m, nu Q( x) 0, x 0
5) Khng xc nh du, nu ngoi cc trng hp trn.
V d. Q1 ( x) 2 x12 x22 l dng ton phng xc nh dng trn R2.
Q2 ( x) x12 2 x32 l dng ton phng na xc nh dng trn R3.
Q3 ( x) x12 2 x22 l dng ton phng khng xc nh du trn R2.

5.3.3 Dng chnh tc ca dng ton phng

Dng ton phng Q(x) c gi l dng chnh tc nu:
Q( x) a1 x12 a2 x22 an xn2

V d. Trong R3 cc dng ton phng sau dng chnh tc:

2
1

2
2

2
3

Q1 ( x) x 2 x x

1 0 0
ma trn tng ng A1 0 2 0
0 0 1

2 0 0

Q2 ( x) 2 x x ma trn tng ng A2 0 1 0
0 0 0

2
1

2
2

0 0 0

Q3 ( x) x 3 x ma trn tng ng A3 0 1 0
0 0 3

2
2

2
3

D thy ma trn ca dng ton phng chnh tc l ma trn cho

a1

0
A

0
a2

an

5.4 a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc

Mt dng ton phng dng chnh tc c cu trc r rng, d nghin cu, phn
loi. Trong phm vi chng trnh chng ta xt cc phng php sau a dng ton phng
bt k v dng chnh tc

5.4.1 nh l (Phng php bin i trc giao)

Cho dng ton phng Q( x) X T AX vi 1 , 2 , , n l cc tr ring ca A. T l
ma trn trc giao lm cho ha A tc l T 1 AT D . Khi , bng cch i bin X TY
ta c:
X T AX Y T DY 1 y12 2 y22 n yn2

Chng minh.
V T l ma trn trc giao nn: T T T 1 . Ngoi ra D l ma trn cho nn
X T AX (TY )T A(TY ) Y T T T ATY Y T T 1 ATY Y T DY 1 y12 2 y 22 n yn2

Thut ton bin i trc giao:

Bc 1: Vit ma trn A ca dng ton phng
Bc 2: Cho ha A bi ma trn trc giao T, tc l tm ma trn trc giao T sao cho:

T 1 AT D , vi D l ma trn cho.
Bc 3: Kt lun dng chnh tc cn tm l:
Q ' ( y) Y T DY 1 y12 2 y22 n yn2

vi 1 , 2 , , n l cc tr ring ca A
V d. Cho dng ton phng: Q( x) 2 x12 2 x1 x3 2 x22 2 x2 x3 3x32
2 0 1
Ma trn ca Q l A 0 2 1
1 1 3

Ma trn A c cc tr ring: 1 1, 2 2, 3 4 vi 3 vect ring trc chun

1
2
1 1 1
1

1 1
u1
,
,
,
,0 ; u3
,
,
; u2

2
6
2
3 3 3
6 6
Do dng chnh tc l: Q ' ( y) y12 2 y22 4 y32 vi php i bin: X TY hay

x1

x2
x
3

1
3
1
3
1
3

1
2
1

2
0

6 y
1
1
y2
6
y
2 3

5.4.2 Phng php Lagrange

Ni dung ca phng php Lagrange l bin i biu thc ta ca dng ton
phng thnh cc tng bnh phng. Thut ton Lagrange c th chia lm cc bc sau:
Bc 1: Chn mt s hng c cha xk2 (akk 0) .

(Nu khng c s hng no nh vy trong biu thc ta ca dng ton phng th c

th tm c aij 0 , ta i bin:

xi'

xi x j
2

xi x j

; x 'j

; xk' xk , (k i, k j ) .

Khi xut hin s hng cha xi'2 )

Bc 2: Tch biu thc ta ca dng ton phng thnh 2 nhm: mt nhm c cha

xk , nhm cn li khng cha xk

Bc 3: Trong nhm th nht ta lp thnh tng bnh phng
Bc 4: Quay li bc 1,2,3 cho nhm th hai v c th tip tc cho n khi tm c
dng chnh tc.
V d. a dng ton phng Q( x) 2 x12 2 x1 x3 2 x22 2 x2 x3 3 x32 v dng chnh tc
bng phng php Lagrange.
Ta c:
Q( x) 2 x12 2 x1 x3 2 x22 2 x2 x3 3 x32
(2 x12 2 x1 x3 ) (2 x22 2 x2 x3 3 x32 )
1
1
5

2 x12 2 x1 x3 x32 2 x22 2 x2 x3 x32

2
4
2

1
1
1

2 x1 x3 2 x22 2 x2 x3 x32 2 x32

2
2
4

1
1

2 x1 x3 2 x2 x3 2 x32
2
2

2 y12 2 y22 2 y32

Trong y1 x1

1
1
x3 ; y2 x2 x3 ; y3 x3
2
2

Nhn xt: Mt dng ton phng c th c nhiu dng chnh tc khc nhau.
5.4.3 Lut qun tnh.
Nh trn ta thy, mt dng ton phng c th c nhiu dng chnh tc khc
nhau. Tuy nhin cc dng chnh tc ny u c c im chung l s cc h s dng v
m l bt bin.
S cc h s dng (m) trong dng chnh tc ca mt dng ton phng gi l ch s
qun tnh dng (m).
5.4.4 nh l.
Ch s qun tnh dng (m) trong dng chnh tc ca mt dng ton phng
khng ph thuc vo phng php a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc

5.4.5 nh l (Dng ton phng xc nh du)

Cho dng ton phng Q(x) trn Rn. Q(x) xc nh dng (m) khi v ch khi ch
s qun tnh dng (m) bng n.
V d.
1) Trong R3, dng ton phng: Q( x) 2 x12 x22 4 x32 c ch s qun tnh dng bng 3
nn n xc nh dng.
2) Trong R4, dng ton phng: Q( x) 5 x12 2 x22 x32 3 x42 c ch s qun tnh m bng
4 nn n xc nh m
Nhn xt: Mt dng ton phng xc nh dng (m) khi v ch khi ma trn ca n ch
c cc tr ring dng (m). Mt dng ton phng l na xc nh dng (m) khi v ch
khi ma trn ca n c tr ring bng khng v cc tr ring cn li u dng (m).
5.4.6 nh l (Sylvester)
Gi s dng ton phng Q c ma trn A. Khi :
i) Q xc nh dng khi v ch khi cc nh thc con chnh k ca A u dng
ii) Q xc nh m khi v ch khi cc nh thc con chnh ca A an du vi 1<0
V d. Xt dng ton phng: Q( x) x12 2 x1 x2 2 x22 2 x2 x3 2 x32 2 x1 x3
1
1 1

Ma trn ca dng ton phng A 1 2 1

1 1 2

Cc nh thc con chnh:

1 1 0 ; 2

1 1
1 0 ; 3 A 1 0 .
1 2

Vy Q(x) l dng ton phng xc nh m.

BI TP CHNG 5
5.1 Tm ma trn ca cc dng ton phng (trong c s chnh tc):
a) Q1 ( x) x12 2 x22 3x32 x1 x2 4 x1 x3 2 x2 x3
b) Q2 ( x) 3 x12 x22 2 x32 5 x1 x2 4 x1 x3
5.2 Vit ma trn v biu thc ta ca cc dng ton phng cu trn trong c s

F { f1 (0, 0,1); f 2 (1, 1, 0); f 3 (1,1,1)}

5.3 Cho cc dng ton phng:
a) Q1 ( x) 2 x12 x22 4 x1 x2
b) Q2 ( x) x12 x22 2 x32 4 x1 x2

c) Q3 ( x) x12 2 x22 2 x32 2 x1 x2 2 x1 x3 2 x2 x3

d) Q4 ( x) 2 x12 x22 x32 2 x1 x2 2 x1 x3 2 x2 x3
Hy tm mt dng chnh tc ca cc dng ton phng trn bng phng php bin
i trc giao.
5.4 Cng vi cu hi nh trn nhng s dng phng php Lagrange.
5.5 Tm mt dng chnh tc ca cc dng ton phng sau bng phng php Lagrange:
a) Q1 ( x) x12 2 x22 2 x1 x2 2 x2 x3
b) Q2 ( x) x12 x22 2 x32 2 x1 x2 2 x2 x3
c) Q3 ( x) 2 x12 2 x22 3 x32 2 x1 x3 2 x2 x3
d) Q3 ( x) x12 2 x22 4 x32 x1 x2 4 x1 x3 2 x2 x3
5.6 S dng tiu chun Sylvester, cho bit dng ton phng no sau y l xc nh
dng, xc nh m:
a) Q1 ( x) 2 x12 x22 2 x32 2 x1 x3 x2 x3
b) Q2 ( x) 2 x12 x22 3 x32 2 x1 x3 2 x2 x3
c) Q3 ( x) 3 x12 4 x22 x32 4 x1 x2 2 x1 x3 x2 x3
5.7 Tm a dng ton phng sau xc nh dng:

15 a 2
Q( x) 2 x12 x22
2

2
x3 2 x1 x2 4 x1 x3 x2 x3

5.8 Vi gi tr no ca b th dng ton phng: Q( x) 2 x12 2 x22 x32 2 x1 x2 bx1 x3 l xc

nh dng, na xc nh dng?

MC LC

1CHNG 1. MA TRN - NH THC ............................. 1

1.1

Ma trn....................................................................................... 1

1.1.1

nh ngha. ...................................................................................1

1.1.2

Cc dng c bit ca ma trn. ......................................................1

1.1.3

Cc php ton v ma trn ..............................................................3

1.1.4

Cc tnh cht ca cc php ton trn ma trn .................................6

1.1.5

Cc php bin i s cp trn dng ...............................................6

1.1.6

Ma trn bc thang..........................................................................7

1.1.7

Hng ca ma trn ..........................................................................8

1.2

nh thc.................................................................................... 9

1.2.1

nh thc cp 2. ............................................................................9

1.2.2

nh thc cp 3. ............................................................................9

1.2.3

nh thc cp n.............................................................................9

1.2.4

Cc tnh cht ca nh thc .........................................................10

1.3

Ma trn nghch o.................................................................. 11

1.3.1

nh ngha ..................................................................................11

1.3.2

nh l.........................................................................................11

1.3.3

Tnh cht.....................................................................................11

1.3.4

Phng php tm ma trn nghch o bng php bin i s cp.12

1.3.5

Phng php tm ma trn nghch o nh nh thc....................13

2CHNG 2. H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH ........ 15

2.1

H phng trnh tuyn tnh..................................................... 15

2.1.1

H phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut. .........................................15

2.1.2

2.2

Nghim ca h phng trnh .......................................................16

Phng php gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh....................... 17

2.2.1

Phng php Cramer gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh.............17

2.2.2

nh l Kronecker Capelli........................................................18

2.2.3

nh l ........................................................................................18

2.2.4

Phng php Gauss gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh ...............18

3CHNG 3. KHNG GIAN VECT............................... 21

3.1

Khng gian Vc-t ................................................................... 21

3.1.1

nh ngha ..................................................................................21

3.1.2

Cc V d v khng gian Vc-t..................................................21

3.1.3

Tnh cht. ....................................................................................21

3.2

c lp tuyn tnh v ph thuc tuyn tnh ........................... 22

3.2.1

T hp tuyn tnh ........................................................................22

3.2.2

Ph thuc tuyn tnh....................................................................22

3.2.3

c lp tuyn tnh .......................................................................23

3.2.4

Cc tnh cht. ..............................................................................23

3.2.5

nh l. .......................................................................................23

3.3

Khng gian Vect con.............................................................. 24

3.3.1

nh ngha. .................................................................................24

3.3.2

nh l ........................................................................................24

3.3.3

Tp sinh khng gian vect sinh bi mt tp hp.......................24

3.3.4

nh l ........................................................................................24

3.4

C s- s chiu- ta ............................................................. 25

3.4.1

C s, s chiu ca khng gian vct..........................................25

3.4.2

nh l ........................................................................................25

3.4.3

nh l ........................................................................................25

3.4.4

Ta ca vc t trong c s......................................................26

3.4.5

Ma trn chuyn c s ..................................................................26

3.4.6

nh l ........................................................................................27

3.4.7

nh l (cng thc i ta ).....................................................27

4Chng 4. NH X TUYN TNH .................................. 30

4.1

nh x tuyn tnh..................................................................... 30

4.1.1

nh ngha ..................................................................................30

4.1.2

Cc tnh cht c bn ca nh x tuyn tnh ..................................30

4.1.3

nh l c bn v s xc nh ca nh x tuyn tnh ...................31

4.2

Nhn v nh ca nh x tuyn tnh......................................... 32

4.2.1

Cc nh ngha ............................................................................32

4.2.2

Tm c s cho Imf v Kerf ..........................................................32

4.2.3

nh l (v mi lin h gia s chiu ca ht nhn v nh) .........34

4.3

Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh ................................................ 34

4.3.1

nh ngha : ................................................................................34

5Chng 5. dng TON PHNG .................................... 37

5.1

Tr ring-vect ring................................................................ 37

5.1.1

a thc c trng........................................................................37

5.1.2

nh l Cayley Hamilton: ........................................................37

5.1.3

Gi tr ring, vect ring ............................................................. 37

5.1.4

Phng php tm gi tr ring, vect ring...................................38

5.1.5

nh l ........................................................................................38

5.2

Cho ha ma trn..................................................................... 39

5.2.1

nh ngha ..................................................................................39

5.2.2

nh l (iu kin cho ho c)...............................................39

5.3

Dng ton phng ................................................................... 40

5.3.1

Dng ton phng.......................................................................40

5.3.2

Phn loi dng ton phng ........................................................40

5.3.3

Dng chnh tc ca dng ton phng.........................................41

5.4

a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc .............................. 41

5.4.1

nh l (Phng php bin i trc giao) ....................................42

5.4.2

Phng php Lagrange................................................................ 42

5.4.3

Lut qun tnh. ............................................................................43

5.4.4

nh l. .......................................................................................43

5.4.5

nh l (Dng ton phng xc nh du)...................................44

5.4.6

nh l (Sylvester) ......................................................................44