Last edited: 01/06/2012. V. Ramasagara Nagarajan, L. Yan, N. Mosavati and S.

da Rocha










BE 1310 Materials Science for
Engineering: Laboratory


Creep in Metals



Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science
Wayne State University









1. Objective
Creep in Metals Page 2 of 11

The objective of this experiment is to evaluate the behavior of a metal when it is under
creep conditions, that is, under a constant stress over a period of time at constant
(elevated) temperature.

2. Problem Statement
You will develop the procedures as well as conduct the necessary experiments to:
(a) Plot extension vs. time.
(b) Plot ln(d!/dt) vs. ln("). This graph has only three points for the three specimens.
(c) Find stress exponent n. Compare and discuss your results relative to literature
data.

The curves in Figure 3 will provide the d!/dt for the secondary stage of the creep
process. These values of d!/dt are to be used to obtain graphs as shown in Figure 4.
Since we take the logarithm, this does not have to be reduced to the actual strain.

3. Introduction and Theory
Materials are often subjected to constant load or stress, while at elevated temperatures.
Under those conditions, they may undergo progressive plastic (permanent) deformation
over a period of time. This time dependent deformation is called creep. The creep of
materials is very important for engineering design, particularly those at elevated
temperatures. For such designs at elevated temperatures the creep of engineering
materials is the limiting factor with respect to the operating temperature. For some
materials such as lead and polymers, creep occurs even at room temperature.

Let us consider a creep experiment in which a specimen is subject to a constant stress
of sufficient magnitude and a high enough temperature to cause creep deformation.
When the relative change in length or strain is plotted against time, a typical creep curve
is obtained, as shown in Figure 1.


Figure 1. A typical creep curve for a metal. The curve represents the time vs. strain behavior of a metal
or alloy under a constant load at constant temperature. The second stage of creep (linear creep) is the
most interesting to the design engineer for conditions in which extensive creep occurs.

Creep in Metals Page 3 of 11

The stress, !, is defined as the load per unit area (newtons per square meter) and the
strain, !, is the relative increase in length, "l / l
0
where "l is the increase in length and l
0

is the initial length of the specimen.

In the creep curve, there is first an instantaneous elongation of the specimen. This is
followed by the primary creep stage, in which the strain rate decreases with time. After
the primary creep, a second stage occurs in which the creep rate is essentially constant
and is therefore referred to as steady state creep. The slope of the curve d!/dt is called
the steady-state creep rate. In the third or tertiary stage, the creep rate increases
rapidly up to the strain at fracture. The shape of the creep curve depends strongly on
the applied stress and the test temperature. Higher stress and temperature increase
the creep rate.

During primary creep the metal strain hardens to support the applied load and the creep
rate decreases as further strain hardening becomes more difficult. During secondary
creep mobile dislocations counteract the strain hardening so that the metal continues to
elongate at the steady-state rate. During this stage atoms diffuse from grain
boundaries, which are parallel to the applied stress, to grain boundaries perpendicular
to the applied stress for tensile loading. For compressive loading the atoms move in the
opposite directions. In both cases this causes permanent deformation of metals. Since
both the mobility of the dislocations and the diffusion of atoms are thermally activated
processes, the steady-state creep rate, d!/dt, can be described by

!
"
#
$
%
& '
=
RT
Q
C
dt
d
n
exp . .
0
(
)
(1)

Where C
o
and n are constants, ! is the stress in N/m
2
, Q is the activation energy for the
creep process in Joules per mole, R is the gas constant (8.314 J/mol.K) and T is the
temperature in degrees Kelvin.

If we take the natural logarithm we obtain

T R
Q
n C
dt
d 1
ln . ln ln
0
!
"
#
$
%
&
' + =
!
"
#
$
%
&
(
)
(2)

For constant temperature this expression is of the form y = a + bx + c , which represents
a straight line with a slope b. Thus if we plot ln(d!/dt) vs. ln(") we get a straight line with
a slope n.

If we could do the experiment at constant stress but at different temperatures we could
plot ln(d!/dt) against 1/T and get the straight line with slope Q/R. Since R is known,
this should yield the activation energy, Q.


Creep in Metals Page 4 of 11

4. Materials and Equipment
Creep Machine
Stop Watch
Lead Specimens


5. Experimental Procedure
The Sm 106 Mk II machine of our lab (Figure 2) uses a simple lever to apply a steady
load to the specimen (A). The specimen (B) is attached at one end to the lever
mechanism (C) by a steel pin (D), and fixed at the other end to the bearing block with
another steel pin. Two U-shaped brackets prevent the deformation of the specimen
fixing holes. Loads I are applied to the lever arm by placing weights on the weight
hanger (F). The weight hanger has two pinning positions. The upper position pins the
hanger in the rest position and the lower position pins the hanger in the loaded position.


!
"
#
$
%
%
&


Figure 2. Creep testing machine.

The lever arm has a mechanical advantage of 8. If a mass of m kg is added to the
weight hanger, then the tensile load on the specimen is:

F = (2.96 + 8m) x g (N)

Where g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s
2
) and 2.96 includes the mass of the
hanger and the lever arm.
Creep in Metals Page 5 of 11

The specimen elongation is measured by a dial test indicator (DTI). A tube fixed to the
bearing block is the housing for the DTI and a nylon pinch screw is used to restrain the
DTI under steady load conditions. The top of the DTI is attached to the lever
mechanism by means of a grooved plate E, which is bolted to the lever arm. The
arrangement is such that the groove in the plate is twice the distance from the pivot than
that of the center of the specimen. Therefore the extension given by the DTI is twice
the extension of the specimen.

It should be noted when zeroing the DTI the nylon pinch screw should only be tightened
finger tight i.e. just sufficient to prevent the DTI from sliding upwards when under steady
load.

Over tightening could cause damage to the DTI when the specimen breaks.

Three lead specimens should be pulled to failure with different loads. Ask the TA which
loads should be used. All specimens should be labeled and their cross sections should
be measured using a micrometer enabling subsequent calculation of stress (be careful
not to damage the specimen with the micrometer). Also the gage length should be
measured. This is the length of the straight middle portion of the specimen.

Now go through the following steps:

1) Gently raise the lever arm and pin it in the rest position.
2) Remove the thumb nut retaining the grooved plate on the lever arm and slacken the
nylon screw retaining the DTI in the tube.
3) Using both hands, gently lift the DTI and the grooved plate of the apparatus.
Separate the plate from the DTI and store both in a safe place.
4) Remove the specimen retaining pins.
5) Measure the thickness, width and the length of the middle portion of the specimen.
6) Fit the top of the specimen in to the lever arm and replace the specimen retaining
pin. Use the U-brackets for the polymers.
7) Fit the bottom of the specimen the bearing block and replace the pin (It may be
necessary to remove the rest pin to allow some movement of the lever arm; if this is
one replace the rest pin when the specimen has been fitted).
8) Refit DTI and grooved plate but do not tighten the nylon screw.
9) Remove the rest pin and gently lower the lever arm to take up any free movement.
Zero the DTI and turn the nylon screw FINGER TIGHT.
10) Refit the rest pin.
11) Record the ambient temperature and reset the stopwatch to zero, ready to start the
test.
12) Load the weight hanger with required load, remove the rest pin and gently lower the
lever arm to take up any slack.
13) Raise the hanger to the load position and refit the pin. Gently release the load and
start the stop watch.
Creep in Metals Page 6 of 11

14) Record extension readings from DTI every 15 seconds for the primary stage of
creep. When the extension rate slows down record readings every minute.
15) As the test approaches the tertiary stage record readings again every 15 seconds
until fracture occurs or the weight hanger bottoms down.


REFERENCES

[1] CALLISTER JR., William D.; RETHWISCH, David G. Fundamentals of materials
science and engineering: an integrated approach. 3
rd
ed. John Wiley & Sons Inc.,
2008.

[2] http://www.tech.plym.ac.uk/sme/mats340/cpintro.pdf. Access on 06/26/09.

[3] http://www.tecquipment.com/Products/SM1006_CREEP-TESTING-MACHINE.jpg.
Access on 06/29/09.

Creep in Metals Page 7 of 11

DATA SHEET

Three samples almost of same dimension are provided.

Measure: Length (l0), Width , Thickness

Calculate: Area (A) = Width x Thickness

Force (F) = M x g = (8 x m + 2.96) x g where g = 9.8 m/s
2


Stress (!) = F / A

Figure 3: Graph showing calculation of d"/dt in the secondary stage of creep (Region II)

Parameters Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Length
Width
Thickness


Sample 1:
- Apply mass, m = 0.6 kg.
- Take reading for every 15 sec, for first 10 min, then for every 1 min until it ruptures.

Sample 2:
- Apply mass, m = 0.7 kg.
- Take reading for every 15 sec, until it breaks.

Sample 3:
- Apply mass, m = 0.8 kg.
- Take reading for every 15 sec, until it breaks.
Creep in Metals Page 8 of 11


Time (t) Reading (a) #Reading (a-a
1
) Stretch (#l) Strain (!)
t
1
= 0
t
2
= 15
t
3
= 30
.
.
.

a
1
a
2
a
3
.
.
.
a
1
a
1
a
2
a
1
a
3
a
1
.
.
.

# #Reading

#l/l
0


With the 3 values for d"/dt and 3 values for ! it is possible to plot the graph below:

d!/dt = C
o
."
n
.exp(-Q/RT)

ln(d!/dt) = n.ln(") + [ ln C
o
Q/RT ]

y = m.x + c


Figure 4: Calculation of strain exponent n from strain rate vs. stress data

There will be 4 graphs and 3 tables.

Find out n from the slope of the above plot.
Creep in Metals Page 9 of 11

SAMPLE 1
Time (t) Reading (a) #Reading (a-a
1
) Stretch (#l) Strain (!)
0
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60

Creep in Metals Page 10 of 11

SAMPLE 2
Time (t) Reading (a) #Reading (a-a
1
) Stretch (#l) Strain (!)
0
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60

Creep in Metals Page 11 of 11

SAMPLE 3
Time (t) Reading (a) #Reading (a-a
1
) Stretch (#l) Strain (!)
0
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60
15
30
45
60