Cpci Manual 4 Full

CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 METHODS AND MATERIALS

CHAPTER 2 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STRUCTURES

CHAPTER 3 DESIGN OF ELEMENTS

CHAPTER 4 DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS

CHAPTER 5 ARCHITECTURAL PRECAST CONCRETE

CHAPTER 6 RELATED CONSIDERATIONS

CHAPTER 7 PRODUCT INFORMATION AND CAPACITY

CHAPTER 8 GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION

INDEX

Copyright 2007

by

Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute

www.cpci.ca

All rights reserved. This book or any part thereof must not
be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the
Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute.

First Edition 1982
Second Edition 1987
Third Edition 1996
Fourth Edition 2007

ISBN 978-0-9691816-8-2

Printed in Canada

DESIGN MANUAL
4
th
Edition
Precast and Prestressed Concrete

Canadian Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute
100 196 Bronson Avenue
Ottawa, ON, K1R 6H4

Tel: (613) 232-2619
Fax: (613) 232-5139
Email: info@cpci.ca
Web: www.cpci.ca

STRUCTURAL / ARCHITECTURAL

FOREWARD
The Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute (CPCI) is a non-profit corporation
founded in 1961 for the purpose of advancing
the design, manufacture and use of architectural
and structural precast and prestressed concrete
throughout Canada.
CPCI represents a fast growing segment of the
Canadian construction industry. The first
prestressed concrete structure in Canada was a
precast, prestressed concrete bridge erected in
1952 in North Vancouver. Since then, precast
prestressed concrete has been used in buildings
and all types of engineered structures. Structural
and architectural, reinforced, pretensioned and
post-tensioned, precast concrete has been
successfully and economically utilized in an ever
expanding variety of applications.
CPCI developed into a unique trade and
professional association, with a representative
mix of companies and individuals. CPCI
members include producers (Active Members),
suppliers (Associate and Supporting Members),
engineers and architects (Professional
Members), plus Affiliate and Student Members.
From the beginning, CPCI established a close
working arrangement with the Precast/Pre-
stressed Concrete Institute (PCI). CPCI
continues to enjoy a mutually beneficial
relationship with PCI sharing state of the art
information about the industry, its products and
services, that results in combined knowledge,
developments and experience.
The focus of CPCIs current activities includes
the design and construction community in
Canada in the areas of specifications, codes and
standards, liaison with technical schools and
universities, awards programs, seminars, trade
shows and conventions of owner/user groups.
CPCI continues a liaison with the federal
government on behalf of the industry in two
principal areas. The Institute assists CPCI
members in marketing their products and
services to government. Secondly, an important
dialogue has been established to provide the
government with information about the industry.
CPCI participates with the Cement Association
of Canada (CAC) and allied concrete industry
members to promote concrete as a safe, fire
resistant, sustainable construction material.
The Active Membership in the Institute
represents over 75% of the industry's capacity in
Canada. CPCI continually disseminates
information on design, production practices, field
techniques and environmental issues, via
national and regional chapter programs and
technical publications, all directed towards
advancing the state of the art for Canadian
owners and designers.
Architects, engineers, owners, developers and
contractors are invited to contact CPCI for
additional information on the design and
construction of precast and prestressed concrete
and on membership in CPCI.
Please visit: www.cpci.ca
i
PREFACE
In 1964, the Canadian Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute (CPCI) published the first
design manual in North America on precast,
prestressed concrete. This was a major
undertaking for a fledgling industry. This
handbook consisted of 4 parts: Part 1 contained
the CSA Standard CSA-A135-1962 and a
commentary, Part 2 contained design theory and
practice, Part 3 dealt extensively with connection
design and Part 4 contained sections on
specifications and plant standards. The
handbook was well received with orders
received from around the world.
During the 1970's, the standard design
references for precast, prestressed concrete in
North America were published by the
Prestressed/Prestressed Concrete Institute
(PCI) in Chicago. The first edition of the PCI
Design Handbook was published in 1971,
followed by the second edition in 1978 and a
series of new editions including a
comprehensive updated sixth edition published
in 2004.
The Canadian Government's decision in the mid
70's to adopt Sl metric units and the adoption of
limit-states design codes reduced the relevance
of PCI publications in Canada. CPCI undertook
what was to become the single largest
undertaking in its history; the publishing in 1978
of the First Edition of the CPCI Metric Design
Manual. This publication, four years in the
making, was based on the PCI Design
Handbook and the PCI Structural Design of
Architectural Precast Concrete Handbook. The
manual was written entirely in Sl units with
extensive references to Canadian design codes.
In 1984, CPCI published a Second Edition of the
CPCI Metric Design Manual. This decision was
based upon extensive revisions to CSA
Standard A23.3.
The Third Edition of the CPCI Design Manual
introduced significant changes in the state of the
art for precast, prestressed concrete, plus
important changes in A23.3 that recognized the
benefits of quality control in certified precast
concrete plants.
See page iv for important updates contained in
this Fourth Edition.

DISCLAIMER
Substantial effort has been made to ensure that
the Fourth Edition of the CPCI Design Manual is
accurate. However, the Canadian
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (CPCI)
cannot accept responsibility for any errors or
oversights in the use of material or in the
preparation of engineering plans. The designer

must recognize that no manual or code can
substitute for experience and engineering
judgment. This publication is intended for use by
professional personnel competent to evaluate
the significance and limitations of its contents
and able to accept responsibility for the
application of the material it contains.

ii
iii

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE

CPCI DESIGN MANUAL 4
Editor in Chief David Rogowsky, UMA Engineering, Edmonton, AB

Editor John Fowler, CPCI, Ottawa, ON

CHAPTER 2 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STRUCTURES
Editor Wayne Kassian, Kassian Dyck & Associates, Calgary, AB

Editor Medhat Ghabrial, HGS Consultants, Windsor, ON

Editor Don Simms, Pre-Con Inc., Belleville, ON

CHAPTER 5 ARCHITECTURAL PRECAST CONCRETE
Editor Malcolm Hachborn RES Precast, Innisfil, ON

Editor John Fowler, CPCI, Ottawa, ON

CHAPTER 7 PRODUCT INFORMATION AND CAPACITY
Editor Bill LeBlanc, Con-Force Structures, Calgary, AB

Editor Shahid Shaikh, Coreslab Structures, Dundas, ON

iv
FOURTH EDITION - IMPORTANT UPDATES
The chapter on methods and materials has been
updated to reflect current applications of precast
prestressed concrete. New applications such as ultra
high performance concretes are presented. Previous
applications have become more sophisticated and
have kept pace with modern architectural trends.
CHAPTER 2 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF
STRUCTURES
The chapter on the design of structures has been
modified to reflect changes in the National Building
Code of Canada. The changes in NBCC 2005 have
had a major impact on the design examples in this
chapter, including the introduction of principal and
companion load factors and major changes in seismic
design.
The chapter on element design has required
revisions due to changes in A23.3 and NBCC 2005.
The concrete resistance factor for precast concrete
produced in a precast plant certified in accordance
with A23.4 has increased from 0.65 to 0.70. The
method for design of elements for shear and torsion
has been modified to suit the new requirements of
A23.3.
Alternate design methods for corbels and dapped
ended beams, other than strut and tie, have been
included. The chapter now includes design methods
and tables for the design of headed studs.
Connection details have been selected to reflect
current practice.
CHAPTER 5 ARCHITECTURAL PRECAST
CONCRETE
The design of architectural precast concrete has
been extensively updated to reflect current industry
practices.
In addition to updating the technical content
throughout the chapter, extensive revisions to the
vibration and fire resistance sections have been
included. A new section on sustainable design has
been added.
CHAPTER 7 PRODUCT INFORMATION AND
CAPACITY
This chapter has undergone revisions to have the
load capacity tables conform to A23.3. More
information is provided on 3660 mm wide double tee
sections. Tables for hollow box section beams have
been added. The span and depth ranges for I-girders
have been increased.
New information has been added on the design of
beams with overhangs and torsion diagrams,
reactions and rotations. Development lengths for bars
in tension and heavier confined reinforcing bars are
given. Plastic modulus and shape factors are
provides for common steel shapes.

CPCI CERTIFICATION
How Precast Certification is a Requirement of the
National Building Code
CSA A23.3 Design of concrete structures:
CSA A23.3-04 Clause 16.1.3 For elements
produced in manufacturing plants certified in
accordance with Clause 16.2, the concrete material
resistance factor,
c
, specified in Clause 8.4.2 may be
taken as 0.70.
A23.3 allows an increased material resistance factor,
c
= 0.70 for precast concrete members that are
certified in accordance with A23.4 in recognition of
the quality control and accurate placement of forms
and reinforcement. The material resistance factor,
c

= 0.65 applies to cast-in-place and non-certified
precast concrete members.
CSA A23.3-04 - Clause 16.2.1 All precast concrete
elements covered by this standard shall be
manufactured and erected in accordance with CSA
A23.4.
CSA A23.4 Precast concrete Materials and
construction:
CSA A23.4-05 - Clause 4.2.1 Precast concrete
elements produced and erected in accordance with
this standard shall be produced by certified
manufacturers, with certification demonstrating the
capability of a manufacturer to fabricate precast
concrete elements to the requirements of this
Standard.
CPCI Precast Concrete Certification Program for
Architectural and Structural Precast Concrete
Products and Systems
The CPCI Certification Program qualifies precast
concrete manufacturers who fabricate architectural
and structural precast concrete and meet CPCI
certification requirements.
Manufacturers are evaluated on their quality system,
documentation, production and erection procedures,
management, engineering, personnel, equipment,
finished products and assemblies. Independent
professional engineers conduct audits twice annually.
Certification confirms a manufacturer's capability to
produce quality products and systems.
The CPCI Certification Program assures project
specifiers and owners of a manufacturers
comprehensive in-house quality assurance program
and acceptable production methods.
Manufacturers are required to:
Establish and maintain the highest standard of
integrity, skill and practice in the design and
fabrication of their products and systems;
Undertake the performance of only those
services and produce only those products for
which they are qualified;
Be in compliance with current governing codes
and regulations; and
Supply products only from a manufacturer that is
certified under the CPCI Certification Program.
Audits are performed to:
Determine the conformity or nonconformity of the
manufacturers quality system and finished
products with the specified requirements;
Determine the effectiveness of the implemented
quality system in meeting specified quality
objectives;
Provide the manufacturer with an opportunity to
improve their quality system; and
Confirm that the manufacturer meets the
regulatory requirements.
Program Requirements
The manufacturing of precast concrete must be in
accordance with the requirements of the latest
editions of CSA Standard A23.4 and the PCI Quality
Control Manuals MNL-116 and 117 (US equivalent),
with the more stringent requirements being the
governing criteria.
CSA Standard
CSA A23.4 - Precast Concrete Materials and
Construction, including Appendices A and B
Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
CPCI Quality Audit Manual
CPCI Design Manual
Architectural Precast Concrete - Colour and
Texture Selection Guide
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (US)
Manual for Quality Control for Plants and
Production of Precast and Prestressed Concrete
Products MNL-116
Manual for Quality Control for Plants and
Production of Architectural Precast Concrete
Products MNL-117
PCI Design Handbook
PCI Architectural Precast Concrete Manual
v
CANADIAN CODES AND STANDARDS
National Building Code of Canada 2005
Major changes to NBCC 2005 include an objective
based format, revised companion load factors and
major revisions to seismic forces that may govern
designs in locations formerly governed by wind.
Provincial building codes are largely based on NBCC
2005.
Design
CSA A23.3-04, Design of concrete structures,
Canadian Standards Association
This standard governs the design of buildings and
most other concrete structures (except bridges). The
major change affecting precast design is a change to
the design for shear and the elimination of the
simplified method currently used by most engineers
and the introduction of new seismic provisions.
CSA S413-07, Design of parking structures,
CSA S6-06, Canadian highway bridge design code,
CSA S806-02, Design and Construction of Building
Components with Fibre-Reinforced Polymers,
This standard was developed to provide material
selection and design criteria for concrete members
reinforced with non-metallic reinforcement. The ISIS
Canada Research Network, headquartered at the
University of Manitoba, is developing new
applications for FRP materials in concrete.
CSA S16-01, Limit states design of steel structures,
This standard is used to design steel connections and
other structural steel supports used in precast
concrete construction.
CSA A371-04, Masonry Construction for Buildings,
Materials and Construction
CSA A23.1-04/A23.2-04, Concrete materials and
methods of concrete construction / Methods of test
and standard practices for concrete, Canadian
Standards Association
The A23.1 standard governs cast-in-place
construction and is the basis for much of the material
in A23.4. Major changes are the addition of C-1 and
C-XL concretes and new performance requirements
for different classes of concrete in Table 2.
CSA 23.4-05, Precast concrete materials and
construction, Canadian Standards Association
The content of A23.4 has been updated to conform to
A23.1-04. A thorough review and updating of all
sections has been completed. A251 has been
withdrawn.
CSA A3000-Series-03, Cementitious materials
compendium, Canadian Standards Association
This national standard contains the testing,
inspection, chemical, physical and uniformity
requirements of various cements, blended cements
and supplementary cementing materials such as fly
ash, blast-furnace slag and silica fume.
CSA A370-04, Connectors for Masonry, Canadian
Welding
CSA W186-M1990 (R2002), Welding of reinforcing
bars in reinforced concrete construction, Canadian
CSA W47.1-03, Certification of companies for fusion
welding of steel, Canadian Standards Association
These standards are referenced in A23.4 and govern
welding materials and practices in precast plants.

vi
vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We gratefully acknowledge the people responsible for
developing the First, Second and Third Editions of the
CPCI design manuals. Readers should refer to these
editions for the names of the more than 100
contributors. They laid the foundation for the Fourth
Edition.
A wide range of consultants, university professors
and industry professionals gave generously of their
time to prepare material and review draft copies and
final proofs of this Fourth Edition Design Manual.
CPCI members express their sincere appreciation for
the effort contributed by the following persons:
Perry Adebar, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC
Grant Ormberg, Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton, AB
Robert Loov, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB
Paul Breeze, CH2M Hill, Calgary, AB
Richard McGrath, Cement Association of Canada, Ottawa, ON
William Brown, Morrison Hershfield Inc., Ottawa, ON
David Scott, Morrison Hershfield Inc., Ottawa, ON
Dave Allen, Consultant, Ottawa, ON
Donald Morse, Consultant, Calgary, AB
Bruce Taylor, RES Precast, Innisfil, ON
Rasvan Petanca, Con-Force Structures, Calgary, AB
Darlene Deare, Pre-Con Inc., Brampton, ON
Geoff Sarazin, Kassian Dyck &Associates, Calgary, AB
Ken Kapusniak, HGS Consultants, Windsor, ON
Eric Leme, Kassian Dyck & Associates, Calgary, AB
Rick Dozzi, Harris P/T, Stoney Creek, ON
Richard Golec, Pre-Con Inc., Brampton, ON
Eugene Shelestynsky, Procon Engineering Inspections Inc.,
Inglewood, ON
Peter Kluchert, Kluchert & Assoc., Toronto, ON
Mike Lau, Manitoba Highways and Transportation,
Winnipeg, MB
Don Zakariasen, Lafarge Precast Division, Calgary, AB
Doug Harman, Coreslab Structures, Dundas, ON
Jason Kroeker, University of Waterloo, ON
Tibor Kokai, Halcrow Yolles, Toronto, ON Peter Cicuto,
Global Precast, Maple, ON
Ghani Razakpur, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON
Gary Fillmore, Strescon Ltd., Saint John, NB
Venkatesh Kodur, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI
Saeed Mirza, McGill University, Montreal, QC
O. Burkan Isgor, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON
Karl Truderung, Lafarge Precast Division, Winnipeg, MB
Ifan Lim, Lafarge Precast Division, Winnipeg, MB
Zhu Liu, Btons Prfabriqu du Lac, Alma, QC
Stephan Martel, Groupe Tremca Prfabriqu Inc., Iberville, QC
CPCI acknowledges the outstanding contributions of
David Rogowsky, editor-in-chief, and T. Ivan
Campbell, Queens University, for their careful and
thoughtful review of the entire contents of the CPCI
Design Manual prior to publication.
CPCI acknowledges David Marshall, BlackMint
Software (www.BlackMint.com) for his application of
the CONCISE Beam software to check the Chapter 3
examples.
CPCI gratefully acknowledges the generosity of the
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) for
permission to use sections of their PCI Design
Handbook, Sixth Edition, as a basis for this manual.
CPCI members thank the Cement Association of
Canada (CAC) for their financial contribution and
permission to use material from their Concrete
Design Handbook.
CPCI is indebted to the National Research Council of
Canada for permission to reproduce certain tables
and figures from the National Building Code of
Canada, 2005 and the supplement to the National
Building Code of Canada, 2005.
The Canadian Standards Association is ack-
nowledged for their permission to reproduce material
from CSA Standards A23.1 and A23.4.
The CPCI Design Manual, Fourth Edition page layout
and drafting was done by Christopher J. Perry and
Quentin C. Plock.
CPCI Design Manual 4 11
CHAPTER 1
METHODS AND MATERIALS
1.1 PRECAST CONCRETE METHODS........................................................................... 1-2
1.1.1 Introduction......................................................................................................... 1-2
1.1.2 Total Precast Concrete Structures ..................................................................... 1-2
1.1.3 Product Manufacturing ....................................................................................... 1-7
1.1.4 Warehouses and Industrial Buildings................................................................. 1-8
1.1.5 Schools, Universities, Colleges .......................................................................... 1-9
1.1.6 Shopping Centres............................................................................................. 1-10
1.1.7 Residential Buildings ........................................................................................ 1-11
1.1.8 Parking Structures............................................................................................ 1-12
1.1.9 Office Buildings................................................................................................. 1-14
1.1.10 Public Buildings ................................................................................................ 1-15
1.1.11 Stadiums and Arenas ....................................................................................... 1-16
1.1.12 Storage and Treatment Tanks.......................................................................... 1-17
1.1.13 Bridges.............................................................................................................. 1-18
1.1.14 Special Structures ............................................................................................ 1-19
1.1.15 Architectural Wall Panels.................................................................................. 1-20
1.1.16 Veneer Faced Wall Panels............................................................................... 1-21
1.1.17 Modular Sandwich Wall Panels........................................................................ 1-22
1.1.18 Ultra High Performance Concrete .................................................................... 1-23
1.2 PRECAST CONCRETE MATERIALS........................................................................... 1-24
1.2.1 Concrete .......................................................................................................... 1-24
1.2.2 Grout, Mortar, and Drypack...........................................................................1-28
1.2.3 Reinforcement .................................................................................................. 1-29
1.2.4 Protection of Connections ................................................................................ 1-32
1.2.5 Ultra High Performance Concrete .................................................................... 1-34
1.3 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE ................................................................................. 1-37
1.3.1 Post-Tensioning Materials................................................................................ 1-37
1.3.2 Segmental Construction ................................................................................... 1-38
1.4 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 1-40

12 CPCI Design Manual 4
1.1 PRECAST CONCRETE METHODS
1.1.1 Introduction
Plant-cast precast concrete is more durable than site-
cast concrete because it can be cast with lower
water-to-cementing materials ratios and with greater
accuracy under controlled conditions. This natural
durability is enhanced by the use of admixtures
making the concrete matrix less permeable and more
resistant to steel corrosion. The past decade has
seen the development of more efficient structural
sections and more complex architectural shapes. The
strict demands of owners and architects for quality
finishes have led to the development of new surface
textures and surface treatments.
Precast concrete manufactured by CPCI members in
certified plants ensures the production of high quality
architectural and structural members and systems.
Precasting facilitates the production of a wide variety
of shapes and sizes. The use of prestressing
substantially extends the span capability of the
structural members, and enables architects and
engineers to achieve highly innovative and
competitive building products and systems for a
variety of buildings and structures.
Important benefits of precast and prestressed
concrete include:
1. Construction speed
2. Plant-fabrication quality control
3. Fire resistance and durability
4. Prestressing: greater span-to-depth ratios, more
controllable performance, less material usage
5. Architectural precast concrete: wide variety of
highly attractive surfaces, shapes, finishes and
colors
6. Thermal and acoustical control
7. All weather construction
8. Plant prefabrication allows inspection and quality
control prior to installation of precast in a
finished structure
The following general principles are offered to
achieve the most economical and effective use of
precast concrete:
1. Precast concrete is basically a "simple-span"
material. However, continuity can be effectively
achieved with properly detailed connections.
2. Sizes and shapes of members are often limited
by production, hauling and erection consider-
ations.
3. Concrete is a heavy material. This is an
advantage for stability under wind loads, thermal
changes, acoustical vibration and fire resistance.
The high dead-to-live load ratio provides a
greater safety factor against gravity overloads.
4. Maximum economy is achieved with maximum
repetition. Standard shapes or repetition of
similar sections (master molds) should be used
whenever possible.
5. Successful use is largely dependent on an
effective structural layout and carefully detailed
connections.
6. The effects of restraint due to volume changes
caused by creep, shrinkage and temperature
changes must be considered in every structure.
7. Architectural precast panels can be used as
cladding as well as for load bearing members.
Panels can be used to resist loads in both the
vertical and lateral directions.
8. Prestressing improves the economy and per-
formance of precast members.
1.1.2 Total Precast Concrete Structures
The use of precast concrete often extends beyond an
architectural enclosure to include structural elements
and stair systems. Integration of the structure,
building envelope and vertical circulation is often
referred to as a Total Precast System. Precast
buildings can be framed in different configurations
depending on overall geometry, floor spans, interior
and exterior layout and cladding arrangements.
Engineering total precast concrete structures also
requires the analysis of the manufacturing, handling,
transportation and erection of the precast system in
addition to the analysis and design for the relevant
loads.
Total precast building designs can be optimized by
following these general principles:
1. Maximize repetition
2. Use modular dimensions for plan layouts and
member dimensions
3. Use simple spans when possible
4. Standardize the size and locations of openings
in precast members
5. Use standard, locally available member sizes

Fig 1.1.1 Multi-storey beam-column construction
Beam-column framing is suitable for both low and high-rise buildings. Multi-storey columns with simple-span beams are the preferred method.
6. Minimize the number of different member types
and sizes
7. Consider the size and weight of products to
avoid costs associated with producing, shipping
and erecting oversize and/or overweight pieces
8. Use prestressing reinforcement in precast
members for long spans and to minimize
member depth
9. Use precast exterior wall panels as load bearing
members and/or shear walls whenever possible
10. Maximize form use on architectural products
11. Contact your local CPCI member as early as
possible during the design development stages
of a project for assistance in answering the
above questions
The load tables in Chapter 7 can be used for
preliminary design.
Preliminary analysis
Considerations in developing a preliminary layout are:
1. Framing dimensions
2. Span-to-depth ratios
3. Connection concepts
4. Gravity and lateral load resisting systems
5. Mechanisms for the control of volume changes
Framing dimensions
Bay sizes should be a multiple of the widths of the
double tee or hollow core floor and roof slabs.
Double tee and hollow core floor and roof slabs
should be used at spans close to their maximum
capacity to reduce the number of slabs to be
installed. Planning modules are useful to ensure
client needs are met at minimum cost. Economies will
be realized when a buildings wall/floor area ratio is
kept to a minimum. Notches and setbacks can be
framed on upper floors with additional framing
supports.
Optimum framing dimensions will result when the
total number of precast components is minimized.
The maximum shipping size and weight, and the
plant and erection crane capacity must be considered
when establishing maximum component sizes.
Span-to-depth ratios
During preliminary analysis, it is helpful to determine
beam and slab depths, and the space required for
other construction elements, including suspended
ceilings and mechanical duct work, to establish the

Fig 1.1.2 Single-storey load bearing wall construction

This system provides economy by eliminating the need for a perimeter structural frame. The wall panels can be selected from a variety of
standard sections, flat panels or specially formed architectural precast shapes. Long-span double tee or hollow core slabs can be used for the
roof.
floor-to-floor dimensions of a building. See Chapter 2
for typical span-to-depth ratios of precast, pre-
stressed concrete members.
Gravity and lateral load resisting systems
The building system should be selected during
preliminary analysis. Gravity and lateral load resisting
systems may function separately or may be
combined. Bearing wall construction and beam-
column framing have been successfully used for low,
medium and high rise buildings. Lateral forces can be
resisted by interior shear walls, exterior shear walls,
moment frames, or a combination of these.
Diaphragm action will dictate placement of lateral
force resisting elements. Refer to Chapter 2 for lateral
force resisting system analysis and design.

Fig 1.1.3 Interior shear wall framing system

Lateral loads are transmitted by floor and roof diaphragms to a structural core built using precast shear walls.
Fig 1.1.4 Exterior shear wall framing system

The exterior shear wall system permits greater design flexibility because it eliminates the need for a structural core. The exterior shear wall
system may be more economical because gravity loads and lateral forces are resisted by the same panels.

Fig 1.1.5 Single-storey beam-column construction

The standard precast beam and column sections shown in Chapter 7 can be used for single-storey structures. The type of beam used
depends on span length, superimposed loads, depth of ceiling construction and desired architectural expression.
Fig 1.1.6 Multi-storey bearing wall construction

Precast bearing walls can be cast in one-storey or multi-storey configurations. Some walls can be started at the second floor level with the first
floor framing consisting of beams and columns to obtain more open space on the first level.
1.1.3 Product Manufacturing
A steel form is used to manufacture precast prestressed
panels end to end.
Similar long-line forms are used to manufacture pretensioned beams,
hollow core and double tee slabs.
Long-stroke hydraulic jacks are used to
pretension individual prestressing
strands.
Most precast architectural panels are manufactured
using wood molds.
Molds are coated with resin that is often reinforced with fibreglass
cloth. A well designed and maintained wood mold can be used to
cast 20 to 40 similar panels.
Heavily reinforced Bulb-Tee bridge girder
Strands in the bottom flange are pretensioned. Strand is post-
tensioned in three ducts after girder installation to provide
continuous prestressing. The shear steel is prefabricated to
allow for casting on a daily cycle.
Precast prestressed pile
manufacturing
These square piles are
prestressed on long-line beds
with four corner strands.
Transverse reinforcement is a
spiral wire tie closely spaced at
the ends where the stresses
are higher. Piles are made in
standard lengths and stock-
piled at the plant until required
at the jobsite.
Tunnel liner
manufacturing
Precast tunnel liners
are manufactured and
cured in accurate steel
or concrete molds.
Liners are segments of
a complete tunnel ring
installed behind a
tunnel-boring machine.
1.1.4 Warehouse and Industrial Buildings
Fiera Foods manufacturing plant, Toronto, ON
The ability of precast, prestressed concrete to span
long distances (hollow core 9 m to 15 m, double tees
20 m to 30 m, single tees 25 m to 40 m, girder
sections 50 m and up) and carry heavy loads with
minimum span/depth rations is particularly useful in
the construction of warehouses and industrial
buildings. Longer spans can be obtained using
custom solutions (segmental construction).
Precast floor and roof framing can be designed to
accommodate a variety of mechanical systems and
support hanging loads and bridge cranes for heavy
industrial uses.
Solid precast concrete panels or insulated
sandwich panels can be readily used for load
bearing or non-load bearing walls. Roof and floor
elements can bear directly in pockets or on
haunches provided on the inside faces of wall
panels or directly on the top of the wall panels.
Roof slabs can be cantilevered beyond the walls to
form a decorative or protective overhang.
Attractive, durable exterior walls can be formed or
machine cast using standard shapes that are
efficiently prestressed in long line production
facilities. Custom shapes are produced in
architectural molds with smooth, textured,
sandblasted, acid etched or exposed aggregate
surfaces. Insulation can be incorporated in
sandwich wall panels to provide the required RSI-
values.
STORA Paper Mill, Port Hawksbury, NS
High strength precast concrete resists the effects of
fire, damp conditions and a variety of chemical
substances. The clean, smooth surfaces obtainable
with factory produced precast concrete are ideal for
food processing, wet operations or computer
component manufacturing where cleanliness is
required.
Cargill Meat Processing Plant, High River, AB
18
CPCI Design Manual 4
Foothills Industrial Park, Calgary, AB
1.1.5 Schools, Universities, Colleges
SITE Building, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON

The superior finishes achievable in a precast plant
have enabled many designers to expose the structure
in many types of buildings.
Education Building, University of Regina, Regina, SK

Precast, prestressed concrete is a favoured material for
school, college and university building structures,
providing design flexibility and reduced construction
time.
Durable, pleasing exterior finishes using architectural
precast panels provide years of maintenance free use.
Olympic Speed Skating Oval, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB
This portable classroom,
constructed using 12 precast
panels, was assembled in one
day.
In addition to classroom and office
f aci l i ti es, student resi dences,
audi toriums, gymnasi ums and
aquat i c f aci l i t i es have been
constructed using precast framing
and walls, together with long span
precast concrete floor and roof
members.
CTC Sheppard, Toronto, ON
1.1.6 Shopping Centres
Precast, prestressed concrete components can be
quickly fabricated and erected to provide early
occupancy of retail stores and shopping centres.
The long spans possible using precast,
prestressed floor and roof slabs provide column
free retail areas. Precast concrete construction
minimizes floor vibrations and provides built-in fire
resistance.
Cineplex Theatre
The use of architectural precast
concrete provides a quality appearance
and offers years of maintenance free
operation. Warehouse retailers use
prestressed sandwich panels for fast
all-weather construction, economy, low
maintenance and a superior corporate
image.
Co-op Mall, Airdrie, AB
1.1.7 Residential Buildings
Villas of Normandy Condominiums, LaSalle, ON
Only by using a precast solution could this six storey, 47 unit
residential condominium building's structure be completely installed
and turned over to the client in less than six weeks. The structure
used precast, prestressed concrete hollow core slabs, balcony slabs,
precast load bearing walls, stairs and landings.

Hollow core bearing supports can be precast concrete,
masonry, steel or cast-in-place construction.
Construction rates of 1 floor per week and better are
often achieved. Precast walls and frames speed the
erection process. Architectural precast insulated
exterior wall panels provide a durable, attractive,
energy efficient building envelope. Ancillary recreation,
parking and convention facilities are commonly
constructed using precast concrete framing with long
span roof and floor members.
Hollow core slabs combined with precast walls are the
standard components used in this type of construction.
The most common floor and roof elements employed
are 203 mm deep hollow core units. These slabs can
span up to 10 m or more without intermediate
supports. Longer spans can be achieved by using 254
mm or 305 mm deep hollow core units.
Hollow core slabs usually span between load bearing
shear walls or from the central corridor to an exterior
wall for hotels, motels and apartments. Slabs can be
cantilevered to form exterior balconies. Slab soffits
form a finished ceiling in the rooms below.
Precast and prestressed concrete enjoys broad
acceptance by builders of low and mid-rise apartment
buildings, hotels, motels, and nursing homes, where
the repetitive use of standard components
manufactured in a precast factory can be fully utilized.
Owners and developers recognize the superior fire
resistance and sound control features.
Concrete and masonry are not a nutrient source, and
therefore, will not support the growth of mold and
mildew that need food, moisture, oxygen and suitable
temperature to survive.
Willow Park Retirement Home
The non-combustibility of precast concrete
construction inherently provides the required
fire ratings for fire containment within living
units. This ensures the safety of adjacent
units, that can reduce fire insurance rates.
Precast concrete significantly reduces the risk
of fire during construction. Precast concrete
housing offers a safe, soundproof, high quality
environment.
1.1.8 Parking Structures
Chapman Parkade, Kelowna, BC
The City of Kelowna chose precast concrete for a fast-tracked
parking garage. Double tee parking garage floor slabs were
cast using Self Consolidating Concrete (SCC) to speed the
casting production, with the added benefits of low permeability
concrete and highest quality surface finish. Erection of the five
storey 480 car parking structure was completed in 6 weeks.

Speed of construction, versatility of design, attractive
exterior finishes, durability and economy make precast
prestressed concrete parking garages a popular choice
with commercial, municipal and institutional clients.
Long spans and open walls improve user safety.
Loads and forces
Allowances must be made in the design to
accommodate volume changes resulting from creep,
shrinkage and extreme temperature differences.
Lateral design loads due to wind, earthquake or earth
pressures (in the case of in-ground or partially buried
structures) can be resisted in a precast concrete
structure by transferring loads through the floor
diaphragm to either shear walls or to beam and column
moment frames. The joints in precast construction
increase flexibility to accommodate movements.
Chapman Parkade, Kelowna, BC
Express ramp framing.
Eccentrically loaded beams and spandrel panels must
be designed for torsion effects. Connections should be
designed to prevent beam rotation and absorb bumper
loads without undue restraint against volume change.
Uplift loads on shear walls can be minimized by
loading the walls with beams or floor members.
Bay sizes
Bay sizes should be as large as possible and modular
with the width of the standard precast concrete floor
elements selected. For clear span parking, the bay size
selected need not be a multiple of the width of parking
stalls. Stall width can also be changed after
construction.
Drainage
Providing slope in a structure to achieve positive
drainage is essential for rapid removal of salt laden
water. The drainage pattern selected should repeat for
all floors to allow for repetition in the manufacturing of
the precast elements. Locate isolation (expansion)
joints at high points to minimize possible leakage.
Slope floors away from columns, walls and spandrels
where standing water and leakage can corrode
connections.
Durability
High strength factory produced precast reinforced and
pretensioned concrete components have been found to
be highly resistant to chloride ion attack. Wire mesh
reinforcement should be incorporated in the topping
when a cast-in-place composite topping is used over
precast floor members. Good results have been
achieved by providing a high strength concrete topping
having a water-to-cementitious materials ratio of 0.40
or less. Wet cured, air entrained concrete will produce
the best results.
CSA Standard S413 specifies requirements for low-
permeability concrete, acceptable protection systems
and concrete cover to reinforcement and prestressing
tendons.
Saw cut joints should not be used. A series of control
joints should be tooled into the topping above all joints
in the precast members below. Later this joint is
prepared by grinding and filled with a traffic grade
sealant.
The application of a penetrating sealer to the concrete
surfaces may be a good investment to help inhibit
water and chloride ion penetration. A regular
maintenance program is essential to maximize the life
of a parking structure.
Canada Post Headquarters Garage, Ottawa, ON
Lattice bearing walls support double tee slabs on both sides
of the wall. These walls reduce shipping weight and create a
more open and safe environment.
Metro Park Garage, Halifax, NS
The lower two floors were clad with earth colored pigmented
precast concrete panels to blend in with the older brick and
stone in downtown Halifax. The column free interior of this
parking garage provides parking for 575 cars in 15,500 sq. m
of floor area. A two level commercial, leased, space of 800
sq. m, offers a beautiful view of Halifax Harbour.
1.1.9 Office Buildings
High quality architectural load bearing
exterior walls, precast concrete framing and
mass produced structural precast floor and
roof members provide open, attractive, fire
resistant and economical office buildings.
Load bearing architectural spandrel panels can support
double tee floor and roof slabs.
Total precast concrete construction is very suitable for
office buildings. The quality finishes result in tenant
satisfaction. Shortened schedules provide early
occupancy and reduced financing costs.
Total precast concrete structures can
achieve significant time savings. The
superstructure is manufactured while the on-
site foundations are being built. Potential
delays are reduced with the complete
building system supplied under one contract.
Erection of large precast concrete
components can proceed during adverse
weather conditions to quickly enclose the
structure. Architectural precast panels
provide a finished exterior.
Prestressed floors provide an immediate
working platform allowing other trades an
early start to install the mechanical, electrical
and interior finishing work. Long span double
tee or hollow core floors reduce interior
framing, providing large column free areas.
Architectural finishes can be used in the
interior of an office building for columns,
atrium framing, entrance and elevator shaft
walls. Interior or exterior shear wall systems
and rigid frame beam-column systems can
be used to resist lateral forces.
High-rise office building
This eight storey tower is built entirely using structural and
architectural load bearing precast concrete components.
Burlington Water Treatment Plant Expansion, Burlington, ON
The double tee roof was designed to support 5 monorail systems in different
locations attached to the underside the roof double tees. The design and layout
minimized differential cambers and accommodated the heavy equipment loads.
1.1.10 Public Buildings
The use of precast and/or prestressed
concrete will contribute in a number of
ways:
Exposing precast concrete in the
interior of public buildings can
produce dramatic facades.
Rugged exterior and interior
surface treatments look good and
are long lasting.
Integral insulation in exterior walls
will conserve energy and lower
operating costs.
Calgary Remand Centre, Calgary, AB
The secure perimeter of this 17,190 sq.m, 350 cell prison building was constructed using load bearing precast
concrete insulated sandwich wall panels as the exterior building envelope.
Designers strive to create public buildings that are open, functional and inviting. Precast concrete construction is
ideal for airports, theatres, museums, galleries, libraries, convention centres, bus and train stations.
Precast concrete construction permits the plastic nature of concrete to be realized in unique ways. A controlled
factory environment facilitates achievement of the highest quality.
1.1.11 Stadiums and Arenas
Large stadiums and arenas are impressive structures.
These projects are often built on tight schedules to
accommodate important sporting events. Precast
concrete is the overwhelming choice, providing fast
construction and a long service life for these projects.
The technique of post-tensioning precast segments
together has allowed complex cantilever arm and ring
beam construction to support the roofs of these
structures. Post-tensioning is commonly employed to
reinforce precast concrete cantilevered raker beams
that carry seating elements past columns to provide
unobstructed viewing of the playing surface.
Seahawks Stadium,
Seattle, WA
Most of the bleachers were
prestressed triple riser units. The
vertical riser height increases
progressively as you go up the
stadium to allow for clear site lines.
Only minor damage occurred to the
precast components when a major
earthquake struck the Seattle area
during construction. The precast
components were manufactured in
Canada.
Molson Centre, Montreal, QC
Stadium risers can be quickly erected on sloping raker
beams. Single, double or triple risers can be provided in
accordance with manufacturers preferences and design
criteria.
Many arenas are built using hollow core bleachers.
Long-spans and the ability to eliminate costly on-site
formwork make precast prestressed concrete the
best choice for stadium construction. Precast
seating units can be standardized to take advantage
of repeated form utilization. Mass produced seating
units are manufactured in a variety of configurations
and spans to provide for quick installation. Consult
CPCI members for available riser sections.

Pedestrian ramps, concession areas, washrooms,
and dressing rooms can all be framed and
constructed using precast concrete elements.
Tanks are prestressed both
vertically and horizontally allowing
the design to be crack-free. Joint
closures can be accomplished
on-site with field-placed concrete
after the panels are installed. This
method of sealing the tank joints
allows a tank to perform in a
monolithic manner (acting as a
single unit). Horizontal in-field
post-tensioning introduces com-
pression forces that resist the
pressure from the stored material.
1.1.12 Storage and Treatment Tanks
Precast construction offers fast, economical and
efficient storage solutions for materials from potable
water to hazardous waste. Sizes can range from
400,000 to 120 million litres. Seismic design features
can be easily and economically accommodated.
Precast concrete tank systems are adaptable to a wide
range of site and environmental conditions.
High performance precast concrete is superior for
corrosion, impact and fire resistance, lowering
maintenance costs and increasing longevity.
Precast concrete accelerates construction schedules.
Fabrication in precast plants under quality controlled
conditions will result in reduced on-site construction
and labour.
Problems with remote sites and access are easily
overcome with precast prestressed concrete tank
construction.
Precast tank wall with built-in launder trough.
Effluent Treatment Tanks, Prince Rupert, BC
1.1.13 Bridges
The use of voided slab and box girder sections are
economical for short spans and shallow depths, up to
40 m.
I-girders are the most common product used for short
to medium-spans. Spans of 20 to 60 m are common
using l-girders, bulb tees or NU girders. Spliced girders
can accommodate spans up to 100 m. [35]
Spans over 100 m can be achieved using full width
precast box segments that are post-tensioned together
in the field. Cable stayed bridges can span over 300 m
using precast and prestressed concrete decks.
Maximum girder length, height and
weight are determined by available
equipment and transportation
regulations.
64 m long, 2800 mm deep girders
weighing over 130 t have been
successfully transported by road in
Alberta.
Precast deck panels can save considerable time and cost by
eliminating formwork and reducing the field placement of
reinforcing steel and concrete.
Partial depth panels become composite with field-
placed concrete. Full depth precast deck panels, used
for both new and retrofit construction, can be
connected to the support beams to achieve composite
action. [38]
Other bridge components such as precast footings,
piers, abutments, wing walls, diaphragms, pile caps,
traffic barriers and retaining walls are used to speed
construction and enhance durability.
Oldman River Bridge, Taber, AB
Twenty eight 2800 mm deep NU girders formed the
superstructure for this 301 m long 5 span bridge - 3 main
spans of 62 m and 2 end spans of 57.5 m. The composite
deck roadway is supported by 4 lines of girders spaced at
2500 mm c/c. Spliced girders were erected on temporary
scaffolding and post-tensioned together after the joints were
completed.
Bridge construction gave the precast, prestressed
concrete industry its start in North America. Precast is
now the dominant structural material for short and
medium-span bridges. Precast, prestressed concrete
bridge construction offers speed of construction in all
weather conditions, reduced traffic disruption, assured
quality, inherent durability, low maintenance and
economy.
Highway bridges are designed and constructed in
accordance with CSA Standard S6 Canadian Highway
Bridge Design Code (CHBDC). Railway bridges are
designed and constructed in accordance with AREMA
specifications.
Highway Overpass, Edmonton, AB
1.1.14 Special Structures
A high degree of design flexibility makes prestressed concrete ideal
for a wide variety of special structures.
Precast properties, such as corrosion resistance (piling), durability
(railway ties), sound attenuation (sound walls), fire resistance (pipe
racks), tight tolerances (tunnel liners), architectural finishes (chimney
stacks), strength (silos) and fast installation and economy, have all
been used to good advantage.
Where repetition and standardization exist, precast components can
provide economical and quality solutions. Plant manufactured
products can eliminate expensive and risky field procedures.
Innovative applications rely on the skill and imagination of creative
designers.
Canadian Plaza Improvements
Toll Booth Canopy Stage 1
Fort Erie, ON
The curved canopy was constructed using 15
tapered segmental precast canopy units,
erected on 14 permanent columns and
temporary scaffolding. Segments were post-
tensioned together. Units were 11.5 m long
and tapered from 3.024 m wide at the front to
2.794 m at the rear. Exposed faces were
precast using a board pattern form liner.
Interior units weighed 34 t. End units weighed
40 t.
Syncrude Arch Conveyor Crossing,
Fort McMurray, AB.
Custom steel forms were used to manufacture twenty
2.4 m wide x 14 m long x 4.6 m high, 68 t, precast
arch segments. The arch sections were positioned
together and covered by 1.5 m of earth at the crown
to allow haul trucks to cross over the conveyor.
Pipe Racks
Custom precast concrete framing is often
used to prevent collapse in a fire.
1.1.15 Architectural Wall Panels
Architectural precast cladding combines the maximum
freedom of architectural expression with the economies
of mass production of repetitive precast elements.
Understanding how architectural precast concrete can
be used as an integral part of a building envelope will
enable designers to make appropriate design choices.
It is important to consider the overall requirements of
the building envelope during design and construction.
Architectural precast concrete systems can vary from
conventional cladding systems to composite sandwich
assemblies that function as the entire environmental
separator.
Architectural precast concrete can be cast in almost
any colour, form, or texture to meet aesthetic and
practical requirements. Sculptured effects can provide
Vancouver Public Library
Insulated architectural wall panels contribute
substantially to the overall thermal efficiency of a
building. Precast cladding may simply enclose a
structure, or be designed to support gravity loads and
contribute to the resistance of lateral loads.
Melchoir Office Building, Barrie, ON
Panels Incorporate reflective mica and green-coloured
gravel aggregates.
such visual expressions as strength and massiveness
or grace and openness.
Aesthetic appearance can be achieved by varying
aggregates and matrix colour. Combining colour with
texture accents the natural beauty of aggregates.
Panel geometry (shape details) has a major influence
on fabrication economy and engineering requirements,
with overall size and configuration being the most
important elements.
1.1.16 Veneer Faced Wall Panels
Sparrow Hospital Parking Garage, Lansing, MI
Historic Toronto City Hall
and Civic Square
(completed 1965)
The curving towers feature arch-
itectural precast panels faced with
Italian marble. These panels acted as
stay-in-place exterior formwork for the
cast-in-place reinforced concrete
frame.
To supplement the variety of colours and textures
available with conventional precast finishes, additional
aesthetic expression can be achieved by casting other
materials, such as veneers on the face of precast
concrete panels. Natural stone, such as polished and
thermal-finished granite, limestone, marble, and clay
products such as brick, tile and terra-cotta, are
frequently used as veneer materials.
Bankers Hall, Calgary, AB
Granite-faced precast concrete window panels were
used on both high rise towers, built 12 years apart.
Worker installs brick
inserts in a plastic
form liner.
Dovetail slots on the
back help to anchor the
brick tiles into the
precast panels.
Complex brick faced panels have been precast in
plants to produce results virtually impossible to achieve
using field-set masonry.
1.1.17 Modular Sandwich Wall Panels
Precast concrete sandwich wall panels are available across Canada in
varying lengths, thicknesses and exterior finishes. Panels are mass-
produced in standard widths on long-line casting beds.
With attractive sculptured exterior surfaces and smooth interior faces,
these panels provide strong, durable, energy efficient, economical and fire
resistant wall systems.
Leons Retail Store, Edmonton, AB
Insulated wall panels consist of two
concrete wythes with a continuous
layer of rigid insulation sandwiched
between them. The type and
thickness of insulation contained in
sandwich panels can vary to meet
the specified RSI requirements.
Insulation i s i nstall ed under
controlled factory conditions and is
well protected by the concrete.
Panels can be erected at rates of up
to 120 lineal meters per day on
concrete or steel frame buildings.
Panels can be used for both load
bearing and non-load bearing
applications.
Airdrie Co-op, Calgary, AB
The advanced properties of Ultra High Performance
Concrete (UHPC) enable designers to create thin
sections and long spans that are light, graceful and
innovative in geometry and form. UHPC provides
improved durability and impermeability against
corrosion, abrasion and impact.
UHPC materials with their high ultimate compressive
and flexural-tensile strengths offer additional
opportunities when prestressed. UHPC can be
designed to carry shear loads without auxiliary shear
reinforcement. Very thin sections are possible for a
wide variety of innovative and efficient cross sections.
Current structural precast shapes used for
prestressed beams in buildings and bridges were
developed for concretes with much lower strength
properties. UHPC provides the opportunity to create
new prestressed beam shapes and to reduce beam
structural depth and dead loads.
UHPC suits applications requiring:
High compressive and tensile strength
Durability - long service life
Complex structural and architectural shapes
1.1.18 Ultra High Performance Concrete
Footbridge, Sherbrooke,
QC, 1997
This pedestrian bridge, built in
1997, is the first industrial use
of UHPC. Ten factory precast
match-cast segments, 3.3 m
wide, 3.0 m deep, 6.0 m long,
were delivered and post-
tensioned together at the site
to form the 60 m main bridge
span. [67]
Shawnessy LRT Transit Station Canopies, Calgary,
AB, 2003
Twenty-four unique, thin-shelled canopies, 5.1 m x 6.0 m and just 20
mm thick, are supported on single columns to protect commuters
from the elements. [70]
123
Footbridge Cross Section
CPCI Design Manual 4
1.2 PRECAST CONCRETE MATERIALS
This section of the manual provides a brief review of
the materials used in precast and prestressed
concrete. Refer to Chapter 8 for design information
on concrete and concrete reinforcing materials.
1.2.1 Concrete
Types of hydraulic cement*: A23.1 classifies the
types of hydraulic cement as:
Type GU: General use hydraulic cement, for use in
general concrete construction when the special
properties of the other types are not required.
Type HE: High-early-strength hydraulic cement, for
use when high-early-strength is required.
Type MS: Moderate sulphate-resistant hydraulic
cement, for use in general concrete construction
exposed to moderate sulphate action.
Type HS: High sulphate-resistant hydraulic cement,
for use when high sulphate resistance is required.
Type MH: Moderate heat of hydration hydraulic
cement, for use in general concrete construction
when moderate heat of hydration is required.
Type LH: Low heat of hydration hydraulic cement,
for use when low heat of hydration is required.
Types of supplementary cementing materials*:
A23.1 classifies the types of supplementary
cementing materials as:
Natural pozzolan is Type N.
Fly ash is Type F: low calcium content (< 8), Type Cl:
intermediate calcium content or Type CH: high
calcium content (> 20).
Ground granulated blast-furnace slag is Type S.
Silica fume is Type SF.
A3001 allows blending of up to three individual
supplementary cementing materials to produce a
blended supplementary cementing material. For
additional information, see A3001, Clause 5.
*Material is reproduced with the permission of Canadian Standards
Association from the CSA Standard A23.1-04/A23.2-04, Concrete Materials
and Methods of Concrete Construction/Methods of Test and Standard
Practices for Concrete that are copyrighted by Canadian Standards
Association, 178 Rexdale Blvd., Toronto, Ontario, M9W 1R3. While use of
this material has been authorized, CSA shall not be responsible for the
manner in which the information is presented, nor for any interpretations
thereof. For more information on CSA or to purchase standards, please visit
www.shopcsa.ca or call 1-800-463-6727.
Aggregates: Aggregates for structural precast
products are usually the same as those used for
other high-quality concrete in the local area. Where
lightweight aggregates are available, semi-low
density structural concrete can also be used for
precast products. Appropriate mix designs should be
obtained from local CPCI members. Aggregates
commonly selected for exposed concrete facings are
limestone, quartz, granite or marble. These offer a
wide variety of colour and texture. Lower cost sand
and gravel aggregates can also be used to produce
architectural concrete. Special attention should be
paid to sand and gravel aggregates to ensure they do
not rust or stain when exposed to the environment.
Concrete strength: The 28-day design strength of
concrete used in precast and prestressed products is
usually in the 35 MPa to 50 MPa range. The transfer
strength (when the prestress force is transferred to
the concrete) is usually about 25 MPa and can be
more or less as required by the design. However, a
practical limit is the strength that can be attained in
about 16 hours to allow for the removal of a product
from the forms on a daily basis.
Curing: During production, architectural precast
concrete panels generally do not receive accelerated
heat curing as do precast, prestressed concrete
structural members. Architectural precast panels are
removed from forms at an age of about 16 hours after
the concrete has reached a strength adequate to
withstand stripping and handling.
Self-consolidating concrete (SCC):
Self-consolidating concrete is an advanced approach
to the production of highly flowable, self-leveling
concrete that can be placed with minimal or no
vibration and without segregation. SCC requires a
high performance superplasticizer to achieve and
maintain the desired workability. SCC can be made
with standard available raw materials. However, to
achieve the unique rheological properties of SCC,
special attention must be paid to the mix design
process. [21]
High Performance Concrete (HPC):
High Performance Concrete offers more than just
high strength. HPC is predominately specified for its
durability. A23.1 requires high performance structural
concretes exposure class A-1, C-1, or exposure
class C-XL for higher protection.
Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC):
Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) covers
concretes with compressive strengths from 120 MPa
to 200 MPa with flexural strengths of up to 40 MPa.
Note: Practices that apply to the manufacturing and
testing of regular concrete may not be applicable to
UHPC.
Concrete exposure classes*
A23.1 defines the following exposure classes:
C-XL Structurally reinforced concrete exposed to
chlorides or other severe environments with or
without freezing and thawing conditions, with
higher durability performance expectations
than the C-1, A-1 or S-1 classes.
C-1 Structurally reinforced concrete exposed to
chlorides with or without freezing and thawing
conditions. Examples: bridge decks, parking
decks and ramps, portions of marine
structures located within the tidal and splash
zones, concrete exposed to seawater spray,
and salt water pools.
C-2 Non-structurally reinforced (i.e., plain) concrete
exposed to chlorides and freezing and
thawing. Examples: garage floors, porches,
steps, pavements, sidewalks, curbs, and
gutters.
C-3 Continuously submerged concrete exposed to
chlorides but not to freezing and thawing.
Examples: underwater portions of marine
structures.
C-4 Non-structurally reinforced concrete exposed
to chlorides but not to freezing and thawing.
Examples: underground parking slabs on
grade.
F-1 Concrete exposed to freezing and thawing in a
saturated condition but not to chlorides.
Examples: pool decks, patios, tennis courts,
freshwater pools, and freshwater control
structures.
F-2 Concrete in an unsaturated condition exposed
to freezing and thawing but not to chlorides.
Examples: exterior walls and columns.
N Concrete not exposed to chlorides or to
freezing and thawing. Examples: footings and
interior slabs, walls and columns.
A-1 Structurally reinforced concrete exposed to
severe manure and/or silage gases, with or
without freeze-thaw exposure. Concrete
exposed to the vapour above municipal
sewage or industrial effluent, where hydrogen
sulphide gas may be generated. Examples:
reinforced beams, slabs and columns over
manure pits and silos, canals, pig slats, access
holes, enclosed chambers, and pipes that are
partially filled with effluents.
moderate to severe manure and/or silage
gases and liquids, with or without freeze-thaw
exposure. Examples: reinforced walls in
exterior manure tanks, silos and feed bunkers,
exterior slabs.
moderate to severe manure and/or silage
gases and liquids, with or without freeze-thaw
exposure in a continuously submerged
condition. Concrete continuously submerged in
municipal or industrial effluents. Examples:
interior gutter walls, beams, slabs and
columns, sewage pipes that are continuously
full (e.g., force mains), submerged portions of
sewage treatment structures.
A-4 Non-structurally-reinforced concrete exposed
to moderate manure and/or silage gases and
liquids, without freeze-thaw exposure.
Examples: interior slabs on grade.
S-1 Concrete subjected to very severe sulphate
exposure (A23.1 Tables 2 and 3).
S-2 Concrete subjected to severe sulphate
S-3 Concrete subjected to moderate sulphate
Table 2 of A23.1 gives the requirements for C, F, N,
R, S, and A classes of exposure.
Low-permeability concrete*
Low-permeability concrete is obtained by using
exposure class C-1 concrete, or for added protection,
exposure class C-XL concrete.
Class of exposure C-1 C-XL
Maximum water-to-
cementing materials ratio
0.40 0.37
Minimum specified
compressive strength
(MPa) and age (d) at test
35 at 28 d 50 within 56 d
Air content category:
(a) concrete exposed to
freezing and thawing
1 1
(b) concrete not exposed
to freezing and thawing
2 2
Chloride ion penetrability
test requirements and
age at test in accordance
with ASTM 1202
< 1500
coulombs
within 56 d
< 1000
coulombs
within 56 d
Requirements for the air content categories*

Range in air content for concretes with
indicated nominal maximum sizes of
coarse aggregate, %
Air content
category
10mm 14-20 mm 28-40 mm
1 6-9 5-8 4-7
2 5-8 4-7 3-6
Note: See A23.1 Clause 4.3.3.2 for determining the air content
in hardened concrete.
The curing procedures specified in A23.1 are not
required to be followed if alternate curing procedures
specific to a particular plant are used, and provided
these procedures are shown to produce a finished
concrete that meets or exceeds all of the
performance requirements for C-1 or C-XL concrete.
*Material is reproduced with the permission of Canadian Standards
Association from the CSA Standard A23.1-04/A23.2-04, Concrete Materials
and Methods of Concrete Construction/Methods of Test and Standard
Practices for Concrete that are copyrighted by Canadian Standards
Association, 178 Rexdale Blvd., Toronto, Ontario, M9W 1R3. While use of
this material has been authorized, CSA shall not be responsible for the
manner in which the information is presented, nor for any interpretations
thereof. For more information on CSA or to purchase standards, please visit
www.shopcsa.ca or call 1-800-463-6727.
Compressive strength
The compressive strength of concrete made with
aggregate of adequate strength is governed by either
the strength of the cement paste or the bond between
the paste and the aggregate particles. At early ages,
the bond strength is lower than the paste strength. At
later ages, the reverse can be the case.
For a given cement and acceptable aggregates, the
strength that can be developed by a workable,
properly placed mixture of cement, aggregate, and
water (under the same mixing, curing, and testing
conditions) is influenced by:
1. The ratio of water to cementing materials
2. The ratio of cementing materials to aggregate
3. Grading, surface texture, shape, strength, and
siffness of aggregate particles
4. Maximum size of the aggregate
Mix factors, partially or totally independent of water-to-
cementing materials ratio, that affect the strength are:
1. Type and brand of cement
2. Amount and type of admixture or pozzolan
3. Mineral composition of the aggregate
Compressive strength is measured by testing
100 200 mm cylinders in accordance with A23.2
procedures. Grout materials are tested using 50 or
100 mm cubes.
Testing of no-slump concrete is covered in A23.4.
Because of the need for early strength gain, HE
cement is often used by precasters so that molds can
be reused daily. Structural precast concrete and
much architectural concrete is made with gray
cement that meets A3001. HE and GU white
hydraulic cements are frequently used in architectural
products and are usually assumed to have the same
characteristics (other than colour) as gray cement.
Pigments are also available to colour concrete, and,
at the recommended dosages, have little or no effect
on strength. Cement type and colour should be
chosen with the help of local producers who may
have experience with the proposed mix.
Concrete mixes with strengths up to 50 MPa or more
are available in most areas. CPCI member precast
manufacturers may be contacted for concrete design
information.
Initial curing of precast concrete takes place in the
form, usually by covering to prevent loss of moisture
and, in many instances (particularly for structural
products), with the application of radiant heat or live
steam. Additional curing is rarely necessary to attain
the specified strength. [23]
Concrete subjected to freezing and thawing should
be air-entrained. For some precast concrete mixes it
is sometimes difficult to obtain air contents as large
as those normally specified for the leaner mixes most
often used in cast-in-place flatwork. Admixtures are
added to the concrete during the mixing cycle to
entrain the air. A slight reduction of strength should
be anticipated when concrete is air entrained.
Tensile strength
A critical measure of the performance of architectural
precast concrete is its resistance to cracking that is a
function of the tensile strength. Reinforcement does
not prevent cracking, but controls crack widths after
cracking has occurred. Tensile stresses that would
theoretically result in cracking are permitted by A23.3
in prestressed concrete.
The flexural tensile strength is called the modulus of
rupture. It can be determined by test, but for
structural design the modulus of rupture is generally
assumed to be a function of compressive strength as
given by:
f
r
=
c
0.6 f
f
r
= modulus of rupture (MPa)
c
f = compressive strength (MPa)
= 1.0 for normal density concrete
= 0.85 for structural semi-low density concrete
= 0.75 for structural low density concrete
Shear strength
The shear (or diagonal tension) strength of concrete
is also a function of compressive strength. The
equations for shear strength specified in A23.3 are
given in Chapter 3. The shear strength of semi-low
density and low-density concrete is determined using
the factor, , as described on the preceding page.
Modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity, E, is the ratio of normal
stress to corresponding strain. It is the material
property that determines the immediate deformation
under load. E is used to calculate deflections, axial
shortening and elongation, buckling and relative
distribution of applied forces in composite and non-
homogeneous structural elements.
The modulus of elasticity of concrete and other
masonry materials is not as well defined as for
materials such as steel. E is therefore defined by an
approximate slope, such as the secant modulus.
Calculations that involve E have an inherent
imprecision, but this seldom affects practical
performance. While it can be desirable in rare
instances to determine the modulus of elasticity by
test, particularly with some low density concretes, the
equation given in A23.3 is usually adequate for
design:
E
c
=
1.5
c
c
(3300 f 6900)
2300

+

E
c
= modulus of elasticity (MPa)
c
= density of concrete (kg/m
3
)
Poisson's ratio
Poisson's ratio is the ratio of transverse strain to axial
strain. Values generally range between 0.11 and
0.27, and are usually assumed to be 0.20 for both
normal and low density concrete.
Volume changes
Volume changes in precast concrete members are
caused by changes in temperature, shrinkage and by
creep caused by sustained stress. If precast concrete
members are free to deform, volume changes are of
little consequence. If elements are restrained by
foundations, connections, steel reinforcement, or
connecting elements, significant stresses can
develop over time.
The volume changes due to temperature variations
and creep can be positive (expansion) or negative
(contraction), while volume changes from shrinkage
are only negative.
Much of the creep and shrinkage in precast members
takes place during yard storage. Connection details
and joints must be designed to accommodate the
volume changes that occur after the precast elements
have been erected and connected to the structure.
Hollow core slabs are often shipped at an early age,
but are not normally rigidly connected to the
supporting structure.
Typical creep, shrinkage, and temperature strains
and design examples are given in Chapter 2.
Temperature effects:
The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete
varies with the aggregate used as shown in Fig.
1.2.1. Ranges for normal density concrete are
9 to 13 10
6
/ C when made with siliceous
aggregates and 6 to 9 x 10
6
/ C when made with
calcareous aggregates. The approximate values for
structural low density concretes are 6.5 to
11 10
6
/ C, depending on the type of aggregate
and amount of natural sand. Coefficients of
11 10
6
/ C for normal density and 9 10
6
/
o
C for
semi-low density concrete are frequently used. If
greater accuracy is needed, tests should be
conducted on the specific concrete.
Since the thermal coefficient for steel is also about
11 x 10
6
/ C, the steel reinforcement does not
produce significant stresses in the concrete due to
temperature changes.
Shrinkage and creep:
Precast concrete elements are subject to air-drying
as soon as they are removed from the forms. As a
result of this drying, the concrete slowly loses some
of its original water causing shrinkage to occur.
When concrete is subjected to a sustained load, the
deformation can be divided into two parts:
1. elastic deformation that occurs immediately, and
2. time-dependent deformation, called creep,
beginning immediately and continuing over time.
Creep and shrinkage strains vary with relative
humidity, volume-surface ratio (see Fig.1.2.2), level of
sustained load including prestress, concrete age and
strength at the time of load application, amount and
location of steel reinforcement, and other
characteristics of the material and design. Different
values of shrinkage and creep may be needed when
high strength concretes are used. Typically, the joints
between precast members are detailed to relieve
such strains.
Fig. 1.2.1 Average coefficients of linear thermal
expansion of rock (aggregate) and
concrete
Type of Rock
(Aggregate)
Average Coefficient
Of Thermal Expansion
(10
6
/ C)
Aggregate Concrete
*

Quartzite, Cherts 11.0 - 12.6 11.9 - 12.8
Sandstones 10.0 - 12.0 10.0 - 11.7
Quartz Sands & Gravels 9.9 - 12.8 11.0 - 15.7
Granites & Gneisses 5.8 - 9.5 6.8 - 9.5
Syenites,
Diorites, Andesite,
Gabbros, Diabas, Basalt
5.4 - 8.1 8.0 - 9.5
Limestones 3.6 - 6.5 6.1 - 9.2
Marbles 4.0 - 7.0 4.1
Dolomites 7.0 - 9.9
Expanded Shale,
Clay & Slate
6.5 - 7.7
Expanded Slag 7.0 - 11.2
Blast-Furnace Slag 9.2 - 10.6
Pumice 9.4 - 11.0
Perlite 7.6 - 11.7
Vermiculite 8.3 - 14.2
Barite 18.0
Limonite, Magnetite 8.3 - 11.0
None (Neat Cement) 18.5
Cellular Concrete 9.0 - 12.6
1 : 1 (Cement : Sand) 13.5
1 : 3 11.2
1 : 6 10.0
* Coefficients for concretes made with aggregates from
different sources vary from these values, especially those
for gravels, granites, and limestones. Fine aggregates are
generally the same material as coarse aggregates.
Tests made on 2-year old samples.
Freeze-thaw and chemical resistance
Cycles of freezing and thawing can cause damage to
concrete ranging from minor surface scaling to
severe disintegration. Corrosion of reinforcement,
prestressing strand or connection hardware can also
result, affecting the integrity of the structure.
The effects of freezing and thawing can be resisted by
high quality concrete and air entrainment. Adequate
concrete cover over reinforcement and surface
drainage is essential in structures exposed to weather.
Fig.1.2.2 Volume-surface ratios for precast
structural concrete elements
Freeze-thaw damage is accelerated by deicing
chemicals. Deicers can be applied indirectly in
various ways such as salt water dripping from the
undersides of vehicles and splash water. Some
proprietary treatments such as sealers, membranes
and corrosion inhibiters have been found to provide
additional protection to freeze-thaw, deicing and other
chemical damage. (See S413 Parking Structures.)
Other foreign materials, such as sulphates in soils or
ground water and industrial acids, can damage
concrete. The former can be resisted by specifying
cements with a low C
3
A content. The presence of
acids generally requires a membrane or a topping of
concrete or other material. When aggregates or
cement with high alkali content are used in a moist
environment, the danger of alkali-aggregate reactivity
(AAR) should be considered. [5]
1.2.2 Grout, Mortar and Drypack
When water, sand and cementing materials are
mixed together without coarse aggregate, the result is
called mortar, grout, or drypack, depending on the
consistency. These materials have numerous
applications in precast concrete construction:
sometimes for fire or corrosion protection, for
cosmetic treatment, or to transfer loads in horizontal
and vertical joints.
Different materials are used:
1. Cement
2. Shrinkage-compensating cement
3. Expansive cement made with special additives
4. Gypsum or gypsum cements
5. Epoxy resins
6. Proprietary grouts and repair mortars
Sand-cement mixtures
Most grout is a simple mixture of cement, sand, and
water. Proportions are usually one part cement to
2.25 to 3 parts sand. The amount of water depends
on the method of placement.
Flowable grouts are high-slump mixes used to fill
voids that are either formed in the field or cast into
the precast element such as the shear keys between
hollow core slabs. Grouts are used at joints that may
be heavily congested but not confined, requiring
some formwork. These grouts usually have a high
water-cement ratio, resulting in low strength and high
shrinkage. There is a tendency for the solids to settle,
leaving a layer of water on the top. Admixtures can
improve the characteristics of flowable grouts.
For very small spaces in confined areas, grouts can
be pumped or pressure injected. Confinement must
be sufficiently strong to resist the hydraulic pressure.
Less water can be used than for flowable grouts,
hence less shrinkage and higher strengths can be
obtained.
A stiffer grout, or mortar, is used when the joint is not
totally confined, for example in vertical joints between
wall panels. This material will usually develop
strengths of 20 MPa to 45 MPa, and have much less
shrinkage than flowable grout.
Drypack is the name used for very stiff sand-cement
mixes. Drypack is used if a relatively high strength is
desired, for example, under bearing walls and column
base plates. Compaction is by hand tamping, using a
rod or stick.
When freeze-thaw durability is a factor, grout should
be air-entrained. An air content of 9 or 10% may be
required for adequate protection.
Typical cement mortars have very slow early strength
gain when placed in cold weather. Heating is usually
not effective because the heat is rapidly dissipated
into the surrounding concrete. Special proprietary
mixes may be required unless a heated enclosure
can be provided.
Non-shrink grout
Shrinkage of sand-cement grout can be reduced by
using proprietary non-shrink mixes, or by adding
aluminum powder to the mix. Non-shrink grouts can
be classified by the method of expansion:
1. Gas-liberating
2. Metal-oxidizing
3. Gypsum-forming
4. Expansive cement
Manufacturers' recommendations should be followed
as some expansive ingredients may cause
undesirable effects in some applications.
Aluminum powder added to ordinary sand-cement
grout forms a gas-liberating mixture. Extremely small
amounts of powder are required (about a teaspoonful
per bag of cement) making these mixes very
sensitive to variations in the ingredients. Trial mixes
should be tested.
Epoxy grouts
Epoxy grouts are used when very high strength is
desired, or when positive bonding to the concrete is
necessary. They are mixtures of epoxy resins and a
filler material, usually sand.
The physical properties of epoxy compounds vary
widely. The compound to be used should be
determined either through experience or by test. [41]
The thermal expansion of epoxy grouts can be up to
7 times that of concrete, and the modulus of elasticity
of epoxy grouts are considerably different than
concrete.
Low viscosity epoxy resins without fillers can be
pressure-injected or gravity fed into cracked concrete
as a repair measure.
Post-tensioning grout
Post-tensioning grouts are a mixture of cement and
water with or without admixtures. [48]
1.2.3 Reinforcement
Reinforcement used in structural and architectural
precast concrete includes prestressing tendons,
deformed steel bars, and welded wire reinforcement.
Metallic and non-metallic fibre reinforcing can also be
used. Specifications for non-metallic reinforcing
materials are covered in S806.
Prestressing tendons
Tendons for prestressing concrete can be wires,
strands, or bars. In precast, prestressed structural
concrete, nearly all tendons are 7-wire strands
conforming to ASTM A416/A416M. The strands are
usually pretensioned (tensioned prior to concrete
placement). After the concrete has reached a
predetermined strength, the strands are cut and the
prestress force is transferred to the concrete through
bond.
Until the late 1970s, most prestressing strand was
stress-relieved. Today, low-relaxation strand is
almost universally used. Low-relaxation strand as
specified in ASTM A416/A416M differs from stress-
relieved strand in two respects: first, it meets more
restrictive relaxation loss requirements, and second,
the minimum yield strength at an extension of 1% is
90% of the specified minimum tensile strength,
compared to 85% for stress-relieved strand. The load
tables in Chapter 7 are based on low-relaxation
strand.
Architectural precast concrete is sometimes
prestressed. Prestressing tendons can be either
pretensioned or post-tensioned depending on the
facilities available at the plant.
Prestressing wire or bars are occasionally used as
primary reinforcement in precast elements. The
properties of prestressing strand, wire and bars are
given in Chapter 8.
Deformed reinforcing bars and wires
Hot-rolled deformed reinforcing bars are required to
meet one or more of the following standards: CSA
G30.18 or ASTM A82, A184, A185, A496, A497,
A704 or A775. These specifications cover both
weldable steel and regular steel. Bars are usually
specified to have a minimum yield strength of 400
MPa (Grade 400R and 400W). Grade 300R bars may
be available only in sizes 10M and 15M. Grade 500R
and 500W steel are also available. The maximum
yield strength of 400W and 500W bars is limited to
525 MPa and 625 MPa, respectively, to ensure ductile
behaviour. The W in the grade designation indicates
a weldable bar with controlled chemistry and a
maximum carbon equivalent of 0.55%.
Some precast plants use weldable steel (400W) for
all reinforcement. Advantages are a reduction in
inventory and the possibility of errors. Another
advantage is that bar ends can be used for welded
connections instead of being scrapped. See W186 for
the welding of reinforcing bars.
For a reinforcing bar to develop its full strength in
concrete, a minimum length of embedment or a hook
is required. Information on bar sizes, bend and hook
dimensions and development lengths are given in
reference [13] and Figs. 8.2.6 to 8.2.10.
Deformed wire can be used in small, thin members
when reinforcement smaller than 10 M bars is used to
meet concrete cover and/or small bend radii
requirements. Deformed wires should conform to
ASTM A497 see Figs 8.2.11 and 8.2.14.
Welded wire reinforcement
Welded wire reinforcement is prefabricated
reinforcement consisting of parallel cold-drawn wires
welded together in square or rectangular grids. Each
wire intersection is electrically resistance-welded by a
continuous automatic welder. Pressure and heat fuse
the intersecting wires together and fix all wires in their
proper position.
Smooth wires, deformed wires or a combination of
both can be used in welded wire reinforcement. Wire
sizes are denoted by their area in mm
2
prefixed with
the letters MW for smooth wire or MD for deformed
wire. Welded wire reinforcement styles are
designated by the spacing and wire sizes as shown in
Figs. 8.2.11 to 8.2.14. For one way welded wire
reinforcement, the area of the smaller wires shall not
be less than 40% of the area of the larger wires.
Smooth wire reinforcement bonds to concrete by the
mechanical anchorage at each welded wire
intersection. Deformed wire reinforcement utilizes
wire indentations plus welded intersections for bond
and anchorage. Many plants have equipment for
bending welded wire reinforcement into various
shapes such as U-shaped stirrups, four-sided cages,
etc. Designers are cautioned to ensure that welded
wire reinforcement meets the ductility requirements of
A23.1 when used as shear reinforcement.
Protection of reinforcement
Reinforcement is protected from corrosion by
embedment in concrete. A protective iron oxide film
forms on the surface of bars, wires and tendons as a
result of the high alkalinity of the cement paste. As
long as the alkalinity is maintained, this film is
effective in preventing corrosion.
The protective high alkalinity of the cement paste can
be lost by leaching, carbonation or the presence of
chlorides. Sufficient cover over the reinforcement
using concrete of low permeability will usually provide
adequate protection. Low permeability is obtained by
well-consolidated concrete having a low water-to-
cementing material ratio, a characteristic of precast
concrete. Permeability can be further decreased by
replacing some of the cement with fly ash or slag or
with the addition of small amounts of silica-fume to
the concrete mix. (See Section 6.5.)
Cracks in concrete can allow oxygen and moisture to
reach the embedded steel, providing conditions
where rusting of the steel and staining of the surface
may occur. A sufficient amount of closely spaced
reinforcement limits the width of cracks and the
intrusion of water, maintaining the protection of the
steel. Prestressing is particularly useful to prevent or
limit cracking.
Concrete cover is the minimum clear distance from
the reinforcement to the surface of the concrete. For
exposed aggregate surfaces, the concrete cover is
measured from the deformations of the reinforcement
to the deepest point of the exposed aggregate
surface. Allowance must also be given to scoring,
false joints, and drips, as these can reduce the cover.
In determining cover, consideration should be given
to the following:
1. Structural or nonstructural use of precast element.
2. Maximum aggregate size cover should be
greater than 1.5 times the nominal maximum
aggregate size, particularly if a face mix is used.
3. The means of securing the reinforcement in a
controlled position and maintaining this control
during placement of concrete.
4. Accessibility for the placement of concrete, and
the proportioning of the concrete mix relative to
the structural environment.
5. The type of finish treatment of the concrete surface.
6. The environment at the concrete surface: interior
or exposed to weather, ocean atmosphere, soils
or corrosive industrial fumes.
7. Fire resistance requirements.
The minimum cover requirements for precast
concrete manufactured under plant control conditions
as specified in A23.4 are shown in Fig. 1.2.3.

Galvanized reinforcement
Galvanized reinforcing bars or welded wire
reinforcement are sometimes used when minimum
cover requirements cannot be achieved, or when the
Fig. 1.2.3 Minimum cover requirements to reinforcement, tendon sheaths, and ducts for precast
concrete*
Exposure
Chlorides, sulphates, manure,
sewage and industrial effluents
Not exposed Earth or weather
Unprotected concrete
Exposure condition N F1, F2
C-1, C-3, A-1, A-2, A-3, S-
1, S-2, S-3
C-XL
Piles - 40 mm 50 mm 40 mm
Beams, girders, and columns 20 mm 30 mm 50 mm 40 mm
Slabs, walls, joists, shells, and
folded plates
20 mm 25 mm 50 mm 40 mm
Ratio of cover to nominal bar
diameter
1.0 1.5 1.5 (cover 60) 1.5 (cover 60)
Ratio of cover to nominal
maximum aggregate size
1.0 1.5 1.5 (cover 60) 1.5 (cover 60)
Cover to mesh reinforcing in all
precast products
20 mm 25 mm 40 mm 35 mm
Note: The cover for precast concrete is reduced from the cover used in cast-in-place concrete due to greater dimensional control of formed
concrete, tighter tolerances on placement of reinforcing and the better quality of concrete in plant-controlled conditions.
Exposure class N refers only to concrete that will be continually dry within a conditioned space, i.e., members entirely within the
vapour barrier of a building envelope.
The specified cover from screeded surfaces shall be at least 1.5 times the nominal maximum aggregate size to reduce interference
between aggregate and reinforcement where variations in bar placement may result in a cover smaller than specified.
Greater cover or protective coatings may be required for exposure to industrial chemicals, food processing, and other corrosive
materials. (See CSA A23.1 and PCA Publication IS001T.)
The cover requirements for parking structures may be modified due to the use of additional protective measures. (See CSA S413.)
Further reduced cover below the above values is permitted with the use of one or more of the following concrete protection systems:
membrane, concrete with a rapid chloride permeability test result (ASTM C1202) of less than 1500 coulombs at 56 days, corrosion
inhibitor, sealer, galvanized reinforcement, or stainless steel reinforcement. (See CSA A23.4 Table1.)
Cover requirements over reinforcement should be increased when the precast elements are acid etched, exposed to a corrosive
environment, or subjected to other severe exposure conditions. For these conditions, the cover should be greater than one and one
half times the nominal maximum aggregate size. (Refer to CSA A23.4.)
*Material is reproduced with the permission of Canadian Standards Association from the CSA Standard A23.4-05, Precast Concrete Materials and
Construction that are copyrighted by Canadian Standards Association, 178 Rexdale Blvd., Toronto, Ontario, M9W 1R3. While use of this material has been
authorized, CSA shall not be responsible for the manner in which the information is presented, nor for any interpretations thereof. For more information on CSA or
to purchase standards, please visit www.shopcsa.ca or call 1-800-463-6727.
concrete is exposed to a particularly severe
environment. Galvanizing may not be effective under
certain conditions such as marine environments.
Galvanized welded wire reinforcement is usually
available as a stock item in some sizes. (See
Chapter 8.) Individual wires are galvanized before
they are welded together to form the fabric. Zinc at
each wire intersection is burned off during welding,
but the resulting black spots have not caused
appreciable corrosion problems. After welding, the
reinforcement is normally shipped to the plant
without further treatment. Galvanized welded wire
reinforcement shall be made from zinc coated
carbon steel wire conforming to ASTM A641. The
use of galvanized reinforcement close to steel forms
or to adjacent non-galvanized reinforcement in fresh
concrete may cause shadowing or reflection of the
steel on to the final concrete surface. See reference
[31] for ways to avoid this occurrence by passivating
the galvanized steel or the concrete mix.
Dissimilar metals in concrete
The American Galvanizers Association (AGA) [71]
states that when using galvanized reinforcement in
concrete there is the possibility of establishing a
bimetallic couple between zinc and bare steel (i.e.,
at a break in the zinc coating or direct contact
between galvanized steel and black steel bars) or
other dissimilar metals. A bimetallic couple of this
type in concrete should not be expected to exhibit
corrosive reactions as long as the two metals remain
passivated. To ensure this is the case, the concrete
depth to the zinc/steel contact should not be less
than the cover required to protect black steel alone
under the same conditions.
Galvanized reinforcement should not be coupled
directly to large areas of black steel reinforcement,
copper, or other dissimilar metal. Bar supports and
accessories should be galvanized. Tie wire should
be plastic coated. If desired, polyethylene and other
similar tapes can be used to provide isolation
between dissimilar metals.
Epoxy coated reinforcement
Reinforcing bars and welded wire reinforcement are
available for use in products where epoxy coatings
are specified. Epoxy coated reinforcing bars should
conform to ASTM A775M. Epoxy coated welded wire
reinforcement should conform to ASTM A884. These
standards describe steel surface protection, coating
application, thickness, continuity and adhesion of
coating and quality control requirements.
Epoxy coating reduces bond strength. (See CSA
A23.3.) Similarly, the requirements for bond strength
may need to be modified. CSA S413 has eliminated
epoxy coating as suitable protection for
reinforcement.
Bars are generally factory epoxy coated when
straight. Subsequent shearing, bending and
handling should conform to ASTM D3963M.
Damaged or removed epoxy coating should be
patched using the manufacturers approved patch
compound. All tie wire, chairs and bar supports used
for the installation of coated rebar should be non-
metallic materials or be supplied with an acceptable
protective coating. Epoxy coated reinforcing bars
should be handled with nylon slings.
Epoxy coated strand
Epoxy coated strand material is described in the
standard ASTM A882 Standard Specification for
Epoxy-Coated Seven-Wire Prestressing Steel
Strand. For bonded construction, the epoxy coating
is impregnated with a grit to develop a bond with the
concrete.
The behavior of epoxy coated strand at elevated
temperatures is a major concern due to the
softening of the epoxy. Pull-out tests show there is a
progressive reduction in bond strength initiated at
about 50C with a virtual complete loss of bond
occurring at about 90C. This behavior necessitates
a careful monitoring of concrete temperature at
transfer of prestress. [20]
It is not recommended that epoxy coated strands be
used for pretensioned precast concrete products
because of the uncertainties in the properties noted
above, particularly the behavior under elevated
temperatures. The Note to CSA A23.3 Clause 3.1.1
states that epoxy coated strands should not be used
in building structures.
1.2.4 Protection of Connections
Painted steel
In most building environments, the painting of
exposed steel in connections is sufficient to prevent
corrosion damage. Choices of paint systems range
from one coat of primer to multi-coat systems using
zinc rich paint or epoxy systems.
Long oil alkyds have the advantage of low cost
surface preparation and the ease of application and
touch up. Their disadvantage is their relatively short
life span in corrosive conditions.
Epoxy polyamidoamines have an extended life span
and are good in corrosive environments. However,
they have a higher material cost and surface
preparation cost. Epoxy polyamidoamines are more
difficult to field touch up since they are a two-part
mixture requiring controlled temperatures during
application. Any epoxy based topcoat has the
disadvantage of chalking due to weathering and
environmental effects, especially with direct or
indirect UV exposure.
For both long oil alkyd and epoxy polyamidoamine
systems, the protection is lost once the surface is
broken since corrosion can start undercutting
adjacent areas.
Zinc-rich urethanes minimize this problem by
providing galvanic protection. Zinc-rich urethane has
the best corrosion resistance and life expectancy
and is relatively easy to apply. The disadvantage of
the zinc-rich urethane is that it only comes in a
brown colour. If other colors are required, epoxy or
urethane paints may be used as a top coat.
Consult the CPCI members in your area for paint
systems commonly used.
Galvanized steel
In corrosive environments, hot dip galvanizing of
connection hardware is sometimes used.
Connections should be designed to minimize or
eliminate field welding if galvanized connections are
used. The fumes from welding galvanized material
are very toxic and present a health hazard to the
welder, even with the use of protective equipment.
The process of welding destroys the protective
coating, requiring a touch up with a cold applied
zinc-rich paint.
Several precautions are recommended to ensure
that the strength of the various elements of a
connection is not reduced by embrittlement during
the hot dip galvanizing process.
When items of a connection assembly require
welding, such as anchor bars to plates, the following
recommendations have been found to produce
satisfactory results and are recommended by the
American Galvanizers Association [71]:
1. An uncoated electrode should be used
whenever possible to prevent flux deposits.
2. If a coated electrode is used, all welding flux
residues must be removed by wire brushing,
flame cleaning, chipping, grinding, needle gun
or abrasive blast cleaning. This is necessary
because welding flux residues are chemically
inert in the normal pickling solutions used by
galvanizers; their existence will produce rough
and incomplete zinc coverage.
3. Welding processes such as metal-inert gas
(MIG), tungsten-inert gas (TIG), or CO
2

shielded arc are recommended when possible
since they produce essentially no slag.
4. If special process welding is not available,
select a coated rod specifically designed for
self-slagging as recommended by welding
equipment suppliers. Refer to item 2 above.
It is recognized that any form of cold working
reduces the ductility of steel. Operations such as
punching holes, notching, producing fillets of small
radii, shearing and sharp bending may lead to strain
embrittlement of susceptible steels.
The following precautions are recommended by the
American Hot Dip Galvanizers Association if cold-
worked steel is to be galvanized:
1. Select steel with a carbon content below 0.25%.
2. Choose steel with low transition temperatures
since cold working raises the ductile-brittle
transition temperature and galvanizing (heating)
may raise it even further.
3. For steels having carbon contents between
0.10% and 0.25%, a bending radius of at least
three times the section thickness (3t) should be
maintained. In some cases, 6t yields even
better results. If less than 3t bending is
unavoidable, the material should be stress-
relieved at 600C for one hour per 25 mm of
section thickness.
4. Drill, rather than punch, holes in material thicker
than 20 mm. If holes are punched, they should
be punched undersize, then reamed an
additional 3 mm overall or drilled to size.
5. Edges of steel sections greater than 15 mm
thick subject to tensile loads should be
machined or machine cut.
6. In critical applications, the steel should be hot
worked above 650C in accordance with steel-
makers recommendation. Where cold working
cannot be avoided, stress-relieve as
recommended in item 3 above.
ASTM A143 "Recommended Practice for Safe-
guarding against Embrittlement of Hot Dip
Galvanized Structural Steel Products and Procedure
for Detecting Embrittlement" and CSA Specification
G164 "Galvanizing of Irregularly Shaped Articles,"
provide guidance on cold working and stress
relieving procedures. However if at all possible,
severe cold working of susceptible steels is best
avoided.
Another area of concern is hydrogen embrittlement.
Hydrogen embrittlement is a ductile-to-brittle change
that occurs in certain high strength steels. Hydrogen
embrittlement is not common, but precautions
should be taken if the steel involved has an ultimate
tensile strength exceeding approximately 1000 MPa,
or if the pickling process is poorly controlled,
resulting in long exposure to hydrochloric acid. In
these cases, grit blasting is recommended instead of
acid pickling. These precautions are also outlined in
reference. [24]
Alternatives to hot dip galvanizing include:
electrogalvanizing (threaded items)
J finish
metalizing
cold galvanizing using zinc rich paint
Stainless steel
In highly corrosive environments, stainless steel may
be used for connections and embedments. AISI
(American Iron and Steel Institute) Types 304 and
316 stainless steels are the most commonly used in
structural applications. These types are a low carbon
modification of Type 302 for limiting of carbide
precipitation during welding. Type 316 has a higher
corrosion resistance than Type 304 and is only used
for chemical handling equipment. Types 304L and
316L are extra low carbon modifications of Types
304 and 316 and are used where carbide
precipitation is a problem. Type 304 and 304L are
commonly used in precast construction. There are a
limited number of structural shapes and sizes
available in stainless steel. Consult with CPCI
members for the availability of different shapes,
sizes and material properties.
Austenitic stainless steel can be welded by all
common methods and the equipment used and the
testing required is basically the same as for carbon
steel. Inspection of welds should include verification
of the proper electrode, proper storage of the
electrodes and operator certification, in addition to
the non-destructive testing required. The method
and frequency of testing should be as directed by
the design engineer.
The welding of stainless steel produces more heat
than conventional welding and stainless steel has a
coefficient of thermal expansion greater than that of
structural steel. This can create adverse expansion
of embedments during welding requiring special
detailing to avoid cracking the adjacent concrete.
Stainless steel embedment edges should be kept
free from adjacent concrete to allow expansion
during welding without spalling the concrete.
1.2.5 Ultra High Performance Concrete
Introduction
Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) covers
concretes with compressive strengths from 120 MPa
to 200 MPa [49, 55] with flexural strengths of up to
40 MPa (40 mm x 40 mm x 160 mm, 3-point bending
test, NF EN 196-1). [50, 51, 52, 54]
CSA A23.3 is based on concretes in the range of 20
MPa to 80 MPa. (See Clause 8.6.1.1.) Clause
8.6.1.2 allows the use of UHPC provided the
properties, detailing and performance requirements
are established prior to use.
Principles of the technology
There are two different concepts used in the design
of UHPC:
1. Optimize multi-scale components and fibres to
produce a material with ductility.
2. Use of a gradation of materials to produce an
ultra-high performance matrix.
The resulting ultra high performance and improved
resistance to aggressive agents is due to a
significant reduction in the porosity of the matrix and
a discontinuous pore structure. [55] The use of low
water/cementitious material ratios (w/c < 0.25) is
made possible using a specific gradation of
materials and superplasticizers that deflocculate the
fine particles. Maximum density is obtained using a
modified compact grading with four classes of
particles: quartz sand, ground quartz, cement and
silica fume.
The ultra fines are silica fume of very high purity that
form sub-micro spheres that fill the interspatial voids
between the cement particles and react with the
cement hydrates. The resulting matrix is extremely
impermeable due to a sealing of the pores. This
provides superior resistance to aggressive agents.
The maximum size of coarse aggregate is
significantly reduced, thereby producing a
granularity with improved flow characteristics and
reduced micro defects in the matrix. Formulations
are available with slump flow rates to suit the
precasters casting techniques.
UHPC contains high strength steel (>2,000 MPa) or
organic fibres (2% by volume) and an aspect ratio
relative to the maximum coarse aggregate
Typical UHPC Mixture
Cement 710 kg
Sand 1020 kg
Ground Quartz 215 kg
Silica Fume 203 kg
Fibres (metallic) 160 kg
Admixture 10 kg
Water 140 litres
This is critical to ensure a proper dispersion and
bond to the matrix.
Mechanical properties and analysis
Figs. 1.2.4 and 1.2.5 for the same UHPC mix show
the compressive and bending behaviour,
respectively. Flexural capacity is approximately twice
the load that produces the first crack, see Fig. 1.2.6.
The high strength may allow the design of structures
without conventional reinforcement (for tension,
shear, temperature and shrinkage). [53, 54, 56, 57]
Numerous full-scale tests of beams, columns and
shells have been performed. These tests have
validated the calculation methods chosen, as
referenced by the BFUP working group. [50]
Creep & shrinkage behaviour
Creep and shrinkage behaviour is significantly
different from normal concrete. Initial shrinkage is
high and must be accommodated in the
manufacturing process, see Figs. 1.2.7 and 1.2.8.
UHPC does not exhibit long term drying shrinkage.
UHPC creep coefficients are less than 0.8 much
lower than conventional concrete. When a thermal
treatment is applied, the creep coefficient can be as
low as 0.2. [59] Prestress losses are therefore
substantially reduced when UHPC is used.
Fig 1.2.4 UHPC

behaviour in compression
Fig 1.2.5 UHPC

behaviour in bending
Fire resistance
Ultra High Performance Concretes are non-
combustible. However, the very low porosity of
UHPCs induce large internal stresses at elevated
temperatures, preventing water vapour from
escaping resulting in spalling. This spalling can be
significantly reduced by incorporating adequate
polypropylene fibres. When UHPC is used with steel
fibres, a small quantity of sacrificial polypropylene
fibres should be added. At 150C, the polypropylene
fibres begin to soften and melt, thereby providing
escape routes for trapped vapour. [60]
Durability and chemical stability
The microstructure of UHPC is virtually impermeable
preventing the intrusion of aggressive agents. Tests
of UHPC have been performed in different
laboratories in which the porosity distribution, gas
permeability, carbonation, chlorine diffusion and
leaching have been determined. [61, 62]
Freeze-thaw tests on UHPC

were performed to 300
cycles without any degradation.
Rapid chloride ion permeability tests on UHPC give
results of approximately 20 coulombs. [65]
Chemical attacks and aging
UHPC resists chemical conditions that can rapidly
and severely damage ordinary reinforced concretes.
Laboratory tests have been performed with different
aggressive chemical compounds such as calcium
sulphate, sodium sulphate, acetic acid, ammonium
sulphide and nitrate and also sea water and distilled
water. The results show UHPC has a very good
resistance to chemical attacks. [62]
UHPC exhibited high resistance when subjected to
CO
2
, CH
4
, H
2
S gases at 120C and 7 MPa pressure.
Autogenous or self healing was demonstrated during
aging tests. [62]
Flexural test of UHPC beam
Cover to strand

The minimum cover for UHPC to prestressing
tendons may be as low as 10 mm. [58, 61, 62] The
fire code requirements for concrete cover are
recommended in fire rated structures using UHPC.
[60]
Fig 1.2.6 Full scale test on a prestressed beam, ENS Cachan
Fig 1.2.7 UHPC basic creep Fig 1.2.8 UHPC shrinkage: after thermal
treatment, no shrinkage is observed.
[58, 59]

1.3 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE
Post-tensioned construction differs from pretensioned
construction in the timing of the application of stress
to the prestressed reinforcement. With pretensioned
elements, stress is applied to the steel before
concrete is placed. In post-tensioned elements, the
stress is applied to the steel after the concrete has
been cured to an acceptable compressive strength.
Post-tensioned construction offers many of the
benefits of pretensioned construction:
1. Effective use of high strength materials
2. Shallow, more attractive structures
3. Control of deflections
4. Virtual elimination of cracks
5. Long, economical spans
6. Low cost fire resistant construction
Other benefits:
1. Prestressing at the jobsite
2. Moment connections for precast elements
3. Staged prestressing
4. Watertight construction
5. Reduced prestress losses
6. Structural continuity
Post-tensioning methods and materials can be
applied to both precast and cast-in-place concrete
construction, as well as for the rehabilitation of
concrete structures and elements.
1.3.1 Post-Tensioning Materials
Post-tensioning hardware consists of sheathing,
tendons and anchors. Although there are several
different types of post-tensioning available, three
basic components are common to all systems.
Sheathing
Sheathing can be fabricated from either steel or
plastic. In bonded post-tensioned construction where
a bond between the concrete outside the sheath and
the grout inside the sheath is required, both steel and
plastic sheathing can be employed. Steel sheathing
can be made from strip steel formed into a
corrugated, helical tube or from thin walled steel tube.
Sheathing splices must be properly aligned and
sealed to prevent concrete ingress.
Unbonded post-tensioned construction often uses
monostrand tendons: a plastic sheath is extruded
over strands that have been lubricated with a non-
corrosive grease for additional corrosion protection.
Tendons
Post-tensioning tendons can be of three different
types: strand, bar or wire. These designations
determine the post-tensioning system. Although
popular in the 1960s and 1970s, wire post-
tensioning is no longer common as strand systems
have become more economical. Bar and strand
properties are given in Fig. 8.2.1 and Fig. 8.2.2.
Of the several grades and sizes of seven wire strand
available, the most commonly used is Grade 1860
15 mm diameter strand.

Anchorages
The anchorages for post-tensioning tendons are
specially designed for the type of tendon being
anchored. Several types of anchorages are shown in
Figs. 8.2.4 and 8.2.5. Generic information is
presented. While dimensions can vary from actual
sizes by 10%, the data provided will allow for the
adequate detailing of structural elements. Post-
tensioning suppliers should be consulted for actual
sizes.
Anchorage systems can be used for live ends (the
end of the tendon where the jacking occurs) or dead
ends (the end of the tendon that is fixed within the
concrete, also called the fixed end). Live end
anchorages can be used as dead end anchorages or
anchorages can be used for stressing both ends of a
tendon when friction losses are high.
Multistrand live end anchors consist of an anchor
head that grips individual strands by means of
tapered wedges, inserted in conical holes in the
anchor head encircling the strand (Fig. 8.2.4). Dead
end or fixed anchors can be made of individual
strands with the ends crimped to form a bulb. The
strand bond and crimped ends anchor each strand in
the concrete (Type 1). Fixed anchors can also be
looped either around a split pipe or around a
reinforcing bar and steel angle cage.
The monostrand system consists of a steel casting
that can be used as a live, intermediate or dead end
anchor. Used mostly for unbonded suspended slabs,
monostrand tendons can be bonded by providing
non-greased strands in a steel or plastic tube sheath
and grout vents.
Protection of tendons
The minimum clear cover requirements in Table 17 of
A23.1 for post-tensioning tendons are superseded in
Table 1 of A23.4 when post-tensioning tendon ducts
are cast into precast elements.
Bonded post-tensioning tendons require the injection
of a special purpose grout material in the ducts to
completely fill all spaces around the strands. Grout
tubes are usually located at all high and low points on
tendon profiles. See the PTI grouting specification for
detailed information. [48]
Tendon anchors at the ends of concrete members
must be protected from corrosion. Special grease
filled fittings have been developed for unbonded
tendon anchors. Bonded tendon anchors are
protected by concrete backup, bituminous material or
other approved methods.
1.3.2 Segmental Construction
Segmental construction is used when precast units
are too large or too heavy to transport and/or erect at
the jobsite. Individual segments are joined together to
form the desired member and span. Post-tensioning
systems are used extensively for this purpose. Here,
the primary load carrying elements consist of precast
(sometimes pretensioned) or cast-in-place concrete
segments post-tensioned together for structural
integrity. Examples are precast concrete circular
tanks, chimneys, towers, stadium framing, shear
walls, moment frames and segmental bridges.
Various post-tensioning components are used as
follows:
Anchorages
Post-tensioning tendon anchors are located in an end
block or anchorage area to safely transfer anchorage
forces into the structure during initial post-tensioning
and all loading stages.
The end blocks are located in the end segments of a
segmental structure when all tendons extend the full
length of the structure. Anchorage areas can be
located in intermediate segments (continuous beam
or cantilever structures) with segmental tendons
distributed according to the moment or shear
diagram.
Special attention should be given to the proper
reinforcement of bearings and anchorages.
Anchorage zones should contain sufficient horizontal
and vertical stirrups or grillage reinforcement placed
in the plane parallel to the end surface.
The post-tensioning anchor plate transmits the
concentrated prestress force from the tendon
anchoring device over a larger bearing area into the
concrete.
The anchor plate can be placed in any of the
following ways:
1. Cast into a precast segment.
2. Placed against a precast surface.
3. Placed against cushioning materials.
Joints
Joints between segments can be concreted, grouted,
epoxied together or left dry. Certain applications lend
themselves to match casting that involves casting
adjacent units against each other for an exact fit. A
temporary clamping stress of approximately 0.35
MPa is applied when match cast units are joined
together using an epoxy mortar.
Sheathing
Requirements for internal tendons are given in
Section 1.3.1. The requirements for external tendons
given in S6 are also suitable for building construction
applications.
Sheathing in segments is used to form the holes or
enclose the space where prestressing tendons are to
be located. Prestressing tendons are installed after
the segments are placed. The cross section of the
sheathing must be adequate to allow proper
installation of the prestressing steel and to provide
enough passage area for filling the duct with grout
after stressing the tendons.
Grouting
Grouting provides corrosion protection for the
prestressing tendons, and develops bond between
the prestressing tendon and the surrounding
concrete. To accomplish this, the grout must fill all the
voids in and around the post-tensioning tendon for
the entire length of the tendon.
Unbonded tendons
In unbonded post-tensioning, a corrosion protection
system must be provided to ensure at least the same
degree of corrosion protection as grout. This can be
achieved by using a protective coating on the
prestressing steel and encasing the coated tendon to
protect the coating during the handling, installation
and stressing of the tendon.
Placement and stressing of tendons
When tendons are installed in the segments before
casting, they are subsequently coupled together at
each joint. This construction method permits
stressing of part of a tendon, after installing one or
more segments, before the full length is completely
installed.
Tendons can be installed after casting and erection
and can be coupled together at joints between
segments. This procedure permits intermediate
stressing of portions of a structure by using tendons
of variable lengths; stressing the short ones first and
the long ones later.
Special attention must be given to the corrosion
protection of the post-tensioning steel that must
remain unbonded at any stage of the construction. If
a tendon containing couplers is to be stressed over
its full length, the couplers must be able to
accommodate the movement anticipated at that
location.
1.4 REFERENCES:
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[2] Guyon, Y., Construction en Bton Prcontraint,
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[3] Leonhardt, F., Prestressed Concrete, Wilhelm
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[4] Lin, T.Y., Burns, N.H., Design of Prestressed
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rd
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[5] Atcin, P.-C., High Performance Concrete, E &
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[6] MacGregor, James G., Bartlett, F. Michael,
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[10] Specification for Non-shrink Grout, CRD-C588-
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[11] Concrete Sealers for Protection of Bridge
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RSIC
[13] Reinforcing Steel Manual of Standard Practice,
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WRI
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CAC
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th
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CMHC
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PCI
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[26] Rodgers, Thomas E., Jr., Prestressed Concrete
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[33] Architectural Precast Concrete Cladding Its
Contribution to Lateral Resistance of Buildings,
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ACI
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PCA
[46] Effects of Substances on Concrete and Guide to
Protective Treatments, Portland Cement
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[47] Cementitious Grouts and Grouting, EB 111T,
Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 1990
PTI
[48] Post-Tensioning Manual, Fifth Edition, Post
Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, AZ, 1990
UHPC
[49] Acker, Paul, and Behoul, Mouloud, UHPC
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Concretes with high ductility and 200-800 MPa
compressive strength, ACI SP144-24, p. 507-
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the 3
rd
International RILEM Workshop,
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August 1998
[57] Loukili, A; Richard,P and Lamirault,J; A Study on
Delayed Deformations of an Ultra High Strength
Cementitious Material, Fourth CANMET/ACI/JCI
Conference, Special Publication SP-179, p. 929-
950, American Concrete Institute, June 1998
[58] Acker, P.; Why does Ultra-High Performance
Concrete (UHPC) exhibit such a Low Shrinkage
and such a Low Creep?, Proceedings:
Autogenous Deformations of Concrete, ACI Fall
Convention, Phoenix, USA, 2002
[59] Acker, P.; Swelling, Shrinkage and creep: a
mechanical approach to cement hydration,
Concrete Science & Engineering, Vol. 37, p.11-
17, April 2004
[60] Behloul, M.; Fire resistance of Ultra High
Performance Concrete, Proc. Vol. 2., Session 7,
pp 101-110, fib 2002, Osaka, Japan, 2002
[61] Vernet, C.; UHPC Microstructure and related
Durability Performances Laboratory
Assessment and Field Experience Examples,
PCI / FHWA 3rd International Symposium on
HPC, Orlando, USA, 2003
[62] Pimienta, P.; Chanvillard, G.; Retention of the
mechanical performances of Ductal specimens
kept in various aggressive environments, fib
Symposium, April 26-28, Avignon, France, 2004
[63] B.Cavill and G.Chirgwin, The worlds first Ductal
road bridge - Sherpherds Gully Creek Bridge,
NSW, 21st Biennial Conference of the Concrete
Institute of Australia, p. 17 19 July 2003,
Brisbane
[64] Behloul,M.; Lee, KC.; Ductal Seonyu Footbridge,
Structural Concrete, No. 4, p. 195-201, 2003
[65] Hartmann, J.; Graybeal, B.; Perry, V.; Durukal,
A.; Early Results of the FHWA UHPC Research
Program, International Conference on Advanced
Materials for Construction of Bridges, Buildings
and Other Structures, Davos, Switzerland, 2003
[66] Chuang, E.-Y.; Ulm, F.-J.; Two-phase composite
Model for high performance cementitious
composites, ASCE Journal of Engineering
Mechanics, p.1314-1323, 2002
[67] Blais, Pierre Y., Couture, Marco, Precast,
Prestressed Pedestrian Bridge Worlds First
Reactive Powder Concrete Structure, PCI
JOURNAL, vol. 44 no. 5, September/October
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[68] Behoul, M, Etiienne, D., and Maillard, M., Ductal
Seonyu Footbridge TMD for Better Comfort, fib
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[69] Graybeal, B. A., Fabrication of An Optimized
UHPC Bridge, 2004 PCI National Bridge
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[70] Vicenzino, E; Culham, G; Perry, V.H.;
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CHAPTER 2
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STRUCTURES
2.0 NOTATION...................................................................................................................... 2-2
2.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 2-6
2.2 PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS.............................................................................................. 2-6
2.2.1 Framing Dimensions........................................................................................... 2-6
2.2.2 Span to Depth Ratios ......................................................................................... 2-6
2.2.3 Gravity and Lateral Load Resisting Systems ..................................................... 2-7
2.2.4 Control of Volume Change Deformations and Restraint Forces........................ 2-7
2.2.5 Connection Concepts ......................................................................................... 2-7
2.3 EXPANSION JOINTS...................................................................................................... 2-7
2.3.1 General ............................................................................................................... 2-7
2.3.2 Spacing of Expansion Joints .............................................................................. 2-8
2.3.3 Width of Expansion Joints .................................................................................. 2-8
2.4 VOLUME CHANGES....................................................................................................... 2-9
2.4.1 Volume Change Data ......................................................................................... 2-9
2.4.2 Volume Change Considerations....................................................................... 2-14
2.4.3 Thermal Bowing................................................................................................ 2-15
2.5 DIAPHRAGM DESIGN.................................................................................................. 2-17
2.5.1 Simple Diaphragm Design The Horizontal Beam Analogy............................ 2-18
2.5.2 Alternate Methods of Diaphragm Design ......................................................... 2-20
2.6 BUILDINGS WITH MOMENT-RESISTING FRAMES................................................... 2-20
2.6.1 General ............................................................................................................. 2-20
2.6.2 Moment Resistance of Column Bases ............................................................. 2-21
2.6.3 Fixity of Column Bases..................................................................................... 2-25
2.6.4 Computer Models for Frame Analysis.............................................................. 2-25
2.6.5 Volume Change Effects in Moment-resisting Frames...................................... 2-25
2.6.6 Eccentrically Loaded Columns ......................................................................... 2-32
2.6.7 Slenderness Effects in Compression Elements ............................................... 2-34
2.6.8 Shear Wall-frame Interaction............................................................................ 2-43
2.7 SHEAR WALLS............................................................................................................. 2-43
2.7.1 General ............................................................................................................. 2-43
2.7.2 Rigidity of Solid Shear Walls ............................................................................ 2-44
2.7.3 Lateral Load Distribution to Shear Walls.......................................................... 2-45
2.7.4 Unsymmetrical Shear Walls ............................................................................. 2-45
2.7.5 Coupled Shear Walls........................................................................................ 2-47
2.7.6 Shear Walls with Large Openings.................................................................... 2-48
2.7.7 Architectural Panels as Shear Walls ................................................................ 2-60
2.8 EARTHQUAKE DESIGN AND ANALYSIS.................................................................... 2-60
2.8.1 General ............................................................................................................. 2-60
2.8.2 Building Code Requirements............................................................................ 2-61
2.8.3 2005 NBCC Requirements............................................................................... 2-62
2.8.4 Structural Layout and Connections .................................................................. 2-69
2.8.5 Design Guidelines for Structural Wall Panels................................................... 2-71
2.8.6 Design Guidelines for Cladding Panel Connections ........................................ 2-71
2.8.7 Analysis of Panels ............................................................................................ 2-72
2.9 SEGMENTAL CONSTRUCTION .................................................................................. 2-84
2.9.1 General ............................................................................................................. 2-84
2.9.2 Joints and Joint Construction ........................................................................... 2-84
2.9.3 Design Considerations ..................................................................................... 2-87
2.9.4 Post-tensioning Considerations........................................................................ 2-88
2.10 REFERENCES.............................................................................................................. 2-89

2.0 NOTATION
A = area (with subscripts)
A
b
= total area of anchor bolts which are in
tension
A
cv
= area of concrete section resisting shear
transfer
A
l
= cross-sectional area in linear measure
A
r
= response amplification factor to account for
type of attachment of mechanical/electrical
equipment
A
s
= area of reinforcement
A
vf
= area of shear friction reinforcement
A
w
= area of shear wall
A
x
= amplification factor at Level x to account for
variation of response of
mechanical/electrical equipment with
elevation within the building
B = maximum value of B
x
B
x
= ratio at Level x used to determine torsional
sensitivity
b = width of panel or width of a section or
structure
b
v
= width of cross section at contact surface
being investigated for longitudinal shear
C = compressive force or coefficient of thermal
expansion
C
f
= factored compressive force
C
m
= a factor relating actual moment to
equivalent uniform moment
C
p
= seismic coefficient for mechanical/electrical
equipment
C
s
= Shrinkage coefficient
= 35 if concrete moist cured for 7 days
= 55 if steam cured for 1-3 days
C
u
= ultimate creep coefficient that varies
between 1.30 and 4.15
= 2.35 in the absence of specific creep data
for local aggregates and conditions
D = dead load or dimension of building in
direction parallel to applied lateral force
D
n
= plan dimension of the building in the
direction of the computed eccentricity
D
nx
= plan dimension of the building at Level x
perpendicular to the direction of seismic
loading being considered
d = dimension of building; distance from
extreme compression fibre to centroid of
tension reinforcement
E = modulus of elasticity of a beam (with
subscripts)
E
c
= modulus of elasticity of column concrete
E
s
= modulus of elasticity of steel
e = distance between the location of the
resultant of all forces at and above the level
being considered and the centre of rigidity
at the level being considered or eccentricity
of axial load
e
x
= distance measured perpendicular to the
direction of earthquake loading between
centre of mass and centre of rigidity at the
level being considered
F
a
= acceleration-based site coefficient
F
b
= degree of base fixity (decimal)
F
fh
= factored horizontal force
F
fv
= factored vertical force
F
i
= lateral force at bay i or shear wall i or
restraining force at level i or the force
resisted by an individual shearwall
F
i
, F
x
= force at level x
F
t
= that portion of V considered concentrated at
the top of the structure, level n
F
v
= velocity-based site coefficient
F
x
= lateral force applied to level x
f = fibre stress

c
f = specified concrete compressive strength
f
f t
= factored tensile stress

m
f = specified compressive strength of masonry
f
t
= unfactored tensile stress
f
y
= specified yield strength of reinforcement
G = shear modulus of elasticity (modulus of
rigidity)
g = assumed length over which elongation of
the anchor bolt takes place = of
development length + projection for
deformed anchor bolts or the length to the
hook + projection for smooth anchor bolts
(Fig. 2.6.1)

H = horizontal force needed to overcome friction
H
f
= total factored lateral force within a storey
H
f P
= factored sliding force acting on a wall anel
h = height of element or column or element
thickness or width in direction of bending
h
i
, h
n
,
h
x

= height above the base (i = 0) to Level i, n,
or x respectively, where the base of the
structure is that level at which horizontal
earthquake motions are considered to be
imparted to the structure
h
s
= interstorey height (h
i
h
i1
) or storey height
I = moment of inertia
I
b
= moment of inertia of a beam
I
bp
= moment of inertia of base plate (vertical
cross-section dimensions)
I
c
= moment of inertia of a column
I
E
= earthquake importance factor of the structure
I
f
= moment of inertia of the footing (plan
dimensions)
I
g
= uncracked moment of inertia
J = numerical reduction coefficient for base
overturning moment
J
x
= numerical reduction coefficient for
overturning moment at level x
K = stiffness (with subscripts) or stiffness
coefficient = 1/ or constant used for the
calculation of equivalent creep and
shrinkage shortening
K
l
= a constant for design purposes which varies
from 3 to 5
K
r
= relative stiffness
K
t
= constant used for the calculation of
equivalent temperature shortening = 1.5
k = effective length factor
k
f
= coefficient from Fig. 2.6.14
k
m
= coefficient from Fig. 2.6.14
k
s
= coefficient of subgrade reaction from Fig.
2.6.2.
Level i = any level of the building, i = 1 for first level
above the base
Level n = that level that is uppermost in the main
portion of the structure
Level x = that level that is under design consideration
L = live load
= length of building or element or length of
span or structure or distance between
supports
c
= height of storey, centre-to-centre of floors or
roof
n
= clear span
s
= distance from column to centre of stiffness
u
= unsupported length of a compression
element
w
= length of weld
M = unfactored moment or applied moment = Pe
M
t
= volume change moment
M
tx
= torsional moment at level x
M
v
= factor to account for higher mode effect on
base shear
M
x
= overturning moment at level x
m
j
= moment at point j
N = total number of storeys above exterior
grade to level n (N is usually numerically
equal to n) or unfactored horizontal force
N
f
= factored horizontal force

60
N = average Standard Penetration Resistance
for the top 30 m, corrected to a rod energy
efficiency of 60% of the theoretical
maximum
n = uppermost level in the main portion of the
structure
P = shrinkage modification factor (with
subscripts) or unfactored axial load
P
c
= critical load
PGA = Peak Ground Acceleration expressed as a
ratio to gravitational acceleration
P
f
= factored axial load
P
o
= prestressing force after assumed initial loss
P
sh
= shrinkage modification factor for non-
standard conditions (Fig. 2.4.1)
PT

= plasticity index for clays
Q = creep modification factor (with subscripts)
or stability index for a storey or statical
moment
Q
cr
= modification factor for non-standard
conditions (Fig. 2.4.1)
R
B,T
= reaction at bottom, top

R
d
= ductility related force modification factor that
reflects the capability of a structure to
dissipate energy through inelastic behavior
R
o
= overstrength related force modification
factor that accounts for the dependable
portion of reserve strength in a structure
designed according to NBCC profisions
r = radius of gyration
r
i
= the rigidity of wall i
S
l
= section modulus in linear measure
S
p
= horizontal force factor for part or portion of a
building and its anchorage
S(T) = the design spectral response acceleration,
expressed as a ratio to gravitational
acceleration, for a period of T
S
a
(T) = the 5% damped spectral response
acceleration, expressed as a ratio to
gravitational acceleration, for a period of T
SFRS = Seismic Force Resisting System(s) - is that
part of the structural system that has been
considered in the design to provide the
required resistance to the earthquake
forces and effects
s = spacing of weld clips
s
u
= average undrained shear strength in the top
30 m of soil
T = unfactored tensile force or period in
seconds or total tensile capacity or force
T
a
= fundamental lateral period of vibration of
the building or structure in seconds in the
direction under consideration
T
f
= factored tensile force
T
r
= factored tensile resistance
T
x
= floor torque at Level x,
T
2
, T
1
= inside and outside temperature
t = thickness or time in days
V = lateral earthquake design force at the base
of the structure, as determined by
Equivalent Static Force Procedure or shear
at support (with subscripts)
V
d
= lateral earthquake design force at the base
of the structure as determined by Dynamic
Analysis Procedures
V
e
= lateral earthquake elastic force at the base
of the structure as determined by Dynamic
Analysis Procedures
V
f
= factored shear force or total factored lateral
force within the storey
V
p
= lateral force on a part of the structure
V
r
= factored shear resistance
V
rC
= factored shear resistance of a connection
V
rP
= factored shear resistance of a wall panel
V
rW
= factored shear resistance of a wall

s V
= average shear wave velocity in the top 30
m of soil or rock
V
w
= total wind shear or specified shear force on
a wall

p
V = lateral force due to non-structural wythe
and insulation

pP
V = probable shear resistance of a wall panel
seismic force due to panel weight
v
c
= factored shear resistance per unit length
due to concrete alone
v
f
= factored shear force per unit length
v
r
= factored shear resistance per unit length or
unit shear on panel edge
W = dead load except that the minimum partition
load need not exceed 0.5 kPa, plus 25% of
the design snow load, plus 60% of the
storage load for areas used for storage
except that parking garages need not be
considered storage areas, and the full
contents of any tanks, or total lateral load
W
i
, W
x
= that portion of W that is located at or is
assigned to Level i or x respectively
W
p
= weight of a part or portion of a structure,
e.g., cladding, partitions and appendages
x
1
= distance from face of column to the centre
of the anchor bolts, positive when anchor
bolts are outside the column, and negative
when anchor bolts are inside the column
x
2
= distance from the face of the column to
base plate anchorage
= load factor (with subscripts)
1
= ratio of average stress in rectangular
compression block to the specified concrete
strength
1
= stress block depth factor
d
= for sway frames is the ratio of maximum
factored sustained shear within a storey to
the maximum factored shear in that storey

= moment magnifier or volume-change
shortening (with subscripts)
ave
= average displacement of the structure at
Level x,
c
= calculated creep shortening
ec
= equivalent creep shortening
es
= equivalent shrinkage shortenings
max
= maximum displacement of the structure at
Level x,
s
= calculated shrinkage shortening
= total equivalent shortening or column
deflection or magnitude of bow
f
= deflection due to factored loads
o
= elasticity-computed first order lateral
deflection due to H
f
(neglecting P effects)
at the top of the storey relative to the
bottom of the storey
= flexibility coefficient (with subscripts)
= factor to account for low density concrete
= shear-friction coefficient
e
= effective shear friction coefficient
s
= static coefficient of friction
= sum of values
= unit strain (with subscripts)
e
= equivalent unit strain
shu
= ultimate shrinkage strain
= 780 10
6
mm/mm in the absence of
specific shrinkage data for local conditions
= rotation (with subscripts)
= resistance factor (with subscripts)
= ratio of column to beam stiffnesses
f
,
bp

ab

= flexibility coefficients of the footing/soil
interaction, the base plate and the anchor
bolts, respectively

2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides guidelines for the analysis and
design of structures built using precast components.
The primary advantages of precast concrete products
and systems include:
1. Construction speed
2. Plant-controlled quality control
3. Fire resistance and durability
4. Prestressing that allows greater span-to-depth
ratios, more controllable performance and less
material usage
5. Architectural precast concretes wide variety of
highly attractive surfaces, shapes, finishes and
colours
6. Thermal and acoustical control
7. All weather construction
The following general principles are offered to realize
precasts benefits through economical and effective
use:
1. Precast concrete is basically a simple-span
material. Continuity can be achieved with
properly designed connections.
2. The sizes and shapes of elements are often a
function of production, shipping and erection
considerations.
3. Precast concretes mass allows for stability
under wind loads, acoustic and vibration control,
reduction in heating and cooling loads, and fire
resistance. The high dead to live load ratio
provides greater safety factors against gravity
overloads.
4. Maximum economy is achieved with repetition.
Standard sections should be used whenever
possible.
5. Successful use is largely dependent on an
effective structural layout, details, and carefully
designed connections.
6. The effects of volume changes caused by creep,
shrinkage and temperature change must be
considered.
7. While architectural panels are often used only as
cladding, the inherent load-carrying capacity of
these panels can be utilized to support both
vertical and lateral loads.
8. Prestressing improves the economy and
performance of precast members.
2.2 PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS
Maximum economy occurs when the building is laid
out to take advantage of the above principles. The
primary considerations in preliminary analysis of a
structure are:
1. Framing dimensions
2. Span to depth ratios
3. Gravity and lateral load resisting systems
4. Control of volume change deformations
5. Connection concepts
2.2.1 Framing Dimensions
It is economical to minimize a buildings wall-to-floor
ratio. Bays should be laid out to fit the module of the
components selected. Double tee and hollow core
slabs should be used at spans close to their
maximum capacity to reduce the number of slabs to
be installed. Typical precast sections are shown in
Chapter 7, but may vary regionally. Consult with local
CPCI members for available sizes. The height, width
and weight of precast members, including wall panels
and floor and roof slabs, may be limited by shipping
restrictions.
Optimum framing dimensions will usually result when
the total number of precast components is minimized
with fewer pieces to manufacture, transport and
erect. Where feasible, wall panels and columns can
be cast in multi-storey units to achieve economy.
2.2.2 Span to Depth Ratios
Selection of floor to floor dimensions should consider
the practical span-to-depth ratio of the horizontal
framing elements, allowing adequate space for
mechanical ductwork.
Typical span to depth ratios of flexural precast,
prestressed concrete elements are:
Hollow core floor slabs 30 to 40
Hollow core roof slabs 40 to 50
Double tee floor slabs 25 to 35
Double tee roof slabs 35 to 40
Beams 10 to 20
These values are general guidelines, not limits. The
required depth of a beam or slab is influenced by the
ratio of live load to total load. Deeper sections may be
required where this ratio is high.
Span to depth ratios are given in Table 9.2 of A23.3
for non-prestressed flexural elements.

2.2.3 Gravity and Lateral Load Resisting
Systems
A building system should be selected during the
preliminary analysis. The gravity and lateral load
resisting systems may function separately or be
combined.
Bearing wall construction and beam-column framing
have been successfully used for low, medium and
high rise buildings. Lateral forces can be resisted by
shear walls, moment frames, or a combination of
both. Diaphragm action will dictate the location of the
lateral force resisting elements.
Methods used to resist lateral loads include:
1. Shear walls: Shear walls can be precast
concrete, cast-in-place concrete, or masonry
and are discussed in more detail in Sect. 2.7.
When architectural or structural precast
elements are used for exterior cladding, they can
often be designed and used as shear walls.
2. Cantilevered columns or wall panels: Cantilever
action is usually only feasible in low-rise
buildings. Base fixity can be attained by
connecting columns or panels to the foundation.
A detailed analysis of footing rotation is
described in Sect. 2.6.2.
3. Steel or concrete X-bracing: Bracing has been
used effectively in mid-rise buildings. A related
resistance system occurs naturally in parking
structures with sloped decks in the direction of
traffic flow.
4. Moment resisting frames: A minimum number of
frames should be used to avoid building up
substantial volume change forces. It is
sometimes feasible to provide a moment
connection at only one end of an element, or a
connection that will resist moments with lateral
forces in only one direction to reduce built up
restraint forces. Moment resisting frames are
discussed in more detail in Sect. 2.6.
5. Combined systems: Combinations of shear
walls, moment frames and X-bracing systems
may also be used.
These systems depend on the distribution of lateral
loads through diaphragm action of the roof and floor
systems as discussed in Sect. 2.5.
2.2.4 Control of Volume Change
Deformations and Restraint Forces
Volume changes of concrete result from creep,
shrinkage and temperature change. Creep and
shrinkage cause a shortening of an element. The
critical temperature load case is nearly always the
result of a temperature drop.
Connections should be designed so that volume
change shortening is accommodated. Section 2.4
provides data and guidelines for estimating the
amount of shortening that may take place.
Pretensioned elements should not be welded to their
supports at the bottom. Volume changes are usually
adequately accommodated when elements are
connected only at the top. Connections made using
cast-in-place concrete may exhibit fewer volume
change effects because micro-cracking and creep in
the cast-in-place portion can relieve the restraint.
Long buildings may require expansion joints (See
Sect. 2.3.)
2.2.5 Connection Concepts
During preliminary analysis, the types of connections
used should be determined, as they can effect
component dimensions, the overall structural
behaviour, erection procedures, fire ratings and
building envelope construction. Chapter 4 is devoted
to connections.
2.3 EXPANSION JOINTS
2.3.1 General
Joints are placed in structures to limit the forces
resulting from volume change deformations due to
temperature changes, shrinkage and creep, and to
permit the movement of structural elements. An
expansion joint is needed if the movements
generated by temperature rise are significantly
greater than shrinkage and creep movements.
Expansion joints are seldom required in concrete
structures. Instead, joints that permit contraction of
the structure are needed to relieve the strains caused
by temperature drop and restrained creep and
shrinkage, that are additive. Such joints are
contraction or control joints but are commonly
referred to as expansion joints.
Joints subject to earthquake movements must work in
all directions.
It is desirable to have as few expansion joints as
possible. Expansion joints are often located by rules
of thumb without considering the structural framing
system. This section presents general guidelines for
determining the spacing and width of expansion
joints.

Fig. 2.3.1 General guidelines for determination of building length without the use of expansion joints
These curves are directly applicable to buildings of beam-and-column construction, hinged at the base, with heated interiors.
The following rules are applicable for other conditions:
(a) If a building will be heated and will have hinged column bases, use the allowable length as specified;
(b) If a building will be air conditioned as well as heated, increase the allowable length by 15% provided the environmental control
system will run continuously;
(c) If a building will be unheated, decrease the allowable length by 33%;
(d) If a building has fixed-column bases, decrease the allowable length by 15%;
(e) If the building has substantially greater stiffness against lateral displacement at one end of the plan dimension, decrease the
allowable length by 25%.
When more than one of these design conditions prevail, the factor to be applied should be the algebraic sum of the adjustment factors of all
the various applicable conditions.
Note: A detailed volume change frame analysis will provide more accurate expansion joint requirements.
Source: Expansion Joints in Buildings, Technical Report No. 65, National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences, 1974.
2.3.2 Spacing of Expansion Joints
There are different opinions concerning the spacing
of expansion joints. Typical practice in prestressed or
reinforced concrete structures is to locate expansion
joints at distances between 45 m and 90 m apart.
Reinforced concrete buildings exceeding these limits
have performed well without expansion joints.
Recommended joint spacing for precast concrete
buildings are often based on experience. Additional
factors that can affect joint spacing include types of
connections used, column stiffness in simple span
structures, relative stiffness between beams and
columns in framed structures, and weather exposure
conditions. Unheated structures, such as parking
garages, are subjected to greater temperature
changes than heated buildings, so shorter distances
between expansion joints are required.
Sections 2.4 and 2.6 present methods for analyzing
the potential movement of framed structures and the
effect of restraint of movement on the connections
and structural frame. This information along with the
connection design methods in Chap. 4 can aid in
determining spacing of expansion joints.
Figure 2.3.1 shows recommended expansion joint
spacing that can be modified for the various
conditions shown in the notes. Values for design
temperature changes can be obtained from Sect. 2.4.
When expansion joints are required in non-
rectangular structures, they should be located at or
near plan or elevation changes.
2.3.3 Width of Expansion Joints
The width of a joint can be calculated using a
coefficient of expansion of 10 10
6
mm/(mm
o
C) for
normal density concrete and 9 10
6
mm/(mm
o
C)
for low density concrete. The report referenced in Fig.
2.3.1 recommends a minimum width of 25 mm. Since
the primary problem in concrete buildings is
contraction rather than expansion, joints that are too
wide may result in problems with reduced bearing or
loss of filler material. Seismic and wind movements
must also be considered.

Fig. 2.4.1 Creep and shrinkage modification
factors for non-standard conditions
*

Q
cr
= Q
a
Q
h
Q
f
Q
r
Q
sl
Q
v
P
sh
= P
c
P
h
P
f
P
r
P
sl
P
v

Q
a

Age at
loading
(days)
Moist
cured
Accel-
erated
cured
Relative
Humidity

(4)

(%)
Q
h
P
h

1 1.25 1.00 40 1.00 1.00
7 1.00 0.94 60 0.87 0.80
20 0.87 0.85 80 0.73 0.60
60 0.77 0.76 100 0.60 0.00
Ratio of
fine to
total
aggr.
(3)

Q
f
P
f

Volume/
surface
ratio
(mm)
(2)

Q
r
P
r

0.30 0.95 0.72 38 1.00 1.00
0.40 0.98 0.86 75 0.82 0.84
0.50 1.00 1.00 150 0.70 0.59
0.70 1.05 1.04 250 0.67 0.37
Slump
(mm)
Q
sl
P
sl
Air (%) Q
v
P
v

50 0.95 0.97 6 1.00 1.00
70 1.00 1.00 8 1.18 1.01
125 1.15 1.09 10 1.36 1.03
Cementitous content
*
(kg/m
3
)
225 300 410
P
c
0.89 0.93 1.00
(1) Standard conditions produce modification factors of 1.0.
(2) Volume/surface ratio of a rectangular member having
a b cross-section is ab/(2a + 2b).
(3) Ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate is expressed as
the ratio of the masses.
(4) For average ambient relative humidity, see Fig. 2.4.2.
*

Above table is based on the CAC Concrete Design
Handbook, Third Edition. When used in low to moderate
amounts (<25%), the effect of fly ash, ground granulated
blast-furnace slag and silica fume on the drying shrinkage
and creep of concrete is generally small and of little
practical significance.
2.4 VOLUME CHANGES
The strains resulting from creep, shrinkage, and
temperature change, and the potential restraint forces
caused by these strains have important effects on
connections, service load behaviour and the ultimate
capacity of precast prestressed structures. These
strains and forces must be considered in a design.
Vertical elements, such as load bearing wall panels,
are also subject to volume change strains that can be
calculated using Figs. 2.4.1 to 2.4.5. These effects
will be significant in high rise buildings. Only
differential movements between elements will
significantly affect performance of a structure. For
example, volume change effects can be critical at the
corner of a building where load bearing panels are
adjacent to non-load bearing panels.
2.4.1 Volume Change Data
Creep
Creep of concrete is defined as the time dependent
increase in strain under sustained loading. Other time
dependent deformations are shrinkage and
temperature changes in concrete.
Creep is usually expressed in terms of the creep
coefficient, C
u
, defined as the ratio of creep strain
cr

to initial immediate strain
i
. Creep strain increases
with time at a decreasing rate. Creep strain
cr
is
determined using:

cr
=
0.6
i u
0.6
t
C Q
10 t

+

cr

i
=
i
ci
P
AE

t = time in days
Shrinkage
Shrinkage is the decrease in the volume of hardened
concrete with time. Unlike creep, shrinkage is
independent of externally applied loads. The
decrease in volume is mainly attributed to moisture
loss caused by drying and hydration as well as
chemical changes that result in the carbonation of
cement hydration products.
Shrinkage strains start immediately after concrete is
exposed to a drying environment.
The shrinkage strain
sh
is determined using the
expression:

sh
=
shu sh
s
t
P
C t

+


Fig. 2.4.2 Annual average ambient relative humidity (%)

Fig. 2.4.3 Approximate creep and shrinkage strains (x10
-6
)
Time t
(days)
Creep
1

0.6
cr i u cr
0.6
t
C Q
10 t

=

+

Shrinkage
2

sh shu sh
s
t
P
C t

=

+

Normal density Low density Moist cure Accelerated cure
1 59 88 23 16
3 106 158 62 39
5 137 204 101 62
7 60 238 133 86
10 188 280 172 117
20 246 367 281 210
30 286 426 359 273
40 314 468 413 328
50 336 501 460 374
60 356 516 491 406
90 395 589 562 483
120 420 626 600 538
180 456 679 655 601
1 yr. 510 760 710 679
2 yr. 552 822 741 725
5 yr. 594 885 764 757
10 yr 613 913 772 764
Final
630 940 780 780
1. Based on P
i
/A = 7.0 MPa, f
ci
= 25 MPa, E
ci
= 25 300 MPa, C
u
= 2.35, Q
cr
= 1.0. For other values of P
i
/A and E
ci
, multiply creep strains by
3615 P
i
AE
ci
.
2. Based on C
s
= 35 for moist cure, C
s
= 55 for accelerated cure,
shu
= 780 10
6
mm/mm, P
sh
= 1.0.

Fig. 2.4.4 Maximum seasonal structural temperature change based on the temperature at construction (C)

Fig. 2.4.5 Design temperature strains
*
(10
6
)
Temperature zone Normal density Low density
(from Fig. 2.4.4) Heated Unheated Heated Unheated
5 27 41 23 34
10 54 81 45 68
15 81 122 68 101
20 108 162 90 135
25 135 203 113 169
30 162 243 135 203
35 189 284 158 236
40 216 324 180 270
45 243 365 203 304
50 270 405 225 338
* Based on accepted coefficients of thermal expansion, reduced to account for thermal lag (See referenced committee report, PCI JOURNAL,
Sept-Oct, 1977).
Effect of time on creep and shrinkage
The influence of time in the previous equations for
creep and shrinkage is demonstrated in Fig. 2.4.3,
where values of creep and shrinkage strains for a
prestressed element under standard conditions are
presented.
Temperature strains
Design values for maximum seasonal climatic
temperature for various geographic locations are
shown in Fig. 2.4.4. Design values for temperature
strains associated with these temperature zones are
given in Fig. 2.4.5.
Approximate values of creep and shrinkage
The behaviour of actual structures indicates that
reasonable estimates of volume change
characteristics are satisfactory for the design of most
structures even though test data relating volume
changes to the variables shown in Fig. 2.4.1 exhibit a
considerable scatter. The approximate values shown
in Figs. 2.4.6 and 2.4.7 can be used.

Fig. 2.4.6 Volume change strains for typical non-prestressed building elements (10
6
)
Heated structures
Temp. Normal density concrete Low density concrete
zone Avg. relative humidity (Fig. 2.4.2) Avg. relative humidity (Fig. 2.4.2)
(Fig. 2.4.4) 40 50 60 70 80 40 50 60 70 80
0 320 290 260 220 190 320 290 260 220 190
5 350 320 290 250 220 340 310 280 240 210
10 370 340 310 270 240 360 330 300 260 230
15 400 370 340 300 270 390 360 330 290 260
20 430 400 370 330 300 410 380 350 310 280
25 460 430 400 360 330 430 400 370 330 300
30 480 450 420 380 350 460 430 400 360 330
35 510 480 450 410 380 480 450 420 380 350
40 540 510 480 440 410 500 470 440 400 370
45 560 530 500 460 430 520 490 460 420 390
50 590 560 530 490 460 550 520 490 450 420
Unheated structures
0 320 290 260 220 190 320 290 260 220 190
5 360 330 300 260 230 350 320 290 250 220
10 400 370 340 300 270 390 360 330 290 260
15 440 410 380 340 310 420 390 360 320 290
20 480 450 420 380 350 460 430 400 360 330
25 520 490 460 420 390 490 460 430 390 360
30 560 530 500 460 430 520 490 460 420 390
35 600 570 540 500 470 560 530 500 460 430
40 640 610 580 540 510 590 560 530 490 460
45 690 660 630 590 560 620 590 560 520 490
50 720 690 660 620 590 660 630 600 560 530
Table is based on:
1. Moist cured
2. Ratio of fine to total aggregates = 0.50
3. Volume to surface ratio = 38 mm
4. Slump = 70 mm
5. Air % 6
6. Cement content = 410 kg/m
3

7. Age at erection = 50 days
Example 2.1 Calculation of volume change
shortening by the detailed method
Given:
300 700 rectangular concrete beam.
Heated structure in Calgary, AB.
Initial accelerated cure.
Prestress transfer at one day.
12 -13 mm diameter, 1860 MPa strands.
Initial Prestress = 70% f
pu
Assume initial prestress loss = 10%
Length = 7.5 m
Concrete properties:
ci
f : 30 MPa
Air content: 5%
Slump: 100 mm
Fine aggregate: 670 kg/m
3

Coarse aggregate: 1000 kg/m
3

Type GU cement: 410 kg/m
3

Problem:
Determine the actual shortening that can be
anticipated from:
a) Casting to erection at 50 days
b) Erection to the end of service life
c) Temperature variations
Solution:
a) At 50 days:
Calculate initial creep:
A
p
=
2
(12)(99) 1188 mm =
P
i
=
3
(1188)(1860)(0.70)(0.90) /10
= 1392 kN

i
=
3
i
ci
P 1392 10
AE (300)(700)(27700)
=
=
6
239 10 mm/ mm

Fig. 2.4.7 Volume change strains for typical prestressed building elements (10
6
)
Heated structures
Temp.
Normal density concrete Low density concrete
(Fig. 2.4.4)
40 50 60 70 80 40 50 60 70 80
0 700 640 580 520 460 840 780 710 630 560
5 730 670 610 550 490 860 800 730 650 580
10 750 690 630 570 510 890 830 760 680 610
15 780 720 660 600 540 910 850 780 700 630
20 810 750 690 630 570 930 870 800 720 650
25 840 780 720 660 600 950 890 820 740 670
30 860 800 740 680 620 980 920 850 770 700
35 890 830 770 710 650 1000 940 870 790 720
40 920 860 800 740 680 1020 960 890 810 740
45 940 880 820 760 700 1040 980 910 830 760
50 990 910 850 790 730 1070 1010 940 860 790
Unheated structures
0 700 640 580 520 460 840 780 710 630 560
5 740 680 620 560 500 870 810 740 660 590
10 780 720 660 600 540 910 850 780 700 630
15 820 760 700 640 580 940 880 810 730 660
20 860 800 740 680 620 980 920 850 770 700
25 900 840 780 720 660 1010 950 880 800 730
30 940 880 820 760 700 1040 980 910 830 760
35 980 920 860 800 740 1080 1020 950 870 800
40 1020 960 900 840 780 1110 1050 980 900 830
45 1060 1000 940 880 820 1140 1080 1010 930 860
50 1100 1040 980 920 860 1180 1120 1050 970 900
Table is based on:
1. P/A = 7.0 MPa
2. f = 25 MPa
ci
3. Accelerated cured one day
4. Ratio of fine to total aggregates = 0.50

5. Volume to surface ratio = 38 mm
6. Slump = 70 mm
7. Air % 6
8. Cement content = 410 kg/m
3

9. Age at erection = 50 days
10. K = 5

11. = 1.5
t
K

Calculate creep and shrinkage modification
factors - Fig. 2.4.1:
Accelerated cure for 1 day:
Q
a
= 1.00
Cement content = 410 kg/m
3

P
c
= 1.00
Relative humidity = 70% (Fig. 2.4.2):
Q
h
= 0.80, P
h
= 0.70
Ratio of fine to total aggregates
=
670
0.40
670 1000
=
+

Q
f
= 0.98, P
f
= 0.86
Volume to surface ratio
=
(300)(700)
105 mm
(2)(300 700)
=
+

Q
r
= 0.77, P
r
= 0.74
Slump= 100 mm
Q
sl
= 1.08, P
sl
= 1.05
Air = 5%
Q
v
= 1.00, P
v
= 1.00
Creep modification factor:
Q
cr
= Q
a
Q
h
Q
f
Q
r
Q
sl
Q
v

= (1.00)(0.80)(0.98)(0.77)(1.08)(1.00)
= 0.65
Shrinkage modification factor:
P
sh
= P
c
P
h
P
f
P
r
P
sl
P
v

= (1.00)(0.70)(0.86)(0.74)(1.05)(1.00)
= 0.47

Calculate total strains and displacement at 50
days:

cr
=
0.6
i u
0.6
t
C Q
10 t

+

cr

=
0.6
6
0.6
50
(239 10 ) (2.35)(0.65)
10 50

+

=
6
187 10 mm/ mm

sh
=
shu sh
s
t
P
C t

+

=
6
50
(780 10 ) (0.47)
55 50

+

=
6
174 10 mm/ mm

tot
= (187 10
6
+ 174 10
6
) (7500)
= 2.7 mm
b) From 50 days to final:
Calculate total final strains and displacements:

cr
= (239 10
6
)(1.0)(2.35)(0.65)
= 365 10
6
mm/mm

sh
= (780 10
6
)(1.0)(0.47)
= 367 10
6
mm/mm

tot
= (365 10
6
+ 367 10
6
)(7500)
= 5.5 mm
Difference from 50 days to final:

diff
= 5.5 2.7 = 2.8 mm
c) Temperature effects:
From Fig. 2.4.4:

temp
= 39C for Calgary:
From Fig. 2.4.5:

t
= 211 10
6
mm/mm

t
= (211 10
6
)(7500)
= 1.6 mm
2.4.2 Volume Change Considerations
Load bearing exterior wall panels are subject to
concrete volume change deformations, defined as
movements due to concrete creep, shrinkage and
temperature change. Creep and shrinkage result in
shortening. Thermal movements can cause
shortening or expansion. The amount of movement
anticipated must be determined to design joints and
connections.
Typical volume change movements
a) Creep strains of load bearing exterior wall
panels can be estimated as 120 10
6
mm/mm
for design, assuming usual magnitudes of
loadings for panels supporting floors. Stacked
exterior panels, supporting only the weight of
exterior wall panels can be assumed to have a
design creep strain of 30 10
6
mm/mm.
b) Shrinkage strains for structural wall panels,
considering usual panel volume to surface ratios
and erection at 90 days, can be estimated to be
200 10
6
mm/mm for normal density concrete
and 250 10
6
mm/mm for low density concrete.
c) Thermal movements can be determined using
the map shown in Fig. 2.4.4. In heavy concrete
elements, such as beams, there is thermal lag
that reduces the temperature shortening effect.
Elements in heated buildings will not undergo as
large a temperature differential as those in
unheated ones. The calculated temperature
strains can be reduced by a factor of 0.5 and
0.75 for heated and unheated buildings,
respectively. The value for the unheated building
should be used if the elements are likely to be
exposed through a full annual temperature cycle.
Volume change movement values are approximate
and suitable for most designs. An in-depth
determination should be made to establish more
exact values compatible with the specific design
parameters where volume change movements may
be a significant design factor.
Example 2.2 Shortening of exterior load bearing
panels
Estimate the total shortening of the exterior load
bearing insulated wall panels in a 10 storey structure.
Panels are normal density concrete 2750 mm high.
Structure is located in Kingston, ON:
Creep strain = 120 10
6
mm/mm
Shrinkage strain = 200 10
6
mm/mm
Design temperature = 35C (from Fig. 2.4.4)
Coefficient of expansion = 10 10
6
mm/(mm
o
C)
Temperature strain = (0.5)(10 10
6
)(35)
= 175 10
6

Total strain = (120 + 200 + 175)(10
6
)
= 495 10
6

Total shortening = (495 10
6
)(2750)(10)
= 14 mm

Fig. 2.4.8a Thermal bow of uninsulated wall panel

Estimates of building movement must be analyzed
using engineering judgement. Floors and interior
walls attached to exterior load bearing panels will
restrain vertical movement. Heavily loaded elements
will distribute load to less heavily loaded members.
Calculated values can be larger than actual values.
Movements of building corners
It is possible that differential volume change
movements may occur when load bearing panels are
adjacent to non-load bearing panels, such as at the
corners of a building. The connections will attempt to
transfer significant vertical forces if connections
restrain these movements. Structural behaviour of
building corners where panels meet requires design
for volume change movement forces as well as for
other design forces.
Design considerations for panels meeting at corners
should also consider the influence of sun exposure
temperature differentials. Depending upon exterior
panel finishes and plan orientation, 5C to 8C
temperature differentials may develop. Corner panel
connections should be analyzed when temperature
differentials at building corners can develop.
Influence upon non-structural components
It is important to consider the influence of volume
change movement on non-structural members.
Exterior sealants should be able to accommodate
movements caused by volume changes. Sealants
can be subject to differential volume change
movements either horizontally or vertically. Joint
widths should be sized to accommodate sealant
movement capability and construction tolerances.
Differential movements can occur at building corners
and at interfaces with other building systems or
construction materials, such as windows.
The cumulative movements at the top or ends of a
structure can increase as the height and length of a
building increases. The movements of exterior walls
can affect interior partitions resulting in distress or
cracking. Non-structural components at the interior of
a building must be detailed to allow for the volume
change movements of exterior structural precast
walls.
2.4.3 Thermal Bowing
A temperature difference between the inside and
outside of a wall panel, especially composite
insulated sandwich panels, and between the top and
underside of an uninsulated roof deck can cause
elements to bow, see Fig. 2.4.8a. The magnitude of
bowing can be determined by:
=
2
1 2
C(T T )
8h

where C is the coefficient and thermal expansion.
Temperature measurements indicate that in open
structures, such as the roofs of parking decks, the
temperature differential (T
1
T
2
) seldom exceeds 16
to 22C. In an insulated sandwich wall panel, the
difference can be higher, but is tempered by thermal
lag due to the mass of the concrete.
Moisture differences between the inside and outside
of an enclosed building can also cause bowing.
Calculation of this effect is much less precise and
involves more variables. The exterior layer of a
concrete panel absorbs moisture from the
atmosphere and periodic precipitation, while the
interior layer is relatively dry causing the inside layer
to shrink more than the outside, creating an outward
bow. This can overcome the possible inward thermal
bowing in cold weather, and may explain the general
observation that wall panels always bow outward.
Example 2.3 Thermal bow in an uninsulated wall
panel
Given:
A 6 m high, 150 mm thick wall panel as shown in
Figure 2.4.8b
Coefficient of thermal expansion:
C = 10.8 10
6
mm/(mm C)
Temperature differential T
1
T
2
= 20C
E
c
= 29900 MPa

216 CPCI Design Ma
Fig. 2.4.8b Force required at mid-height to
restrain bowing
Fig. 2.4.9 Corner separation due to thermal bow
nual 4

2
= Residual Bow

The residual bow can be calculated by adjusting the
equation in Fig. 2.4.10, case (e) to read:
Problem:
Determine the potential thermal bow
1
, the force, P,
required at midheight to restrain the bowing, the
stress in the panel caused by the restraint, and the
residual bow,
2
.
Solution:

1
=
6 2
(10.8 10 )(20)(6000)
6.5 mm
(8)(150)
=
The effective modulus of elasticity, E
t
,is determined
from the notes in Fig. 2.4.10:
E
t
= (0.75)(29,900) = 22,400 MPa
I =
3 3
6 4
bh (1000)(150 )
281 10 mm / m
12 12
= =
assuming uncracked section.
From Fig. 2.4.10, Case (a):
P =
6
t
3 3
48E I (48)(22400)(281 10 )(6.5)
(6000)

=

= 9.0 9 kN/ m width
M =
P (9.09)(6)
13.6 kN- m/ m width
4 4
= =

Panel Stress =
I
6
6
My (13.6)(10 )(75)
3.6 MPa
(281 10 )
= =

=
2
t
M
16E I

Substituting / 2 for :

2
=
6 2
6
(13.6 10 )(3000)
1.2 mm
(16)(22400)(281 10 )

Bowing in non insulated wall panels is usually not
structurally significant but may cause separation at
the corners and damage to joint sealants, see Fig.
2.4.9. Bowing can be restrained with one or more
connections between panels. Figure 2.4.10 gives
equations for calculating the required restraint and
the moments this will cause in the panel. The bowing
of insulated sandwich wall panels increases with the
degree of composite action.
2.4.3.1 Bowing of horizontal members
Differential temperature can cause upward bowing in
roof elements, especially in open structures such as
parking decks. For rare cases when precast elements
are restrained against rotation at the ends, positive
moments (bottom tension) can develop at the support
as shown in Cases (d) and (e) in Fig. 2.4.10. Bottom
tension can cause cracking, but once cracks occur,
the tension is relieved. Thermal induced positive
moments are independent of span length.
Note, from Fig. 2.4.10, the restraint moment is
doubled if only one end is restrained. The cyclical
effects can magnify the potential damage as thermal
bow occurs with daily temperature changes.

Fig. 2.4.10 Force required to restrain bowing
Intermediate Restraint (Ends Free to Rotate) End Restraint
(a) Single Restraint at Midspan (d) Both Ends Restrained

t
3
48E l
P

Moment in panel =
P
4

t
2
8E l
M

(b) Two Restraint Points (e) One End Restrained

t
2 3
24E l
P
3a 4a
=

Moment in panel = Pa

t
2
16E l
M

(c) Three or More Restraint Points (Approximate Uniform
Continuous Restraint)

t
3
77E l
P w
= =

Moment in panel =
2
w
P
8 8

=

For Daily Temperature Change,
Use E
t
= 0.75 E
c

For Season Changes,
Use E
t
= 0.50 E
c

Example 2.4 Thermal bow in a roof element
Given:
700 mm deep double tee spanning 18.3 m on the
upper level of a parking deck supported on
elastomeric bearing pads under each leg.
C = 10.8 10
6
mm/(mm C)
T
1
T
2
= 20C
Problem:
Find the upward bow at mid span and end rotation of
the double tee roof slab.
Solution:
=
6 2
(10.8 10 )(20)(18300)
12.9 mm
(8)(700)
=
End rotation 4 /L as shown in Fig. 2.4.11.
= 4(12.9)/18300 = 0.0028 radians
The upward temperature bow must be added to
deflections due to dead and live loads and the effects
of prestressing. End rotations are included in the
design of bearing pads.
Fig. 2.4.11 Second degree parabola
2.5 DIAPHRAGM DESIGN
Horizontal loads from wind or earthquake are usually
transmitted to shear walls or moment-resisting frames
through the roof and floors acting as horizontal
diaphragms. Traditionally, precast structures have
been designed with the assumption that floor systems
act as rigid diaphragms. As a result, horizontal loads
are distributed to lateral load resisting elements in

Fig. 2.5.1 Analogous beam design of a diaphragm

Notes:
1. Grouted joints cannot be considered effective unless prevented from separating. Chord forces for diaphragms involving grouted joints
must be based on shear forces in addition to bending.
2.
f f
f
e
M V
T
b
= +
, where can be considered as the effective shear friction coefficient.

e
proportion to their relative stiffness. Recent and

ongoing research into diaphragm behaviour,
particularly with long span construction, suggests that
more refined methods may be appropriate.
Designers are encouraged to consult PCI resources
and local precast producers for the latest
developments from ongoing research programs.
2.5.1 Simple Diaphragm Design The
Horizontal Beam Analogy
A diaphragm is analyzed by considering a roof or
floor as a deep horizontal beam, analogous to a plate
girder or I-beam. The shear walls or structural frames
are the supports for this analogous beam. Lateral
loads are transmitted to these supports as reactions.
As in a beam, tension and compression forces are
induced in the chords or flanges of the analogous
beam as shown in Fig. 2.5.1.
Shear in the analogous beam must be transferred
between adjacent elements and to supporting
elements when precast concrete elements that span
parallel to the supporting shear walls or frames are
used for the diaphragm. Web shear must also be
transferred to the chord elements. Diaphragm design
is essentially a connection design solution.
2.5.1.1 Shear transfer between elements
Shear transfer between elements is usually
accomplished using grout keys or flange weld plates
in floors or roofs without composite topping.

Fig. 2.5.2 Typical flange weld plate details
Notes:
1. See Chapter 4 for design of welds and connections.
2. Not suitable for diaphragms in high seismic areas, pending further research.
3. Recommendations for welding reinforcing bars must be closely followed.
4. Courtesy JVI, Inc.
Weld plates may be analyzed as illustrated in Fig.
2.5.2. In addition to the hardware details shown,
many other connections are used by precast concrete
manufacturers.
For elements connected by grout keys not
intentionally roughened, a conservative value of
0.3 MPa can be used for the average shear
resistance of a grouted key and 0.6 MPa may be
used for grouted joints with intentionally roughened
surfaces. Reinforcement placed as shown in Fig.
2.5.3 can be used to transfer the shear. This steel is
designed using the shear-friction method that is
covered in Chapter 4.
In floors or roofs with composite topping, the topping
itself can act as the diaphragm if it is adequately
reinforced. Reinforcement requirements can be
determined by shear-friction analysis.
The connections between elements often serve
functions in addition to the transfer of shear for lateral
loads. For example, weld plates in flanged elements
can restrain differential camber. Grout keys may be
used to distribute concentrated loads.
Connections that transfer shear from diaphragms to
shear walls or moment-resisting frames are analyzed
in the same manner as connections between
elements. Designs must ensure the diaphragm
remains connected to the shear walls or moment
frames during an earthquake.
In bearing wall buildings, perimeter reinforcement is
required for structural integrity in accordance with
A23.3, Clause 16.5, particularly for seismic loads.
2.5.1.2 Chord forces
Chord forces can be calculated as shown in Fig.
2.5.1. For roofs with intermediate supports, the shear
force is carried across the beam using weld plates or
bars in the grout keys as shown in Section A. Bars
are designed by shear-friction and the forces are
usually low.

Fig. 2.5.3 Use of perimeter reinforcement as
shear-friction reinforcement

In flanged deck elements, the chord tension at the
perimeter of a building is usually transferred between
elements by the same type of connection used for
shear transfer, see Fig. 2.5.2. When forces are high,
such as in seismic designs, transverse reinforcing
bars may be placed in the flange and attached to the
connection device by welding or lapping with the
connection bars. Examples of each of these
applications are given in Sect. 2.7 and 2.8.
2.5.2 Alternate Methods of Diaphragm
Design
While the horizontal beam analogy may be suitable
for some applications, some structures may require
more detailed and complex diaphragm analyses to
consider the effects of openings, discontinuities, and
geometry changes. In some situations, strut-andtie
modeling of the diaphragm may be appropriate where
the diaphragm is analysed as an idealized truss with
compression struts and tensions ties.
Finite element analysis of precast elements, joints
and connections can be used to examine in-plane
behaviour of a system. These analyses can provide
insight into areas with high load concentrations, joint
separations or diaphragm deformations and
demonstrate a more realistic behaviour of a
diaphragm. Chord forces and connection forces
obtained from the analysis may be used for design.
Fig. 2.6.1 Assumptions used in derivation of
rotational coefficients for column bases

2.6 BUILDINGS WITH MOMENT-RESISTING
FRAMES
2.6.1 General
Precast, prestressed concrete beam and slab
elements are usually designed and connected into a
structure as simple-span elements because:
1. Positive moment capacity is much easier and
less expensive to attain with pretensioned
elements than negative moment capacity at
supports.
2. Connections which achieve continuity at the
supports are sometimes complicated and costly.
3. The restraint to volume changes that occurs in
rigid connections may cause serious cracking
and unsatisfactory performance.
When designing precast, prestressed concrete
structures, it is simpler to have connections that allow
lateral movement and rotation, i.e., pinned ends, and
achieve lateral stability through the use of floor and
roof diaphragms and shear walls.

2.6.2 Moment Resistance of Column Bases Fig. 2.6.2 Approximate relationship between
allowable soil bearing value and
coefficient of subgrade reaction, k
s

Single-storey and low-rise buildings without shear
walls may be designed to depend on the fixity of the
column base to resist lateral loads. The ability of a
spread footing to resist moments caused by lateral
loads is dependent on the rotational characteristics of
the base. The total rotation of the column base is a
function of rotation between the footing and soil,
bending in the base plate, and elongation of the
anchor bolts, as shown in Fig. 2.6.1.
The total rotation of the base is:

b
=
f
+
bp
+
ab

If the axial load is large enough that there is no
tension in the anchor bolts,
bp
and
ab
are zero, and:

b
=
f

Rotational characteristics can be expressed in terms
of flexibility or stiffness coefficients:
= M = M/K
M = applied moment = Pe
e = eccentricity of the applied load, P
= flexibility coefficient
K = stiffness coefficient = 1/
If bending of the base plate and strain in the anchor
bolts are assumed as shown in Fig. 2.6.1, the
flexibility coefficients for the base can be derived, [2]
and the total rotation of the base becomes:
However, in some structures, adequate shear walls
interfere with the function of the building, or are more
expensive than alternate solutions. In these cases,
the lateral stability of the structure can be designed to
depend on the moment-resisting capacity of either
the column bases, a beam-column frame, or both.

b
= M(
f
+
bp
+
ab
) = Pe(
f
+
bp
+
ab
)

f
= 1/(k
s
I
f
)

bp
=
I
3
1 2 1
s bp 1
(x x ) [2e/(h 2x ) 1]
0
6eE (h x )
+
+

When moment connections between beams and
columns are required to resist lateral loads, it is very
important that the amount of beam-column moment
framing be kept to a minimum and that it be located
near the centre of the building to reduce volume
change effects. For example, in a line with ten bays,
if moment connections in the four interior bays are
adequate, do not use moment connections in the
remaining bays for the sake of convenience.

ab
=
1
b s 1
g[2e/(h 2x ) 1]
0
2eA E (h x )
+
+

Rotation of the base may cause an additional
eccentricity of the loads on the columns, resulting in
moments which must be added to the moments
induced by the lateral loads.
Whenever possible, to reduce the magnitude of the
forces at the connections, make the moment
connection after most of the dead loads have been
applied. This requires careful specification of the
construction process, and field inspection. The
moment connections need only resist the negative
moments from live load, lateral loads and volume
changes, and will then be less costly.
Note that if the eccentricity, e, is less than h/2 + x
1

(inside the centre of compression),
bp
and
ab
are
less than zero, meaning that there is no rotation
between the column and the footing, and only the
rotation from soil deformation need be considered.
Values are tabulated for typical cases in Figs. 2.6.3
and 2.6.4.

Fig. 2.6.3 Flexibility coefficients for footing soil interaction

Flexibility of base =
b f ab bp
= + +
Rotation of base =
b
Pe
Stiffness of base =
b b
K 1/ =
Fixity of base =
b c b
K /(K K ) +
K
c
= column stiffness = 4E
c
I
c
/h
s

E
c
= modulus of elasticity of column concrete
I
c
= moment of inertia of column
h
s
= storey height

f
[10
6
/(kN-m)] for square footings
Footing size k
s
(kN/m
3
)
(mm) 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000
600 600 4630 2315 1543 1157 926
750 750 1896 948 632 474 380
900 900 915 457 305 229 183
1050 1050 494 247 165 123 99
1200 1200 289 145 97 72 58
1350 1350 181 90 60 45 36
1500 1500 119 59 40 30 24
1650 1650 81 41 27 20 16
1800 1800 57 29 19 14 11
1950 1950 42 21 14 10 8
2100 2100 31 15 10 8 6
2250 2250 23 12 8 6 5
2400 2400 18 9 6 5 4
2700 2700 11 6 4 3 2
3000 3000 7 4 3 2 2
3300 3300 5 3 2 1 1
3600 3600 4 2 1 1 1
Note: Approximate values of k
s
can be determined from Fig. 2.6.2.


Fig. 2.6.4 Flexibility coefficients for anchor bolts and base plates

ab
+
bp
[10
6
/(kN-m)] for typical details
Column e Case : Exterior anchor bolts Case : Interior anchor bolts
size, h
(mm)

(mm)
Base plate thickness & anch. bolt diam.
(mm)
Base plate thickness & anc. bolt diam.
(mm)
20 25 30 35 20 25 30 35

100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
150 0 0 0 0 23.9 15.3 10.6 7.8
200 0 0 0 0 35.8 22.9 15.9 11.7
300 300 250 13.1 7.3 4.6 3.2 43.0 27.5 19.1 14.0
300 21.8 12.2 7.7 5.3 47.8 30.6 21.2 15.6
350 28.0 15.7 9.9 6.8 51.2 32.7 22.7 16.7
400 32.6 18.3 11.6 7.9 53.7 34.4 23.8 17.5

450 36.3 20.4 12.9 8.8 55.7 35.7 24.8 18.2

150 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
200 0 0 0 0 8.5 5.5 3.8 2.8
250 0 0 0 0 13.6 8.7 6.1 4.5
400 400 300 6.0 3.4 2.2 1.5 17.1 10.9 7.6 5.6
350 10.3 5.9 3.7 2.6 19.5 12.5 8.7 6.4
400 13.5 7.7 4.9 3.4 21.3 13.6 9.5 7.0
450 16.1 9.1 5.8 5.8 22.7 14.6 10.1 7.4

500 18.1 10.3 6.5 6.5 23.9 15.3 10.6 7.8

200 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
250 0 0 0 0 4.0 2.6 1.8 1.3
300 0 0 0 0 6.6 4.2 3.0 2.2
500 500 350 3.2 1.8 1.2 1.2 8.5 5.5 3.8 2.8
400 5.6 3.2 2.1 2.1 10.0 6.4 4.4 3.3
450 7.5 4.3 2.8 2.8 11.1 7.1 4.9 3.6
500 9.0 5.2 3.3 3.3 11.9 7.6 5.3 3.9

550 10.2 5.9 3.8 3.8 12.7 8.1 5.6 4.1

250 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
300 0 0 0 0 2.2 1.4 1.0 0.7
350 0 0 0 0 3.7 2.4 1.7 1.2
600 600 400 1.9 1.1 0.7 0.5 4.9 3.1 2.2 1.6
450 3.4 2.0 1.3 0.9 5.8 3.7 2.6 1.9
500 4.6 2.6 1.7 1.2 6.5 4.2 2.9 2.1
550 5.5 3.2 2.1 1.4 7.1 4.6 3.2 2.3

600 6.3 3.7 2.4 1.6 7.6 4.9 3.4 2.5

Fig. 2.6.5 Column stability and base fixity for
Examples 2.5 and 2.6
Example 2.5 Stability analysis of an unbraced
frame
Given:
The column shown in Fig. 2.6.5
Soil bearing capacity = 240 kN/m
2

Non-seismic zone
P = 355 kN dead load, 135 kN live load
W = 9 kN wind load
Problem:
Determine the column design loads and moments for
stability as an unbraced frame.
Solution:
The column is designed for the following load
combinations:
1. 1.4D
2. (1.25D or 0.9D) + 1.5L + (0.5S or 0.4W)
3. (1.25D or 0.9D) + 1.5S + (0.5L or 0.4W)
4. (1.25D or 0.9D) + 1.4W + (0.5L or 0.5S)
5. 1.0D + 1.0E + (0.5L + 0.25S)
The maximum eccentricity will occur when Eqn (4.) is
applied with 0.9D and 0.5L.
Moment at base of column:
M = (9)(5) = 45 kN-m
P
f
= (0.9)(355) = 320 kN
M
f
= (1.4)(45) = 63.0 kN-m
Eccentricity due to wind load:
=
f
f
M 63.0
0.197 m 197 mm
P 320
= = =
To determine the moments caused by base rotation,
an iterative procedure is required.
Estimate eccentricity due to rotation = 7 mm:
e = 197 + 7 = 204 mm
Check rotation between column and footing:
h/2 + x
1
= 500/2 + (50) = 200 mm < 204
Thus there is tension in the anchor bolts and rotation
between the column and footing:
I
f
= (1800)
4
/12 = 875000 10
6
mm
4

From Fig. 2.6.2:
k
s
55000 kN/m
3

f
= 1/(k
S
I
f
) = 1/[(55000)(875)]
= 20.8 10
6
/(kN-m)

ab
=
1
s b 1
2e
g 1
h 2x
2eE A (h x )

+

+

=
(2)(204)
(465) 1
(500) (2)( 50)
(2)(204)(200000)(349)(500 50)

=
6
0.726 10 /(kN- m)

bp
=
I
3
1 2 1
s bp 1
(x x ) [2e/(h 2x ) 1]
6eE (h x )
+
+

=
1 2
0 (since x x 50 50 0) + = + =
M
f
= (320)(0.204) = 65.3 kN-m

b
= (
f
+
ab
) M
f

= (20.8 + 0.726)(10
6
)(65.3)
= 0.0014

Eccentricity caused by rotation:
K
b
= 1/
b

=
b
h
s
= (0.0014)(5000) = 6.8 mm 7 mm
assumed OK
K
c
=
c c
s
4E
h

No further trial is required. h
s
= column height
Thus design requirements for 0.9D + 1.4W:
Example 2.6 Calculation of degree of fixity
P
f
= 320 kN
Given:
M
f
= 65.3 kN-m
The column base shown in Example 2.5.
Check for 1.25D + 1.5L + 0.4W:
E
c
= 29900 MPa
P
f
= 1.25(355) + 1.5(135) + 0.4(0) = 646 kN
Problem:
M
f
= 0.4W = 0.4(9)(5) = 18 kN-m Determine the degree of fixity.
e = 18/646 = 0.0279 m = 28 mm
Solution:

b
=
f
+

ab
+

bp
= (20.8 + 0.726 + 0) x 10
6
M
f
= 646(28 + 2)/10
3
= 19.4 kN-m

= 21.5 x 10
6
rad/kN-m

b
=
f
M
f
= (20.8 10
6
)(19.4) = 0.000403 rad
K
b
= 1/
b
= 1/(21.5 10
6
)

b
h
s
= (0.000403)(5000) = 2.02 mm 2 mm
= 46.5 10
-3
kN-m/rad
assumed OK
I
c
= bd
3
/12 = 500
4
/12 = 5208 10
6
mm
4
Design requirements for 1.25D + 1.5L + 0.4W:
K
c
=
6
c c
6
s
4E I (4)(29900)(5208 10 )
h
5000 10

P
f
= 646 kN
M
f
= 19.4 kN-m
=
3
124.6 10 kN- m/ rad
It is required by A23.3, Clause 10.15.3.1, that the
moment caused by a minimum eccentricity of 15 +
0.03h be considered:
F
b
=
b
b c
K 46.5
0.271
K K 46.5 124.6
= =
+ +

In a computer model for structural analysis, the
degree of base fixity is modeled by using K
b
as the
rotational spring stiffness of the support node.
P
f
= (1.25)(355) + (1.5)(135) = 646 kN
e = 15 + 0.03h = 15 + (0.03)(500) = 30 mm
2.6.4 Computer Models for Frame Analysis
M
f
= P
f
e = (646)(30 + 3)/10
3
= 21.3 kN-m
When precast frames are modeled as sticks, as is
usually done with steel frames, the results are often
very misleading. For example, the structure as
modeled in Fig. 2.6.6 (a) will indicate more flexibility
than exists. A lateral drift will be overestimated and
the moments caused by axial shortening will be
underestimated. Figure 2.6.6 (b) shows a model that
will better estimate the true condition.

b
= (20.8 10
6
)(21.3) = 0.00044 rad

b
h
s
= (0.00044)(5000) = 2.2 mm 3 mm
assumed OK
Thus design requirements for 1.25D + 1.5L + 0.4W:
P
f
= 646 kN
M
f
= 21.3 kN-m
2.6.5 Volume Change Effects in Moment-
resisting Frames
2.6.3 Fixity of Column Bases
The degree of fixity of a column base is the ratio of
the rotational stiffness of the base to the sum of the
rotational stiffnesses of the column plus the base:
The restraint of volume changes in moment-resisting
frames causes tension in the girders and deflections
and moments in the columns. The magnitude of
these tensions, moments and deflections is
dependent on the distance from the centre of
stiffness of the frame.
F
b
=
b
b c
K
K K +

F
b
= degree of base fixity, expressed as a
decimal

Fig. 2.6.6 Computer models

The centre of stiffness is that point of a building
where no lateral movement will occur when the
horizontal members are subject to uniform
shortening. For frames that are symmetrical with
respect to bay sizes, storey heights and element
stiffnesses, the centre of stiffness is located at the
midpoint of the building frame, as shown in Fig. 2.6.7.
Tension in girders is largest in the bay nearest the
centre of stiffness. Deflections and moments in
columns are larger furthest from the centre of
stiffness. In Fig. 2.6.7:
F
1
< F
2
< F
3

1
>
2
>
3
M
1
> M
2
> M
3

The degree of fixity of the column base, as described
in Sect. 2.6.3, has a great effect on the magnitude of
the forces and moments caused by volume change
restraint. An assumption of a fully fixed base can
overestimate the restraint forces and assuming a
pinned base may have the opposite effect. The
degree of fixity used in the volume change analysis
should be consistent with that used in the analysis of
the column for other loadings and the determination
of slenderness effects.
Calculation of volume change restraint forces In
moment-resisting frames
Computer analysis allows the input of the shortening
strains due to volume changes. The equivalent
strains described below can be input directly. The
designer should use the rotational spring stiffness
method. As a design check to examine the extreme
conditions, it may be useful to make two computer
runs, one with the base pinned and one with the base
fixed.
The coefficients from Figs. 2.6.8 and 2.6.10 may be
used for frames that are approximately symmetrical.
The use of these tables is described in Fig. 2.6.9.
Equivalent volume change
If a horizontal framing element is connected at the
ends, a tensile force is built up in the element and
transmitted to the supporting elements such that the
volume change shortening is restrained. The effect of
the shortening on the shears and moments of the
support is lessened because of creep and micro-
cracking of the element and its support, since the
shortening takes place gradually.

Fig. 2.6.7 Effect of volume change restraints in building frames
Fig. 2.6.8 Build-up of restraint forces in beams (k
b
)
Total number Number of bays from end (i)
of bays (n) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 1.00
3 1.00 4.00
4 1.00 3.00
5 1.00 2.67 9.00
6 1.00 2.50 6.00
7 1.00 2.40 5.00 16.00
8 1.00 2.33 4.50 10.00
9 1.00 2.29 4.20 8.00 25.00
10 1.00 2.25 4.00 7.00 15.00
11 1.00 2.22 3.86 6.40 11.67 36.00
12 1.00 2.20 3.75 6.00 10.00 21.00
13 1.00 2.18 3.67 5.71 9.00 16.00 49.00
14 1.00 2.17 3.60 5.50 8.33 13.50 28.00
15 1.00 2.15 3.55 5.33 7.86 12.00 21.00 64.00
16 1.00 2.14 3.50 5.20 7.50 11.00 17.50 36.00
The volume change shortenings can be treated in the
same manner as short term elastic deformations by
using a concept of equivalent shortening.
The following relations can be assumed:

ec
=
c
/ K

es
=
s
/ K

ec
,
es
= equivalent creep and shrinkage
shortenings,respectively

c
,
s
= calculated creep and shrinkage
shortenings,respectively
= a constant for design purposes which
varies from 3 to 5
K
The value of will be near the lower end of the

range when the elements are heavily reinforced, and
near the upper end when they are lightly reinforced.
For most common structures, a value of K = 4 is
conservative.
K
Shortening due to temperature change will be

similarly modified. However, the maximum
temperature change will usually occur over a much
shorter time, probably within 60 to 90 days:

et
=
t
/ K
t

et
and
t
= the equivalent and calculated temperature
shortening, respectively
K
t
= a constant; recommended value = 1.5
The total equivalent shortening to be used for design is:
=
ec
+
es
+
et
=
c s t
t
K K
+
+

The actual modulus of elasticity of the elements is
used when the equivalent shortening is used in the
frame analysis for determining shears and moments
in the supporting elements, rather than a reduced
modulus.
Figures 2.6.11 and 2.6.12 provide equivalent volume
change strains for typical building frames.

Fig. 2.6.9 Notation for the use of Fig. 2.6.10

i
=
e s

F
i
= I
3
f b i c c s
k k E / h
M
i
=
2
m i c c s
k E I / h
F
i
= F
1
, F
2
, etc., as shown above
k
f
, k
m
= coefficients from Fig. 2.6.10
k
b
=
n 1 i
i
n 2 2i
+
(or from Fig. 2.6.8)

n = number of bays
i = as shown in Fig. 2.6.7


Fig. 2.6.10 Coefficients k
f
and k
m
for forces and moments caused by volume change restraint (see Fig.
2.6.9 for notation)
Values of k
f
Values of k
m

c
E
b b
c s
E I /
I / h

No. of
stories
Base
fixity Base 2nd floor 3rd floor
K
r
=
4th

F
1
F
2
F
3
F
4
M
1
M
2L
M
2U
M
3L
M
3U
M
4

Fixed 3.0 3.0 3.0 0

0
Pinned 0 0 0 0
Fixed 6.0 6.0 4.0 2.0

0.5
Pinned 1.2 1.2 0 1.2
1 Fixed 7.5 7.5 4.5 3.0

1.0
Pinned 1.7 1.7 0 1.7
Fixed 9.0 9.0 5.0 4.0

2.0
Pinned 2.2 2.2 0 2.2
Fixed 10.1 10.1 5.4 4.7

4.0
or more
Pinned 2.5 2.5 0 2.5
Fixed 6.8 9.4 2.6 4.3 2.6 2.6 0

0
Pinned 1.5 3.0 1.5 0 1.5 1.5 0
Fixed 8.1 10.7 2.6 4.7 3.4 2.1 0.4

0.5
Pinned 1.9 3.4 1.4 0 1.9 1.2 0.2
2 Fixed 8.9 11.2 2.3 4.9 3.9 1.8 0.5

1.0
Pinned 2.1 3.4 1.3 0 2.1 1.0 0.3
Fixed 9.7 11.6 1.9 5.2 4.5 1.4 0.5

2.0
Pinned 2.4 3.4 1.0 0 2.4 0.8 0.3
Fixed 10.4 11.9 1.4 5.5 5.0 1.0 0.4

4.0
or more
Pinned 2.6 3.4 0.8 0 2.6 0.5 0.2
Fixed 7.1 10.6 4.1 0.7 4.4 2.8 2.8 0.7 0.7 0

0
Pinned 1.6 3.6 2.4 0.4 0 1.6 1.6 0.4 0.4 0
Fixed 8.2 11.1 3.5 0.5 4.7 3.5 2.2 0.7 0.4 0.09

0.5
Pinned 1.9 3.6 1.9 0.3 0 1.9 1.2 0.4 0.2 0.05
3 Fixed 8.9 11.4 2.9 0.4 5.0 3.9 1.9 0.7 0.3 0.09
or more
1.0
Pinned 2.2 3.5 1.6 0.2 0 2.2 1.0 0.4 0.2 0.05
Fixed 9.7 11.7 2.2 0.2 5.2 4.7 1.4 0.6 0.2 0.06

2.0
Pinned 2.4 3.5 1.2 0.1 0 2.4 0.8 0.3 0.1 0.03
Fixed 10.4 11.9 1.5 0.04 5.5 5.0 1.0 0.5 0.04 0.01

4.0
or more
Pinned 2.6 3.4 0.8 0.02 0 2.6 0.5 0.2 0.02 0.00


Fig. 2.6.11 Equivalent volume change strains for typical continuous building frames with prestressed
elements (10
6
)
Heated structures
(Fig. 2.4.4) 40 50 60 70 80 40 50 60 70 80
0 140 130 120 100 90 170 160 140 130 110
5 160 150 130 120 110 180 170 160 140 130
10 180 160 150 140 130 200 190 170 160 140
15 190 180 170 160 150 210 200 190 170 160
20 210 200 190 180 160 230 220 200 190 170
25 230 220 210 190 180 240 230 220 200 190
30 250 240 220 210 200 260 250 230 220 200
35 270 250 240 230 220 270 260 250 230 220
40 280 270 260 250 240 290 280 260 250 230
45 300 290 280 270 250 300 290 280 260 250
50 320 310 300 280 270 320 310 290 280 260
Unheated structures
0 140 130 120 100 90 170 160 140 130 110
5 170 160 140 130 120 190 180 170 150 140
10 190 180 170 160 150 210 200 190 170 160
15 220 210 200 190 170 240 220 210 190 180
20 250 240 220 210 200 260 250 230 220 200
25 280 260 250 240 230 280 270 260 240 230
30 300 290 280 270 250 300 290 280 260 250
35 330 320 310 290 280 330 310 300 280 270
40 360 340 330 320 310 350 340 320 310 290
45 380 370 360 350 340 370 360 350 330 320
50 410 400 390 370 360 390 380 370 350 340
Note: Above table based on the same parameters as Fig. 2.4.7 with the addition that K = 5 and = 1.5.
t
K
Example 2.7 Calculation of column moment
caused by volume change shortening of a beam
Given:
The beam in Example 2.1 is supported and attached
to two 400 400 columns as shown in the sketch.
c
f (col) = 35 MPa
E
c
= 29900 MPa
Problem:
Determine the horizontal force at the top of the
column caused by volume change shortening of the
beam.
Solution:
I
c
= bh
3
/12 = 400
4
/12 = 2130 10
6
mm
4
From Example 2.1:
Calculate the equivalent shortening from strain values
computed in Example 2.1:
=
c s t
t
L
K K
+
+

=
6
(365 187 367 174) 211
(10 )(7500)
5 1.5
+
+

= 1.6 mm

Fig. 2.6.12 Equivalent volume change strains for typical continuous building frames with reinforced
elements (10
6
)
Heated structures
(Fig. 2.4.4) 40 50 60 70 80 40 50 60 70 80
0 70 60 50 40 40 70 60 50 40 40
5 80 80 70 60 60 80 70 70 60 50
10 100 90 90 80 70 90 90 80 70 70
15 120 110 110 100 90 110 100 100 90 80
20 140 130 120 120 110 120 120 110 100 100
25 160 150 140 130 130 140 130 130 120 110
30 180 170 160 150 150 150 150 140 130 130
35 190 180 180 170 160 170 160 160 150 140
40 210 200 200 190 180 180 180 170 160 160
45 230 220 210 210 200 200 190 190 180 170
50 250 240 230 220 220 210 210 200 190 190
Unheated structures
0 70 60 50 40 40 70 60 50 40 40
5 90 80 80 70 60 90 80 80 70 60
10 120 110 110 100 90 110 100 100 90 80
15 150 140 130 130 120 130 120 120 110 110
20 170 160 160 150 150 150 150 140 130 130
25 200 190 190 180 170 180 170 170 160 150
30 230 220 210 210 200 200 190 190 180 170
35 250 250 240 230 230 220 210 210 200 200
40 280 270 270 260 250 240 240 230 220 220
45 310 300 300 290 280 270 260 250 250 240
50 330 330 320 310 310 290 280 280 270 260
Note: Above table based on the same parameters as Fig. 2.4.6 with the addition that = 5 and = 1.5. K
t
K
/2 = 1.6 / 2 = 0.8 mm each end
N = 3E
c
I
c
( / 2) / h
s
3

= (3)(29900)(2130 10
6
)(0.8) / 3750
3

= 2800 N = 2.8 kN
M = Nh
s

= (2.8)(3750) / 10
3

= 10.5 kN-m
Example 2.8 Volume change restraint forces
Given:
A 4-bay, 2-storey heated frame as shown
Beams are prestressed
Beam modulus of elasticity = E
b
= 29900 MPa
Column modulus of elasticity = E
c
= 32000 MPa
Column bases 20% fixed (see Sect. 2.6.3)
Design R.H. = 70%
Design temperature change = 39C
Problem:
Determine the maximum tension in the beams and
the maximum moment in the columns caused by
volume change restraint.
Solution:
1. Determine relative stiffness between the columns
and beams:
I
b
= (300)(600)
3
/ 12 = 5400 10
6
mm
4

E
b
I
b
/ = (29.9)(5400) / 8000 = 20.2 10
3
kN-m
I
c
= 400
4
/12 = 2130 10
6
mm
4

E
c
I
c
/h
s
= (32.0)(2130) / 5000 = 13.6 10
3
kN-m
K
r
=
b b
c c s
E I /
1.5
E I / h
=

2. Determine the deflections:
From Fig. 2.6.11:

e
= 246 10
6
mm/mm

B
=
e
= (246 10
6
)(8000) = 2.0 mm

A
=
e
(2 ) = 4.0 mm

3. Determine the maximum beam tension that occurs
nearest the centre of stiffness, i.e., beams BC and
CD, 2nd floor:
From Fig. 2.6.8:
For n = 4 and i = 2, k
b
= 3.00
From Fig. 2.6.10:
For K
r
= 1.0, fixed base, k
f
= 11.2
For K
r
= 2.0, fixed base, k
f
= 11.6
For K
r
= 1.5, k
f
= 11.4
For pinned base, k
f
= 3.4 (for K
r
= 1.0 and 2.0)
For 20% fixed:
k
f
= 3.4 + 0.20 (11.4 3.4) = 5.0
F
2
= k
f
k
b

i
E
c
I
c
/ h
s
3

= (5.0)(3.0)(2.0)(32.0)(2130 10
6
) / 5000
3

= 16.4 kN
4. Determine maximum column moments:
For base moment, M
1
:
From Fig. 2.6.10 by interpolation:
k
m
(fixed) = (4.9 + 5.2)/2 = 5.05
k
m
(pinned) = 0
k
m
(20% fixed) = 0 + 0.20 (5.05)= 1.0
M
1
= k
m

i
E
c
I
c
/h
s
2

= (1.0)(4.010
3
)(32.0)(213010
6
) / 5000
2

= 10.9 kN-m
For second floor moment, M
2L
:
k
m
(fixed) = (3.9 + 4.5) / 2 = 4.2
k
m
(pinned) = (2.1 + 2.4) / 2 = 2.25
k
m
(20% fixed)= 2.25 + 0.20 (4.202.25)=2.64
M
2L
=(2.64)(4.010
3
)(32.0)(213010
6
)/ 5000
2

= 28.8 kN-m
2.6.6 Eccentrically Loaded Columns
Many precast concrete structures utilize multi-storey
columns with simple-span beams resting on
haunches. Figs. 2.6.13 and 2.6.14 are aids for
determining the various combinations of load and
moment that can occur with these columns.
The following conditions and limitations apply to Figs.
2.6.13 and 2.6.14:
1. The coefficients are only valid for braced columns.
Lateral stability must be achieved by shear walls
or moment resisting frames.
2. A straight line interpolation between the
coefficients for pinned and fixed bases can be
used for partially fixed column bases, see Sect.
2.6.3.
3. The coefficients for the 4-storey columns may be
used for higher columns.
4. The coefficients in the Max line will give the
maximum required restraining force, F
i
. Column
moments can be caused by patterned live loads,
assumed equal at each level, that occur on either
side of a column, such as live loads on interior
columns. The maximum axial column force will not
necessarily occur with the loading pattern that
causes the maximum moment.
5. The coefficients in One Side line will give the
maximum moments that occur when a column is
loaded on one side, such as the end column in a
bay.

Fig. 2.6.13 Notation for the use of Fig. 2.6.14
Example 2.9 Use of Figs. 2.6.13 and 2.6.14
Given:
A 3-storey frame with beam reactions on column
haunches at each level:
Dead load = 220 kN
Live load = 90 kN
Eccentricity, e = 350 mm
Storey height, h
s
= 5000 mm
Column base is 65% fixed
Problem:
Use Fig. 2.6.14 to determine the maximum
restraining force and moment in the lowest storey for:
a) An interior column in a multi-bay frame
b) An exterior column
Solution:
Factored load = (1.25)(220) + (1.5)(90)
= 275 + 135 = 410 kN
a) For the interior column:
The dead load reaction will be the same on either
side, thus no moment results. The live load could
occur on any one side at any floor, hence use the
coefficients in the Max line:
P
f
e = (135)(350 10
3
) = 47.3 kN-m

To determine the maximum moment at point B:
For a pinned base, k
m
= 0.67
For a fixed base, k
m
= 0.77
For 65% fixed, k
m
= 0.67+ (0.65)(0.77 0.67)
= 0.74
M
f
= k
m
P
f
e = (0.74)(47.3) = 35.0 kN-m
Maximum restraining force at level 2:
k
f
= 1.40 + (0.65)(1.62 1.40) = 1.54
F
f
= k
f
P
f
e / h
s
= (1.54)(47.3) / 5
= 14.6 kN (tension or compression)
b) For the exterior column:
The total load is eccentric on the same side of the
column. Use the coefficients in the One Side line:
P
f
e = (410)(350 10
3
) = 143.5 kN-m
To determine the maximum moment at point B:
For a pinned base, k
m
= 0.40
For a fixed base, k
m
= 0.46
For a 65% fixed, k
m
= 0.40 + 0.65(0.46 0.40)
= 0.44
M
f
= k
m
P
f
e = (0.44)(143.5) = 63.1 kN-m
Maximum restraining force at level 2:
k
f
= 0.60 + (0.65)(0.60 - 0.22) = 0.35
F
f
= k
f
P
f
e/h
s
= (0.35)(143.5) / 5
= 10.0 kN (tension)
F
i
= k
f
P e / h
s

M
j
= k
m
P e
F
i
= restraining force at level i
m
j
= moment at point j
k
f
, k
m
= coefficients from Fig. 2.6.14
P = vertical load acting at eccentricity e
Columns braced against sidesway


Fig. 2.6.14 Coefficients k
f
and k
m
for determining moments and restraining forces on eccentrically loaded
columns braced against sidesway
2.6.7 Slenderness Effects in Compression
Elements
Approximate evaluation of slenderness effects
Application of the Code provisions for slenderness of
elements braced against sidesway is shown in Chap.
3 and for unbraced frames in Example 2.10. A more
rigorous approach is discussed briefly later in this
section.
The effective length factor, k, can be determined from
the alignment charts, see Fig. 2.6.15. For column
bases, the value of for use in these charts can be
calculated from the rotational stiffness coefficients
described in Sect. 2.6.2 with base = K
c
/K
b
. For
most structures, base should not be taken less than
1.0. For column bases which are assumed pinned in
the frame analysis, base can be assumed equal to
10 when using Fig. 2.6.15.
= ratio of K of compression elements
to K of flexural elements in a plane at
one end of a compression element
base = K
c
/K
b
(Sect. 2.6.2) 10 base 1.0
Slenderness effects by structural analysis
In lieu of the approximate evaluation of slenderness
effects, the requirements of the Code can be met by
using P analysis. [4] [5]
P analysis accounts for the frame drift by
computing moments and shears that are required for
equilibrium of the structure in the deformed shape.
An iterative procedure can be used:
1. Select an initial frame deflection to account for
out-of-plumbness such as 0.25%.
+ indicates clockwise moments on the columns and compression in the restraining beam
No. P k
f
at level k
m
at point
of
storeys
Base
fixity
acting
at level
1 2 3 4 5 A B C D E F G H
3 + 0.25 1.50 + 1.25 0 0.25 + 0.25 + 1.00

2 0.50 0 + 0.50 0 + 0.50 + 0.50 0
Pinned
Max 0.75 1.50 1.75 0 0.75 0.75 1.00
2
One side 0.25 1.50 + 1.75 0 + 0.25 + 0.75 + 1.00
3 + 0.43 1.72 + 1.29 0.14 0.29 + 0.29 + 1.00
Fixed
2 0.86 + 0.43 + 0.43 + 0.29 + 0.57 + 0.43 0

Max 1.29 2.15 1.72 0.43 0.86 0.72 1.00

One side 0.43 1.29 + 1.72 + 0.15 + 0.28 + 0.72 + 1.00
4 0.07 + 0.40 1.60 + 1.27 0 + 0.07 0.07 0.27 + 0.27 + 1.00

3 + 0.13 0.80 + 0.20 + 0.47 0 0.13 + 0.13 + 0.53 + 0.47 0
Pinned
2 0.47 0.20 + 0.80 0.13 0 + 0.47 + 0.53 + 0.13 0.13 0

Max 0.67 1.40 2.60 1.87 0 0.67 0.73 0.93 0.87 1.00
3
One side 0.41 0.60 0.60 + 1.61 0 + 0.40 + 0.60 + 0.40 + 0.60 + 1.00
4 0.12 + 0.47 1.62 + 1.27 + 0.04 + 0.08 0.08 0.27 + 0.27 + 1.00

3 + 0.23 0.92 + 0.23 + 0.46 0.08 0.15 + 0.15 + 0.54 + 0.46 0
Fixed
2 0.81 + 0.23 + 0.70 0.12 + 0.27 + 0.54 + 0.46 + 0.12 0.12 0

Max 1.16 1.62 2.55 1.85 0.38 0.77 0.69 0.92 0.85 1.00

One side 0.70 0.22 0.69 + 1.61 + 0.23 + 0.46 + 0.54 + 0.38 + 0.62 + 1.00
5 + 0.02 0.11 + 0.43 1.61 + 1.27 0 0.02 + 0.02 + 0.07 0.07 0.27 + 0.27 + 1.00

4 0.04 + 0.22 0.86 + 0.22 + 0.46 0 + 0.04 0.04 0.14 + 0.14 + 0.54 + 0.46 0
Pinned
3 + 0.13 0.75 0 + 0.75 0.12 0 0.13 + 0.13 + 0.50 + 0.50 + 0.12 0.12 0

2 0.46 0.22 + 0.86 0.22 + 0.04 0 + 0.46 + 0.54 + 0.14 0.14 0.04 + 0.04 0

Max 0.65 1.30 2.15 2.80 1.89 0 0.64 0.72 0.86 0.86 0.97 0.89 1.00
4
One side 0.35 0.86 + 0.43 0.86 + 1.65 0 + 0.35 + 0.65 + 0.57 + 0.43 + 0.35 + 0.65 + 1.00
5 + 0.03 0.12 + 0.43 1.61 + 1.27 0.01 0.02 + 0.02 + 0.07 0.07 0.27 + 0.27 + 1.00

4 0.06 + 0.25 0.87 + 0.22 + 0.46 + 0.02 + 0.04 0.04 0.14 + 0.14 + 0.54 + 0.46 0
Fixed
3 + 0.22 0.87 + 0.03 + 0.74 0.12 0.07 0.14 + 0.14 + 0.51 + 0.50 + 0.12 0.12 0

2 0.80 + 0.21 + 0.74 0.18 + 0.03 + 0.27 + 0.54 + 0.46 + 0.12 0.12 0.03 + 0.03 0

Max 1.11 1.45 2.07 2.75 1.88 0.37 0.74 0.67 0.84 0.83 0.96 0.88 1.00

One side 0.61 0.53 + 0.33 0.83 + 1.64 + 0.21 + 0.41 + 0.59 + 0.56 + 0.44 + 0.36 + 0.64 + 1.00

Fig. 2.6.15 Alignment charts for determining effective length factors
Note: The assumptions used in deriving these charts may underestimate k, which is unconservative. It is considered satisfactory to
compute using the member stiffnesses given in A23.3, Clause 10.14.1.2
Fig. 2.6.16 P effects in a frame
2. Calculate the approximate storey shears
resulting from this initial deflection and gravity
loads. (See Fig. 2.6.16.)
3. Determine the frame deflection corresponding to
the shears from Step 2. This deflection must be
based on a reduced EI to account for creep due
to sustained loads and cracking.
4. Calculate the shears resulting from the
deflection determined in Step 3. Determine the
corresponding deflection.
5. The change in shear from step to step should
reduce after successive iterations. If it does not
reduce, the structure has a stability problem and
element dimensions should be revised.
Generally an upper bound value for the design
storey shear can be selected following a few
iterations.
6. The computed forces, corresponding to these
storey shears, account for the effects of storey
drift on frame stability. Columns can be designed
with an effective length factor > 1.0.
7. For load cases with short-term lateral loads such
as wind and earthquake, deflections should be
computed using an effective EI for these
members that recognizes possible cracking but
not creep.
8. For load cases with volume change effects,
there is generally no additional storey shear as
these forces tend to cancel.

Storeys in structures shall be designated as non-
sway if Q 0.05 where:
Q =
f o
f c
P
V

P
f
= summation of factored loads in a given
storey

o
= elastically computed first order lateral
deflection due to H
f
(neglecting P effects)
at the top of the storey relative to the
bottom of the storey
V
f
= total factored lateral force within the storey
l
c
= height of storey, centre-to-centre of floors
or roof
Example 2.10 3 storey frame example (no
seismic)
Given:
A 3 storey office building with a floor to floor height of
3 metres is illustrated by the schematic drawings in
Fig. 2.6.17a. Deck elements are normal density
double tees with field applied topping. Beams,
double tees and columns are precast prestressed
concrete. Unfactored loads are given as follows:
Dead loads:
Double tees & topping = 4.5 kN/m
2

Beams, columns, misc. = 2.6 kN/m
2

Partitions (at floor levels) = 1.0 kN/m
2

or Roofing (at roof level) ________
8.1 kN/m
2

Live loads:
Floor (Average of office and corridor including
reduction for Tributary Area) = 2.4 kN/m
2
Roof = 3.0 kN/m
2

Wind = 1.0 kN/m
2

(Gross projected area)
Problem:
Analyze the structure for volume change effects and
for wind loads in the east-west direction. Seismic
loads are not considered in this example.
Solution:
Wind load analysis, east-west direction:
Lateral stability in the east-west direction is achieved
by providing moment connections between the
inverted tee beams and columns on lines B and C.
Storey wind shears per frame:

Roof: P = (1.0)(2.6)(45.4/2)
(Including 1.1 m tall parapet at roof level)
= 59 kN
Floor: P = (1.0)(3.0)(45.4/2)
= 68.1 kN/floor
The wind analysis can be done by computer. Output
moments are shown in Fig. 2.6.19. Uncracked
section properties are used in the analysis due to the
size of the members and prestressing used to limit
cracking.
Wind drift:
From the computer analysis, deflection at the first
floor due to wind is 0.71 mm. The total drift per storey
under service wind and gravity is limited by the NBCC
to 1/500 of the storey height.

0.71
3000
= 0.00024 mm/mm 0.002
Volume change analysis, east-west direction:
The structure will be designed for a temperature
change of 45C and an average ambient R.H. of
70%, obtained from Fig. 2.4.4 and 2.4.2.
Beams and columns are prestressed, normal density
concrete, so use Fig. 2.4.7 and Fig. 2.6.11 to find
volume change strains. For a heated structure:
Actual strain = 760 10
6

Equivalent strain = 270 10
6

In the east-west direction, the structure is symmetric
and the centre of stiffness can be assumed to be at
the centreline of the building.
From Fig. 2.6.10 for a structure with 3 or more floors,
pinned column base and K
r
1 due to beam and
column geometry:
E
c
= 29900 MPa
k
m
at second floor = 2.2
Column moment = k
m

i
E
c
I
c
/ h
s
2

For column at line 1, 35140 mm from stiffness centre:

1
= (27010
6
)(35,140) = 9.49 mm
M
1
= 2.2(9.49)(29,900)(21,094) / 3000
2
= 1463 kN-m

3
= 6.17 mm M
3
= 951 kN-m

4
= 3.70 mm M
4
= 570 kN-m

5
= 1.23 mm M
5
= 190 kN-m

Fig. 2.6.17a 3-storey office structure of Example 2.10


Fig. 2.6.17b Interior building section

As shown in the results, moments caused by volume
change increase substantially for columns located far
from the centre of the building. The amount of beam-
column moment framing should be kept to a minimum
and be located near the centre of the building to
reduce volume change effects. For example, in a line
with seven bays, if moment connections in the four
interior bays are adequate, do not use moment
connections in the remaining bays for the sake of
convenience.
Column slenderness effects east and west bending:
Sway frames have stability concerns and the design
process is complex. Many structural analysis
programs have the capability to calculate a second
order analysis and directly incorporate the P-
effects. Alternatively, the analysis can be carried out
using the approximate method of moment
magnification using the following steps:
1. Using the factored load combinations, compute
gravity dead and live load moments using linear
elastic analysis. Appreciable lateral deflection of
the frame under gravity load should be avoided
as creep will amplify these deflections over time
and could cause serviceability and strength
concerns.
2. Compute lateral load moments due to Wind (or
seismic if applicable).
3. Magnify the lateral load moments using the
moment magnification factor to account for
lateral drift. This will account for second order
effects of vertical loads acting in the laterally
displaced configuration.
4. Add the moments from step 1 to the magnified
moments of step 3.
This analysis assumes the plane frame is subjected
to loads causing deflections in that plane. If torsional
displacements are significant, a three dimensional
second order analysis should be used.
If the frame is flexible and deflects substantially under
gravity loads, it may be necessary to increase
moments derived from the gravity load analysis using
the approximate method of moment magnification.
This would result in the calculation of two moment
magnifiers. One magnifier is determined for moments
caused by gravity loads and the other magnifier is
determined for moments caused by wind. The
calculation for each type of magnifier follows.
Sum of all columns loads:
P
storey
(kN)
Storey D L D+L
3 26,000 9,500 35,550
2 26,000 7,600 33,600
1 26,000 7,600 33,600
Total 78,000 24,700 102,750
P
f
= 1.25D + 1.5L + 0.5S
P
f
= 1.25 (78,000) + 1.5 (2)(7,600) + 0.5 (9,500)
= 97500 + 27,550
= 125050 kN
First level moment magnifier:
= 2100 mm
For moments caused by gravity loads:

d
= 97500 / 125050 = 0.78
For moments caused by wind:

d
= 0
For columns at lines 1 and 10:
E
c
= E
b
= 29900 MPa
I
c
= 21094 10
6
mm
4

I
b
= 49500 10
6
mm
4

From Fig. 2.6.15.
A
(base)= 10.0 for a pinned base (see Sect.
2.6.7)
In using Fig. 2.6.15, Column I = 0.7 I
c
and Beam I =
0.35 I
b

B
=
u

c c s
b b
0.7E I / h
0.35E I /

=
(2)(0.7)(21094) / 3000
5.19
(0.35)(49500) / 9140
=
where I
c
and I
b
are the gross section properties in this
example
k = 2.6 (unbraced frame)
El = (0.4E
c
I
c
) / (1 +
d
) A23.3 Eqn (10 19)
Gravity loads:
EI = (0.4)(29.9)(21,094)/(1 + 0.78)
= 141700 kN-mm
2

P
c
=
2
EI / (k )
2
=
2
(141700) / (2.6 2.1)
2
from A23.3 Eqn (10-17)

= 46920 kN
u

4 10
6
mm
4

Wind loads:
E = (0.4)(29.9)(21,094) / (1.0)
= 252280 kN-mm
2

P
c
=
2
(252280)/(2.6 2.1)
2
= 83520 kN
For columns at lines 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, assuming
column 5 as typical:
I
c
= 2109

A
= 10.0

B
=
(2)(0.7)(21094) / 3000
2.60
0.35(49500/ 9140 49500/ 9140)
=
+

k = 2.20 from Fig. 2.6.15 for unbraced way
frame.
Gravity loads:
EI = (0.4)(29.9)(21 094)/(1 + 0.78)
= 141733 kN-mm
2

P
c
=
2
(141733) / (2.20 2.1)
2

= 65540 kN
loads:
El = (0.4)(2

Wind
9.9)(21 094) / (1.0)
0 2.1)
2
Calc
later
then
= 252280 kN-mm
2

P
c
=
2
(252280) / (2.2
= 116650 kN
ulate the sum of P
c
of all columns which resist
al loads. The first level moment magnifiers can
be calculated as follows:
Gravity loads:

c
P = (4)(46920) + (12)(65540) = 974,160 kN
=
f
m c
1.21
P 125050
1 1
(0.75)(974160) ( P )
= =

from A23.3 Eqn (10-23)
1.0 1.0
Wind loads:

c
P =(4)(83 520) + (12)(116 650) = 1,733,900 kN
=
1.0
1.11
(125,050)
1
(0.75)(1733900)
=

The magnifier for moments caused by wind loads can
also be computed as follows:
= first level wind drift from the computer
analysis
= 0.71 mm
= (1.4)(0.71) = 0.99 mm
= 125050 kN
195 kN
(1.4)(1 = 273
l
c
= stor t = 30
Q
V = (2)(68.1) + 59 =
V
f
= 95) kN
ey heigh 00 mm
=
f o
(12505
=
f
P 0)
0.15
V 273)(3
Clau .3.3
c
(
(0.99)
1 0.33
000)
A23.3, se 10.16
f
f
P
=
1 1
1. = = 18
columns assumed braced
ulated. In this case, it was
ss ratio was below the
lim re -sway frames, so slenderness
ffective length
fac
From Fig. 2.6.15, k = 1.75:
.3)(750)] = 16.3
Va s and 3rd storey are lower
tha signated as non-sway
e slenderness ratio was
limit for non-sway frames and
slen per
leve
ed analysis of the gravity loads and moments
ns is not sh wn here, but is summarized
F .18 for a typical exterior column. These
moments are based on an elastic frame analysis and,
embers are relatively sm
centreline for the beams nd columns.
For frames made with deep beams and discrete
model to account for member stiffnesses
an

:
= + =
Ne iv can be determined by a
co wn
he
Vo e ents (M
t
):
From F
m
for the column above, the
second floor is 1.0. Thus the net moment to be
distributed to the beams is (2.2 + 1.0) / 2.2 times the
calculated column moment below the second floor.
1 Q 1 0.151
slenderness effects, the To complete the analysis for
moment magnifier for the
should also be calc
determined that the slenderne
it quired for non
can be neglected.
Lines 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 upper level e
tors:

A
=
B
= 2.60

u
= 2100 mm
k
u
/r = ( 1.75)(2100)/[(0
lue of Q at the 2nd floor
n 0.05 and can be de
.14.4). Th (A23.3, Clause 10
compared to the
derness effects may be neglected at up
ls.
Gravity loads and moments on columns:
A detail
on the colum o
in ig. 2.6
since the m all, they were
modeled at a
connections, adjustments would be required in the
computer
d connection locations.
For columns on lines 1 and 10, the minimum
eccentricity to be considered
e
min
(east-west) 15 (0.03)(750) 37.5 mm
Moment conn s 1 and 10: ections at line
gat e beam moments
mputer analysis or by approximate methods sho
re.
lum change mom
ig. 2.6.10, k

y of column B-1 design forces eas est b
orey
Fig. 2.6.18 Summar t-w ending
Load St
effect 2 3 1
Axial d oad, P, (kN) 1457 715 2195 ead l
Unfactored Axial live load, P, (kN) without snow 0 439 221
Forces Axial snow load, P, (kN) 262 262 262
Wind moment, W, (kN-m) 66 20.1 7.6
Volume change moment, M
t
, (kN-m) 665 133 1463
Calculated M
f
, (kN-m) 927 1302 1582
1.25 D + Minimum M
f
, (kN-m) Does not govern 133 86 39
1.5 L + Design M
f
, (kN-m) 0.5 S 927 1302 1582
3534 2285 1028 Design P
f
, (kN)
1.25 D + Design M
f
, (kN-m) 766 1086 1907
1 S + 0.5 L Design P
f
, (kN) .5 3361 2327 1285
1.25 D + Moment magnifier for Wind Moment, 1.11 1.0 1.0
1.4 W + 0.5 L 673 1086 1359 Design M
f
, (kN-m)
Design P, (kN) 3055 1960 904
f
1. 5 D Moment magnifier f 2 + or Wind Moment, 1.11 1.0 1.0
1.4 W + 0.5 S Design M
f
, (kN-m) 1521 603 977
Design P
f
, (kN) 0 1035 2966 198
1.25 D + Design M
f
, (kN-m) 2594 1907 1410
1.25 T + 0.5 L Design P
f
, (kN) 895 2964 1932
1.25 D + 2513 1799 1573 Design M, (kN-m)
f
1. 25 T + 0.5 S Design P
f
, (kN) 2877 1953 1023
1.25 D + ent magnifier for Wind Moment, Mom 1.11 1.0 1.0
1.25 T + 0.4W Design M
f
, (kN-m) 2355 1798 1391
Design P
f
, (kN) 2739 1820 893
Fig. 2.6.19 Wind moments in elements


Fig. 2.6.20 Moment connection details for Example 2.10

Fig. 2.6.21 Deformation modes
This is distributed to the beam on each side of the
column in proportion to the stiffness. For example at
column line 3:
M
3
= 951 kN-m

M

Beams
=
2.2 1.0
(951) 1383
2.2
+
=

kN-m
M
31
=
12.29
(1383) 793
9.14 12.29

=

+

kN-m
M
34
= 590 kN-m
In this example, gravity loads do not cause
appreciable sway, so moments due to gravity loads
are not magnified. Only moments due to lateral
loads are magnified to account for the lateral drift
effect. If gravity loads cause appreciable sway, they
shall be increased by the gravity load magnification
factor ( = 1.21 for Storey 1).
Gravity load moments:
In lieu of a more precise analysis, the moment
coefficients given in the A23.3 for approximate frame
analysis can be used to calculate gravity load
moments within the limitations noted in Clause 9.3.
Other moments:
In this example, the wind load moments in the
beams can be taken from the computer output
shown in Fig. 2.6.19. In some cases, other
moments, such as those caused by differential
foundation settlement, could be significant and
should be considered.
The moment connection used in this example is
shown conceptually in Fig. 2.6.20.
2.6.8 Shear Wall-frame Interaction
Rigid frames and shear walls respond differently to
lateral loads. This difference is illustrated in Fig.
2.6.21.
A frame deflects predominantly in a shear mode as
shown in Fig. 2.6.21(a).
A shear wall deflects predominantly in a cantilever
bending mode, see Fig. 2.6.21(b). Elevator shafts,
stairwells, and concrete walls normally exhibit this
behavior.
It is not always easy to differentiate between modes
of deformation. For example, a shear wall
penetrated by significant openings may act like a
frame in that region. An infilled frame will tend to
deflect in a bending mode. Also, shear deformation
of a shear wall can be more important than bending
deformation if the height to length ratio is low, as
discussed in Sect. 2.7.2.
The load can be distributed to the lateral load
resisting units in proportion to their stiffnesses if all
vertical elements of a structure exhibit the same
deformations under load, i.e., they are all frames or
all shear walls, see Sect. 2.7.3. The load distribution
in structures with both frames and shear walls is
considerably more complex because of differences
in deformation modes. References [14] to [19]
address these issues.
2.7 SHEAR WALLS
2.7.1 General
In most precast, prestressed concrete buildings, it is
desirable to resist lateral loads with shear walls of
precast, cast-in-place concrete or masonry
construction. Shear walls are usually the exterior
wall system, interior walls, or walls of elevator,
stairway, mechanical shafts or cores.
Shear walls act as vertical cantilever beams that
transfer lateral forces from a superstructure to a
foundation. Most structures contain a number of
walls that resist lateral load in two orthogonal
directions. The portion of the total lateral force that
each wall resists depends on the bending and shear
resistance of the wall, the participation of the floor,
and the characteristics of the foundation. It is
common practice to assume that floors act as rigid
elements for loads in the plane of the floor, and that
the deformations of the footings and soil can be
neglected. For most structures, lateral load
distribution is based only on the properties of the
walls.


Fig. 2.7.1 Translation and rotation of rigid floors
e floor will rotate about
introducing additional forces,

d
ed of independent units such as
overturning the mid-
length of a wall will mini e
r
C
sha
l
t such walls is illustrated in
F
I
s
l g shear walls in order to increase the dead
l
E
a
t
t
c
v
must be
2
T
r
R
nd shear deflections
F ar walls of the
s n be neglected
w th ratio is less than about
0
p
t
3
r
d is
b
i
c
t
d
d
d
c
C
o
d

If the floor is considered to be a rigid body, it will
translate in a direction parallel to the applied load in
proportion to the flexural and shear rigidity of the
participating shear walls, see Fig. 2.7.1(a). If the
centre of rigidity is not coincident with the line of
action of the applied loads, th
the centre of rigidity,
see Fig. 2.7.1(b). The load on each shear wall is
determined by combining the effects produced by
rigid body translation and rotation.
A shear wall need not consist of a single element an
can be compos
double tees and sandwich or architectural precast
wall panels. These units can be designed to act
individually or as interconnected units.
Interconnecting panels can result in a buildup of
volume change forces, so it is desirable to connect
only as many units as necessary to resist the

moment. Connecting units near
mize the volume chang
estraint forces.
onnection of rectangular wall units to form T or L
ped walls increases their flexural rigidity, but has
ittle effect on shear rigidity. The effective flange width
hat can be assumed for
ig. 2.7.2b.
n some structures it may be desirable to provide
hear connections between non-load bearing and
oad bearin
oad resistance to moments caused by lateral loads.
rected load bearing walls may have both horizontal
nd vertical joints across which forces must be
ransferred. Fig. 2.7.2a indicates principal forces and
he resulting joint force system for three separate
ases. In buildings, superposition of forces and
arious combinations of panel and joint assemblies
considered.
.7.2 Rigidity of Solid Shear Walls
o determine the distribution of lateral loads, the
elative rigidity of all shear walls must be established.
igidity is defined as:
r = 1 /
= sum of flexure a
or structures with rectangular she
s ca ame material, flexural deflection
hen the wall height to leng
.3. The rigidity of the element is then directly
roportional to its web cross-sectional area. When
he wall height to length ratio is greater than about
.0, shear deflections can be neglected, and the
igidity is proportional to the moment of inertia (plan
imensions). When the height to length ratio
etween 0.3 and 3.0, an equivalent moment of
nertia, I
eq
, can be derived for simplifying the
alculation of wall rigidity. I
eq
is an approximation of
he moment of inertia that will result in a flexural
eflection equal to the combined flexural and shear
eflections of the wall. Figure 2.7.3 compares the
eflections and I
eq
for several load and restraint
onditions.
onnecting or coupling shear walls and large
penings in walls will also affect stiffness, as
iscussed in Sects. 2.7.5 and 2.7.6.

Fig. 2.7.2a Exterior forces and joint force systems

2.7.3 Lateral Load Distribution to Shear
Walls
Lateral loads are distributed to each shear wall in
proportion to their rigidity. It is usually considered
sufficient to design for lateral loads in two orthogonal
directions.
When the shear walls are symmetrical with respect to
the centre of load application, the force resisted by
any shear wall is:
F
i
=
i
x
r
F
r

F
i
= force resisted by an individual shear wall
F
x
= total shear at the level under consideration
r
i
= the rigidity of wall i
r = sum of rigidities of all shear walls
xact design. The method is similar to the design of
bolt groups in steel connections, and is illustrated in
the following example.
2.7.4 Unsymmetrical Shear Walls
Structures that have shear walls placed
unsymmetrically to the centre of a lateral load should
be designed for the torsional effect. Typical examples
are shown in Fig. 2.7.4. For wind loading on most
structures, a simplified method of determining
torsional resistance may be used in lieu of more
e
Fig. 2.7.2b Effective width of walls perpendicular
to shear walls
Note: The above flange width recommendations will normally be
satisfactory for single storey buildings or isolated walls but
may underestimate the effective flange width and resulting
shear wall rigidity in multi-storey buildings. Shear lag must
be considered in determining the effective flange width to be
used in these cases.
Example 2.11 Design of unsymmetrical shear
walls
Given:
The structure shown in Fig. 2.7.4. All walls are
2400 mm high and 200 mm thick.
Problem:
Determine the shear in each wall, assuming the floors
e north-south
alls = 2.4 / 9 < 0.3. Neglect flexural stiffness for
distribution of the direct wind shear. Since walls are
the same material and thickness, distribute in
proportion to their length.
and roof are rigid diaphragms. Walls D and E are not
connected to wall B.
Solution:
Maximum height-to-length ratio of th
w

Fig. 2.7.3 Shear wall deflections
Case
Deflection due to: Equivalent moment of inertia, I
eq
Flexure Shear Single storey Multi-storey

3
Ph
3 EI

w
w
2.78Ph
A E
(A t) =

2
w
I
8.34
1
A h
+

2
w
I
13.4
1
A h
+

3
Wh
8 EI

W wh =
w
1.39Wh
A E

W wh =

2
w
I
23.6I
1
A h
+

Note: F iform distributed load on Cantilever (Case 2) W or un represents total load W = (w)(h).
Fig. 2.7.4 Unsymmetrical shear walls

Note: For tall structures, the shear centre should replace the centre of rigidity in determining the torsional effects.

Fig. 2.7.5 Coupled shear walls
Total lateral load, W = (60)(3) = 180 kN
Determine centre of rigidity:
(12000)(22000) (9000)(42000) (12000)(54000)
x
12000 9000 12000
+ +
=
+ +
= 39000 mm from left
y = centre of building, since walls D and E are placed
symmetrically about the centre of the building in
the north-south direction
Torsional moment:
T = (180)(39000 (60000/2))/10
3

= 1620 kN-m
Determine the polar moment of inertia of the shear
wall group about the centre of rigidity:
I
p
= I + I
I
xx
= of the east-west walls
= (2)(4500)(4500)
2
= 182,250 10
6
mm
3

I
yy
= of the north-south walls
= (12,000)(39000 22000)
2

+ (9000)(42000 39000)
2
+ (12000)(54000 39000)
2

= 6249000 10
6
mm
3

I
p
= 182250 + 6249000
= 6431000 10
6
mm
3

Shear in the north-south walls =
xx yy
2
y
2
x

p
W Tx
I
+

Wall A =
(180)(12000)
(33000)

3
6
(1620)(39000 22000)(12000 10 )
(6431000 10 )

+

= 65.5 + 51.4 = 116.9 kN
Fig. 2.7.6 Response to lateral loads
Wall B =
3
6
(180)(9000) (1620)( 3000)(9000 10 )
(33000)
(6431000 10 )

+

= 49 6.8 = 42.2 kN
Wall C =
(180)(12000)
(33000)

3
6
(1620)( 15000)(12000 10 )
(6431000 10 )

+
= 65.5 45.3 = 20.2 kN
Shear in the east-west walls =
p
Ty
I

=
3
6
(1620)(4500)(4500 10 )
(6431000x10 )

=
2.7.5 Coupled Shear Walls
Figure 2.7.5 shows two examples of coupled shear
walls. Coupling two walls increases the stiffness by
transferring the shear through the coupling beam.
The wall curvatures are altered from that of a
cantilever because of the frame action developed.
Fig. 2.7.6 shows how the deflected shapes differ in
response to lateral loads.
Several approaches may be used to analyze the
response of coupled shear walls. A simple approach
is to ignore the coupling effect by considering the
walls as independent cantilevers. This method results
in a conservative wall design. However, if the
coupling beam is rigidly connected, significant shears
and moments will occur in the beam that may cause
unsightly and possibly dangerous cracking. To avoid
the problem, the beam to panel connection can be
detailed for little or no rigidity, or the beam can be
designed to resist the actual shears and moments.
5.1kN

Fig. 2.7.7 Computer models
Finite element analysis may be used to determine the
stiffness and the distribution of stresses within a
coupled shear wall. As the accuracy and cost of such
an an
structures.
A plane frame computer analysis will be sufficiently
ise for the m t
dim s must in
co hear wa as
analysis may yield inaccurate results. A suggested
model is shown in Fig. 2.7.7(a).
Either finite element or frame analyses may be used
to determine the deflection of coupled shear wall,
and its equivalent moment of inertia and the
distribution of shears in a building that contains both
solid upled shear walls. Some frame analysis
programs do not calculate shear deformations, so
shear deformations may have to be manually
calculated.
2.7.6 Shear Walls with Large Openings
Window nels and other wall panels with large
openings may also be a lyzed with plane frame
computer programs. Fig. 2.7.7(b) shows suggested
models. An analysis similar to that described for
coupled shear walls may be used.
r walls, deflections predicted by
alysis may be used to determine
equivalent stiffness for determining lateral load
distribution. Shear deflections may have to be hand
calculated and added to the flexural stiffnesses from
the frame analysis.
In tall structures, a more rigorous analysis may be
required, as vertical shear and axial deformations
influence the rigidity of panels with large openings.
Example 2.12 One Storey Building
Given:
Design the shear walls for a one-storey industrial
building, illustrated in Fig. 2.7.8. 2400 mm wide
double tees are used for both the roof and walls. Use
a wind load of 1.2 kN/m
2
. Backfill density = 16 kN/m
3
.
Problem:
Analyze the structure for the effects of wind loads.
Solution:
1. Calculate forces, reactions, shears and moments:
Total wind force to roof:
W = (1.2)(48)(5.4/2 + 0.75) = 200 kN
V
L
= V
R
= 100 kN
alysis is a function of the element size used,
this method is usually reserved for complex
Diaphragm moment, M =
prec ajority of structures. The elemen
ension
upled s
be considered
ll as a frame,
modeling a
a centreline
a
and co
pa
na
As with coupled shea
the computer an
W (200)(48)
=

= 1200 kN-m

8 8

Fig. 2.7.8 Example of one-storey building
2. he esistance of the shear wall:
2 kN
0.45)(36)(24) = 117 kN
l: (0.9 kN
C ck the sliding r
Determine dead load on the footing:
DT wall: (7.05)(36)(1.9) = 48
Footing: (0.3)(
Backfil )(0.40)(36)(16) = 207
As effi nular soil:
0.5
s
N= (0.5)(806)
403 kN
c = 403 / 100 = 4.0
OK
No by many building
code
erturning moment = (100)(1.2 + 5.4)
= 660 kN-m
Re istance to overturning:
Assume an axis of rotation at the leeward edge of the
bu ing
all
Total = 806 kN
sume a co cient of friction against gra
s
=
Sliding resistance =
=
Fa tor of safety

te: A factor of 2.0 is specified
s.
3. Check overturning resistance:
Applied ov
s
ild .
Fig. 2.7.9 Connection of roof tee to w
Note: Sometimes a more conservative assumption of
an axis at d/5, d/4 or d/3 from the leeward edge may
be used depending on the foundation conditions.
Resisting moment = (806)(36/2)
= 14508 kN-m
Factor of safety = 14508 / 660
= 22.0 > 2.0 OK
4. Analyze connections:
a) Shear ties in the double tee roof joint:
Maximum load at the next to last joint

Fig. 2.7.10 Chord forces
Applied shear = [(24 2.4) / 24](100)
= 90 kN
Wind Load factor = 1.4
V
f
= (90)(1.4) = 126 kN
V
f
= 126 / 36 = 3.5 kN/m
Use ties as shown in Fig. 2.5.2.
A preferred maximum connection spacing is
2500 mm to 3000 mm.
b) Shear ties at the shear walls:
V
f
= (100)(1.4) = 140 kN
V
f
= 140 / 36 = 3.9 kN/m
A connection as shown in Fig. 2.7.9 is designed
similar to the shear tie between double tees.
At least two connections per panel are recommended
to distribute the load to the wall panels. From Fig.
2.7.9(a), these connections should occur at the tee
stems. A spacing of 1200 mm will be used in this
case.
Other types of connections using short welded
headed studs are commonly used for this application.
In some cases, it may be desirable to provide a
connection that permits vertical movement of the roof
element, see Fig. 2.7.9(b).
an be transmitted between elements by
ties at the roof tees, wall panels or a combination, as
illustrated in Fig. 2.7.10.
without ties between
.1 kN
bas
= 3.9 kN/m
uired load factor equation to use for this
c) Chord force, see Fig. 2.7.10:
T = C = M / d = 1200 / 36000 10
3
= 33.3 kN
T
f
= (1.4)(33.3) = 46.6 kN
This force c
Reinforcing bars can be placed in the flanges to resist
higher forces or where more ductility is required.
Design procedures are discussed in Sect. 2.8.
d) Wall panel connections:
This shear wall can be designed to act as a
series of independent units,
the panels. The shear force is assumed to be -
distributed equally among the wall panels, see
Fig. 2.7.11.
n = 36000/2400 = 15 panels
V
i
= V
R
/n = 100/15 = 6.67 kN
D = (1.9 kN/m
2
)(2400)(7050) 10
6

= 32
Design e connection for 1.4W 0.9D
T
f
= [(1.4)(6.67)(6300) (0.9)(32.1)(600)] / 1200
= 34.6 kN tension
Alternatively, the shear wall can be designed with 2
or more panels connected together as illustrated in
Fig. 2.7.12.
Shear ties between panels:
v = V
R
/ d = 100 / 36 = 2.78 kN/m
The unit shear stress, v
f
, is equal on all sides of the
panel:
V
f
= (2.78)(1.4)
The total connection force between vertical panel
joints = 3.9(6.3) = 24.6 kN (can be designed using a
single mid-height connection).
Check for tension using factored loads:
The req
condition is 0.9D 1.4W.
The tensile force per unit length is:
f
t
=
P M
A S

S = l / 6 = 36 / 6 = 216 mm
A = l = 36 m
2 2 2
R
h
s
= (100)(6.3) = 630 kN-m M = V
P = D.L. of wall = 482 kN
f
t
=
0.9P 1.4M
A S

=
(0.9)(482) (1
36
.4)(630)
216

No tens e required for wind loads.
mum tension connections are required for
ctural integrity, see A23.3, Clause 16.5.
= 8.0 kN/ m(compression)
ion connections ar
Mini
stru

Fig. 2.7.11 Panels acting as individual units in a
shear wall

Example 2.13 Four storey building
Given:
A typical four-storey residential building as shown in
Fig. 2.7.13. 200 mm deep hollow core units are used
for the floors and roof, and 200 mm thick precast
concrete walls are used for all walls shown.
Unfactored loads are given as follows:
Gravity loads: L.L. D.L.
0.48
3.06
Roof: 1.44
Roofing, mechanical, etc.
Hollow core slabs
kN/m
2

Ty

low-core slabs 3.06
3.54
pical floor:
Living areas 1.92
Corridors & stairs 4.80
Partitions 0.48
Hol

Walls: 8 kN/m
2

Wind loads:
m to 10.4 m above grade 1.4 kN/m
2

uc
north nd east-west direct
as a
monolithic shear wall
3.54 kN/m
2

4.
Stairs: 4.8 6.2 kN/m
2
0 to 9 m above grade 1.2 kN/m
2

9
Problem:
Analyze and design the str ture for wind in the
-south a ions.

Fig. 2.7.12 Panels connected together
Solution: Wind in north-south direction:
This example will conservatively neglect the
resistance provided by the stairs, elevator and
longitudinal walls for wind in the north-south direction.
As shown in Fig. 2.7.13, flanged walls are modeled
for wind in the north-south direction. Fig. 2.7.14
shows the wind resisting elements and a summary of
their properties is shown in Fig. 2.7.15.
Sample calculation of these properties for Element :
0.25h = 0.25(10200)
= 2550 (Does not control)
The section properties of this T section are:
A
w
= (8200)(200) = 1640 10
3
mm
2

A
f
= (2080)(200) = 416 10
3
mm
2

y
b
=
(1640000)(4000) (416000)(8100)
1640000 416000
+
+

=
y
t
= 8200 4910 = 3290 mm
4910 mm
I =
3
(200)(8200)
(1640000)(4100 491 +

2
0)
4
The equival
Fig. 3
12

2
(416000)( ) + 8100 4910
= 14500 1
ent stiffness is calcul
9
0 mm
ated using the Case
2.7. : 1 multi-storey formula from

eq
I =
2
w
I
M = 253 kN-m
f =
13.4 I
1
A h
+
=

2
0.9P 1.4M
( / 6)

9
9
3 2
14500 10
(13.4)(14500 10 )
1
(1640 10 )(2600)

=
2
8.1
(8.1 / 6)

= 124 kN/ m (compression) +
building is stable under wind loads in north-south
ction. No
(0.9)(1410) (1.4)(253)

The
dire tension connections are required
on. Other design
se of minimum
st direction:
shear walls
assume
an operties is shown in Fig.
n Fig. 2.7.20, and the distributions are
Consider Element B at the first floor to check
ov n est direction.
rtion of Element B:
= 174 kN/m

elements is
(1.2) + (50)(2.4)(1.2)]
The fa of safety against overturning can be
cal d conse vatively neglecting the contribution
of
=
I
eq
is the relative stiffness:
K
r
= 1 /
=
9 4
780 10 mm
between panels and the foundati
considerations may dictate the u
3
eq
Ph
3EI

vertical ties [6] and A23.3, Clause 16.5.
Wind in the east-we
eq
3
3EI
Ph
K
r
=
For wind in the east-west direction, the
will be connected to the load bearing walls. The
d resisting elements are shown in Fig. 2.7.17
Since 3, E, P, and h are all constants when
comp
r
varies
Di u of wind load to , based on its
rel e , is (Fig. 2.7.

aring stiffnesses, K directly with I
eq
. d a summary of the pr
2.7.19.
The shears and moments in the east-west direction
are shown i
strib tion Element
ativ stiffness 15):
eq
I 14130
I 00)
5.
Fig. for wall Element
for g
of th
by t ed loads from the corridor
ibuted as shown in
thi ads h servatively
ne
(780)(1
5%
n
= =

shown in Fig. 2.7.18.
ertur ing due to wind in the east-w
2.7.16 shows the load summary
From Fig. 2.7.16, the dead loads on the 1040 mm
long po
ravity and transverse wind loading. Note: 5.5%
e total wind load has been assumed to be carried
his element. Concentrat = 31.9 + (3)(43.6) + 11.7
lintels can be assumed to be distr
The dead load on the 2400 mm long portion of
Element B is the weight of the wall:
= (10.4)(4.8) = 50 kN/m
s figure. These lo ave been con
glected to simplify the calculations.
Check the overturning of the shear wall dead load
resisting moment about the toe of the wall:
The dead load resisting moment for 11
therefore:
M = (11) [(174)(1.04)
(8.1)
= (8.1) [31.9 (3)(43.6) 11.7]
2
+ +
= 5720 kN- m
Factor of safety:

= 3970 kN-m
ctor
culate r
dead load resisting moment
=
the other elements:
wind moment
=

3970
5720
22.6 2.0 OK = >
Factor of safety =
1267
= 3.1 > 2.0 OK
To ent B:
Total dead load on wall:
P = (174)(1.04) + (50)(2.4) = 301 kN
Total wall area:
A = (2400 + 1040)(200) = 688,000 mm
2
253
Check for tension using factored loads:
Dead load on wall:
check for tension, also consider Elem
P = (8.1) [31.9 + (3)(43.6) + (11.7)]

Ma u ent at foundation:
= 1410 kN
xim m wind mom

Four-storey Fig. 2.7.13 building example

Fig. 2.7.14 Wind resisting elements for north-south wind
Note: For tall structures it is inaccurate to consider wall elements 1, 2
is necessary to determine to what extent th
& 3 ndividually as shown above. Consideration of shear lag
ese elements interact as
and 4 & 5 i
a composite wall element.
The win
2
d moment carried by Element B (Fig.
.7.19):
M = 51.9 kN-m The factored stress is:
f =
0.9P 1.4M
A S

=
3 6
9
(0.9)(301 10 ) (1.4)(51.9 10 )
688000
(230 10 /1200)

= 0.015 MPa (compression)
The building is stable under wind loads in the east-
west direction. No tension connections are required
between wall and the foundation. Other design
co erations may dictate the use of minimum
vertical ties. See A23.3, Clause 16.5
required for the elements to act in a
composite manner can be designed by considering
Element A. The unit stress at the interface is
determined using the classic equation for horizontal
sh :
v =
nsid
The connections
ear
h
VQ
I

0)(1400 956 100) Q = (1040)(20
= 71.6 10
6
mm
3

v
h
=
(5.4)(71.6)
3.8 kN/ m =
Total shear = (3.8)(2.4) = 9.1 kN/level
ing the principles outlined in
the floor diaphragm are
describ r to Fig.
floor is:
f
kN/m
101
Connections similar to those shown in Fig. 2.7.13
can be designed us
Chap. 4.
Design of floor diaphragm:
Analysis procedures for
ed in Sect. 2.5. For this example, refe
2.7.21.
The factored wind load for a typical
w = (1.4)(1.2)(2.6) = 4.37
For wind from the north or south:
V
fR
=
(4.37)(9)
20 kN =
f

2
C =
2
.37)(9)
f
f
M (4
T = =
2.6 kN
(8)(17.0)
=
)(3.54) = 287 kN
The reaction V is transferred to the shear wall by
static friction:
DL of floor: (9/2)(18
DL of wall: (2.4)(16.2)(4.8) / 2 = 93 kN
kN
earing
. Reduce by factor of 5 as
re
= 0.08
= 30.4 > 20 kN OK
Total = 380
Static coefficient of friction from Fig. 4.4.1 (b
strip to concrete) = 0.4
commended in Chapter 4.
= 0.4 / 5
Re in sist g force = (0.08)(380)

Fig. 2.7.15 Properties of resisting elements for wind in transverse north-south direction
(mm 10 )
I
(mm
4
10
9
)
I
eq

(mm
4
10
9
)
No. of
elements
n I
eq

(mm
4
10
9
)
Element
A
w

2 3
eq
eq
I
(100%)
nI

1660 16355 800 2 1600 5.7

900 3442 400 2 800 2.8

1780 15956 850 2 1700 6.0

1640 14500 780 12 9360 5.5

1520 5321 670 1 670 4.7
n I
eq
= 14130

Fig. 2.7.16 Loading on wall Element

Summary of gravity loads
W Load Tributary Unit loads (kN/m
2
) all weight Total unfactored load
mark area L.L. D.L. (kN/m) L.L. D.L. T.L.
P
R
8.1 m
2
1.44 3.54 kN 11.7 kN 28.7 40.4 kN
P 8.1 m 4.80 3.06 4 38.9 kN 24.8 kN 63.7 kN
P
3
8.1 m 4.80 3.06 38.9 kN 24.8 kN 63.7 kN
P 8.1 m 4.80 3.06 2
38.9 kN 24.8 kN 63.7 kN
W 9.0 m 1.44 3.54 13.0 kN/m 31.9 kN/m 44.9 kN/m R
W
4
9.0 m 0.77
*
3.54 11.7 7.0 kN/m 43.6 kN/m 50.6 kN/m
W 0.77
*
3.54 1 6 kN/m 50.6 kN/m 3
9.0 m 1.7 7.0 kN/m 43.
W 9.0 m 0.77
*
3.54 11.7 43.6 kN/m 50.6 kN/m 7.0 kN/m 2
W
1
N/A 1 m 11.7 kN/m 1.7 0 11.7 kN/
*Includes live load reduction allowed by codes

Fig. 2.7.17 Wind resisting elements for east-west wind
Note: For tall structures it is inaccurate to consider wall elements C & D and E, F & G individually as shown above. Consideration of shear
lag is necessary to determine to what extent these elements interact as a composite wall element.
Fig. 2.7.18 Distribution of wind shears and moments in longitudinal east-west direction
or 3rd flo 2 floor 1st flo 4th flo or nd or
Element Dist. (%) Shear
(kN)
Moment
(kN-m)
ear
(kN)
Moment
(kN-m)
Shear
(kN)
Moment
(kN-m)
Shear
(kN)
Moment
(kN-m)
Sh
64 87 122 330 180 723 283 1267
A
1.90 1.2 1.7 2.3 6.3 3.4 13.7 5.4 24.1
B
4.10 2.6 3.6 5.0 13.5 7.4 29.6 11.6 51.9
C
7.06 4.5 6.1 8.6 23.3 12.7 51.0 20.0 89.5
D
7.41 4.7 6.5 9.0 24.5 13.3 53.5 21.0 94.0
E
4.07 2.6 3.5 5.0 13.4 7.3 29.4 11.5 51.6
F
6.96 4.5 6.0 8.5 12.5 50.3 7 23.0 19. 88.2
G
7.27 4.7 6.3 8.9 13.1 52.6 6 1 24.0 20. 92.
Note: The relative stiffness and percent distribution for the elements in this table are assumed the same for all stories. The exact values
may be slightly different for each storey because the values change due to the reduced flange width (see Fig. 2.7.2.b).
Although the friction forc quate to resist the
applied shear force, A23.3 Clause 16.5.3.7 requires
additional connections to effectively tie the elements
together for ductility and structural integrity. It is
common to use the vertical wall/wall reinforcement
as both a vertical tie and rizontal r
connection.
The chord tension T
f
is resisted by the steel
reinforcement in the flo b. The grout key
etween slabs must also resist the corresponding
horizontal shear:
A23.3, Clause 16.5.3.5 requires tension ties around
the perimeter with a factored tensile resistance of
not less than 60 kN, that is greater than the
diaphragm tension of 2.8 kN:
Required A
s
= 60 x 10
3
/ 0.85(400) = 176 mm
2
Use a 15M bar, A
s
= 200 mm
2

The shear resistance of the grout key (see Sect.
2.5.1.1) is:
V
r
= 0.3 A = (0.3)(9000/2)(75) / 10
3
= 101 kN > 2.6kN OK
ind from the east or we ig. 2.7.21
V
fR
=
e is ade
a ho shea
or sla
b
For w st F (b):

(4.37)(18.4)
40 kN
2
=
C
f
=
2
f
(4.37)(18.4)
T 2.9 kN
2
= =
Shear resistance of a grout joint:
Grout key = 75 mm deep
V
r
= (0.3)(62800)(75) / 10
3

= 1410 kN > 40 OK
Only the resistance to wind loading has been
analyzed in this example. Other required loadings,
including abnormal loads, must be reviewed for a
complete analysis.
(8)(6 .8)

Fig. 2.7.19 Properties of resisting elements for wind in longitudinal east-west direction
Element
A
w

(mm
2
10
3
)
I
(mm
4
10
9
)
yb
(mm)
I
eq

(mm
4
10
9
)
No. of
elem.
n I
eq

(mm
4
10
9
)
eq
eq
I
nI

(100%)
y
(mm10
3
)
eq
I ( y)
5 9
(mm 10 )

280 101 956 54.5 4 218 1.90 37.4 2038

480 230 1200 118 11 1298 4.10 93.5 11,033

520 892 1300 203 2 406 7.06 20.7 4202

520 1137 1082 213 2 426 7.41 12.4 2641

480 231 1200 117 1 117 4.07 18.4 2153

520 851 810 200 1 200 6.96 16.2 3240

520 11 209 1 7 14.8 3 1022 84 209 .27 309

nI
eq
=
2874

=
28,400
Note:
1.
9.8 18.4 / 2 = 0.68 m
3. Torsion due to this eccentricity is neglected in calculating shears and moments in Fig. 2.7.20
Centre of rigidit ,400 / 2874 = 9.88 m
2. The east-west wind load is slightly eccentric by
y = 28


Fig. 2.7.20 Wind load in east-west direction Fig. 2.7.22 Foundation reaction distributions
resulting from lateral loads
Fig. 2.7.21 Diaphragm analysis

iour
Fig. 2.7.23 Influence of shear lag on tube
behav

2.7.7 Architectural Panels as Shear Walls seismic design of structures is
It is beneficial in many structures to take ad e
of the trengt io ls
and design them as the lat ral loa si
Figure 2.7.22 illustrates the foundation reaction
distributions of exterior a ctu recast ar
wall systems under the a of la load, and
without connections between the shear walls and the
windward or leeward walls. A structure with corner
connections is structurally more efficient for resisting
lateral loads.
The lateral load resistin stem wn i
2.7.22(b) is frequently labeled a tube. Full tube
behavior does not develop because the components
and the connections are not perfectly rigid. Figure
2.7.23 illustrates the difference. The peaking of the
foundation reaction at th rner ts fr ear
lag that limits the effective width of the flange.
Accurate evaluation of shear lag is difficult, but the
effective flange width for most structures should not
be assumed to extend farther from the face of the
web than:
1. One-half of the cle istan an ent
shear wall web, or
2. 25% of the wall height above the section under
consideration.
2.8 EARTHQUAKE DESIGN AND
ANALYSIS
2.8.1 General
There is a very sig t difference between the
design for earthquake forces and the design for
gravity or wind forces. The seismic forces that are
expected due to a design hquake are much larger
than the factored seismic design forces given in the
building code. As a result, it is expected that a
structure will suffer damage during a design
earthquake. To protect life and property, it is
important that this damage not cause collapse. This
is accomplished by desig the ure t ble
to deform in the nonlinear range without failing.
Capacity design
The approach normally taken is to identify certain
lements within the structure where the damage will
be concentrated rather than design the complete
structure to be able to deform in the inelastic range.
ecial seismic
main elastic. The capacity of the ductile (damage
miting) elements limits the seismic force demands
at will be applied on a structure. This approach to
commonly called
capacity design. The nonlinear response of a one-
store cast building subject to earthqua
cit d c
The detailing for seismic fo st still be provided
even when the factored wind forces exceed the
ctore ismi ces a actu ismic
during an earthqu r cted t e
factored seismic forces calculated according to the
Code.
Load tests of prestressed concrete elements have
show at la eflec occu th n
strength is approached. Cyclic load tests have shown
that prestressed concrete beams can undergo
several cycles of load reversals and still maintain
their original strength. This sort of ductile behaviour is
exactly what is needed for the elements that are
expec to be ged an e uake
Prestressed concrete structures can be designed to
withstand the effects of earthquakes in accordance
with the requirements of building codes. For some
types of buildings, box-type structures offer an
econo al solu In o ases ile m t-
resisting frames can be used. The following
discussion deals mainly with the design of critical
connections and components to provide adequate
resistance to seismic forces, and the design
procedures necessary to ensure that the complete
structure will ave inten dur n
earthquake.
Earthquakes generate horizontal and vertical ground
movement. When an earthquake passes beneath a
structure, the foundation will tend to move with the
ground, while the superstructure will tend to remain in
its orig si The l twee ndat d
superstructure movement will cause distortions and
develop forces in the structure. These distortions and
forces can best be investigated using non-linear
dynamic analysis taking into account the properties of
the soil, the intensity an ration
shakin and the physical erties e st e.
A linear or elastic dynamic analysis can be used to
predict the response to moderate earthquakes and
can also provide an insight into which elements are
likely to yield at the maximu c is
likely to be in e seve earthq ke. I t
structural properties include mass, stiffness, st h
and ductility, and their distribution throughout the
structure. In lieu of dynamic analysis, building codes
resent formulae for equivalent static forces and
which can, if the underlying
assumptions are understood and respected, be used
design acceptable structures in the majority of
ases.
vantag
inherent s h and rigid
e
ity of exter
d re sting sy
r pane
stem.
,
ex
rchite
ction
ral p
teral
she
with
g sy sho n Figure
e co resul om sh
ar d ce to adjac
nifican
eart
ning struct o be a
e
These elements are provided with sp
detailing to ensure adequate ductility. The remaining p
elements are made strong enough so that they will force distributions
re
li
th
y pre ke
ation is iscussed in Referen e [10].
rces mu
fa d se c for
ake a
s the
e expe
al se
o exce
forces
ed th
n th rge d tions r as e desig
ted dama during arthq .
mic tion. ther c , duct omen
beh as ded ing a
inal po tion. ag be n fou ion an
d du
prop
of the ground
of th g ructur
and wh m defle
ua
tion
a mor re mportan
rengt
to
c

The current philosophy for the design of earthquake-
resistant structures permits minor damage for
moderate earthquakes, and accepts major damage
for severe earthquakes, provided collapse is
prevented and occupants can leave the building
without serious injury. Large non-linear or inelastic
deformations may be expected in some connections
and other elements as a result of the earthquake
induced forces. In precast structures, these are
accommodated by providing ductility in these
elements and connections. While this ductility limits
the earthquake forces in the building and prevents
total collapse, the resultant distortions will usually
lead to significant damage to connections and other
structural elements that yield and may also result in
damage to non-structural elements and mechanical
Buildings may be designed as either flexible or rigid.
Flexible structures will develop large deflections and
small inertial forces; conversely, rigid structures will
develop large inertial forces but small deflections.
Either type may be designed to be safe against total
collapse. However, experience demonstrates that a
rigid structure, properly designed to account for the
large inertia forces, will incur significantly less
damage to architectural, mechanical, and electrical
elements.
To limit the damage to non-structural or architectural
elements in a flexible building, these elements may
be uncoupled from the structural system so that they
are not forced to undergo as much deformation as
the supporting structure. This requires connections
between individual elements and the supporting
structure be designed to withstand large distortions
without fracture. As explained above, damage can
also be reduced by building a more rigid building to
minimize the deformations imposed on the
architectural elements. This will require a stronger
structure to reduce the amount of yielding and
consequent inelastic deformation that occurs. In most
buildings, non-structural architectural wall panels
should be uncoupled from the lateral force resisting
structure.
Since ground motion is random in direction, a
structure that is shaped to be equally resistant in any
direction is the optimum solution. Experience has
shown that structures that are symmetric in plan, with
minimum torsional eccentricity, behave better in
earthquakes than structures that are unsymmetric
and have their centres of mass and rigidity well
separated. Closed sections (i.e., boxes or tubes)
have demonstrated markedly improved behaviour
when compared with open sections, because: (1)
closed sections provide a high degree of torsional
resultant de rovide
significant energy absorption.
An architectural precast concrete facade can be used
to provide the earthquake resistant structural
elements. This can be in the form of either shear
walls or spandrel beams and closely spaced columns
(mullions) that simultaneously provide the exterior
skin and the structural tube. It is also often possible to
create a structure that is symmetric in plan. The
energy dissipation characteristics of precast walls will
depend to a great extent upon the behaviour of the
connections. In addition, precast walls with large
openings can behave similar to a beam-column
system. However, unless comprehensive test data is
available, precast wall type structures should be
treated as specified by codes for shear wall
structures.
The PRESSS (Precast Seismic Structural Systems)
program has researched systems that take
advantage of the jointed nature of precast concrete,
including the testing of a five storey 60% scale
building. [20] This test structure used precast frames
with several different ductile joints in one direction,
and precast concrete shear walls in the other
direction. In 2002, a 39 storey building using a hybrid
frame system was completed in San Francisco. [3]
Further research and codification of precast seismic
resisting systems is ongoing.
2.8.2 Building Code Requirements
The previous edition of the CPCI Design Manual,
Third Edition, was based on the requirements of the
seismic des n the 2005 NBCC are very
different than the provisions in the 1995 NBCC.
Some of the major changes are:
1. revised seismicity maps.
2. specification of response spectrum values on a
city-by-city basis rather than zonal basis.
3. revised formula for calculating base shear.
4. revised methods to accommodate higher mode
effects for static analysis.
5. response spectrum method is now the base
method of analysis.
6. revised foundation factors.
7. the design earthquake has been changed to the
event that has a probability of exceedance of 2%
in 50 years.
8. a new force reduction factor for overstrength.
and electrical systems.
resistance, and (2) the higher axial stresses and
formations in the exterior columns p
1995 National Building Code of Canada (NBCC). This
Fourth Edition is based on the 2005 NBCC. [7] The
ign provisions i

9. new limits and restrictions on systems.
10. introduction of maximum force cutoff values to
account for the reduction in response due to
foundation rocking.
11. introduction of minimum force values at long
periods.
12. revised drift limits in buildings.
13. introduction of categories of building
irregularities with special requirements/limits for
certain cases.
14. restrictions on type of lateral force resisting
systems for post-disaster buildings.
Further information can be found in Reference [21].
2.8.3 2005 NBCC Requirements
General requirements
The deflections and specified loading due to
earthquake motions must be determined as given
below unless the design spectral acceleration value
effec eed not be considered.
load , to transfer the inertial forces
.
c
e SFRS must
of the earthquake loads
ilding
e interactions are avoided when
s due to earthquake effects.
he analysis
structure that is less than 60 m high
se Spectrum Method shall be the design
S(0.2) is less than or equal to 0.12 in which case the
ts of earthquakes n
Structures must be designed with a clearly defined
path, or paths
generated in an earthquake to the supporting ground
The structure must have a clearly defined Seismi
Force Resisting System(s) (SFRS). Th
be designed to resist 100%
and their effects.
All structural framing elements not considered to be
part of the SFRS must be investigated and shown to
behave elastically, or have sufficient nonlinear
capacity to support their gravity loads while
undergoing earthquake induced deformations
calculated from the deflections.
Stiff elements, not considered part of the SFRS, such
as architectural precast walls or panels, must be
connected to the structural elements of a bu
such that undesirabl
the building deflect
Stiffness imparted to the structure from elements not
part of the SFRS must not be used to resist
earthquake deflections but must be accounted for:
(a) in calculating the period of the structure for
determining forces if the added stiffness
decreases the fundamental lateral period by
more than 15%,
(b) in determining the irregularity of the structure,
except the additional stiffness must not be used
to make an irregular SFRS regular or to reduce
the effects of torsion, and
(c) in the design of the SFRS when inclusion of the
elements not part of the SFRS in t
has an adverse effect on the SFRS.
Structural modeling must be representative of the
magnitude and spatial distribution of the mass of the
building and stiffness of all elements of the SFRS,
which includes stiff elements that are connected to
the SFRS, and must account for:
(a) the effect of cracked sections in reinforced
concrete,
(b) the effect of the finite size of members and joints,
(c) sway effects arising from the interaction of gravity
loads with the displaced configuration of the
structure, and
(d) other effects which influence the buildings lateral
stiffness.
Methods of analysis
The 2005 NBCC requires that analysis for design
earthquake actions be carried out using the Dynamic
Analysis Procedure except that the Equivalent Static
Force Procedure may be used for structures that
meet any of the following criteria:
(a) Located in a region of low seismicity, specifically
I
E
F
a
S
a
(0.2) < 0.35.
(b) A regular
and has a fundamental lateral period, T
a
, less
than 2 seconds in each of two orthogonal
directions. Note that regular means not irregular,
as defined below.
(c) An irregular structure of Type 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or 8
(see Table 2.8.5) that is less than 20 m high and
has a fundamental lateral period, T
a
, less than
0.5 seconds in each of two orthogonal
directions.
Dynamic analysis procedures
The Dynamic Analysis Procedure shall be in
accordance with one of the following methods:
(a) Linear Dynamic Analysis by either the Modal
Response Spectrum Method or the Numerical
Integration Linear Time History Method using a
structural model as described above in the
general requirements or,
(b) Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis Method, in which
case a special study shall be performed.
The spectral acceleration values used in the Modal
Respon

spectral acceleration values S(T). The effects of
accidental torsional moments acting concurrently with
and due to the lateral earthquake forces shall be
accounted for using either a static approach or a 3-
dimensional dynamic analysis.
If the base shear V
d
is less than 80% of the lateral
earthquake design force, V, V
d
shall be taken as
0.8V. For irregular structures requiring dynamic
analysis, V
d
shall be taken as the larger of the V
d
or
V.
The value of elastic storey shears, storey forces,
member forces, and deflections obtained from the
Linear Dynamic Analysis shall be multiplied by V
d
/V
e

to determine the design values, where V
d
is the base
shear. For the purpose of calculating deflections it is
permitted to use V determined from T defined to
obtain V .
a
d
See the 2005 NBCC for further information on the
dynamic method of analysis.
Equivalent static force procedure
The minimum lateral earthquake force, V, shall be
calculated in accordance with the following formula:
V = S(T
a
)M
v
I
E
W/(R
d
R
o
)
except that V shall not be taken less than:
S(2.0)M
v
I
E
W/(R
d
R
o
)
and for an SFRS with an R
d
equal to or greater than
1.5, V need not be taken greater than:
S(0.2)I
E
W/(R
d
R
o
).
The design spectral acceleration values of S(T) shall
be determined as follows using linear interpolation for
intermediate values of T:
S(T) = F
a
S
a
(0.2) for T < 0.2 s
= F
v
S
a
(0.5) or F
a
S
a
(0.2) whichever is
smaller for T = 0.5 s
= F
v
S
a
(1.0) for T = 1.0 s
= F
v
S
a
(2.0) for T = 2.0 s
= F
v
S
a
(2.0)/2 for T 4.0 s
The 5% damped spectral response acceleration
values S
a
(T) for the reference ground conditions (Site
Class C in Table 2.8.1) for periods T of 0.2 s, 0.5 s,
1.0 s, and 2.0 s, are determined in accordance with
Section 1.1.3 of the 2005 NBCC and are based on a
2% probability of exceedance in 50 years.
Acceleration and velocity based site coefficients
F
a
and F
v
shall conform to Tables 2.8.2 and 2.8.3
using linear interpolation for intermediate values of
S
a
(0.2) and S
a
(1.0). The site classifications for soils
used in Tables 2.8.2 and 2.8.3 shall conform to Table
2.8.1 and shall be determined using s V . Where the
average shear wave velocity, s V , is not known, the
Site Class shall be determined from energy corrected
Average Standard Penetration Resistance, 60 N , or
from soil average undrained shear strength, s
u,
as
noted in Table 2.8.1. 60 N and s
u
, shall be calculated
based on rational analysis.
The fundamental lateral period T
a
in the direction
under consideration shall be determined as:
a) For moment-resisting frames that resist 100% of
the required lateral forces and the frame is no
enclosed by or adjoined by more rigid elements
that would tend to prevent the frame from
resisting lateral forces, and where h
n
is in
metres:
i) 0.085 (h )
3/4
for steel moment frames
ii) 0.075
n
(h )
3/4
for concrete moment frames
for all not be
ting the deflections,
the upper limit may

For lateral
io
a
)M
V

The factor I
E
is given in
The lding shall be calculated in

n
iii) 0.1 N for other moment frames
b) 0.025 h
n
for braced frames where h
n
is in
metres,
c) 0.05 (h
n
)
3/4
for shear wall and other structures
where h
n
is in metres, or
d) Other established methods of mechanics using a
structural model as defined in the general
requirements, except T
a
shall not be taken
greater than:
i) moment resisting frames, T
a
sh
taken greater than 1.5 times that in (a)
ii) for braced frames, T
a
shall not be taken
greater than 2.0 times that in (b)
iii) for shear wall structures, T
a
shall not be
greater than 2.0 times that in (c)
e) For the purpose of calcula
the period from (d) without
be used.
The higher mode factor M
v
is given in Table 2.8.7.
values of M
v
between fundamental
per ds, T
a
, of 1.0 and 2.0 s, the product S(T
shall be obtained by linear interpolation.
earthquake importance
Table 2.8.4.
weight W of the bui
accordance with the following formula:
n
W =
i
i 1
W
=

modification factor R and The ductility related force
d
n overstrength related modification factor R
o
are give

in Table 2.8.6 along with the corresponding system
a)
b) are maximum height limits
ted and
.
the s
take value of R R corresponding to
exclu ss than 10%
e
ction for
d through testing, research
the height of the building, including
n
be o
Tors ncurrent with the effects of the
a)
ss and resistance and
b)
me points of the structure at Level x in
ge of the displacements at the
uced by the above forces
x
, in both
ding derived for each of the

rce at each level and where
b)
alysis procedure.
all be
a)
e principal axes of the
restrictions, where:
NP in the table means not permitted,
Numbers in the table
in metres,
c) NL in the table means system is permit
not limited in height as an SFRS
For combinations of different types of SFRS acting in
ame direction in the same storey, R
d
R
o
shall be
n as the lowest
d o
these systems. For vertical variations of R
d
R
o
,
ding penthouses whose weight is le
of the level below, the value of R
d
R
o
used in th
design of any storey shall be less than or equal to the
lowest value of R
d
R
o
used in the given dire
the stories above.
If it can be demonstrate
and analysis that the seismic performance of a
structural system is at least equivalent to one of the
standard SFRS given in the 2005 NBCC, then such a
structural system will qualify for the values of R
d
and
R
o
given for that system.
The total lateral seismic force, V, shall be distributed
such that a portion, F
t
, shall be assumed to be
concentrated at the top of the building, where F
t
is
equal to 0.07 T
a
V but need not exceed 0.25 V and
may be considered as zero where T
a
does not
exceed 0.7 s; the remainder, V - F
t
shall be
distributed along
the top level, in accordance with the formula:
F
x
=
n
t x x i i
i 1
(V F )W h /( Wh )
=

The structure shall be designed to resist overturning
effects caused by the earthquake forces. The
overturning moment at Level x, M
x
, shall be
determined from the following equation:
M
x
=
n
x i i x
i x
J F(h h )
=

J
x
= 1.0 for h
x
0.6h
n

J
x
= J + (1 - J)(h
x
/ 0.6h
n
)for h
x
< 0.6h
n

The base overturning moment reduction factor J is
given in Table 2.8.7. Values of J betwee
fundamental lateral periods, T
a
, of 0.5 and 2.0 s shall
btained by linear interpolation.
ional effects co
forces and due to the following shall be considered in
the design of the structure:
Torsional moments introduced by eccentricity
between the centres of ma
their dynamic amplification.
Torsional moments due to accidental
eccentricities.
Torsional sensitivity shall be determined by
calculating the ratio B
x
for each Level x according to
the following equation for each orthogonal direction
determined independently:
B
x
=
max
/
ave

max
= the maximum storey displacement at the
extre
the direction of the earthquake induced by
the equivalent static forces acting at
distances 0.10D
nx
from the centres of
mass at each floor
= the avera
ave
extreme points of the structure at level x
prod
B = the maximum of all values of B
orthogonal directions except that the B
x
for
one storey penthouses with a weight less
than 10% of the level below need not be
considered
Torsional effects shall be accounted for as follows:
a) For a building with B 1.7 by applying torsional
moments about a vertical axis at each level
throughout the buil
following load cases considered separately:
i) T
x
= F
x
(e
x
+ 0.1D
nx
)
ii) T
x
= F
x
(e
x
- 0.1D
nx
)
F
x
is the lateral fo
each element in the building is designed for the
most severe effect of the above load cases.
For a building with B > 1.7, for cases where
I
E
F
a
S
a
(0.2) is equal to or greater than 0.35, by a
dynamic an
Direction of loading
Earthquake forces shall be assumed to act in any
horizontal direction, except that the following sh
considered to provide adequate design force levels in
the structure:
Where components of the SFRS are oriented
along a set of orthogonal axes, independent
analyses about each of th
structure shall be performed.
b) Where the components of the SFRS are not
oriented along a set of orthogonal axes and
I
E
F
a
S
a
(0.2) is less than 0.35, independent

analyses about any two orthogonal axes is
permitted, or
c) When the components of the SFRS are not
oriented along a set of orthogonal axes and
I
E
F
a
S
a
(0.2) is equal to or greater than 0.35,
loads in the perpendicular direction with the
a
S
a
(0.2) is less than 0.2 and the forces
ot have any irregularity
re I
E
F
a
S
a
(0.2) is
n tal lateral periods, T
a

is greater
tha .25 the SFRS shall be
continuou foundation and shall
De tio
fects of torsion, including
ll be multiplied by
ipated
t any
level based ions shall be limited
to 0.01h dings, 0.02h
s
for
schools, and ngs.
St tura
n. Rigidly
sig
rag
m due to the
A. The
gn fo
a
from
diap
total
wall
force ding an R =1.5 elastic structure since
lls that
s.
to or greater
wall, or braced frame, shall be designed for
er
chan
force
SFR vel.
e
column both
of pote r elements
other le g
in qu
Foun ovisions
determined
f the foundations shall be such that they
round without
excee e capacities of the soil and rock.
For cases where I
E
F
a
S
a
(0.2) is equal to or greater
analysis of the structure independently in any
two orthogonal directions for 100% of the
prescribed earthquake loads applied in one
direction plus 30% of the prescribed earthquake
combination requiring the greater element
strength being used in the design.
System restrictions
Refer to Table 2.8.5 for Structural Irregularity types
and definitions. Structures with a Discontinuity in
Capacity - Weak Storey (Type 6) are not permitted
unless I
E
F
used for design of the SFRS are multiplied by R
d
R
o.
Post-disaster buildings shall n
Type 1, 3, 4, 5 and 7 for cases whe
equal to or greater than 0.35, shall not have an
irregularity Type 6, and shall have an SFRS with a R
d

of 2.0 or greater.
For buildi gs having fundamen
of 1.0 s or greater and where I
E
F
v
S
a
(1.0)
n 0 , walls forming part of
s from their top to the
not have irregularity Type 4 or 5.
flec ns and drift limits
Lateral deflections obtained from a linear elastic
analysis using either the Equivalent Static Force
Procedure or a (linear) Dynamic Analysis Procedure
and incorporating the ef
accidental torsional moments, sha
R
d
R
o
/I
E
to give realistic values of antic
deflections. The largest interstorey deflection a
on the lateral deflect
s
for post-disaster buil
0.025h
s
for all other buildi
ruc l separation
Adjacent structures shall either be separated by the
square root of the sum of the squares of their
individual deflections, or shall be connected to each
other. The connection method employed shall take
into account the mass, stiffness, strength, ductility
and anticipated motion of the connected buildings
and the character of the connectio
connected buildings shall be assumed to have the
lowest R
d
R
o
value of the buildings connected.
Expansion joints separating a structure shall meet
these requirements.
Buildings with non-rigid or energy dissipating
connections require special studies.
Additional design provisions
Diaphragms and their connections shall be de ned
so as not to yield, and the design shall account for
the shape of the diaph m, including openings, and
for the forces generated in the diaphrag
governing force load cases to ensure the diaphragm
is not the weak link. See NBCC Appendix
desi rce in the diaphragm is limited to the load
cap city of the SFRS in addition to any applied forces
other transferring SFRS elements above the
hragm, or the design-based shear divided by the
number of storeys above grade. Regardless of
strength, diaphragms need not be designed for
s excee
d
many buildings have large overstrength in wa
would require unrealistically large diaphragm force
For cases where I
E
F
a
S
a
(0.2) is equal
than 0.35, the elements supporting any discontinuous
column
the lateral load capacity of the components of the
SFRS they support.
Wh e structures have vertical variations of R
d
R
o
, the
elements of the SFRS below the level where the
ge in R
d
R
o
occurs shall be designed for the
s associated with the lateral load capacity of the
S above that le
Wh re earthquake actions can produce forces in a
or wall due to lateral loading along
orthogonal axes, account shall be taken of the effects
ntial concurrent yielding of othe
framing into the column or wall from all directions at
the level under consideration and as appropriate at
vels. This means to consider biaxial loadin
as well as concurrent loads framing into the element
estion.
dation pr
Foundations shall be designed to resist the lateral
load capacity of the SFRS, except that when the
foundations are allowed to rock, the design forces for
the foundation need not exceed those
using an R
d
R
o
equal to 2.0.
The design o
are capable of transferring the earthquake loads and
effects between the building and the g
ding th
than 0.35, the following requirements shall be
satisfied:

nnected by continuous ties in not
shall be
ure.
the pile cap or
shall be satisfied:
ded on soil defined as Site
m-
ponent equipment
V = 0.3 F
a
S
a
(0.2) I
E
S
p
W
p
F
a
= given in Table 2.8.2

S 0 l Response Acceleration
n as 0.7
R ponent Response
A t or Component Force
be applied through the centre of
For non
less then
Categorie
The weig shall include the dead
of the floo
en
than 10%
lateral for
Forces sh
or
e
Conn
com
support th s,
e, and shall also satisfy
ts:
c) R allow expansion,
or cast-in-place anchors shall
tuated fasteners and drop-in anchors

a) Piles or pile caps, drilled piers, and caissons
shall be interco
less than two directions.
b) Piles, drilled piers, and caissons
embedded a minimum of 100 mm into the pile
cap or struct
c) Piles, drilled piers, and caissons other than
wood piles shall be connected to
structure for a minimum tension force equal to
0.15 times the factored compression load on the
pile.
At sites where I
E
F
a
S
a
(0.2)

is equal to or greater than
0.35, basement walls shall be designed to resist
earthquake lateral pressures from backfill or natural
ground.
At sites where I
E
F
a
S
a
(0.2) is greater than 0.75, the
following requirements
a) A pile, drilled pier, or caisson shall be designed
and detailed to accommodate cyclic inelastic
behaviour when the design moment in the
element due to earthquake effects is greater
than 75% of its moment capacity.
b) Spread footings foun
Class E or F shall be interconnected by
continuous ties in not less than two directions.
The potential for liquefaction of the soil and the
consequences, such as significant ground
displacements and loss of soil strength and stiffness,
shall be taken into account in the design of the
structure and its foundations.
Elements of structures, nonstructural co
s and
Except as stated below, elements and components of
buildings and their connections to the structure shall
be designed to accommodate the expected building
deflections and shall be designed for a lateral force,
V
p
equal to:
p

a
( .2)= is the Spectra
Value at 0.2 s
I
E
= Importance Factor for the building
S
p
= C
p
A
r
A
x
/R
p
. The maximum value of S
p

shall be taken as 4.0 and the minimum
value of S
p
shall be take
C
p
= Element or Component Factor (see
Table 2.8.8)
p
= Element or Com
Modification Factor (see Table 2.8.8)
r
= Elemen
Amplification Factor (see Table 2.8.8)
A = Height Factor (1 + 2 h /h )
x x n
W
p
= Weight of the component or element
The force V
p
shall
mass of the element or component.
post-disaster buildings, where I
E
F
a
S
a
(0.2) is
0.35, the requirements need not apply to
s 6 through 21 of Table 2.8.8.
ht of access floors
load of the access floor and the weight of permanent
equipment which shall not be taken as less than 25%
r live load.
Wh the mass of a tank plus contents is greater
of the mass of the supporting floor, the
ces shall be determined by rational analysis.
all be applied in the horizontal direction that
result in the most critical loading for design except f
Category 6 in Table 2.8.8 where the forces shall b
applied up and down vertically.
ections to the structure for elements and
ponents in Table 2.8.8 shall be designed to
e component or element for gravity load
the requirements given abov
these additional requiremen
a) Friction due to gravity loads shall not be
considered to provide resistance to seismic
forces.
b) R
p
for non-ductile connections, such as
adhesives or power-actuated fasteners, shall be
taken as 1.0.
for anchorage using sh
p
chemical, epoxy
be 1.5, where shallow anchors are those with a
ratio of embedment length to diameter of less
than 8.
d) Power-ac
shall not be used for tension loads.

Tabl nse
Average Propertie ppendix A
e 2.8.1 Site classification for seismic site respo
s in Top 30 m as per NBCC Division B A
Site Class Ground Profile Name
Average Shear Wave Velocity,
s V (m/s)
Average Standard
Penetration Resistance,
60 N
Strength, s
u

Soil Undrained Shear
A Hard Rock
s V
> 1500
Not applicable Not applicable
B Rock 760 < s V

15
Not applicable Not applicable
00
C
Very Dense Soil and
Soft Rock
360 < s V < 76 60 N

> 50
s
u
> 100kPa
0
D Stiff Soil s V 180 < < 360 15 < 60 N

< 50
50 < s
u
100 kPa
s V <180 60 N

< 15
s
u
< 50 kPa
E

Soft Soil
Any profile with more
Plastic index PI >
Moisture content
Undrained shea
than
20
w
r stre
3 m of soil with the following characteristics:
40%, and
ngth s
u
< 25 kPa
F Others
(1)
Site Specific Evaluation Required
Note: (1) See NBCC Table 4.1.8.4.A.
Table 2.8.2 Values of acceleration-based site coefficien
Valu
t F
a
as a function of site class and S
a
(0.2)
es of F
a
Site
Class S
a
(0.2) 0.25 S
a
(0.2) = 0.50 S
a
(0 2) =1.00 S
a
(0.2)

1.25 .2)

= 0.75 S
a
(0.
A 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8
B 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0
C 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
D 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.0
E 2.1 1.4 1. 0.9 1 0.9
F Site specific geotechnical investigations and dynamic site response analyses required
e) Connections for nonstructural elements or
components of Categories 1, 2 or 3 of Table
2.8.8 attached to the side of a building and
above the first level above grade shall satisfy the
following requirements:
i) For connections where the body of the
connection is ductile, the body shall be
designed for values of C
p
, A
r
and R
p
from the
table, and the fasteners such as anchors,
welds, bolts and inserts shall also be
designed for values of C
p
and A
r
from the
table, and R
p
= 1.0.
lls or panels shall satisfy the general
nts noted above.
ger
ii) Connections where the body of the
connection is not ductile shall be designed for
values of C
p
= 2.0, R
p
= 1.0 and A
r
from the
table.
f) For the purposes of applying (e), a ductile
connection is one where the body of the
connection yields at its design load.
Floors and roofs acting as diaphragms shall satisfy
the requirements for diaphragms.
Lateral deflections of elements or components shall
be obtained from an elastic analysis and multiplied by
R
p
/I
E
to give realistic deflections.
The elements or components shall be designed so as
not to transfer to the structure any forces
unaccounted for in the design, and rigid elements
such as wa
requirements.
Isolated suspended equipment and components,
such as pendent lights, etc. may be designed as a
pendulum system provided that adequate chains or
cables are provided which are capable of supporting
2.0 times the weight of the suspended component
and the deflection requireme
Seismic restraint for suspended equipment, pipes,
ducts, electrical trays, etc. shall be designed to meet
the force and displacement requirements and be
constructed in a manner that will not subject han
rods to bending.

Table 2.8.3 Values of velocity-based site coefficient F
v
a o
Values of F
v

s a functi n of site class and S
a
(1.0)
Site Class
S
a
(1.0)

< 0.1 S (1.0) = 0.2 S
a
(1.0)

= 0.3 S
a
(1.0)

=0.4 S
a
(1.0)

0.5
a
A 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6
B 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8
C 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
D 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.1
E 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.7 1.7
F Site specific geotechnical investigations and dynamic site response analyses required
Table 2.8.4 Importance factor for ultimate limit states earthquake loads and effects, I
E
Importance Category Importance Factor, I
E

Low 0.8
Normal 1.0
High 1.3
Post Disaster 1.5
Table 2.8.5 Structural irregularities
T pe Irregularity y Type and Definition
1
xist
less
Vertical Stiffness Irregularity
Vertical stiffness irregularity shall be considered to e
than 70% of the stiffness of any adjacent storey, or
above or below.
when the lateral stiffness of the SFRS in a storey is less
than 80% of the average stiffness of the three storeys
2 e th
the floor
Weight (mass) Irregularity
Weight irregularity shall be considered to exist wher
of an adjacent storey. A roof that is lighter than
e weight, W
i,
of any storey is more than 150% of the weight
below need not be considered.
3
Vertical Geometric Irregularity
Vertical geometric irregularity shall be considered to e
storey is more than 130% of that in an adjacent storey
xi
.
st where the horizontal dimension of the SFRS in any
4
In-plane Discontinuity in vertical lateral force-re
An in-plane offset of a lateral force-resisting elemen
element in the storey b
sisti
t of t
elow.
ng element
he SFRS or a reduction in lateral stiffness of the resisting
5
Out-of-Plane Offsets
Discontinuities in a lateral force path, such as out-of-plane offsets of the vertical elements of the SFRS.
6
Discontinuity in Capacity - Weak Storey
A weak storey is one in which the storey shear stre
strength is the total strength of all seismic-resisting
under consideration.
ngth is
elem
less t hat in the storey above. The storey shear
ents of the SFRS sharing the storey shear for the direction
han t
7
Torsional Sensitivity- to be considered when dia
Torsional sens
phragms e.
itivity shall be considered to exist when t
are not flexibl
he ratio B calculated according to NBCC Sentence
4.1.8.11(9) exceeds 1.7.
8 A non-orthogonal system irregularity shall be consi
orthogonal axes.
Non-orthogonal Systems
dered to exist when the SFRS is not oriented along a set of
Note: One-sto weight of less than 10% of the level below rey penthouses with a need not be considered in the application of this table. See
NBCC Table 4.1.8.6 for other notes.


ors (R
d
), overstrength related force modification
factors (R
o
) and general res
s
Table 2.8.6 SFRS ductility related force modification fact
trictions
Restriction
(1)

Cases Where F
a
S
a
(0.2)
ere
I
E
F
v
S
a
(1.0)
I
E
Cases Wh
Type of SFRS
Concrete Structures Designed and Detailed
According to CSA A23.3
R
d
R
<0.2
<
o
>0.75
o

0.2 to
0.35
0.35 t
0.75
>0.3
Duct ome ting frames NL NL ile m nt resis 4.0 1.7 NL NL NL
Moderately du frames 2.5 1.4 NL NL 60 40 40 ctile moment resisting
Duct ouple NL NL L NL ile c d walls 4.0 1.7 N NL
Ductile partiall alls 3.5 1.7 NL NL NL NL NL y coupled w
Duct hear NL N ile s walls 3.5 1.6 NL NL L NL
Moderately ductile shear walls 2.0 NL NL 60 1.4 NL 60
Conventional construction
Moment resisting frames NP 1.5 1.3 NL NL 15 NP
Shear wa NL NL 40 30 30 lls 1.5 1.3
Other concrete SFRS(s) not listed abov 15 NP NP NP e 1.0 1.0 15
(1) NP= system is not permitted, NL = syste s p S, height may be limited in other parts of
NBCC. Numbers in this table are maximum height ns.
m i ermitted and not limited in height as an SFR
limits in m. The most stringent requirement gover
Table 2.8.7
v
and base overturning reduction factor J Higher mode factor M
S
a
(0.2)/S
a
(2.0)
Type of Lateral Resisting
Systems
M
v
For T
a
<1.0 M
v
For T
a
> 2.0 J For T
a
< 0.5 J For T
a
> 2.0
Moment resisting frames or
led wall
1.0 1.0
coup s
1.0 1.0
Braced frames 1.0 1.0 0.8 1.0
< 8.0
Walls, wall-fram stems,
other systems
1.2 1.0 0.7
e sy
1.0
Moment resistin
1.2 1.0 0.7
g frames or
coupled walls
1.0
Braced frames 1.0 1.5 1.0 0.5
1.
8.0
Walls, wall-frame systems,
other systems
0 2.5 1.0 0.4
Note
1. and 2
2. T of 0.5 and 2.0 s s
ast
is ca m s
4. For or a
s:
For values of M
v
between fundamental lateral periods, T
a
of 1.0
Values of J between fundamental lateral periods,
.0 s, the product S(T
a
)M
v
shall be obtained by linear interpolation.
hall be obtained by linear interpolation.
66% of the base overturning moment resisted by the wall system
hear in the coupling beams.
dynamic analysis must be carried out.
a
3. A coupled wall is a wall system with coupling beams, where at le
rried by the axial tension and compression forces resulting fro
hybrid systems, values corresponding to walls must be used
2.8.4
Box-typ
precast assembled into walls,
connec
and sh
transmit forces between the elements within a
z
conn
shea such as the
d to remain elastic
during an earthquake.
sign, forces must be positively
ncrete
onnection must be adequate for its
location and intended role in resisting seismic forces.
Structural Layout and Connections
e structures can have a large number of
concrete elements
floors, roof and frames. Properly designed
tions between pieces can create diaphragms
ear walls. Connections must be designed to
hori ontal diaphragm or shear wall. Other
ections can be designed to join diaphragms and
r walls. Some parts of the building,
shear walls, can be designed to absorb energy
through non-linear deformation. Horizontal
diaphragms are normally designe
In seismic de
transmitted. Load paths must be as direct as
possible. Anchors are often attached to or hooked
around reinforcing bars or otherwise terminated to
effectively transfer forces to the bars. Reinforcement
in the vicinity of the anchors should be designed to
distribute forces and preclude local failure. Co
dimensions and reinforcement must be adequate to
accommodate the connection hardware. Connections
should be designed to transmit incidental forces that
are normal to the usual plane of the load path. The
ductility of each c

Table 2.8.8 Elements of structures and nonstructural components and equipment
Category Part or Portion of a Bu C
p
A
r
R
p
ilding
1 A interior C 3
(1)
0 0 ll exterior and walls except those of ategory 2 and 1.0 1.00 2.5
2 Can r parapet and oth ilever walls exc taining walls
(1)
1.00 2.50 2.50 tileve er cant ept re
3 Ext and interior ornam tions and appenda
)
1.00 2.50 2.50 erior enta ges
(1
4 Floors and roofs acting as hragms
(2)
Satisfy

NBCC 4.1.8.1.5 - - - diap
5
Tow chimneys, smoke s and penthouses n connected to or
forming part of a building
1.00 2.50 2.50
ers, stack whe
6 1.00 2.50 Horizontally cantilevered floors, balconies, beams, etc. 1.00
7
Suspended ceilings, light fixtures and other attachments to ceilings with
independent vertical support
1.00 1.00 2.50
8 Masonry 1.50 veneer connections 1.00 1.00
9 Access floors 1. 1.00 2.50 00
10 Masonry or concrete fences over 1.8 m tall 1 1.00 2.50 .00
11
Machinery, fixtures, equipment, ducts and tanks (including contents)
that are rigid and rigidly connected
(3)
that are flexible or flexibly connected
(3)

1
1.00

1.00
2.50

1.25
2.50

.00
12
ent, duct
mater elow

Machinery, fixtures, equipm s and tanks (including contents)
ials, materials having a flashpoint b containing toxic or explosive
38C or fire fighting fluids
that are rigid and rigidly connected
(3)

that are flexible or flexibly connected
(3)

1.50
1.50

1.00
2.50

1.25
2.50
13
ding contents) attached directly to a floor at or
0.70 1.00 2.50
Flat bottom tanks (inclu
below grade within a building
14 00 1.00 2.50
Flat bottom tanks (including contents) attached directly to a floor at or
below grade within a building containing toxic or explosive materials, 1.
materials having a flashpoint below 38C or firefighting fluids.
15 .00 Pipes, ducts, cable trays (including contents) 1.00 1.00 3
16 erials 1.50 1.00 3.00 Pipes, ducts (including contents) containing toxic or explosive mat
17 Electrical cable trays, bus ducts, conduit 1.00 2.50 5.00
18 Rigid components with ductile material and connections 1.00 1.00 2.50
19 ductile material or connections 1.00 1.00 1.00 Rigid components with non
20 2.50 Flexible components with ductile material and connections 1.00 2.50
21 1.00 Flexible components with nonductile material or connections 1.00 2.50
Notes: (1), (2) and (3): see NBCC 2005 sentence 4.1.8.17, (8), (9) and (4) respectively.
Fig. .8.9
ns under
1 through 7.

2 Forces and deflections due to lateral load 23 storey building Ref. [8]
Forces and deflectio
various corner conditions.
Refer to Section 2.8.5 and
points
Half sidewall shear 1.00 1.00 1.00
Half sidewall moment 2.19 1.00 0.43
Half endwall axial force 0 1.00 1.53
Building deflection 2.87 1.00 0.89

Fig. 2.8.10 Drift response
2.8.5 Design Guidelines for Structur
Panels
seismic forces. [9]
2.8.6 Design Guidelines for Cl
al Wall
Guidelines for structural walls subjected to seismic
lateral forces:
Connect
1. with perfora ws will a
somewhere betwe nd a
flexible frame. Fo , this will result in
a n ar dist ces due to the
effect of shear lag 9. [8]
This figure indicat , and
the base stress patterns, g
on a 23-storey bu m by
30 m
2. Portions of wall have
significant axial lo
quire reinforceme ely spaced ties
orces are reversible. This is
particularly important at joints.
with high moment-rotation capabilities. The
energy absorb a flexural element
is measured under the
ro inforce
exhibit high ductility. See A23.3, for proper
eth rei to e duct
9 s esent discontinuities, and m e the
stres ncentrations. Rein ing or
a l an age must be provided
e joint fully mit the ontal
ar d flexure de ped du an
See Chap. 4 and Sect. 2. for a
discussi n on connections. In zones of high
sm cast- lace reinforced co te in
with precast c rete has en to
ssful in econ ally tr rring
adding Panel
ions
lin t
f
Whereve ssible, mak nel connec
the supporting structure statically determinate to
permit a more accurate termination the
force dis tion.
2. Choose the number and location of connections
to minimize internal stresses and permit
movements in the plane of the panel to
accomm e storey drift and volume c es.
Drift is defined as the rel movemen one
storey with respect to t tories immediately
above or below the level under consideration.
l
s,
een non-load bearing
illustrates the effects of storey drift.
Exterior walls ted windo ct
Guide
lateral
en an unperforated wall a
r tall buildings
on-line ribution of for
, as indicated in Fig. 2.8.
es the relative differences
due to lateral loadin
ilding (plan dimension 22
).
s with openings can
ads. These wall sections may
nt with clos re
similar to columns.
3. Locate connections to minimize torsiona
3. Connected walls may act as coupled walls. The
moments on supporting
connection between walls can be achieved
spandrel beam
particularly if the beams are structural steel.
either by a lintel or by the floor construction.
4. Provide separation betw
Provisions must be made for reversible shears
and moments in the connecting elements.
4. Walls will be subjected to lateral loads
perpendicular to the plane of the wall (wind,
seismic) in addition to loads in the plane.
5. Large deflections occur under severe
earthquakes. The investigation of individual
walls and the entire structure should consider
deflections (P- effect).
6. Accidental torsion can occur in elements
subjected to seismic forces. Reinforcement
should be detailed accordingly.
7. Seismic-induced f
8. The best energy absorbing elements are those
ing capacity of
by the area moment-
d o an tation curve. Correctly re c ncrete c
m ods or nforcing achiev ility.
. Joint repr ay b
location of s co forc
mech nica chor
through th s to trans horiz
she an velo ring
earthquake. 8.6
o
sei icity, in-p ncre
combination onc prov
be succe omic ansfe
es for cladding
orces:
panels subjec ed to seismic
1. r po e pa tions to
de of
tribu
odat hang
ative
he s
t of
panels and the building frame to prevent contact
during an earthquake.
5. Seismic forces should be combined with the
forces and eccentricities created by
manufacturing and erection tolerances.
6. Between points of connection, non-load bearing
panels should be separated from the building
frame to avoid contact under seismic action. In
the immediate area of connections, the panel will
be forced to follow the supporting frame. A
statically determinate support system should be
designed, however there may be some built-in
restraint at the connections. Some allowance for
internal forces should be considered. Fig. 2.8.10

Fig. 2.8.11 Free body diagrams
2.8.7 An
The analysis o
estab d m
following syste
1. S with
condition.
2. S e fo
e librium
equations
s ally i
4. Compute the internal forces (moments, shears,
axial) due to the critical values. For complicated
architectural shapes, consider the use of
computer as finite
element an
A free-body diag shown in
ig. 2.8.11.
Sandwich panels
There are several additional design considerations
h panels (see Chaps. 3 and 5 for a
on):
the of non-composite panels
s all connections, and

cal sandwich panel
alysis of Panels
f panels should be in accordance with
ethods of structural mechanics. The
matic approach is recommended:
lishe
tart a free-body diagram for every load
olv r reactions using equations of
qui for statically determinate systems, or
of equilibrium and compatibility for
tatic ndeterminate systems.
3. Tabulate loads and reactions and identify critical
design values.
analysis using methods such
alysis.
ram l is of a typical pane
F
relating to sandwic
more complete discussi
1. The structural wy
resists all loads, contain
Fig. 2.8.12 Details of a typi
transfers loads throug e co tions to the
e. (See Fig. 2.8.12.)
ana sis, and design of
connections between the ctural wythe and
the building frame is tical to that of non-
anels. T alue used to
p
include the
e panel.
between o w should be
le of transferring a seismic force
h thes nnec
building fram
2. Seismic loads, ly
stru
iden
sandwich p
determine the seismic force V
he v W
p
will
weight of all elements of th
3. Connection
capab
the tw ythes
p
V ,
of the where V
p
is compute ng the weight
ythe a ulat
4. The seismic forces and
d usi
non-structural w nd ins ion.
V
p

p
V shou e
ssumed to act in a orizo irection in
junction with the w
on-structural wythe should be propo d
inforced to resi stre
smic force V
p
in addition to its self weight.
ural precast panel with
earthquake loading
Given:
A multistory 16.5 m tall hospital is located in
Montreal. A soil report indicates Site Class C. Precast
concrete cladding wall panels are 2130 mm tall by
8530 mm long, as shown below. A 1830 mm high
window is attached to the top of the panel, and a
2440 mm high window is attached to the bottom.
Concrete
ld b
a ny h ntal d
con eight of the panel.
5. The n
and r
rtione
e
the sei
st the sses induced by
Example 2.14 Architect
c
f = 35 MPa (normal density,
24 kN/m
3
W ht = 0.5 kPa
Proble :
Determine the seismic f on the panel
)
indow weig
m
orces .


Solution:
NBCC: Division B Appendix C:
Sa(0.2) = 0.69
From

Con
assu
at its
a)
8)

S
p
4.0

b) C
C

V
Cros
Cen corner):
Pane
Desi
load
Seis

onnections: C
P
= 2.0, A
r
= 1.0, R
P
= 1.0 (NBCC
lause 4.1.8.17.8(e))
= V
P
0.3F
a
S
a
(0.2)I
E
S
P
W
P
S
p
= C
p
A
r
A
x
/R
p
= 2.0(1.0)(1+2x0.9)/1
= 5.6, however 0.7 S
p
4.0
Hospitals are post disaster facilities therefore
I
E
= 1.5
nections are assumed to be non-ductile,
ming the body of the connection does not yield
design load.
S
p
= 4.0
P
= 0.3(1.0)(0.69)(1.5)(4.0)W
P
= F
a
= 1.0 (Table 2.8.2)
Wall element near top of building
C
P
= 1.0, A
r
= 1.0, R
P
= 2.5 (Table 2.8.

1.24W
P
s-sectional area of panel = 0.30 m
2

tre of gravity from datum (bottom outside
h
x
/h
n
= 0.9 based on wall panel elevation and
building height
V
P
= 0.3F
a
S
a
(0.2)I
E
S
P
W
P
(NBCC Clause
4.1.8.17.1)
y= 876 mm; z = 114 mm.
l weight = 0.30 x 24 = 7.2 kN/m
gn the wall panel for uniformly distributed seismic
s due to self weight and window loads:
mic force due to self weight = 0.35 W
p

= 0.35(7.2) = 2.52 kN/m inward or
outward
S
p
= C
p
A
r
A
x
/R
p
= 1.0(1.0)(1+2x0.9)/2.5
= 1.12 O.K. since 0.7
V
P
= 0.3(1.0)(0.69)(1.5)(1.12)W
P

= 0.35W
P

Line load at top of panel (upper window)
= 0.35
1.83
0.5
2

= 0.16 kN/m inward or outward
load at underside of panel (lower w

Line indow)
= 0.35
2.44
0.5
2

For t

where F
p
is the
w height = 1830 mm
t on wall panel = 1.83(8.53)(0.5)
Low
No gravity load from lower window on wall panel
W
p
o

= 0.21 kN/m inward or outward
he design of connections:
W
p
=7.2(8.53)= 61.4 kN
F
p
=1.24(61.4)= 76.1 kN,
seismic force
Upper windo
Total window weigh
= 7.8 kN gravity load on wall panel
W
p
of one-half of window = 7.8(0.5) = 3.9 kN
F
p
on panel = 1.24(3.9) = 4.84 kN, inward or outward
er window height = 2440 mm
f one-half of window = 1.22(8.53)(0.5) = 5.2 kN
F
p
on panel = 1.24(5.2) = 6.45 kN, inward or outward
W
p
(kN) z (mm) W
p
z (kN-m)
Panel
61.4 114 7.0
per Window
7.8 50 0.4
Up
er Window
0 560 0
Low
Total
69.2 7.4
Determine centre of dead load:
tion
end
of the panel are used to resist
n
Centre of load from lower left: z = 7.4/69.2 = 107 mm
Dead loads to connections:
Vertical = 69.2/2 = 34.6 kN each connection
Horizontal = 34.6(190 107)/825 = 3.5 kN,
assuming that during erec
only the connections at each
dead load.
Outward on top connectio
Inward on bottom connection

Summary of Loads to Connections (kN)
Dead Load
1
Seismic
2

Connection
Vert (y) In. (z) Out (z) Vert (y) Horiz (x) In. (z) Out (z)
Top ctr 87.39 11.4 11.4
Top end 34.6 3.5 7.06 4.10 4.10
Tie-bk ctr X 39.3 39.3
Tie-bk end X 3.5 14.25 14.25
1. Load factor of 1.0 applied.
2. Load factor of 1.0 applied.
To design the connections, wind load must also be examined and
the appropriate load factors must be applied to determine the
governing load case such as 1.4D, 1.25D + 1.4W, and 1.0D + 1.0E.
Typical tie-back connection

(kN) (mm
F
p
y z F
p
y
) (mm)

(kN-m)
F
p
z
(kN-m)
Panel
76.1 876 114 66.7 8.68
Upper
Window
4.84 2130 50 10.31 0.24
Lower
Window
6.45 0 560 0 3.61
Total
7.39 8 77.01 12.53
Determine centre of seismic lateral force:
=
=
For seismic in
=
=
.695)/0.825
=
=
A continuou the centre
co tion e 58% of the load and each end
co tion
R
t end
= R
t centre
= 11.4 kN
kN
Centre of force from lower left:
y 77.01/87.39 = 0.88 m
z 12.53/87.39 = 0.14 m
-out loads:
y 0.88 m
F
p
87.39 kN total panel
Moments about bottom connection:
R
t
= 87.39 (0.88 0
19.6 kN total panel
R
b
87.39 -19.6 = 67.8 kN total panel
s beam analysis shows that
nnec will tak
nnec will take 21%.
4.10 kN
R
b end
=14.25 kN R
b centre
= 39.3
Seismic force parallel to face:
N () Parallel = 87.39 k
() Up-down =
) 96 . 3 ( 2
. 0 ( 87.39 ) 88 . 0 825 . 0 695 +

= 7.06 kN per connection
= () In-out
) 96 . 3 ( 2
) 114 . 0 14 . 0 ( 87.39
= 0.29 kN
er p connection (does not control)

Example 2.15 Typical single-storey industrial
building
Given:
The single-storey manufacturing building shown is
located in Duncan, BC and is exposed in open
terrain. A soil report indicates site class D. Wall
panels are the seismic force resisting system. Wall
panels are 3050 mm wide sandwich panels with a
100 mm thick interior wythe, 50 mm insulation, and a
50 mm thick exterior wythe, weighing an average of
3.6 kPa. 3050 mm wide lightweight double tees are
used on the roof, weighing 1.9 kPa. A dead load of
0.5 kPa is superimposed on the roof. 25% of the roof
design snow load is 0.35 kPa
Problem:
Analyze the structure for seismic loads.
Solution:
Determine seismic forces:
From NBCC Division B Appendix C:
S
a
(0.2) = 1.1
S
a
(1.0) = 0.37
S (2.0) = 0.18
a
Mean roof height is 6.4m
From NBCC Clause 4.1.8.11.3.c. the fundamental
lateral period is;
T
a
= 0.05(h
n
)
3/4
= 0.05(6.4)
3/4
= 0.2 s
By interpolation from Table 2.8.2 and Table 2.8.3.;
S(0.2) = F
a
S
a
(0.2)
= 1.06 (1.1
S(2.0)
v
S
a
(2.0)
0.18

From Table 2.8.6. for a conventional concrete shear
wall:
importance factor for
ea load
F
analyzed by the Eq
From NBCC Equat
V = S(T
a
)M
Fr
3)
= 0.60W (does not control)
F
a
= 1.06, F
v
= 1.13
From NBCC Clause 4.1.8.4.6.

) =1.17
= F
= 1.13( )
= 0.203
R
d
= 1.5
R
o
= 1.3
From Table 2.8.4 the
rthquake is 1.0.
rom NBCC, Clause 4.1.8.7b, the structure can be
uivalent Static Force Procedure
ion 4.1.8.11.2:
V
I
E
W/(R
d
R
o
)
om Table 2.8.7 M
v
= 1.0
= 1.17(1.0)(1.0)W/(1.5x1.

Check maximum:
V
max
= 2/3 S(0.2) I
E
W/(R
d
R
o
)
= 2/3(1.17)(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3)
= 0.40W (controls)
Check minimum:
V
min
= S(2.0) M
V
I
E
W/(R
d
R
o
)
= 0.203(1.0)(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3)
= 0.104W
Building weight:
Walls = 8.75) + 2 )] = 4419 kN
d in ati
Roof = 48.75(36.5)(1.9 + 0.35 + 0.5) = 4893 kN
s co s at n
o 0
W = + 893 = 777
L rth ke force 0.40 = 0.4(77 ) =
3110 kN
1. e-storey building, the lateral earthquake
gm. For a
h as this, design is
no substantial door
ni e centre of mass
he centre of the
BCC, Clause 4.1.8.11.9: B=1.
wev Clause 4.1.8.12.4 states that an
ide t be considered.
Accidental eccentricity = 0.1(48.75) = 4.8 m.
Thus, assume the centre of mass is 19.6 m from
the left wall and 29.2 m from the right wall.
V
L
= 3110
3.6(7.2)[2(4 (36.5
(50% goes irectly to found on)
Beam and lumn (estim ed load contributio
to ro f) = 67 kN
4419/2
qua
4 +670
V =
3 kN
W ateral ea 73
In a singl
force acts through the roof diaphra
single-span diaphragm suc
straightforward. Assuming
ope ngs in the shear walls, th
and centre of stiffness is at t
building.
Therefore from N
Ho er, NBCC,
acc ntal torsion of 10% mus

1863
75 . 48
2 . 29
=
kN
For the seismic diaphragm design (chord steel
and shear connectors between roof tees) for this
single-storey building, will use total base shear V
= 3110 kN.
2. Check sliding resistance of the foundation:
Dead load on the footing:
Wall

= 3.6(7.2)(36.5) = 946 kN
300 mm x 450 mm footing
= 24(0.3)(0.45)(36.5) = 118 kN
Assume 600 mm backfill = 20(0.25)(0.6)(36.5)
= 110 kN
Total = 1174 kN
Ass soil,

74) = 587 kN <
ation will slide.
Th n approximation and a more
de y be required, but based on the
above calculations additi orage
may be required t
De inforcement and
requirements for the diaphragm.
ume coefficient of friction against granular
s
= 0.5
Sliding resistance =
s
N = 0.5(11
1863 kN indicating the found
is analysis is a
tailed analysis ma
onal foundation anch
o prevent sliding.
termine the re connection

a) Connections from the roof to the walls:
Diaphragm forces are designed to follow NBCC
se 4.1.8.15.1. Therefore, to ensure that the
designed for forces
than those calculated for this elastic
e a connection spacing of 1.5m on the
e connection will have to
Clau
diaphragm does not yield, it must be designed so
that the forces applied to it reflect the strength of
the SFRS to which the diaphragm is connected
rather than just the computed lateral earthquake
loads. For example, if the actual base shear
capacity of the SFRS is 10% larger than the
required base shear, then the shear forces
applied to the diaphragm due to the lateral loads
must also be increased by 10%, subject to the
upper limits noted in NBCC. However, since this
structure was designed using R
d
=1.5, the
diaphragm need not be
higher
structure.
Assum
east and west walls. Th
be designed for a capacity of:
1863
(36.5/1.5)
= 77 kN
b tions between double tees:
The maximu ar is at first joint (3.05 m) from
s 19.6 m from the centre of
force. Assuming a uniformly distributed lateral
force of 3110/48.75 = 63.8 kN/m:
Shear at joint = 1863 63.8 x 3.05 = 1668 kN
c) To determine chord reinforcement, the seismic
force is also assumed to be distributed uniformly
across the building width, b:
Diaphragm moment:

) Shear connec
m she
left wall. The left wall i
V
8
=
3110(48.75)
8
= 18950 kN-m
Chord force (see plan):
Assume chord reinforcement is located 0.3 m from
exterior wall face. Since these are seismic forces,
they are considered factored:
T
f
=
18950
(36.5 0.3(2))
= 528 kN
Determine the required amount of reinforcing steel:
A
s
=
f
s y
T
f
=
400 x 85 . 0
10 x 528
3
= 1553 mm
2
(6-20M)
This amount of reinforcement should be placed at
the perimeter. Since several bars are required,
they will have to be distributed within the chord
area, and the effective depth of the diaphragm

tension reinforcement will be reduced based on
actual location of the bars rather than the 0.3 m
assumption. The increased T
f
requirement can
be recalculated based on the actual
reinforcement location in the diaphragm and the
required reinforcing steel adjusted accordingly.
The chord force can be transmitted between
members by ties at the roof tees, wall panels or a
combination, as illustrated. These ties and
transmission of forces will usually provide the tie
requirements for structural integrity as required
by Clause 16.5.
d) Wall panel connections:
This shear wall may be designed to act as a
series of independent units, without ties between
the panels. The shear force is assumed to be
distributed equally among the wall panels as
shown.
n = 36.5/3.05 = 12 panels
V = V
R
/n = 1863/12 = 155 kN/panel
Wall panel self weight:
D = 3.6(3.05)(7.2) = 79 kN
T =
f
=
44 . 2
) 22 . 1 ( 79
367 kN
al
alls may be designed
ected together. The
tes an analysis where tension
an om ate one another with
e vertical joints.
sumed that the walls have no
op s. made across the vertical
panel joi ke advantage of the fact that
nection forces requires solving
cla eq of equilibrium. Compression forces
ar be no problem, as the joint between
) 4 . 6 ( 155
This magnitude of tension may be too large for typic
panel nections. -to-foundation tension con
As an alternative, the shear w
with two or more panels conn
following sketch illustra
d c pression compens
s across th simple shear connection
For simplicity, it is as
ening Connections are
nts to ta
compensating forces are generated in the panels.

Note: Determining con
ssic uations
e assumed to
the shear wall panels and foundations is normally
grouted.
Considering an interior panel:
M about C = 0: V(h) = V
1
(b a) + D(b/2 a)
V
1
=
V(h) D(b/ 2 a)
b a

V 0: C D = =

Since this force system can exist for all interior
panels, edge shears will balance to zero when all
panels have the same dimensions and weight. The
r the connections is a transfer of
ions which permit
d ed if volume
ch e re xterior panels,
the edge exterior panel will be
ap only. Because tension and
comp n re not located at the
pa g ave to be satisfied
with tensi ctions to the
foundation ctions to the orthogonal panel
ear wall to contribute
ad at the corner.
determined the

For this exa undation connections
nsions
4 m ; b = 3.05 m ; a = 0.305 m; d = 2.44 m
For
V
only requirement fo
vertical shear. Therefore, connect
horizontal eformations can be us
ang straint is of concern. At the e
shear V
1
from an
plied at one edge
ssion re base con ections a
nel ed es, equilibrium may h
on and compression conne
, or conne
that will allow the non-sh
additional dead lo
At the tension side exterior panel, equilibrium can be
by summing moments about
compression force, assuming the tension is taken by
a tie-down into the foundation:
mple, locate the fo
0.305 m from each side. The pertinent dime
are:
h = 6.
V = 155 kN, D = 79 kN
interior panels with factored loads:
1
=
( ) 305 . 0 05 . 3
) 305 . 0 2 / 05 . 3 ( 79 ) 4 . 6 ( 155

= 326 kN
f
= Dead load of panel C
T
For the tension side exterior panel:
f
=
44 . 2
) 305 . 0 ( 326 ) 305 . 0 2 / 05 . 3 ( 79 ) 4 . 6 ( 155

= 326 kN
C
f
= T
f
+ D
f
V
1
= 326 + 79 326 = 79 kN

For the compression side exterior panel:
=
3.05
155(6.4) - 79 - 0.305 - 326(3.05- 0.305)
2

T
f
2.44

0.31 kN (tension)
The
abo
bloc n of 305 mm used in the calculations
r the
fact 05 kN.
To ear ns, wind
loa d the appropriate load
factors m overning
loa e 1.0E.
Example 2.16
Gi

:
Det
this
and curbs will be
600 mm square
columns, and 900 mm deep girders in the end bays
will support the vertical loads.
=
C
f
= T
f
+ D
f
+ V
1
= 0.31 + 79 + 326 = 405 kN
wall panel and grout must be checked for the
ve compressive forces. The compressive stress
k assumptio
should also be checked and confirmed fo
ored compressive force of 4
finalize design of the sh wall connectio
d must also be examined an
ust be applied to determine the g
d cas such as 0.9D + 1.4W, and 1.0D +
Three level parking structure
ven:
The three-level parking structure shown is located in
Toronto, ON. A soil report indicates Site Class C.
Problem
ermine the feasibility of a shear wall structure in
location.
Solution:
For gravity loads, 660 mm deep, 3050 mm wide
pretopped double tees will be used. The total weight
of double tees, beams, columns,
taken as 5.3 kPa. The code specified live load is 2.4
kPa. It is determined that for this magnitude of
loading, 9150 mm bays with

Seismic analysis:
From NBCC Division B Appendix C:
S
a
(0.2) = 0.26
= S
a
(0.5)
S (1.0)
0.13
a
= 0.055
Fr CC, ause 4.1. ntal
lateral period a shear w

Fro
F = 1.0, F
v
= 1.0
From NBCC, Clause 4.1.8.4.6.
=
Fr le 2.8.6. for a c nventional concrete shear
wa
d
1.5, R
o
From NBCC Clause 4.1.8.7.b. the structure can be
analyzed by the Equivalent Static Force Procedure
S
a
(2.0) = 0.015
om NB Cl 8.11.3.c, the fundame
for all structure is;
Height to highest level = 3(3.2) = 9.6 m
T
a
= 0.05h
n
3/4
= 0.05(9.6)
3/4
= 0.27 s
m Tables 2.8.2. and 2.8.3.
a
S(0.2) = F
a
S
a
(0.2)
= 1.0 (0.26) =0.26
S(0.5) = the smaller of F
v
S
a
(0.5) or F
a
S
a
(0.2)
= 1.0(0.13) = 0.13
from interpolation, S(0.27) = 0.23
S(2.0) F
v
S
a
(2.0)
= 1.0(0.015)
= 0.015
om Tab o
ll:
R = = 1.3

From NBCC Eq. 4.1.8.11.2:
V = S(T
a
)M
V
I
E
W/(R
d
R
o
)
From Table 2.8.7. M
v
= 1.0
= 0.23(1.0)(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3)
= 0.118W
Check maximum:
V
max
= 2/3 S(0.2) I
E
W/(R
d
R
o
)
= 2/3(0.26)(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3)
= 0.089W (governs)
Check minimum:
V
min
= S(2.0) M
V
I
E
W/(R
d
R
o
)
= 0.015(1.0)(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3)
= 0.008W
Dead Load (W) is the weight of the structure plu
25% of the snow load.
W = 5.3(80.5)(54.9)(3)+0.25(1.12)(80.5)(54.
s
9)
se 4.1.8.11.6 states, that a
ad shall be concentrated at t ing,
however:
= 0
nts are required.
bearing shear walls are chosen, primaril
the vertical gravity load will help resist the
ents due to applied lateral loads.
uld
be used as part of the lateral load resisting system,
this may result in high forces due to restraint of
volumetric deformations; consequently, it is decided
that the corners will be isolated from the main
structure. Alternatively, it might have been decided to
use these corner elements, and provide connections
that are flexible in the direction of volumetric restraint.
The seismic torsion is assumed to all be taken by the
interior shear walls perpendicular to the direction of
the lateral force bearing considered.
The distribution of seismic shears to each level using
NBCC Clause 4.1.8.11.6 is shown in the table below.
Lateral force distribution through levels
(1)
Level
(2)
x
(3)
(m)
(4)
F
x
(kN)
(5)
% (kN)
= 71,507 kN
Total lateral seismic force
V = 71507(0.089) = 6360 kN
NBCC, Clau portion of the
lateral lo op of build
T 0.7 therefore F
a t
Substantial shear resisting eleme
Load y
because
overturning mom
While the corner stairwells and elevator shafts co

x
h
3
2
1
3
2
1
9.6
6.4
3.2
3180
2118
1062
50
33.3
16.7
Totals
6360 100
For the north-south load resisting system, try two
m thick load bearing shear walls located a
ese walls support the 900
as long as 9 m without
as
tem. However,
200 m t
each end of the ramp. Th
mm deep girder, and may be
interfering with the traffic flow; a 6 m length is used
a first iteration. The figure above illustrates the
arrangement and loading.
The shear walls are located 27.5 m from the centre in
the east-west direction of the structure that is the
centre of the lateral force resisting sys
accidental torsion must be considered (NBCC Clause
4.1.8.12.4). The accidental eccentricity = 0.1(80.5) =
8.05 m. Summing moments about the shear walls on
one side, the force each pair of shear walls must
resist is:
F =
6360(54.9/ 2 8.05) +

54.9
ed
in the previous table.
1
= 0.167(2056) = 343 kN
= 4112 kN or 2056 kN to each wall
The force at each level on the wall can be determin
by the values of Column 5
Level 3 F
3
= 0.5(2056) = 1028 kN
Level 2 F
2
= 0.333(2056) = 685 kN
Level 1 F
Overturning moment on the wall as per Clause
4.1.8.11.7:
= 343(3.2) + 685(6.4) + 1028(9.6)
= 15,642 kN-m
Dead load on each wall (includes all components)
= 3(12.8/2)(18.3)(5.3)+0.25(1.12)(2.8/2)(18.3)
= 1895 kN

For Seismic load combinations dead load is not
reduced (NBCC Clause 4.1.3.2.4.)
For preliminary design, the depth of equivalent
rectangular stress block in the compression zone will
be neglected.
Assuming the effective depth of vertical reinforcement
is 5.5 m:
T
f
=
15642 1895(3)
5.5
= 1810 kN
A
s
=
f
s y
T
f
=
400 x 85 . 0
10 x 1730
3
= 5300 mm
2
(11-25M)
The force transfer between the precast shear wall
and the foundation can be accomplished by
reinforcing bars with grouted sleeves, rated
r welding. Alternatively, post-
chosen. The preliminary
the capacity of
the tem to transfer this force to the
su that analysis is not shown here.
Fo east-west direction, 18 individual
loadb cated along the length on each
sid amped bay will be used. These
each side
mmodate
s, and to
all in the north-
l eccentricity of 10%
Eccentricity = 0.1(54.9) = 5.5 m
Total force in walls in one row:
F =
mechanical couplers, o
tensioning bars could be
analysis is completed by examining
foundation sys
pporting ground;
r resistance in the
earing walls lo
e of the interior r
200 mm thick walls are spaced 3.05 m on centres,
supporting one 18.3 m span double tee on
of the wall. Each wall is 2 m wide to acco
the 1.5 m stem spacing of the double tee
ow visibility between the wall units. As
south direction, an accidenta
must be considered:
6360(18.3/ 2 5.5)
18.3
+
= 5090 kN, or 5090/18
= 282 kN to each wall.
The force on each wall:
Level 3 F
3
= 0.50(282) = 141 kN
Level 2 F
2
= 0.333(282) = 94 kN
Level 1 F
1
= 0.167(282) = 48 kN
Overturning moment on each wall:
= 48(3.2) + 94(6.4) + 141(9.6) = 2110 kN-m
The double tee floor weight = 3.6 kPa
Dead load on each wall = one wall + one tee at each
level (three levels) + snow :
N = [24(0.2)(3.2)(2)+3.6(18.3)(3.05)] +
0.25(1.12)(18.3)(3.05) = 710 kN
Assuming 1.7 m effective depth to vertical
reinforcement and neglect the compressive
rectangular stress block for this preliminary design.
T
f
=
2110 710(1)
1.7
= 824 kN
A
s
=
f
s y
T
f
=
3
824x10
0.85x400
= 2423 mm
2
(5-25M)
Diaphragm analysis
The diaphragm is modeled for north-south seismic
forces as shown below.
Diaphragm forces are designed to follow NBCC
Clause 4.1.8.15.1. Therefore, to ensure that the
diaphragm does not yield, it must be designed so that
the forces applied to it reflect the strength of the
SF phragm is connected rather
tha st the arthquake loads. For
ex the
SF ar,
then the she the diaphragm due to
the reased by 10%,
su ts noted in NBCC. However,
sin designed using R
d
=1.5, the
dia m designed for forces higher
tha ose c for this elastic structure.
ted uniformly. To simplify the calculation, the
for g the three bays, and the flat
RS to which the dia
n ju computed lateral e
ample, if the actual base shear capacity of
RS is 10% larger than the required base she
ar forces applied to
lateral loads must also be inc
bject to the upper limi
ce this structure was
phrag need not be
n th alculated
Assume that the SFRS forces in the diaphragm are
distribu
ce is divided amon
d ramp areas are an an alyzed separately.


Total uniform load at roof level:
3180
80.5
= 39.5 kN/m
each bay = w
1
= w
3
= Uniform load on
39.5
3

= 13.2 kN/m
In flat centre bay is
assumed taken by each of the north and south bays.
ng cantilevers will reduce the
co rvatively used for the flat area. Negative
d.
Re h e-bay structure
rse reinforcement across the joints to
improve s
the area, half of the load of the
w
2
= 13.2+ 13.2/2 = 19.8 kN/m
Because the overhangi
stresses in the level area, positive moments are
calculated for the ramp, and the results
nse
moments are also calculate
searc [22] indicates that in a thre
such as this one, the tee-to-beam joints at the end
bays at the four inverted tee beams are particularly
vulnerable. The pour strips over these beams should
have transve
trength and ductility.
+M
f
=

2 2
1
w (54.9) 13.2(54.9)
8 8
= = 4970 kN-m
-M
f
=
2 2
2
w (12.8) 19.8(12.8)
2 2
= = 1620 kN-m
V
f
=

13.2(54.9)
2
= 362 kN
R
2
= 362/2 = 181 kN for the middle diaphragm
at the ramp
Diaphragm moment design:
Assuming a 17.7 m moment arm:
T
3
= 4970/17.7 = 280 kN
This tensile force may be resisted by reinforcing bars
con gether in th eld acr the joi ing
sp tes and welds.
A =
placed into field applied concrete topping or curbs
located at each end of the double tees, or by
reinforcing steel shop welded to plates cast in the
edges of the double tee flanges. These plates are
nected to e fi oss nt us
lice pla
s

f
s y
T
f
=
3
0 280x1
0.85x4
= 82 (4-1
Splice plate of 300 MPa steel:
00
3 mm
2
5M)
Required A
pl
=
f
s y
f
T
=
3
0 280x1
0.9x300
= 1040 mm
2
(Plate 8 x 134)
The arrangement of reinforcement is as shown.
Typical chord tension connections
Diaphragm shear design:
V
f
t 4. iaphragm =
181 t the north
and

on
Co at the north and south bays to
she w higher than this load, and heavier
o each wall from the 5 9 m span d
a kN at the middle bay, and 362 kN
south bays.
The middle ramp, 3.05 m of each wall is connected to
a tee.
V
f
= 181/3.05 = 60 kN/m
If flange-to-wall connectors are provided at 1.0 m
centres, required capacity per connector = 60 kN.
nnection forces
ar alls will be

connections will be required or the load path will have
to be designed to transfer the diaphragm shear to
connections on each side of the shear wall.
Alternatively, additional shear walls could be utilized
at the elevator and stair wells.
For the first interior tee-to-tee connection in the
diaphragm:
V
f
= 362 3.05(13.2) = 322 kN
V
f
= 322/18.3 = 17.6 kN/m
If flange connectors are provided at 1.5 m on centres,
required capacity per connector = 17.6(1.5) = 26.2 kN.
Conclusion:
This preliminary analysis indicates that the presumed
sizes and arrangement of seismic force resisting
systems are reasonable, although increasing the
length of shear walls would decrease the amount of
vertical tension reinforcement and assist with
connections to the diaphragm. Refinements can be
made to the structure including any architectural
n [11] is defined as a method
ary load carrying elements are composed
of individual segments post-tensi
Segmental construction requires the Engineer to
cons
1. ment size (di
of forms, permitting the
economical construction of complicated shapes
Fig
revisions, and then the final analysis can be
performed.
2.9 SEGMENTAL CONSTRUCTION
2.9.1 General
Segmental constructio
of construction for buildings and other structures in
which prim
oned together.
ider the following:
choice of ele mension and weight)
2. configuration and structural response of the joint
between elements
3. construction sequence, loads and deflections
imposed at various stages
4. recognition of tolerances and the effect of these
upon the joint
Segmental construction provides all the advantages
associated with precast concrete and, in addition
permits the economical use of precast for the solution
of specific problems:
1. reduction of erection weights, permitting the use
of smaller capacity erection equipment
2. ability to manufacture large elements in plants of
limited size
3. multiple re-use
. 2.9.1 Types of joints

4. the ability of constructing deep elements (by
of individual elements within
or transportation), and thus
ry pack.
oncrete filled joints require forming around the joint
and should be at least 100 mm wide to allow proper
keeping the width
the allowable f
permitting the economical spanning of long
distances
5. various structural configurations, such as trusses
with inclined or parallel chords, may be readily
constructed
6. temporary falsework can be minimized by use of
cantilever construction for columns, similar to
familiar bridge construction methods
2.9.2 Joints and Joint Construction
Joints are of two types: either open, to permit
completion by a field pour, or narrow, where the joint
may be completed either dry or by use of a thin layer
of adhesive (Fig. 2.9.1). Both methods, which have
been successfully used in the past, are discussed
below.
Wide or open joints
The width of these joints vary from 50 to 300 mm.
They can be filled with concrete, grout or d
C

concrete placement and compaction. High range
water reducing agents in the joint concrete will
substantially reduce the problem of compaction. The
joining of tendon ducts can be well supervised and
inspected with wide joints.
The compressive strength of the joint concrete at a
specified age should be equal to the strength of the
concrete in the adjacent precast segments. High
early strength hydraulic cement may be used.
Aggregate size should be selected to ensure
maximum compaction.
The height of each concrete placement or lift must be
limited so that the concrete can be properly
consolidated. Ports are normally provided for
inspection.
Formwork must prevent leakage of concrete during
and after its placement. Adequate curing is necessary
to reach the design strength of the concrete.
Grouted joints are usually filled using pressure
grouting. The perimeter of the joint is sealed with a
compressible gasket, the compression achieved
either by use of external devices or by introducing a
small amount of prestress. Gaskets are also provided
around the individual post-tensioning tendons to
prevent grout leakage into the ducts that would block
passage of the tendons. The joint detail should
provide for vents at the top to permit escape of
en e con
grouting operation, vents should be closed and
pre MP at the
vent, to ensu ntrusion. Within a few days
Th nt should not be
gre e strength of the
in conjunction with
mortar should be
tho ghly mixed and have zero slu
aggregate size normally does not e .
Mortar should be rammed into place using a heavy
hamme nd a wood ram. The w th
joints should not exceed approximately 50 mm.
Mortar should be introduced into the joint in small
quantitie r batches not exceeding a kg.
Ea must be horoughly tamp cked

tory treatment of the
he joint surfaces must
etc. and preferably
wire brushed or sandblasted. Prior to construction of
the te surface should be
In ses, a perfect ma s is
essential. This can be a tch-
teel bulkheads.
Match-casting requires that each new segm s
cas iou ast neig se of
bond breaking agents allows the segments to be
sep h-casting involves careful
ents.
rovides more
ss floor space,
but its success depends on machined steel
bulkheads fabricated to very tight tolerances.
Match-cast segments are normally joined by coating
abutting surfaces with a thin (1 mm) layer of epoxy
adhesive, and then drawing together and holding in
position the precast elements. An epoxy filler is not
always necessary, however, it does provide the
following advantages:
1. During placement the epoxy will act as a
lubricant, which will assist in the alignment
process.
out any small contact
thus provide a uniform
ater than the concrete, and thus
e epoxy will provide water tightness and
durability at the joints.
Ep b h cast joints should be
nic
trapped air during grouting. At th clusion of the
ssure increased to a minimum of 0.1 a
re full grout i
er grouting, vents aft should be re-opened and if
consolidation is evident, the vent is filled.
e width of the pressure grouted joi
ater than 50 mm. The compressiv
grout should equal that of the concrete in adjacent
segments, but not less than 30 MPa. Admixtures,
such as water reducing agents or expansive agents,
if used, should be of the non-staining type.
Dry-packed joints are used
smaller elements having good access to all parts of
the joint. Dry-packing allows earlier application of the
final post-tensioning.
The concrete mortar must have a compressive
strength equal to the concrete in adjacent segments,
or at least 30 MPa. Good
rou mp. Maximum
xceed 5 mm
r a id of dry-packed
s o mass of 5
ch batch t ed and pa
before the next batch is placed. Containment may be
necessary, particularly at the bottom of the joint.
All wide joints require prepara
joint surfaces prior to filling. T
be clean, free from grease and oil,
joint, the adjacent concre
kept thoroughly wet for approximately 6 hours, or
bonding agent should be applied.
Narrow or closed joints
Narrow joints can be dry or epoxy bonded. The joint
width varies from practically zero for dry joints to
about 2 mm for epoxy bonded joints.
both ca tch of the joint surface
chieved through ma
casting or the use of precision s
ent i
t against its prev sly c hbour. The u
arated. Matc
organization and additional handling of the segm
The use of precision bulkheads p
flexibility in production and ties up le
2. The epoxy will even
surface differences and
bearing surface.
3. The epoxy will provide a joint with tensile
capacity gre
assure monolithic behaviour.
4. Th
oxy onding agents for matc
thermosetting, 100% solid compositions, that do not
contain solvents or any non-reactive orga
ingredient, except for pigments required for colouring.
Epoxy bonding agents should be of two components,
a resin and a hardener. The two components should

be distinctly pigmented, so that mixing produces a
third colour similar to the concrete in the segments to
be joined, and should be packaged in pre-portioned,
labelled, ready-to-use containers.
Epoxy bonding agents should be formulated to
ion of match-cast segments at ambient
tem a surfaces to be
bond esive
ap r temp be used.
we
of the concrete within the vicinity of the
rface temperatures greater than 45C
during the epoxy hardening process. Direct flame
st joints to be bonded
but not saturated surface is
e
e
e
The be applied in a uniform
at
e or the tendons. After
post uld be applied within 45 minutes
poxy material, and should be
maintained until the permanent tendons are stressed.
pres t amount
ru
joined (an a
iour of lap joint samples
spread on small cement boards), the epoxy should be
removed and any remainder washed off with solvent,
according to the instructions of the manufacturer,
followed by sandblasting. Particular care is required
in cold weather.
Epoxy bonding agents should be relatively insensitive
to damp conditions during application and, after
curing, should exhibit high bonding strength to cured
concrete, good water resistivity, low creep
characteristics, and tensile strength greater than the
concrete. The compressive strength of the epoxy
should equal that of the concrete in adjacent
segments under any environmental condition that
may be encountered during the life of the structure.
Epoxy bonding agents should be tested to determine
their workability, set time, open time, bond,
compression and shear strength, and working
temperature range. The frequency of tests should be
stated in the Contract.
If desired, test specimens can be made at the site to
later verify the properties of the epoxy. These may
include prisms of adhesive to test the compressive
strength, and diagonally-cut concrete cylinders or
prisms bonded together with the epoxy to indirectly
test shear strength by compressive loading. If
ry, concrete cores may be drilled through the
Dry
prov
little
desig ch a way that after all losses a
all dr
Requ
strict s filled with
or c
icular to the longitudinal axis is permitted for
tion resistance. The inclination
exceed 20. Larger inclination,
se
provide application temperature ranges that will
permit erect
per tures from 5C to 45C. If two
mperature ed have different te s, the adh
plicable at the lowe erature should
If the project requires or would benefit from erection
at a concrete temperature lo r than 5C, the
temperature
joint should be elevated to at least 5C to ensure
effective wetting of the surface by the epoxy
compound in a reasonable length of time. An artificial
environment will have to be provided to accomplish
this elevation in temperature, and should be created
by an enclosure heated by circulating warm air or by
radiant heaters. Localized heating should be avoided,
and the heat should be provided in a manner that
prevents su
heating of concrete surfaces should be prohibited.
Surfaces of the match-ca
should be sound, and clean. All traces of mold
release agents, curing compounds, laitance, oil, dirt
and loose concrete should be removed from surfaces
to be bonded by proper washing or sandblasting.
The concrete surfaces that are to be bonded should
not be wet; a damp
permissible. To get rid of a wet surface, the concret
may be dried with hot air just before applying th
adh sive.
adhesive should
thickness to both surfaces. Care must be taken th
no poxy mix enters the ducts f
joining the segments, the ducts must be checked to
ensure they are not blocked by any adhesive. Some
-tensioning sho
after application of the epoxy material and a minimum
average temporary prestress of 0.4 MPa over the
cross-section should be applied within 70% of the
open time of the e
At no point on the cross-section should the temporary
tress be less than 0.2 MPa. If the correc
of adhesive has been used, a small amount will
ext de from the joint when pressure is applied.
In case of unforeseen interruptions, and 70% of the
open time expires before the segments are fully
pproximate determination of the open
time can be noted from behav
necessa
bond line and tested in compression.
joints are fast to handle during construction and,
iding there is a perfect match of segments, very
can go wrong. Post-tensioning should be
ned in su
compressive stress of about 1.0 MPa remains across
y joints.
Joint surfaces
irements concerning surface quality must be
er for narrow joints than for wide joint
mortar oncrete.
Orientation:
Surfaces should be oriented perpendicular to the
main post-tensioning tendons, to minimize shearing
forces and dislocation in the plane of the joint during
post-tensioning. Inclination with respect to a plane
perpend
joints with assured fric
should generally not
but not more than approximately 30, may be
permitted if the inclined surface area is located clo
to the neutral axis and does not exceed 25 percent of
the joints total surface area.

Quality:
For wide joints, rough surfaces are preferable, as
they produce better bond between segment and filling
material. Since it is difficult in normal practice to
produce perfect sharp edges, it is advisable to make
tely 2.5 percent.
ing.
lates or
carefully
ettlement, or change in loading
ny
bled using a grout
tensile stress at the joint
en a
4. ge forces
Bear
force to accommodate
therm
joint surface edges slightly rounded or chamfered.
Although this will tend to make joints visible, it will
also reduce the contrast if neighbouring segments
have slight colour variance. Rounding or chamfering
of edges should not decrease the joint surface area
by more than approxima
For narrow joints, the surface, including formed keys,
should be even and smooth, to avoid point contact
and surface crushing or chipping off of edges during
post-tension
Holes for tendons and couplers
Holes or sheathing for tendons must be located very
precisely, such as by using steel temp
precision steel bulkheads, when producing segments
joined by post-tensioning. Care is required to prevent
leakage or penetration of joint-filling materials into the
duct, thus blocking passage of the tendons.
Joints are always crossed by post-tensioning ducts
and tendons. Two basic methods are used:
1. Tendons in ducts through the segments.
2. Tendons placed outside the segment.
The second case does not cause any problems for
the joints. The first case is discussed in detail in the
PTI Post-Tensioning Manual. [12]
2.9.3 Design Considerations
Design procedures for precast segmental structures
are essentially the same as for monolithic
prestressed concrete structures.[13]
Settlement and shortening of scaffolding due to dead
load of segments as well as construction loads must
be considered. Segments need to be
aligned and levelled before forming joints and post-
tensioning.
Shortening of the segments and jointing materials
due to temperature, s
conditions should be checked before post-tensioning
the structure. If joints separate due to the above
causes, the post-tensioning may cause uneven
distribution of stresses or grout leakage.
Elements that are post-tensioned require the
following additional considerations:
Flexural stresses
1. For elements that are assembled using a dry
joint and to prevent joint opening, tension should
not be permitted between segments under a
stage of erection or service loading.
2. For elements that are assembled using an epoxy
joint, the allowable tensile stress at the joint may
be considered the same as that for monolithic
construction.
3. For elements that are assem
joint, the allowable
should be taken as zero unless tests indicate
otherwise.
Joint shear
When joints are composed of an epoxy or grout with
a tensile strength at least equal to the concrete, the
element may be designed as a monolithic. Wh
dry joint is used, shear should be considered
transferred by friction, using a friction factor of 0.7.
(This value is given as a guide. The actual value to
be used requires engineering judgement.) At working
loads, care should be taken that there is no relative
displacement at the joint. At ultimate, the available
shear resistance V
r
should be at least equal to V
f
,
where V
f
is the factored shear.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement, to meet at least minimum
requirements for flexural elements in accordance with
the Code, is normally required in segments for:
1. transverse bending moments
2. shear
3. torsion due to eccentric loading
thermal and volume chan
5. temporary forces imposed during fabrication,
transportation, or erection
Bearing and anchorage
ing areas are subjected to large concentrated
s; they may also need
substantial movement due to volume changes and
al effects.
Generally, four different areas of diagonal splitting
and cracking can be identified in anchorage or
bearing areas that will require reinforcement:

1. Under end surfaces, not more than 20 mm deep,
to control possible surface cracking around
anchorages.
2. Internally, to prevent splitting of separate
anchorages. Size and location of this area and
of the magnitude of splitting (bursting) force
depends on the type of anchorage and the force
in the post-tensioning tendon, and should be
investigated individually for each type of
anchorage.
3. Internally, to prevent splitting between groups of
anchorages (not distributed on bearing surface
uniformly). For each case, the splitting force and
necessary reinforcement should be defined
separately for the vertical and horizontal
directions.
4. To decrease the possibility of damage to
segments during post-tensioning due to
unintended stress concentrations, or during
handling of segments, supplemental
reinforcement may be desirable immediately
adjacent to the joint surface.
Concrete that is placed around anchorages, after
post-tensioning, should be reinforced to ensure that it
will not spall.
Couplers
Couplers should be designed to develop the full
ultimate resistance of the tendons they connect.
Adjacent to the coupler, the tendons should be
straight for a minimum length of 12 times the
diameter of the coupler. Adequate provisions should
n
transformed cracked section
be made to ensure that couplers can move during
prestressing. It is particularly important that the void
areas around a coupler be deducted from gross
section areas when computing stresses at the time of
prestressing.
Deflections
Deflection calculations should consider dead load,
prestress, erection loads, concrete creep and
shrinkage, and steel relaxation. For joints using a
epoxy or grout with a tensile strength at least equal to
the concrete, the elements may be considered
monolithic. When a dry joint is used, deflection should
be computed based on a bilinear moment-deflection
relationship, using a
when tensile stresses exist in the precompressed
tensile zone.
2.9.4 Post-tensioning Considerations
Background information on various post-tensioning
systems and their applications is given in Chapter 1
and in the PTI Post-Tensioning Manual. [12]

on of the
stressed
rames with Shear Walls, Bulletin
ociation Computer
esign of
NAL, Vol.
ada: The
a, 2005,
ressed Concrete
nn Arbor, Jan.
pp. 653-660
[12]
[13] Large
[14] J.R., Statically Indeterminate
[15]
pported by an Isolated Footing, PCI
JOURNAL, V47. No. 6, Nov-Dec 2002
n Concrete Institute Response of
Reinhold Company,
pecial Issue on
d Earthquake Design Requirements of
the National Building Code of Canada, Canadian
, No:30, Vol 2,
structures with Highly
rthquake Spectra, Vol.
Earthquake Eng. Research
2.10 REFERENCES
[1] National Research Council., National Academy
of Sciences Expansion Joints in Buildings,
Technical Report No. 65, 1974
[2] Martin, L.D., Background and Discussion on PCI
Design Handbook Second Edition, PCI
JOURNAL, Vol. 25, No. 1, Jan-Feb 1980, pp. 24-
41
[3] Englekirk, R.E. Design-Constructi
Paramount A 39 Story Precast Pre
Concrete Apartment Building, PCI JOURNAL,
Vol. 47, No. 4, Jul-Aug 2002
[4] Gouwens, A.J., Lateral Load Analysis of
Multistorey F
AEC2, Portland Cement Ass
Program
[5] MacGregor, J.G., and Hage, S.E., Stability
Analysis and Design of Concrete, Proceedings,
JOURNAL of the Structural Division, ASCE,
October, 1977
[6] Speyer, I.J., Consideration for the D
Precast Concrete Bearing Wall Buildings to
Withstand Abnormal Loads, PCI JOUR
21, No. 2, Mar-Apr 1976, pp. 18-51
[7] National Research Council of Can
National Building Code of Canad
Volume 1
[8] Design Considerations for Precast Prestressed
Apartment Building, Prest
Institute, 1975, 224 pp
[9] Kahn, L.F., Reinforced Concrete Infilled Shear
Walls for Aseismic Strengthening, Report UMEE
76R1, University of Michigan, A
1976
[10] Spencer, R.A. and Tong, W.K.T., Design of a
One-story Precast Concrete Building for
Earthquake Loading, Proc., Eighth World Conf.
on Earthquake Engineering, San Francisco,
1984, Vol. V,
[11] PCI Committee on Segmental Construction,
Recommended Practice for Segmental
Construction in Prestressed Concrete, PCI
JOURNAL, Vol. 20, No. 2, Mar-Apr 1975, pp. 22-
41
Post-Tensioning Manual, Sixth Edition, Post-
Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, Arizona, 2006
Martynowicz, A. and McMillan, C.B.,
Precast Prestressed Vierendeel Trusses
Highlight Multistorey Building, PCI JOURNAL,
Vol. 20, No. 6, Nov-Dec 1975, pp. 50-65
Benjamin,
Structure, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1959
Aristizabal-Ochoa, J.D., Moment Restraint and
Second Order Analysis of a Cantilevered Precast
Column Su
[16] America
Multistory Concrete Structures to Lateral Forces,
Special Publication SP-36., 1973
[17] ACI Committee 442 Response of Buildings to
Lateral Forces, ACI JOURNAL, V68. No. 2,
February 1971
[18] Portland Cement Association Design of
Combined Frames and Shear Walls, Advanced
Engineering Bulletin No. 14, 1965
[19] Fintel, M., Handbook of Concrete Engineering,
2
nd
Edition, Van Nostrand
NY, 1965
[20] Nakaki, S. D., Stanton, J.F., Sritharan, S. , An
overview of the PRESSS Five-Story Precast
Test Building PCI JOURNAL, Special Report,
Vol. 44, No. 2, Mar-Apr 1999, pp. 26-39
[21] Devall, R. Introduction to S
Propose
JOURNAL of Civill Engineering
April 2003
[22] Fleischman, Robert B., Farrow, Kenneth, T., and
eastman, Kristin, Seismic Performance of
Perimeter Lateral System
flexible Diaphragms Ea
18, No.2, May 2002,
Institute
CHAPTER 3
DESIGN OF ELEMENTS

3.0 NOTATION...................................................................................................................... 3-3
3.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 3-10
3.2 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTORS.......................................................................... 3-10
3.2.1 Load Combinations and Load Factors ............................................................. 3-10
3.2.2 Load Combination for Serviceability Checks.................................................... 3-10
3.2.3 Material Resistance Factors............................................................................. 3-10
3.3 FACTORED FLEXURAL RESISTANCE....................................................................... 3-10
3.3.1 Design Procedures........................................................................................... 3-10
3.3.2 Analysis Using Equations in A23.3................................................................... 3-12
3.3.3 Analysis Using Strain Compatibility.................................................................. 3-24
3.4 FLEXURAL DESIGN AT SERVICE LIMIT STATE........................................................ 3-26
3.4.2 Reinforced Element Design.............................................................................. 3-26
3.4.3 Prestressed Element Design General ........................................................... 3-27
3.4.4 Prestress Loss General ................................................................................. 3-31
3.4.5 Prestress Loss by Simplified Method ............................................................... 3-32
3.4.6 Prestress Loss by Detailed Method.................................................................. 3-33
3.4.7 Prestress Losses and Deflection in Composite Elements................................ 3-39
3.4.8 Partially Prestressed Element Design.............................................................. 3-44
3.4.9 Prestress Transfer and Strand Development ................................................... 3-52
3.4.10 End Stresses at Transfer.................................................................................. 3-57
3.5 CAMBER AND DEFLECTION....................................................................................... 3-57
3.5.1 Initial Camber ................................................................................................... 3-57
3.5.2 Elastic Deflections ............................................................................................ 3-58
3.5.3 Long-Term Camber/Deflection......................................................................... 3-60
3.5.4 Use of Multipliers for Determining Long-Term Camber and Deflection ........... 3-60
3.5.5 Detailed Method for Determining Long-Term Camber and Deflection
Fully Prestressed Elements.............................................................................. 3-62
3.5.6 Detailed Calculation of Live Load Deflection - Partially Prestressed Elements3-62
3.5.7 Camber and Deflection of Composite Elements .............................................. 3-64
3.6 SHEAR .......................................................................................................................... 3-64
3.6.2 Determination of the Factored Shear Resistance ............................................ 3-64
3.6.3 Shear Resistance Calculations and Shear Diagrams ...................................... 3-65
3.6.4 Longitudinal Shear Transfer in Composite Elements....................................... 3-69
3.7 DESIGN FOR SHEAR AND TORSION......................................................................... 3-73
3.8 COMPRESSION............................................................................................................ 3-79
3.8.1 Factored Resistance......................................................................................... 3-79
3.8.2 Development Length ........................................................................................ 3-81
3.8.3 Slenderness Effects.......................................................................................... 3-84
3.8.4 Effective Width of Wall Panels ......................................................................... 3-89
3.8.5 Load-bearing Insulated Wall Panels................................................................. 3-90
3.8.6 Non-uniform Moment of Inertia......................................................................... 3-90
3.8.7 Piles.................................................................................................................. 3-91
3.9 HANDLING CONSIDERATIONS................................................................................... 3-95
3.9.1 Form Suction and Impact Factors .................................................................... 3-95
3.9.2 Flexure.............................................................................................................. 3-95
3.9.3 Lateral Stability............................................................................................... 3-100
3.9.4 Storage........................................................................................................... 3-104
3.9.5 Transportation ................................................................................................ 3-105
3.9.6 Erection........................................................................................................... 3-105
3.10 SPECIAL DESIGN SITUATIONS................................................................................ 3-106
3.10.1 Distribution of Concentrated Loads................................................................ 3-106
3.10.2 Effects of Openings ........................................................................................ 3-107
3.10.3 Composite Topping with Hollow Core and Double Tee Slabs ....................... 3-108
3.10.4 Cantilevers...................................................................................................... 3-108
3.11 SANDWICH PANEL DESIGN ..................................................................................... 3-108
3.11.1 General ........................................................................................................... 3-108
3.11.2 Reinforcement ................................................................................................ 3-108
3.11.3 Non-load Bearing Panel Design..................................................................... 3-109
3.11.4 Load Bearing Panel Design............................................................................ 3-109
3.12 DESIGN OF POST-TENSIONED ELEMENTS........................................................... 3-113
3.12.1 General ........................................................................................................... 3-113
3.12.2 Methods of Analysis ....................................................................................... 3-113
3.12.3 Design for Service Loads ............................................................................... 3-115
3.12.4 Prestress Losses............................................................................................ 3-116
3.12.5 Design for Factored Loads ............................................................................. 3-118
3.12.6 Other Considerations...................................................................................... 3-134
3.13 REFERENCES: ........................................................................................................... 3-142

DESIGN OF ELEMENTS
3.0 NOTATION
A = effective tension area of concrete
surrounding the flexural tension
reinforcement
A = area of that part of cross-section between
flexural tension face and centroid of gross
section.
A
c
= concrete cross-sectional area, not including
area of reinforcement
A
comp
= cross-sectional area of the equivalent
rectangular stress block
A
cr
= area of cracked section
A
cv
= area of concrete section resisting shear
transfer
A
g
= gross area of section
A
o
= area enclosed by shear flow path, including
holes if any
A
oh
= area enclosed by stirrup centerline,
including holes if any.
A
p
= area of prestressed reinforcement in
tension zone
p
A = area of prestressed reinforcement in
compression zone
A
r
= concrete area in tension below the neutral
axis
A
s
= area of non-prestressed tension
reinforcement
s
A = area of non-prestressed compression
reinforcement
A
st
= A
p
+ A
s
E
s
/E
p

A
t
= area of one leg of closed stirrup
A
top
= effective area of cast-in-place composite
topping
A
tr
= area of uncracked transformed section
A
v
= area of shear reinforcement
A
vf
= area of shear friction reinforcement
A
v
l
= area of shear ties
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block
a = width of a panel
a = length of overhang
a
g
= maximum aggregate size

b = length of a panel
b = width of compression face of element
b
t
= width of tension zone of section
b
v
= width of cross section at contact surface
being investigated for longitudinal shear
b
w
= minimum effective web width within depth d
C = compressive force
C = cross sectional constant used in definition
of equivalent column torsional properties
C
c
= compressive force capacity of composite
topping
C
m
= factor relating the actual moment diagram
to an equivalent uniform moment diagram
C
s
= shrinkage coefficient
C
t
= creep coefficient
C
u
= ultimate creep coefficient for standard
conditions
c = distance from extreme compression fibre to
neutral axis
c
a
= applied overhanging moment arm
c
r
= resisting moment arm
c
1
= width of column in direction moments taken
c
2
= width of column in direction perpendicular
to moments taken
c
u
= neutral axis depth assuming f
pr
= f
pu

c
y
= neutral axis depth assuming f
pr
= f
py

D = dead load
d = distance from extreme compression fibre to
centroid of prestressed and non-
prestressed tension reinforcement, but
need not be less than 0.8h for prestressed
members.
centroid of non-prestressed tension
reinforcement
centroid of non-prestressed compression
reinforcement
d
b
= nominal diameter of reinforcing bar or
prestressing strand
d
c
= concrete cover to centre of reinforcement
d
p
,
p
centroid of stressed reinforcement
d
v
= effective shear depth; taken as flexural
lever arm but need not be taken less than
0.9 d or 0.72 h
E = modulus of elasticity
E
c
= modulus of elasticity of concrete
E
cc
= modulus of elasticity of concrete for column
E
ci
= modulus of elasticity of concrete at time of
prestress transfer
E
cs
= modulus of elasticity of concrete for slab
E
p
= modulus of elasticity of prestressed
reinforcement
E
s
= modulus of elasticity of non-prestressed
reinforcement
e = eccentricity of design load or prestress
force parallel to axis measured from the
centroid of the section
e = distance between centroid of prestress
force at end and centroid of prestress force
at lowest point = e
c
e
e

e
c
= eccentricity of prestress force from the
centroid of the section at the centre of the
span
e
e
centroid of the section at the end of the
span
e
j
= initial lateral eccentricity of the C. G. of
beam
e
tr
= eccentricity of prestress force in uncracked
transformed section
e
x
= eccentricity of prestress force from x axis
e
y
= eccentricity of prestress force from y axis
F = force as defined in section used (with
subscripts)
F
eq
= equilibrium forces in anchorage zone
F
it
= required tensile force in longitudinal
reinforcement on flexural tension side of
member
FS = factor of safety against cracking
FS = factor of safety against failure or roll-over

F
sp
= spalling force
f
all
= allowable compressive stress
f
b
= stress in the bottom fibre of the cross
section
f
c
= unit stress in concrete

c
f = specified compressive strength of concrete

cc
f = specified compressive strength of
composite topping, or of concrete in
columns
f
ce
= stress in concrete at the level of
prestressing tendons after all losses
f
ce
= compressive stress in concrete due to
prestress only after all losses, at the
extreme fibre of a section at which tensile
stresses are caused by applied loads
f
ci
= compressive stress in concrete at time of
prestress transfer
ci
f = compressive strength of concrete at time of
prestress transfer
f
co
= concrete compressive stress at centroid of
tendon at critical section immediately after
transfer
f
cp
= compressive stress in concrete (after
allowance for all prestress losses) at the
centroid of the cross section
f
c1
= concrete stress at centroid of tendon at the
critical section caused by sustained loads
not included in the calculation of f
co
(tension
negative)
f
l
= calculated stress due to live load
f
pe
= effective stress in prestressed
reinforcement after allowance for all
prestress losses
f
pi
= stress in tendon after transfer
f
po
= stress in pretensioned tendon immediately
before transfer
f
pp
= stress in tendon at a distance y from the
jacking end
f
pr
= stress in prestressed reinforcement at
factored resistance
f
pu
= tensile strength of tendon
f
px
= stress in tendon at a distance x from the
jacking end
f
py
= yield strength of tendon
f
r
= modulus of rupture of concrete
r
f = allowable flexural tension stress computed
on the basis of gross concrete section
f
re
= intrinsic relaxation loss in prestressing steel
f
s
= stress in the non-prestressed tension
reinforcement due to specified loads
f
s
= increase in stress in the prestressed and
non-prestressed reinforcement beyond
state of decompression
s
f = stress in the non-prestressed compression
reinforcement due to specified loads
f
sd
= stress due to service dead load
f
t
= stress in the top fibre of the cross section
f
t
l
= final total stress in the element
f
y
,
y
f = specified yield strength of non-prestressed
reinforcement
h = overall height or thickness of a member
h
c
= centre to centre column height
h
f
= thickness of compression flange of an
element
h
r
= height of axis above road

h
u
= unsupported height of wall
h
1
= distance from centroid of tensile
reinforcement to neutral axis
h
2
= distance from extreme tensile fibre to
neutral axis
I = moment of inertia about centroidal axis
I
c
= moment of inertia of concrete section
I
cr
= moment of inertia of the cracked trans-
formed section
I
e
= effective moment of inertia
I
g
= moment of inertia of gross concrete section
I
minor
= moment of inertia about the minor axis
I
major
= moment of inertia about the major axis
I
s
= moment of inertia of reinforcement
I
tr
= moment of inertia of uncracked transformed
section
I
x
= moment of inertia about x axis
I
y
= moment of inertia about y axis
I
xy
= A
g
(x x
L
) (y y
b
)
J = polar moment of inertia
j = ratio of distance between centroid of
compression and centroid of tension to the
depth, d, for a cracked section at service
moment
K = wobble coefficient for a post-tensioning
tendon
K
c
= flexural stiffness of column
K
ec
= flexural stiffness of equivalent column
K
O
= sum of rotational spring constants of
supports
K
r
= moment coefficient
K
s
= flexural stiffness of slab
K
t
= torsional stiffness of torsion element
k = effective length factor for compression
elements
k = ratio of depth to the neutral axis to the
depth, d, for a cracked section at service
moment
k
c
= stiffness coefficient
k
1
, k
p
, = factors for type of prestressing steel
k
r

k
p
= coefficient used in calculating critical load,
P
c

k
p
= coefficient accounting for the shape of
tendon stress-strain curve
L = live load due to intended use
l = overall length
l = span length
l = length of tendon
l
1
= span in direction moments considered
l
2
= span in direction perpendicular to moments
considered
l
b
= length of bar,
l
b
= length of bearing
l
c
= vertical distance between supports
l
d
= development length
l
e
= length of tendon between anchors divided
by the number of plastic hinges required to
develop a failure mechanism in the span
under consideration
l
n
= length of clear span of element
l
o

= overall length of tendon between anchors
l
t

= transfer length of tendons

l
u
= unsupported length of a compression
element
l
v
= horizontal shear length as defined in Fig.
3.6.6
M = moment due to specified loads
M = secondary moment
M
a
= total moment at the section
M
bal
= balance load moment in post-tensioned
element
M
c
= moment used for design of compression
elements
M
cr
= cracking moment
M
CS
= moment in column strip
M
d
= moment due to specified dead load
M
dc
= decompression moment
M
DS
= moment in design strip
M
f
= moment due to factored loads
M
l
= moment due to specified live loads
M
lat
= lateral bending moment at cracking
M
n
= net moment at a section
M
n
l
= net load moment in post-tensioned element
M
ns
= moments from a first order analysis due to
gravity loads, which do not contribute to
sway
M
ocr
= pure flexural cracking moment
M
r
= factored flexural resistance
M
ro
= factored flexural resistance of a
compression element with zero axial load
M
rb
= factored flexural resistance under balanced
conditions
M
s
= factored sway moment
M
s
= moment due to all specified loads, including
P- effects.
M
sd
= moment due to superimposed dead load
M
sl
= moment due to all sustained load except
element mass
M
sw
= moment due to self weight
M
v
= moment transferred by eccentricity of shear
M
vcr
= total moment due to factored loads plus
eccentric shear
M
x
, M
y
M
z

= service or stripping load moments about x,
y and z axes
M
1
= smaller factored end moment on a
compression element, positive if bent in
single curvature, negative if double
curvature
M
2
= larger factored end moment, always
positive
M
2ns
= factored end moment on a compression
member at the end at which M
2
acts, due to
loads that cause no appreciable sway,
calculated using a fist-order elastic frame
analysis
M
2s
= factored end moment on a compression
member at the end at which M
2
acts, due to
loads that cause appreciable sway,
calculated using a fist-order elastic frame
analysis
m = unfactored mass
N = unfactored axial load
N = allowable axial load
N
f
= factored axial load occurring with V
f

N
v
= equivalent factored axial load caused by
shear and torsion
n = modular ratio
n = number of bars
n
o
= E
p
/E
co

n =
p
s
2
c
E
M
E
bd

n =
p p s s
c
A E A E
E bd
+

n
1
= E
p
/ E
c1

P
bu
= final force in upper layer of bottom
prestressed reinforcement
P
b
l
= final force in lower layer of bottom
P
c
= critical axial load
P
c
= shrinkage coefficient to account for cement
content
P
c
= compression force in concrete
P
dc
= decompression force
P
e
= prestress force after all losses
P
f
= shrinkage coefficient to account for fine to
total aggregate ratio
P
f
= factored axial load
P
h
= shrinkage coefficient to account for relative
humidity
P
i
= prestress force immediately after transfer
P
o
= initial prestress force immediately before
transfer
P
R
= anchorage zone equilibrium force reaction
P
r
= factored axial load resistance
P
r
= shrinkage coefficient to account for volume
to surface ratio
P
rb
= factored axial resistance under balanced
conditions
P
ro
= factored axial resistance of a compression
element with zero eccentricity
P
s
= force in non-prestressed reinforcement due
to time dependent strain
P
sh
= long term shrinkage modification factor
P
s
l
= shrinkage coefficient to account for slump
P
t
= final force in top prestressed reinforcement
P
v
= shrinkage coefficient to account for air
content
p = P
dc
d
p
/M
s

p
c
= outside perimeter of cross section
p
h
= perimeter of stirrup centreline
p
o
= perimeter of shear flow path
Q = stability index of a storey
Q
a
= creep coefficient to account for concrete
age at time of loading and curing conditions
Q
cp
= creep modification factor for non-standard
conditions
Q
f
= creep coefficient to account for the fine to
total aggregate ratio
Q
h
= creep coefficient to account for relative
humidity
Q
r
= creep coefficient to account for the volume
to surface ratio
Q
s
l
= creep coefficient to account for concrete
slump
Q
v
= creep coefficient to account for concrete air
content
r = radius of stability = K
O
/ W
s
z
= crack spacing parameter, can be taken as
equal to d
u

s
ze
= equivalent s
z
allowing for aggregate size
S = section modulus
S = time dependent factor to calculate long term
deflection
S
b
= section modulus with respect to the bottom
fibre of a cross section
S
t
= section modulus with respect to the top
fibre of a cross section
s = shear or torsion reinforcement spacing in a
direction parallel to the longitudinal
reinforcement
T = tensile force
T = cumulative effects of temperature, creep,
shrinkage and differential settlement
T
cr
= pure torsional cracking resistance
T
f
= factored torsional moment on a section
t = thickness
t = time
V/S = volume to surface ratio
V
c
= factored shear resistance of the concrete
V
cw
= factored shear resistance provided by
concrete when diagonal cracking results
from excessive principal tensile stress in
web
V
f
= factored shear force
v
f
= factored shear stress
V
f
l
= factored longitudinal shear force
V
p
= factored component in the direction of the
applied shear of the effective prestressing
force factored by
p
or, for variable depth
members, the sum of the component of the
prestressing force and the components of
flexural compression and tension in the
direction of the applied shear, positive if
resisting applied shear, factored by
p

V
r
V
r
l
= factored longitudinal shear resistance
V
s
= factored shear resistance provided by shear
reinforcement
v
s
= factored shear stress resisted by shear
reinforcement
V
se
= shear due to specified loads
W = live load due to wind or internal moment or
forces
W = total weight of beam
W = weight per unit length of beam
w = specified load per unit length of beam or
per unit area of slab
w = maximum crack width at extreme tension
fibre
w
d
= specified dead load per unit length
w
l
= specified live load per unit of length
w
n
l
= net service load per unit of length
(unfactored)
w
p
= vertical distributed load exerted on an
element by a post-tensioning tendon
w
sd
= specified superimposed dead load
x = anchorage length of a tension tie of torsion
resisting cross section
x
L
= distance from left edge to y axis
Y = height of the C.G. of beam above the roll
axis (adjusted for camber)
Y
r
= height of the roll axis above the C.G. of
beam (adjusted for camber)
y = larger overall dimension of rectangular part
of torsion resisting cross section
y = distance from top to centroid of A
comp

y
b
= distance from bottom fibre to centroid of the
section
y
cr
= distance to tension fibre being considered
from centroid of cracked section
y
t
= distance from top fibre to centroid of
cracked section
y
tr
= distance to extreme tension fibre from
centroid of uncracked transformed section
Z = total bursting force
Z = lateral deflection of C.G. of beam
Z
max
= horizontal distance from centre of vehicle to
centre of dual tire
o
=

theoretical lateral deflection of the C.G. of
beam with full load applied laterally
o
=
o
adjusted for cracked section at tilt angle
under consideration
z = a quantity limiting distribution of flexural
reinforcement
= angle change in post-tensioning tendon
= load factor (with subscripts) as defined in
Fig. 3.2.1
= superelevation of tilt angle of support
f
= angle between shear friction reinforcement
and shear plane
1
strength
b
= b
w
/b
f
= h
f
/h
r
= relaxation reduction coefficient (Fig. 3.4.4)
= angle used in post-tensioning friction
calculations
= f
pi
/ f
pu

= f
p
/ f
pi
= factor accounting for shear resistance of
cracked concrete
1
= ratio of depth of rectangular compression
block to depth to the neutral axis
d
= ratio of factored dead load moment to total
load moment
d
= ratio of the maximum factored sustained
shear within a storey to the maximum
factored shear in that storey
= importance factor
= deflection (with subscripts)
= post-tensioning anchorage set
f
p
= change in prestress due to creep, shrinkage
and relaxation
f
po
= change in prestress due to elastic loss
f
s
= change in stress in reinforcement due to
creep and shrinkage
su
i
= initial deflection due to sustained load
su
t
= time dependent deflection due to sustained
load
P
i
= initial deflection due to prestressing
P
t
= time dependent deflection due to
prestressing
P = change in prestressing force in concrete
(loss)
P
o
= force in prestressed reinforcement
corresponding to f
c
due to dead load and
effective prestress
P
p
= force in tendon corresponding to the
concrete strength f
c
at the level of the
tendon under dead load and effective
prestress
P
s
= force in non-prestressed reinforcement
corresponding to f
c
due to dead load and
effective prestress
= strand elongation due to post-tensioning
= moment magnifier (with subscripts)
c
= the value of concrete strain
ce
= the strain in concrete corresponding to a
stress of f
pe
in the steel
cp
= strain due to creep
i
= initial elastic strain
p
= strain at level of prestressed reinforcement
pr
,
pr
= strain in prestressed reinforcement
s
,
s
= strain in non-prestressed reinforcement
pe
= strain in prestressed reinforcement after
losses
sh
= shrinkage strain
shu
= ultimate shrinkage strain
x
= longitudinal strain of flexural tension chord
of the member
y
= yield strain of non-prestressed
reinforcement
= angle of minor axis of a section
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive
stresses to the longitudinal axis of member
i
= initial roll angle of rigid beam = e
I
/ Y
r

max
= tilt angle at which cracking begins
max

= tilt angle at the maximum factor of safety
against failure
= factor to account for density of concrete
= modification factor for EI for compression
members
= shear friction coefficient
= coefficient of curvature friction (post-
tensioned tendon)
= reinforcement ratio
p
= A
p
/bd = reinforcement ratio for prestressed
reinforcement
s
=
s s
c p
A E
A E

t
= top stress
b
= bottom stress
o
= bursting stress in anchorage zone at x = 0
x
= bursting stress in anchorage zone at x
y
= bursting stress in anchor zone at y
= resistance factor (with subscripts) as
defined in Fig. 3.2.3
m
= member resistance factor used in moment
magnification calculation
= curvature
= modification factors for anchors in Chapter
24 of A23.3
= deflection multiplier for sustained load
=
y c
f / f
p
=
p pr c
f / f
pu
=
p pu c
f / f
=
p pi
f / f ; (f
p
f
p1
) / f
pi
= superscript used to identify terms used in

the creep transformed section method (see
Sec. 3.4.7)
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides a summary of design
procedures for precast concrete elements with
pretensioned, post-tensioned and non-prestressed
reinforcement. Post-tensioning is a method of
prestressing where the tendons are tensioned after
the concrete has reached a predetermined strength.
Pretensioning is a method of prestressing where the
tendons are tensioned before the concrete is placed.
No attempt has been made in this chapter to
differentiate between the design of architectural and
structural elements, or between the design of load
bearing and non-load bearing elements, as the
design approach is common to all cases.
3.2 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTORS
3.2.1 Load Combinations and Load Factors
NBCC 2005 specifies a set of load combinations, that
takes into account a governing load called the
principal load, and a secondary load known as the
companion load.
3.2.2 Load Combination for Serviceability
Checks
For load combination at service limit state refer to
NBCC-2005 Commentary.
3.2.3 Material Resistance Factors
The material resistance factors are as shown in Fig.
3.2.3. Clause 16.1.3 of A23.3 states that for elements
produced in manufacturing plants certified in
accordance with A23.4, the concrete material
resistance factor,
c
, may be taken as 0.70.
3.3 FACTORED FLEXURAL RESISTANCE
3.3.1 Design Procedures
The flexural resistance of an element must be equal
to or greater than the factored load effect:
M
r
M
f
The flexural resistance of any section can be
determined using design procedures that take into
account equilibrium and strain compatibility. For
many prestressed elements, the stress in the
prestressed reinforcement at factored resistance, f
pr
,
can be obtained using the equations given in A23.3.
The equilibrium equations using the rectangular
stress block are shown in Fig. 3.3.1.
Fig. 3.2.1 Load combinations and load factors
from NBCC 2005
Load Combination
Case
Factored
Resistance Principal Loads
Companion
Loads
1 R 1.4D
2 R 1.25D + 1.5L 0.5S or 0.4W
3 R 1.25D + 1.5S 0.5L or 0.4W
4 R 1.25D + 1.4W 0.5L or 0.5S
5
R + effect
of 0.9 D
1.4 W or 1.5L or
1.5S

6 R 1.0 D + 1.0 E 0.5 L + 0.25 S
7
R + effect
of 1.0 D
1.0 E
Notes:
1. Where the effects due to lateral earth pressure H, prestress
P and imposed deformation T affect the structural safety,
they shall be taken into account in the calculations, H with a
load factor of 1.5, P with a load factor 1.0 and T with a load
factor of 1.25.
2. The principal load factor 1.5 for live load L may be reduced
to 1.25 for liquids in tanks.
3. The companion load factor 0.5 for live load L shall be
increased to 1.0 for storage occupancies.
4. The load factor 1.25 for dead load D for soil, super imposed
earth, plant ant trees shall be increased to 1.5.
5. Earthquake load E in load combination (6) and (7) includes
horizontal earth pressure due to earthquake.
6. The dead load factors of 1.25 specified in load cases 2 to 4
and 1.0 specified in case 5 are to be reduced to 0.9 when
dead load acts to resist overturning, uplift, sliding and failure
due to stress reversal, and to determine anchor
requirements and factored member resistances.

Fig. 3.2.2 Importance Factors (NBCC-2005)
Importance Category Snow load factor, I
s
Wind load factor, I
W
Seismic load factor, I
E

ULS SLS ULS SLS ULS
Low 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.75 0.8
Normal 1.0 0.9 1.0 0.75 1.0
High 1.15 0.9 1.15 0.75 1.3
Post Disaster 1.25 0.9 1.25 0.75 1.5
Fig. 3.2.3 Material resistance factors
Materials Factor
Cast in place concrete
c
= 0.65
Precast concrete non-certified
c
= 0.65
Precast concrete certified to A23.
c
= 0.70
Reinforcing steel
s
= 0.85
Prestressing steel
p
= 0.90
Structural steel
a
= 0.90
Stress block parameters
The depth of the rectangular stress block, a, is
related to the depth to the neutral axis, c, by the
equation:
a =
1
c

1
=
c
0.97 0.0025f
but not less than 0.67
The ratio of average stress in the rectangular
compression stress block to the specified strength is
given by
1

1
=
c
0.85 0.0015f but not less than 0.67
c
f (MPa)
1

1

30 0.805 0.895
35 0.798 0.883
40 0.790 0.870
45 0.783 0.858
50 0.775 0.845
55 0.768 0.833
60 0.760 0.820
65 0.753 0.808
70 0.745 0.795
75 0.737 0.783
80 0.730 0.770
Flanged elements
Clause 10.3.3, A23.3 limits the overhanging flange
width on either side of the web to be used in the
design of simply supported, symmetrical T-beams to
12 times the flange thickness, 1/2 the clear distance
to the next web or 1/5 the span length. These
empirical provisions were developed for
conventionally reinforced concrete and do not
necessarily apply to prestressed concrete. It is
common practice to use the full flange width for
double and single tees.
The equations for flexural resistance given in Fig.
3.3.1 apply only to rectangular sections and flanged
sections in which the stress block lies entirely within
the depth of the flange, h
f
. The depth of the stress
block, a, can be found from the equations of
equilibrium given in Fig. 3.3.1:
Fig. 3.3.1 Factored flexural resistance
a =
p p pr s s y s s y
1 c c
A f A f A f
f b
+

If a > h
f
, the force required to develop the
compressive strength of the overhanging flanges is
deducted from the total force in the tension
reinforcement as shown in Example 3-5.
Limitations on reinforcement
Minimum reinforcing is not required if M
r
1.33M
f

When minimum reinforcement is required for flexural
elements, the reinforcement shall be proportioned so
that:
M
r
1.2M
cr

M
cr
is calculated using f
r
c
0.6 f =
M
cr
=
e e
c
g
P P e
0.6 f S
A S

+ +

In lieu of calculating M
cr
, minimum reinforcement may
be determined as follows:
A
smin
=
c
t
y
0.2 f
b h
f

This equation need not apply to the design of slabs
and footings that are covered by A23.3 Clause 7.8.
The maximum reinforcement ratio for reinforced
elements shall satisfy the following expression:

c
d

y
700
700 f +

Strain compatibility analysis must be used when the
c/d ratio is exceeded.
The minimum bonded reinforcement requirements in
prestressed members depend on the concrete tensile
stresses and the type of tendons as summarized in
Fig. 3.3.3.
For partially prestressed beams and one-way slabs,
the distribution of bonded tendons and reinforcement
shall be such that the quantity z does not exceed 20
kN/mm for interior exposure and 15 kN/mm for
exterior exposure. Every limitation mentioned above
must be satisfied separately without any additive
effect.
Critical section
For simply supported, uniformly loaded, prismatic,
reinforced elements, the critical section for flexural
design will occur at midspan. Provided that
reinforcement is properly developed and adequate
shear reinforcement is provided, the amount of
flexural reinforcement may be reduced in areas of
lower moment towards the support.
For prestressed elements, because of the limitation
on end stresses at the time of prestress transfer,
tendons are often draped or depressed, producing a
varying effective depth, d
p
along the length of the
element. For draped tendons, or non-uniform
loading, it may be necessary to compare the factored
moment

M
f
, with the factored flexural resistance, M
r
,
at points other than at midspan. For uniform loads
with single point depressed tendons, the governing
section is usually near 0.4 . l (See Fig. 3.3.4.)
3.3.2 Analysis Using Equations in A23.3
Reinforced elements
Figs. 3.3.5 and 3.3.6 are convenient aids for the
design and analysis of rectangular sections with non-
prestressed reinforcement. Values of
max

corresponding to the maximum c/d ratio are also
listed.
The use of this design aid is illustrated in Example 3-1.
Prestressed elements
The following conservative values of f
pr
may be used
if f
pe
is not less than 0.6 f
py
:
1. For elements with bonded tendons, provided
c/d
p
is not greater than 0.5:
f
pr
=
pu p
p
c
f 1 k
d

where
p py pu
k 2(1.04 f / f ) = and c is determined
using a stress of f
pr
in the tendons.

or considering that
pr
u
pu
f
c c
f
= :
f
pr
=
pu
p u p
1
f
1 k c / d

+

2. For elements with unbonded tendons:
f
pr
=
pe p y
o
8000
f (d c ) +
l
(See Example 3-36)
but shall not exceed f
py
and c
y
is determined
assuming a stress of f
py
in the tendons.
The term k
p
accounts for the shape of the tendon
stress-strain curve. Values of k
p
are given below:
Tendon Type k
p

Low relaxation strand or wire 0.28
Plain prestressing bars 0.38
Deformed prestressing bars 0.48
Example 3-2 shows the method of calculating the
flexural resistance of a prestressed element with
bonded tendons using Fig. 3.3.1 and the appropriate
equation for f
pr
.
For elements with only bonded prestressed
reinforcemen, the calculations shown in Fig. 3.3.2
can be simplified using the coefficients given in Fig.
3.3.7 and 3.3.8, as illustrated in Example 3-3.
Note that if c/d
p
> 0.5 or if f
pe
< 0.6 f
py
, the equation
for f
pr
should only be used as the first iteration of a
strain compatibility analysis. Similarly, if c/d
p
is
greater than 0.5, the coefficients in Fig. 3.3.7 and Fig.
3.3.8 should only be used to estimate A
p
or M
r
.
For sections with only bonded prestressed tendons,
the coefficients are derived using the following:
From Fig. 3.3.1:

1

c

c
f b a =
p
A
p
f
pr

Dividing by b d
p
f
c
and defining the term:

p
=

pr
p
c
f
f
=
p pr
p c
A f
bd f

1 c c
p c
f ba
bd f

=
p p pr
p c
A f
bd f
=
p p

a =
p p p
1 c
d

Fig. 3.3.2 Flow chart for flexural resistance calculations

NON-PRESTRESSED
REINFORCEMENT
ONLY

f f
pe py
0 6 .

c
A f A f A f f h b b
f b
y
p p py s s y s s y c c f w
c c w
=
+

1
1 1
( )

c
d
A f A f A f f b b h
f b d k A f
p
p p pu s s s s s s c c w f
c c w p p p p pu
=
+
+

1
1 1
( ) **

START
c
d
p
0 5 .

k
f
f
p
py
pu
=
2 104 .

f f k
c
d
pr pu p
p
=
1

a
A f A f A f f h b b
f b
p p pr s s s s s s c c f w
c c w
=
+

1
1
( )

c a = /
1

c
d f
y
+
700
700

M A f d a A f d a A f d a f h b b h a
r p p pr p s s s s s s c c f w f
= + ( / ) ( / ) ( / ) ( )( / / ) 2 2 2 2 2
1

* Provided that the above equation is satisfied, the following approximate values of f
pr
may be used.
** As a first iteration, the upper bound value of c/d can be determined by assuming f
pr
= f
pu
. Also f
s
and
s
f can be taken equal to f
y
and
y
f provided they are located at least 0.75c from the neutral axis, otherwise strain compatibility must be used.
Preferred values of c/d lie in the range 0.23 to 0.37.
Iterate until values of f
pr
converge.

DETERMINE f
pr

BY STRAIN
COMPATIBILITY
DETERMINE f
pr
, f
s
, f'
s

BY STRAIN
COMPATIBILITY
NON-PRESTRESSED
REINFORCEMENT
ONLY
REVISE SECTION
PROPERTIES AND/OR
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
BONDED
TENDONS
YES
NO
YES
NO
NO
YES*

NO
YES
*
NO
YES
YES
NO

GENERAL EQ.
GENERAL EQ.
GENERAL EQ.
A
p
= 0
f
pr
= 0
= +
l
pr pe p y
o
8000
f f (d c )

Fig. 3.3.3 Minimum area of bonded reinforcement
Concrete stress
Tensile stress
c
0.5 f
Tensile stress
c
0.5 f >
Type of tendon Type of tendon
Type of
member
Bonded Unbonded Bonded Unbonded
Beams 0 0.004 A 0.003 A 0.005 A
One-way slabs 0 0.003 A 0.002 A 0.004 A
Two-way slabs:
Negative moment regions
0 0.0006 h l
n
0.00045 h l
n
0.00075 h l
n
Positive moment regions, concrete
tensile stress
c
0.2 f >
0 0.004 A 0.003 A 0.005 A
Positive moment regions, concrete
tensile stress
c
0.2 f
0 0
Fig. 3.3.4 Critical sections for flexural design
M
r
=
p p pr p
A f (d a/ 2)
=
2
p p pr p c p
p c
A f bd f (1 a/ 2d )
bd f

=
p p
2
p c p p
1 c
f bd 1
2

Multiplying the equation for f
pr
by
p
p c
A
bd f
:

p pr
p c
A f
bd f
=
p pu p p
p c
A f (1 k c / d )
bd f

and defining the term
pu
:

pu
=
pu p pu
p
c p c
f A f
f bd f
=

p
c
d
=
1 c 1
p
p pu
1
k

+

p
=

pu
p pu
p
1 c 1
1
1 k

+

By substituting the equation for
p
in the equation for
M
r
and introducing the coefficient:
K
r
=
p pu
p pu
p
1 c 1
1
1 k

+

p pu
p pu
1 c p
1 c 1
1
2 1 k

+

M
r
=
2
r c p
K f bd

For flanged sections, the design aid only applies if the
compression stress block is confined to the flange
where:
p p pu
f
p pu
1 c p
1 c 1
d
h
1 k

+

If the stress block is deeper than the flange, Example
3-5 should be followed.
Fig. 3.3.5 Flexural resistance design aid for rectangular section with non-prestressed reinforcement
only - precast certified in accordance with CSA A23.4 (
c
=0.70)

Procedure:
Design Analysis
1. Determine k
r
=
f
2
c
M
f bd

1. Determine = A
p
/bd
2. Calculate from the table 2. Determine =
y
c
f
f

3. Determine =
c
y
f
f

3. Calculate K
r
from the table
4. Determine A
s
= bd
4. Determine M
r
=
2
r c
K f bd

max.

c
f (MPa)
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
1
0.895 0.883 0.870 0.858 0.845 0.833 0.820 0.808 0.795 0.783 0.770
f
y
(MPa)
1
0.805 0.798 0.790 0.783 0.775 0.768 0.760 0.753 0.745 0.738 0.730
300 0.386 0.377 0.368 0.359 0.351 0.342 0.334 0.325 0.317 0.309 0.301
400 0.351 0.342 0.334 0.327 0.319 0.311 0.303 0.296 0.288 0.281 0.274
c
f
K
r

30 MPa
0 568 0 3229 13370 . . . K
r
0 85 07479
2
. .
35 0 563 0 3173 13254 . . . K
r
0 85 07545
2
. .
40 0 558 0 3110 13121 . . . K
r
0 85 07621
2
. .
45 0 555 0 3078 13055 . . . K
r
0 85 07660
2
. .
50 0 547 0 2993 12872 . . . K
r
0 85 07769
2
. .
55 0 542 0 2939 12756 . . . K
r
0 85 07840
2
. .
60

r
0.536 0.2878 1.2623K
0 85 07922
2
. .
65 0 532 0 2825 12507 . . . K
r

2
0.85 0.7996
70 0 526 0 2765 12373 . . . K
r

2
0.85 0.8082
75 0 521 0 2714 12258 . . . K
r
0 85 0 8158
2
. .
80 0 515 0 2655 12124 . . . K
r
0 85 0 8248
2
. .

Fig. 3.3.5 Continued
Table is based on:

c
f = 40 MPa

1
= 0.79

The error for other concrete strengths does not exceed 3.2%.

Values of K
r

0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009
0.00 0.0000 0.0008 0.0017 0.0025 0.0034 0.0042 0.0051 0.0059 0.0068 0.0076
0.01 0.0084 0.0093 0.0101 0.0109 0.0118 0.0126 0.0134 0.0142 0.0151 0.0159
0.02 0.0167 0.0175 0.0184 0.0192 0.0200 0.0208 0.0216 0.0224 0.0232 0.0241
0.03 0.0249 0.0257 0.0265 0.0273 0.0281 0.0289 0.0297 0.0305 0.0313 0.0321
0.04 0.0329 0.0337 0.0345 0.0352 0.0360 0.0368 0.0376 0.0384 0.0392 0.0400
0.05 0.0407 0.0415 0.0423 0.0431 0.0438 0.0446 0.0454 0.0462 0.0469 0.0477
0.06 0.0485 0.0492 0.0500 0.0508 0.0515 0.0523 0.0530 0.0538 0.0545 0.0553
0.07 0.0561 0.0568 0.0576 0.0583 0.0590 0.0598 0.0605 0.0613 0.0620 0.0628
0.08 0.0635 0.0642 0.0650 0.0657 0.0664 0.0672 0.0679 0.0686 0.0694 0.0701
0.09 0.0708 0.0715 0.0722 0.0730 0.0737 0.0744 0.0751 0.0758 0.0765 0.0773
0.10 0.0780 0.0787 0.0794 0.0801 0.0808 0.0815 0.0822 0.0829 0.0836 0.0843
0.11 0.0850 0.0857 0.0864 0.0871 0.0878 0.0884 0.0891 0.0898 0.0905 0.0912
0.12 0.0919 0.0925 0.0932 0.0939 0.0946 0.0953 0.0959 0.0966 0.0973 0.0979
0.13 0.0986 0.0993 0.0999 0.1006 0.1013 0.1019 0.1026 0.1032 0.1039 0.1046
0.14 0.1052 0.1059 0.1065 0.1072 0.1078 0.1085 0.1091 0.1097 0.1104 0.1110
0.15 0.1117 0.1123 0.1129 0.1136 0.1142 0.1148 0.1155 0.1161 0.1167 0.1174
0.16 0.1180 0.1186 0.1192 0.1199 0.1205 0.1211 0.1217 0.1223 0.1229 0.1236
0.17 0.1242 0.1248 0.1254 0.1260 0.1266 0.1272 0.1278 0.1284 0.1290 0.1296
0.18 0.1302 0.1308 0.1314 0.1320 0.1326 0.1332 0.1338 0.1343 0.1349 0.1355
0.19 0.1361 0.1367 0.1373 0.1378 0.1384 0.1390 0.1396 0.1401 0.1407 0.1413
0.20 0.1419 0.1424 0.1430 0.1436 0.1441 0.1447 0.1452 0.1458 0.1464 0.1469
0.21 0.1475 0.1480 0.1486 0.1491 0.1497 0.1502 0.1508 0.1513 0.1519 0.1524
0.22 0.1530 0.1535 0.1540 0.1546 0.1551 0.1556 0.1562 0.1567 0.1572 0.1578
0.23 0.1583 0.1588 0.1593 0.1599 0.1604 0.1609 0.1614 0.1619 0.1625 0.1630
0.24 0.1635 0.1640 0.1645 0.1650 0.1655 0.1660 0.1665 0.1670 0.1675 0.1680
0.25 0.1685 0.1690 0.1695 0.1700 0.1705 0.1710 0.1715 0.1720 0.1725 0.1730
0.26 0.1734 0.1739 0.1744 0.1749 0.1754 0.1758 0.1763 0.1768 0.1773 0.1777
0.27 0.1782 0.1787 0.1792 0.1796 0.1801 0.1805 0.1810 0.1815 0.1819 0.1824
0.28 0.1828 0.1833 0.1838 0.1842 0.1847 0.1851 0.1856 0.1860 0.1864 0.1869
0.29 0.1873 0.1878 0.1882 0.1887 0.1891 0.1895 0.1900 0.1904 0.1908 0.1913
0.30 0.1917 0.1921 0.1925 0.1930 0.1934 0.1938 0.1942 0.1946 0.1951 0.1955
0.31 0.1959 0.1963 0.1967 0.1971 0.1975 0.1979 0.1984 0.1988 0.1992 0.1996
0.32 0.2000 0.2004 0.2008 0.2012 0.2015 0.2019 0.2023 0.2027 0.2031 0.2035
0.33 0.2039 0.2043 0.2047 0.2050 0.2054 0.2058 0.2062 0.2066 0.2069 0.2073
0.34 0.2077 0.2080 0.2084 0.2088 0.2091 0.2095 0.2099 0.2102 0.2106 0.2110
0.35 0.2113 0.2117 0.2120 0.2124 0.2127 0.2131 0.2134 0.2138 0.2141 0.2145
0.36 0.2148 0.2152 0.2155 0.2158 0.2162 0.2165 0.2169 0.2172 0.2175 0.2179
0.37 0.2182 0.2185 0.2188 0.2192 0.2195 0.2198 0.2201 0.2205 0.2208 0.2211
0.38 0.2214 0.2217 0.2220 0.2224 0.2227 0.2230 0.2233 0.2236 0.2239 0.2242
0.39 0.2245 0.2248 0.2251 0.2254 0.2257 0.2260 0.2263 0.2266 0.2269 0.2272

Example 3-1 Determination of non-prestressed
reinforcement using Fig. 3.3.5 coefficients
Given:
300/400 1000 L-shaped beam certified in
accordance with A23.4.
Concrete:

c
f = 40 MPa
Normal Density
Factored Moment M
f
= 950 kN-m

Problem:
Find the required amount of non-prestressed
reinforcement with f
y
= 400 MPa.
Solution:
To use Fig. 3.3.5, determine:
K
r
=
6 6
f
2 2
c
M (10 ) (950)(10 )
0.0896
f bd (40)(300)(940 )
= =

From Fig. 3.3.5, for K
r
= 0.0896:
= 0.1158 < the maximum value of 0.334
A
s
=
c
y
f bd
f

=
2
(0.1158)(40)(300)(940)
3265 mm
(400)
=
Check minimum reinforcement required:
A
smin
=
c
t
y
0.2 f
0.2 40
b h (450)(1000)
f (400)
=
=
2
s
1423 mm A <
Use 7 25M Grade 400 bars, A
s
= 3500 mm
2
Example 3-2 Determine factored flexural
resistance using the empirical equation for f
pr

Given:
1220 203 hollow core slab certified in accordance
with A23.4.

Concrete:
c
f

= 45 MPa
1
= 0.78
1
= 0.86
c
= 0.70
Normal Density
Prestressed reinforcement:
6 - 9 mm 1860 MPa low relaxation strands
Total losses = 20%
f
po
= 0.7 f
pu

k
p
= 0.28
A
p
= (6) (55) = 330 mm
2
Section Properties:
A
g
= 138700 mm
2

S
b
= 6.825 10
6
mm
3

Problem:
Find the factored flexural resistance, M
r

Solution:
Check that the depth of compression block is less
than top flange thickness of (203 152)/2 = 25 mm:

pu
=
p pu
p c
A f
(330)(1860)
0.0708
bd f (1220)(158)(45)
= =

a =
p p pu
p pu
1 c p
1 c 1
d
1 k

+

=
(0.9)(158)(0.0708)
(0.9)(0.0708)
(0.78)(0.70) 1 (0.28)
(0.78)(0.70)(0.86)

+

= 18 mm 25 <
Determine M
r
:
p
c
d
=
1 c 1
p
p pu
1
k

+

=
1
(0.78)(0.70)(0.86)
0.28
(0.9)(0.0708)

+

= 0.131 0.5 <
f
pr
=
pu p p
f (1 k c / d )
= (1860)[1 (0.28)(0.131)] =1792MPa

M
r
=
p p pr
A f (d a/ 2)
=
6
(0.9)(330)(1792)(158 18/ 2) /10
= 79.4 kN-m
Check the ductility requirement that M
r
1.2 M
cr
.
Assuming that the effective prestress is 0.56 f
pu
:
f
pe
= (0.56)(1860) = 1042 MPa
P
e
= f
pe
A
p
= (1042)(330)/10
3
= 344 kN
1.2M
cr
=
e e
c b
g b
P P e
1.2 0.6 f S
A S

+ +

3 3
3
(344)(10 ) (344)(56.5)(10 )
1.2 (0.6)(1.0) 45
138700
6825 10

= + +

3
6
(6825 10 )
76.6 kN m 79.4 OK
10
= <
Fig. 3.3.6 Flexural resistance design aid for rectangular section with non-prestressed reinforcement
only precast not certified in accordance with CSA A23.4 (
c
= 0.65)
Procedure:

Design Analysis
1. Determine
f
r
2
c
M
K
f bd
=

1. Determine
s
A / bd =
2. Calculate from the table
2. Determine
y
c
f
f
=

3. Determine
c
y
f
f
=
3. Calculate K
r
from the table
4. Determine
s
A bd =
4. Determine
2
r r c
M K f bd =

max.

c
f (MPa)
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

1 0.895 0.883 0.870 0.858 0.845 0.833 0.820 0.808 0.795 0.783 0.770
f
y
(MPa)

1 0.805 0.798 0.790 0.783 0.775 0.768 0.760 0.753 0.745 0.738 0.730
300
0.356 0.348 0.340 0.332 0.324 0.316 0.308 0.301 0.293 0.285 0.278
400
0.324 0.317 0.308 0.302 0.294 0.287 0.280 0.273 0.266 0.259 0.252
c
f K
r

30 MPa 0 568 0 3229 13370 . . . K
r

0 85 07479
2
. .
35 0 563 0 3173 13254 . . . K
r

0 85 07545
2
. .
40 0 558 0 3110 13121 . . . K
r

0 85 07621
2
. .
45 0 555 0 3078 13055 . . . K
r

0 85 07660
2
. .
50 0 547 0 2993 12872 . . . K
r

0 85 07769
2
. .
55 0 542 0 2939 12756 . . . K
r

0 85 07840
2
. .
60
r
0.536 0.2878 1.2623K 0 85 07922
2
. .
65 0 532 0 2825 12507 . . . K
r

0 85 07996
2
. .
70 0 526 0 2765 12373 . . . K
r

2
0.85 0.8082
75 0 521 0 2714 12258 . . . K
r

0 85 0 8158
2
. .
80 0 515 0 2655 12124 . . . K
r

0 85 0 8248
2
. .

Table based on:
c
f = 40 MPa

1 = 0.79

The error for other concrete strengths does not exceed 3.2%.

Values of K
r

0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009
0.00 0.0000 0.0008 0.0017 0.0025 0.0034 0.0042 0.0051 0.0059 0.0068 0.0076
0.01 0.0084 0.0093 0.0101 0.0109 0.0118 0.0126 0.0134 0.0142 0.0151 0.0159
0.02 0.0167 0.0175 0.0183 0.0191 0.0200 0.0208 0.0216 0.0224 0.0232 0.0240
0.03 0.0248 0.0256 0.0264 0.0272 0.0280 0.0288 0.0296 0.0304 0.0312 0.0320
0.04 0.0328 0.0336 0.0344 0.0351 0.0359 0.0367 0.0375 0.0383 0.0390 0.0398
0.05 0.0406 0.0414 0.0421 0.0429 0.0437 0.0444 0.0452 0.0460 0.0467 0.0475
0.06 0.0483 0.0490 0.0498 0.0505 0.0513 0.0520 0.0528 0.0535 0.0543 0.0550
0.07 0.0558 0.0565 0.0572 0.0580 0.0587 0.0595 0.0602 0.0609 0.0617 0.0624
0.08 0.0631 0.0638 0.0646 0.0653 0.0660 0.0667 0.0675 0.0682 0.0689 0.0696
0.09 0.0703 0.0710 0.0717 0.0725 0.0732 0.0739 0.0746 0.0753 0.0760 0.0767
0.10 0.0774 0.0781 0.0788 0.0795 0.0802 0.0808 0.0815 0.0822 0.0829 0.0836
0.11 0.0843 0.0850 0.0856 0.0863 0.0870 0.0877 0.0883 0.0890 0.0897 0.0904
0.12 0.0910 0.0917 0.0924 0.0930 0.0937 0.0943 0.0950 0.0957 0.0963 0.0970
0.13 0.0976 0.0983 0.0989 0.0996 0.1002 0.1009 0.1015 0.1021 0.1028 0.1034
0.14 0.1041 0.1047 0.1053 0.1060 0.1066 0.1072 0.1079 0.1085 0.1091 0.1097
0.15 0.1104 0.1110 0.1116 0.1122 0.1128 0.1134 0.1141 0.1147 0.1153 0.1159
0.16 0.1165 0.1171 0.1177 0.1183 0.1189 0.1195 0.1201 0.1207 0.1213 0.1219
0.17 0.1225 0.1231 0.1237 0.1242 0.1248 0.1254 0.1260 0.1266 0.1272 0.1277
0.18 0.1283 0.1289 0.1295 0.1300 0.1306 0.1312 0.1317 0.1323 0.1329 0.1334
0.19 0.1340 0.1345 0.1351 0.1357 0.1362 0.1368 0.1373 0.1379 0.1384 0.1390
0.20 0.1395 0.1401 0.1406 0.1411 0.1417 0.1422 0.1428 0.1433 0.1438 0.1444
0.21 0.1449 0.1454 0.1459 0.1465 0.1470 0.1475 0.1480 0.1486 0.1491 0.1496
0.22 0.1501 0.1506 0.1511 0.1516 0.1522 0.1527 0.1532 0.1537 0.1542 0.1547
0.23 0.1552 0.1557 0.1562 0.1567 0.1572 0.1577 0.1582 0.1586 0.1591 0.1596
0.24 0.1601 0.1606 0.1611 0.1615 0.1620 0.1625 0.1630 0.1635 0.1639 0.1644
0.25 0.1649 0.1653 0.1658 0.1663 0.1667 0.1672 0.1677 0.1681 0.1686 0.1690
0.26 0.1695 0.1699 0.1704 0.1708 0.1713 0.1717 0.1722 0.1726 0.1731 0.1735
0.27 0.1739 0.1744 0.1748 0.1752 0.1757 0.1761 0.1765 0.1770 0.1774 0.1778
0.28 0.1782 0.1787 0.1791 0.1795 0.1799 0.1803 0.1808 0.1812 0.1816 0.1820
0.29 0.1824 0.1828 0.1832 0.1836 0.1840 0.1844 0.1848 0.1852 0.1856 0.1860
0.30 0.1864 0.1868 0.1872 0.1876 0.1880 0.1884 0.1887 0.1891 0.1895 0.1899
0.31 0.1903 0.1906 0.1910 0.1914 0.1918 0.1921 0.1925 0.1929 0.1932 0.1936
0.32 0.1940 0.1943 0.1947 0.1950 0.1954 0.1957 0.1961 0.1965 0.1968 0.1972
0.33 0.1975 0.1979 0.1982 0.1985 0.1989 0.1992 0.1996 0.1999 0.2002 0.2006
0.34 0.2009 0.2012 0.2016 0.2019 0.2022 0.2025 0.2029 0.2032 0.2035 0.2038
0.35 0.2041 0.2045 0.2048 0.2051 0.2054 0.2057 0.2060 0.2063 0.2066 0.2069
0.36 0.2072 0.2075 0.2078 0.2081 0.2084 0.2087 0.2090 0.2093 0.2096 0.2099
0.37 0.2102 0.2104 0.2107 0.2110 0.2113 0.2116 0.2119 0.2121 0.2124 0.2127
0.38 0.2129 0.2132 0.2135 0.2138 0.2140 0.2143 0.2145 0.2148 0.2151 0.2153
0.39 0.2156 0.2158 0.2161 0.2163 0.2166 0.2168 0.2171 0.2173 0.2176 0.2178

Example 3-3 Determination of bonded
prestressed reinforcement using Fig. 3.3.7
coefficients
Given:
400 600 rectangular beam
certified in accordance with
A23.4

Concrete:

c
f = 35 MPa Normal Density
Factored Moment: 350 kN-m
Problem:
Find the amount of prestressed reinforcement based
on f
pu
= 1860 MPa and k
p
= 0.28 (low relaxation
strand).
Solution:
Use Fig. 3.3.5, to determine:
K
r
=
f
2
c p
M
f bd
=
6
2
(350)(10 )
0.0907
(35)(400)(525)
=
For K
r
= 0.0907,
c
f = 35 MPa and k
p
= 0.28:

pu
= 0.118
The required area of prestressing reinforcement is:
A
p
=
pu

c
f b d
p
/f
pu

= (0.118)(35)(400)(525) / 1860
= 466 mm
2

Provide 5 13 mm 1860 MPa strands (A
p
=
495 mm
2
)
Example 3-4 Factored flexural resistance of a
stadia unit
Given:
1600 800 stadia unit certified in accordance with
A23.4
Length = 10.0 m
Span = 9.7 m
Load:
Superimposed dead load: 0.2 kN/m
2
= 0.32kN/m
Live Load:
Vertical 4.80 kN/m
2
= 7.68 kN/m
Horizontal (0.15)(2) kN/m = 0.30 kN/m
Axial (0.3)(2)(10) kN = 6.00 kN
(Axial load acts independently of horizontal load)
Section Properties:
A
g
= 298500 mm
2

Weight = 7.0 kN/m
y
b
= 306 mm, x
L
= 774 mm
I
x
= 14500 10
6
mm
4

I
y
= 72300 10
6
mm
4

I
xy
= A
g
(x x
L
)(y y
b
) = 27,720 10
6
mm
4

from tan 2 =
xy
x y
2I
I I
:
= 21.9 = angle of minor axis
I
minor
= 3350 10
6
mm
4

I
major
= 83,400 10
6
mm
4

Concrete:

c
f = 35 MPa,
1

= 0.80

1
= 0.88
c
= 0.70

ci
f = 25 MPa
Normal density
Prestressing reinforcement:
8 13 mm 1860 MPa low relaxation strands
k
p
= 0.28
A
p
= 99 mm
2
/strand
P
o
= 0.75 A
p
f
pu
= 1243 kN
P
i
= 0.95 P
jacking
= 1181 kN
P
e
= 0.85 P
jacking
= 1057 kN
Fig. 3.3.7 Flexural resistance coefficients for elements with only bonded prestressed reinforcement
precast certified in accordance with CSA A23.4 (
c
=0.70)
Procedure:
Design Analysis
1. Determine K
r
=
f
2
c p
M
f bd

1. Determine
p p p
A bd = /
2. Determine
pu p pu c
f f = /
3. Determine
p
=
pu c pu
f / f
3. Calculate K
r
from the table
4. Determine A
p
=
p p
bd
4. Determine M K f bd
r r c p
=
2


c
= 0.70

p
= 0.90

k
p
= 0.28 k
p
= 0.38 k
p
= 0.48
f'
c
30 35 40 45 50 55 30 35 40 45 50 55 30 35 40 45 50 55
1
0.8950 0.8825 0.8700 0.8575 0.8450 0.8325 0.8950 0.8825 0.8700 0.8575 0.8450 0.8325 0.8950 0.8825 0.8700 0.8575 0.8450 0.8325
1
0.8050 0.7975 0.7900 0.7825 0.7750 0.7675 0.8050 0.7975 0.7900 0.7825 0.7750 0.7675 0.8050 0.7975 0.7900 0.7825 0.7750 0.7675
pu
K
r
K
r
K
r

0.005 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045
0.010 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088
0.015 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131
0.020 0.0175 0.0175 0.0175 0.0175 0.0175 0.0175 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0173 0.0173 0.0173
0.025 0.0217 0.0217 0.0217 0.0217 0.0217 0.0217 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0214
0.030 0.0259 0.0259 0.0259 0.0258 0.0258 0.0258 0.0258 0.0257 0.0257 0.0257 0.0257 0.0257 0.0256 0.0256 0.0256 0.0255 0.0255 0.0255
0.035 0.0300 0.0300 0.0300 0.0299 0.0299 0.0299 0.0298 0.0298 0.0298 0.0297 0.0297 0.0297 0.0296 0.0296 0.0296 0.0295 0.0295 0.0295
0.040 0.0341 0.0340 0.0340 0.0340 0.0339 0.0339 0.0338 0.0338 0.0337 0.0337 0.0337 0.0336 0.0336 0.0335 0.0335 0.0334 0.0334 0.0334
0.045 0.0380 0.0380 0.0380 0.0379 0.0379 0.0379 0.0377 0.0377 0.0377 0.0376 0.0376 0.0375 0.0374 0.0374 0.0373 0.0373 0.0372 0.0372
0.050 0.0420 0.0419 0.0419 0.0419 0.0418 0.0418 0.0416 0.0416 0.0415 0.0415 0.0414 0.0413 0.0412 0.0412 0.0411 0.0411 0.0410 0.0409
0.055 0.0459 0.0458 0.0458 0.0457 0.0457 0.0456 0.0454 0.0454 0.0453 0.0452 0.0452 0.0451 0.0450 0.0449 0.0448 0.0448 0.0447 0.0446
0.060 0.0497 0.0496 0.0496 0.0495 0.0494 0.0494 0.0492 0.0491 0.0490 0.0490 0.0489 0.0488 0.0487 0.0486 0.0485 0.0484 0.0483 0.0482
0.065 0.0535 0.0534 0.0533 0.0533 0.0532 0.0531 0.0529 0.0528 0.0527 0.0526 0.0525 0.0524 0.0523 0.0522 0.0521 0.0520 0.0519 0.0518
0.070 0.0572 0.0571 0.0570 0.0569 0.0569 0.0568 0.0565 0.0564 0.0563 0.0562 0.0561 0.0560 0.0558 0.0557 0.0556 0.0555 0.0554 0.0553
0.075 0.0609 0.0608 0.0607 0.0606 0.0605 0.0604 0.0601 0.0600 0.0599 0.0598 0.0596 0.0595 0.0593 0.0592 0.0591 0.0590 0.0588 0.0587
0.080 0.0645 0.0644 0.0643 0.0642 0.0641 0.0639 0.0636 0.0635 0.0634 0.0632 0.0631 0.0630 0.0628 0.0626 0.0625 0.0623 0.0622 0.0620
0.085 0.0680 0.0679 0.0678 0.0677 0.0676 0.0674 0.0671 0.0669 0.0668 0.0667 0.0665 0.0664 0.0661 0.0660 0.0658 0.0657 0.0655 0.0653
0.090 0.0716 0.0714 0.0713 0.0712 0.0710 0.0709 0.0705 0.0703 0.0702 0.0700 0.0699 0.0697 0.0694 0.0693 0.0691 0.0689 0.0688 0.0686
0.095 0.0750 0.0749 0.0747 0.0746 0.0744 0.0743 0.0738 0.0737 0.0735 0.0733 0.0732 0.0730 0.0727 0.0725 0.0723 0.0721 0.0719 0.0717
0.100 0.0784 0.0783 0.0781 0.0780 0.0778 0.0776 0.0772 0.0770 0.0768 0.0766 0.0764 0.0762 0.0759 0.0757 0.0755 0.0753 0.0751 0.0749
0.105 0.0818 0.0816 0.0815 0.0813 0.0811 0.0809 0.0804 0.0802 0.0800 0.0798 0.0796 0.0794 0.0791 0.0788 0.0786 0.0784 0.0782 0.0779
0.110 0.0851 0.0849 0.0848 0.0846 0.0844 0.0842 0.0836 0.0834 0.0832 0.0830 0.0827 0.0825 0.0822 0.0819 0.0817 0.0814 0.0812 0.0809
0.115 0.0884 0.0882 0.0880 0.0878 0.0876 0.0874 0.0868 0.0865 0.0863 0.0861 0.0858 0.0856 0.0852 0.0850 0.0847 0.0844 0.0842 0.0839
0.120 0.0916 0.0914 0.0912 0.0910 0.0907 0.0905 0.0899 0.0896 0.0894 0.0891 0.0889 0.0886 0.0882 0.0879 0.0877 0.0874 0.0871 0.0868
0.125 0.0948 0.0946 0.0943 0.0941 0.0939 0.0936 0.0929 0.0927 0.0924 0.0921 0.0919 0.0916 0.0911 0.0909 0.0906 0.0903 0.0899 0.0896
0.130 0.0979 0.0977 0.0974 0.0972 0.0969 0.0967 0.0959 0.0957 0.0954 0.0951 0.0948 0.0945 0.0940 0.0937 0.0934 0.0931 0.0928 0.0924
0.135 0.1010 0.1008 0.1005 0.1002 0.0999 0.0997 0.0989 0.0986 0.0983 0.0980 0.0977 0.0974 0.0969 0.0966 0.0962 0.0959 0.0955 0.0952
0.140 0.1041 0.1038 0.1035 0.1032 0.1029 0.1026 0.1018 0.1015 0.1012 0.1009 0.1005 0.1002 0.0997 0.0993 0.0990 0.0986 0.0982 0.0979
0.145 0.1071 0.1068 0.1065 0.1062 0.1058 0.1055 0.1047 0.1044 0.1040 0.1037 0.1033 0.1030 0.1024 0.1021 0.1017 0.1013 0.1009 0.1005
0.150 0.1100 0.1097 0.1094 0.1091 0.1087 0.1084 0.1075 0.1072 0.1068 0.1064 0.1061 0.1057 0.1052 0.1048 0.1044 0.1040 0.1035 0.1031
0.155 0.1129 0.1126 0.1123 0.1119 0.1116 0.1112 0.1103 0.1099 0.1096 0.1092 0.1088 0.1084 0.1078 0.1074 0.1070 0.1066 0.1061 0.1057
0.160 0.1158 0.1154 0.1151 0.1147 0.1144 0.1140 0.1130 0.1127 0.1123 0.1119 0.1114 0.1110 0.1104 0.1100 0.1096 0.1091 0.1087 0.1082
0.165 0.1186 0.1183 0.1179 0.1175 0.1171 0.1167 0.1157 0.1153 0.1149 0.1145 0.1141 0.1136 0.1130 0.1126 0.1121 0.1116 0.1111 0.1106
0.170 0.1214 0.1210 0.1206 0.1202 0.1198 0.1194 0.1184 0.1180 0.1175 0.1171 0.1166 0.1162 0.1155 0.1151 0.1146 0.1141 0.1136 0.1131
0.175 0.1241 0.1237 0.1233 0.1229 0.1225 0.1221 0.1210 0.1206 0.1201 0.1196 0.1192 0.1187 0.1180 0.1175 0.1170 0.1165 0.1160 0.1155
0.180 0.1269 0.1264 0.1260 0.1256 0.1251 0.1247 0.1236 0.1231 0.1226 0.1222 0.1216 0.1211 0.1205 0.1200 0.1194 0.1189 0.1184 0.1178
0.185 0.1295 0.1291 0.1286 0.1282 0.1277 0.1272 0.1261 0.1256 0.1251 0.1246 0.1241 0.1236 0.1229 0.1224 0.1218 0.1213 0.1207 0.1201
0.190 0.1321 0.1317 0.1312 0.1307 0.1303 0.1298 0.1286 0.1281 0.1276 0.1271 0.1265 0.1260 0.1253 0.1247 0.1241 0.1236 0.1230 0.1223
0.195 0.1347 0.1343 0.1338 0.1333 0.1328 0.1322 0.1311 0.1305 0.1300 0.1294 0.1289 0.1283 0.1276 0.1270 0.1264 0.1258 0.1252 0.1246
0.200 0.1373 0.1368 0.1363 0.1358 0.1352 0.1347 0.1335 0.1329 0.1324 0.1318 0.1312 0.1306 0.1299 0.1293 0.1287 0.1280 0.1274 0.1268
0.205 0.1398 0.1393 0.1387 0.1382 0.1377 0.1371 0.1359 0.1353 0.1347 0.1341 0.1335 0.1329 0.1322 0.1315 0.1309 0.1302 0.1296 0.1289
0.210 0.1423 0.1417 0.1412 0.1406 0.1401 0.1395 0.1382 0.1376 0.1370 0.1364 0.1358 0.1351 0.1344 0.1337 0.1331 0.1324 0.1317 0.1310
0.215 0.1447 0.1441 0.1436 0.1430 0.1424 0.1418 0.1405 0.1399 0.1393 0.1386 0.1380 0.1373 0.1366 0.1359 0.1352 0.1345 0.1338 0.1331
0.220 0.1471 0.1465 0.1459 0.1453 0.1447 0.1441 0.1428 0.1421 0.1415 0.1408 0.1402 0.1395 0.1387 0.1380 0.1373 0.1366 0.1359 0.1351
0.225 0.1495 0.1489 0.1483 0.1476 0.1470 0.1464 0.1450 0.1444 0.1437 0.1430 0.1423 0.1416 0.1408 0.1401 0.1394 0.1386 0.1379 0.1371
0.230 0.1518 0.1512 0.1505 0.1499 0.1492 0.1486 0.1472 0.1465 0.1458 0.1451 0.1444 0.1437 0.1429 0.1422 0.1414 0.1407 0.1399 0.1391
0.235 0.1541 0.1534 0.1528 0.1521 0.1515 0.1508 0.1494 0.1487 0.1480 0.1472 0.1465 0.1457 0.1449 0.1442 0.1434 0.1426 0.1418 0.1410
0.240 0.1563 0.1557 0.1550 0.1543 0.1536 0.1529 0.1515 0.1508 0.1501 0.1493 0.1485 0.1478 0.1470 0.1462 0.1454 0.1446 0.1437 0.1429
0.245 0.1585 0.1579 0.1572 0.1565 0.1558 0.1550 0.1536 0.1529 0.1521 0.1513 0.1505 0.1497 0.1489 0.1481 0.1473 0.1465 0.1456 0.1448
0.250 0.1607 0.1600 0.1593 0.1586 0.1579 0.1571 0.1557 0.1549 0.1541 0.1533 0.1525 0.1517 0.1509 0.1501 0.1492 0.1484 0.1475 0.1466
0.255 0.1629 0.1622 0.1614 0.1607 0.1599 0.1592 0.1577 0.1569 0.1561 0.1553 0.1545 0.1536 0.1528 0.1520 0.1511 0.1502 0.1493 0.1484
0.260 0.1650 0.1643 0.1635 0.1628 0.1620 0.1612 0.1597 0.1589 0.1581 0.1572 0.1564 0.1555 0.1547 0.1538 0.1529 0.1520 0.1511 0.1502
0.265 0.1671 0.1663 0.1656 0.1648 0.1640 0.1632 0.1617 0.1608 0.1600 0.1591 0.1583 0.1574 0.1566 0.1557 0.1548 0.1538 0.1529 0.1519
0.270 0.1692 0.1684 0.1676 0.1668 0.1659 0.1651 0.1636 0.1628 0.1619 0.1610 0.1601 0.1592 0.1584 0.1575 0.1565 0.1556 0.1546 0.1536
0.275 0.1712 0.1704 0.1696 0.1687 0.1679 0.1670 0.1655 0.1646 0.1638 0.1628 0.1619 0.1610 0.1602 0.1592 0.1583 0.1573 0.1563 0.1553
0.280 0.1732 0.1723 0.1715 0.1707 0.1698 0.1689 0.1674 0.1665 0.1656 0.1647 0.1637 0.1628 0.1619 0.1610 0.1600 0.1590 0.1580 0.1570
0.285 0.1751 0.1743 0.1734 0.1726 0.1717 0.1708 0.1692 0.1683 0.1674 0.1664 0.1655 0.1645 0.1637 0.1627 0.1617 0.1607 0.1597 0.1586
0.290 0.1771 0.1762 0.1753 0.1744 0.1735 0.1726 0.1711 0.1701 0.1692 0.1682 0.1672 0.1662 0.1654 0.1644 0.1634 0.1623 0.1613 0.1602
0.295 0.1790 0.1781 0.1772 0.1763 0.1753 0.1744 0.1728 0.1719 0.1709 0.1699 0.1689 0.1679 0.1671 0.1661 0.1650 0.1640 0.1629 0.1618
0.300 0.1808 0.1799 0.1790 0.1781 0.1771 0.1761 0.1746 0.1736 0.1726 0.1716 0.1706 0.1695 0.1687 0.1677 0.1666 0.1656 0.1645 0.1633
0.305 0.1827 0.1817 0.1808 0.1798 0.1789 0.1779 0.1763 0.1753 0.1743 0.1733 0.1722 0.1712 0.1704 0.1693 0.1682 0.1671 0.1660 0.1649
0.310 0.1845 0.1835 0.1826 0.1816 0.1806 0.1796 0.1780 0.1770 0.1760 0.1749 0.1738 0.1728 0.1720 0.1709 0.1698 0.1687 0.1675 0.1664
0.315 0.1863 0.1853 0.1843 0.1833 0.1823 0.1812 0.1797 0.1787 0.1776 0.1765 0.1754 0.1743 0.1736 0.1725 0.1713 0.1702 0.1690 0.1678
0.320 0.1880 0.1870 0.1860 0.1850 0.1839 0.1829 0.1814 0.1803 0.1792 0.1781 0.1770 0.1759 0.1751 0.1740 0.1728 0.1717 0.1705 0.1693
0.325 0.1897 0.1887 0.1877 0.1866 0.1856 0.1845 0.1830 0.1819 0.1808 0.1797 0.1785 0.1774 0.1766 0.1755 0.1743 0.1731 0.1719 0.1707
0.330 0.1914 0.1904 0.1893 0.1883 0.1872 0.1861 0.1846 0.1835 0.1824 0.1812 0.1801 0.1789 0.1781 0.1770 0.1758 0.1746 0.1734 0.1721
0.335 0.1931 0.1920 0.1910 0.1899 0.1888 0.1876 0.1862 0.1850 0.1839 0.1827 0.1815 0.1803 0.1796 0.1784 0.1772 0.1760 0.1748 0.1735
0.340 0.1947 0.1937 0.1926 0.1915 0.1903 0.1892 0.1877 0.1866 0.1854 0.1842 0.1830 0.1818 0.1811 0.1799 0.1786 0.1774 0.1761 0.1748

pu (max)
0.303 0.296 0.289 0.282 0.275 0.268 0.321 0.314 0.306 0.299 0.292 0.285 0.342 0.334 0.327 0.319 0.311 0.304


Problem:
Determine the factored flexural resistance.
Solution:
Due to the shape of the compression block and that
failure will occur in bending around the minor axis,
use a graphical solution to this problem.
By trial and error, a value of c was found that
simultaneously solved the following two equations:
1. c =
p p pr
1
1 c c
A f
f b

; and
Stress in prestressing steel at factored resistance:
2. f
pr
=
pu p p
f (1 k c / d )

p
= 0.9

d
p

=

(363 345 326 297 436 418 380
399) / 8 370 mm
+ + + + + +
+ =

By trial and error:
c = 181.3 mm
Fig. 3.3.8 Flexural resistance coefficients for elements with bonded prestressed reinforcement only
precast not certified in accordance with CSA A23.4 (
c
= 0.65)
Procedure:
Design Analysis
1. Determine K
r
=
f
2
c p
M
f bd

1. Determine
p
=
p p
A / bd
2. Determine
pu
=
p pu c
f / f
3. Determine
p
=
pu c pu
f / f
3. Calculate K
r
from the table
4. Determine
p p p
A bd =
4. Determine
2
r r c p
M K f bd =


c
= 0.65

p
= 0.90

k
p
= 0.28 k
p
= 0.38 k
p
= 0.48
f'
c
30 35 40 45 50 55 30 35 40 45 50 55 30 35 40 45 50 55
1 0.8950 0.8825 0.8700 0.8575 0.8450 0.8325 0.8950 0.8825 0.8700 0.8575 0.8450 0.8325 0.8950 0.8825 0.8700 0.8575 0.8450 0.8325
1
0.8050 0.7975 0.7900 0.7825 0.7750 0.7675 0.8050 0.7975 0.7900 0.7825 0.7750 0.7675 0.8050 0.7975 0.7900 0.7825 0.7750 0.7675
pu
K
r
K
r
K
r

0.005 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045
0.010 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088
0.015 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131
0.020 0.0175 0.0175 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0173 0.0173 0.0173 0.0173 0.0173 0.0173 0.0173
0.025 0.0217 0.0217 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0214 0.0214 0.0214 0.0214 0.0214
0.030 0.0258 0.0258 0.0258 0.0258 0.0257 0.0257 0.0257 0.0256 0.0256 0.0256 0.0256 0.0255 0.0255 0.0255 0.0255 0.0254 0.0254 0.0254
0.035 0.0299 0.0299 0.0298 0.0298 0.0298 0.0298 0.0297 0.0297 0.0296 0.0296 0.0296 0.0295 0.0295 0.0294 0.0294 0.0294 0.0293 0.0293
0.040 0.0339 0.0339 0.0338 0.0338 0.0338 0.0337 0.0336 0.0336 0.0336 0.0335 0.0335 0.0334 0.0334 0.0333 0.0333 0.0332 0.0332 0.0332
0.045 0.0379 0.0378 0.0378 0.0377 0.0377 0.0377 0.0375 0.0375 0.0374 0.0374 0.0373 0.0373 0.0372 0.0372 0.0371 0.0370 0.0370 0.0369
0.050 0.0417 0.0417 0.0417 0.0416 0.0416 0.0415 0.0413 0.0413 0.0412 0.0412 0.0411 0.0411 0.0410 0.0409 0.0408 0.0408 0.0407 0.0406
0.055 0.0456 0.0455 0.0455 0.0454 0.0454 0.0453 0.0451 0.0450 0.0450 0.0449 0.0448 0.0448 0.0446 0.0446 0.0445 0.0444 0.0443 0.0443
0.060 0.0494 0.0493 0.0492 0.0492 0.0491 0.0490 0.0488 0.0487 0.0486 0.0486 0.0485 0.0484 0.0483 0.0482 0.0481 0.0480 0.0479 0.0478
0.065 0.0531 0.0530 0.0529 0.0528 0.0528 0.0527 0.0524 0.0523 0.0523 0.0522 0.0521 0.0520 0.0518 0.0517 0.0516 0.0515 0.0514 0.0513
0.070 0.0567 0.0567 0.0566 0.0565 0.0564 0.0563 0.0560 0.0559 0.0558 0.0557 0.0556 0.0555 0.0553 0.0552 0.0551 0.0549 0.0548 0.0547
0.075 0.0603 0.0602 0.0601 0.0600 0.0599 0.0598 0.0595 0.0594 0.0593 0.0592 0.0590 0.0589 0.0587 0.0586 0.0585 0.0583 0.0582 0.0580
0.080 0.0639 0.0638 0.0637 0.0636 0.0634 0.0633 0.0630 0.0628 0.0627 0.0626 0.0624 0.0623 0.0621 0.0619 0.0618 0.0616 0.0615 0.0613
0.085 0.0674 0.0673 0.0671 0.0670 0.0669 0.0668 0.0664 0.0662 0.0661 0.0659 0.0658 0.0656 0.0654 0.0652 0.0650 0.0649 0.0647 0.0645
0.090 0.0708 0.0707 0.0706 0.0704 0.0703 0.0701 0.0697 0.0695 0.0694 0.0692 0.0690 0.0689 0.0686 0.0684 0.0682 0.0681 0.0679 0.0677
0.095 0.0742 0.0741 0.0739 0.0738 0.0736 0.0734 0.0730 0.0728 0.0726 0.0724 0.0723 0.0721 0.0718 0.0716 0.0714 0.0712 0.0710 0.0708
0.100 0.0776 0.0774 0.0772 0.0771 0.0769 0.0767 0.0762 0.0760 0.0758 0.0756 0.0754 0.0752 0.0749 0.0747 0.0745 0.0742 0.0740 0.0738
0.105 0.0808 0.0807 0.0805 0.0803 0.0801 0.0799 0.0794 0.0792 0.0790 0.0787 0.0785 0.0783 0.0780 0.0777 0.0775 0.0772 0.0770 0.0767
0.110 0.0841 0.0839 0.0837 0.0835 0.0833 0.0831 0.0825 0.0823 0.0820 0.0818 0.0816 0.0813 0.0810 0.0807 0.0805 0.0802 0.0799 0.0797
0.115 0.0873 0.0871 0.0868 0.0866 0.0864 0.0862 0.0856 0.0853 0.0851 0.0848 0.0846 0.0843 0.0839 0.0836 0.0834 0.0831 0.0828 0.0825
0.120 0.0904 0.0902 0.0899 0.0897 0.0895 0.0892 0.0886 0.0883 0.0880 0.0878 0.0875 0.0872 0.0868 0.0865 0.0862 0.0859 0.0856 0.0853
0.125 0.0935 0.0932 0.0930 0.0927 0.0925 0.0922 0.0915 0.0913 0.0910 0.0907 0.0904 0.0901 0.0897 0.0893 0.0890 0.0887 0.0884 0.0881
0.130 0.0965 0.0963 0.0960 0.0957 0.0955 0.0952 0.0944 0.0941 0.0938 0.0935 0.0932 0.0929 0.0924 0.0921 0.0918 0.0914 0.0911 0.0907
0.135 0.0995 0.0992 0.0990 0.0987 0.0984 0.0981 0.0973 0.0970 0.0967 0.0963 0.0960 0.0957 0.0952 0.0948 0.0945 0.0941 0.0938 0.0934
0.140 0.1024 0.1022 0.1019 0.1016 0.1012 0.1009 0.1001 0.0998 0.0994 0.0991 0.0988 0.0984 0.0979 0.0975 0.0971 0.0968 0.0964 0.0960
0.145 0.1053 0.1050 0.1047 0.1044 0.1041 0.1037 0.1029 0.1025 0.1022 0.1018 0.1014 0.1011 0.1005 0.1001 0.0998 0.0993 0.0989 0.0985
0.150 0.1082 0.1079 0.1075 0.1072 0.1068 0.1065 0.1056 0.1052 0.1049 0.1045 0.1041 0.1037 0.1031 0.1027 0.1023 0.1019 0.1014 0.1010
0.155 0.1110 0.1107 0.1103 0.1099 0.1096 0.1092 0.1083 0.1079 0.1075 0.1071 0.1067 0.1062 0.1057 0.1053 0.1048 0.1044 0.1039 0.1034
0.160 0.1138 0.1134 0.1130 0.1126 0.1123 0.1119 0.1109 0.1105 0.1101 0.1097 0.1092 0.1088 0.1082 0.1077 0.1073 0.1068 0.1063 0.1058
0.165 0.1165 0.1161 0.1157 0.1153 0.1149 0.1145 0.1135 0.1131 0.1126 0.1122 0.1117 0.1113 0.1107 0.1102 0.1097 0.1092 0.1087 0.1082
0.170 0.1191 0.1187 0.1183 0.1179 0.1175 0.1171 0.1160 0.1156 0.1151 0.1147 0.1142 0.1137 0.1131 0.1126 0.1121 0.1116 0.1110 0.1105
0.175 0.1218 0.1214 0.1209 0.1205 0.1200 0.1196 0.1185 0.1181 0.1176 0.1171 0.1166 0.1161 0.1155 0.1149 0.1144 0.1139 0.1133 0.1128
0.180 0.1244 0.1239 0.1235 0.1230 0.1226 0.1221 0.1210 0.1205 0.1200 0.1195 0.1190 0.1184 0.1178 0.1173 0.1167 0.1161 0.1156 0.1150
0.185 0.1269 0.1265 0.1260 0.1255 0.1250 0.1245 0.1234 0.1229 0.1224 0.1218 0.1213 0.1207 0.1201 0.1195 0.1190 0.1184 0.1178 0.1172
0.190 0.1294 0.1289 0.1284 0.1280 0.1274 0.1269 0.1258 0.1252 0.1247 0.1241 0.1236 0.1230 0.1223 0.1218 0.1212 0.1206 0.1199 0.1193
0.195 0.1319 0.1314 0.1309 0.1304 0.1298 0.1293 0.1281 0.1276 0.1270 0.1264 0.1258 0.1252 0.1245 0.1239 0.1233 0.1227 0.1221 0.1214
0.200 0.1343 0.1338 0.1333 0.1327 0.1322 0.1316 0.1304 0.1298 0.1292 0.1286 0.1280 0.1274 0.1267 0.1261 0.1255 0.1248 0.1241 0.1235
0.205 0.1367 0.1362 0.1356 0.1350 0.1345 0.1339 0.1327 0.1321 0.1315 0.1308 0.1302 0.1296 0.1289 0.1282 0.1275 0.1269 0.1262 0.1255
0.210 0.1390 0.1385 0.1379 0.1373 0.1367 0.1361 0.1349 0.1343 0.1336 0.1330 0.1323 0.1317 0.1310 0.1303 0.1296 0.1289 0.1282 0.1275
0.215 0.1413 0.1408 0.1402 0.1396 0.1390 0.1383 0.1371 0.1364 0.1358 0.1351 0.1344 0.1337 0.1330 0.1323 0.1316 0.1309 0.1302 0.1294
0.220 0.1436 0.1430 0.1424 0.1418 0.1411 0.1405 0.1392 0.1385 0.1379 0.1372 0.1365 0.1358 0.1350 0.1343 0.1336 0.1329 0.1321 0.1313
0.225 0.1458 0.1452 0.1446 0.1439 0.1433 0.1426 0.1413 0.1406 0.1399 0.1392 0.1385 0.1378 0.1370 0.1363 0.1355 0.1348 0.1340 0.1332
0.230 0.1480 0.1474 0.1467 0.1461 0.1454 0.1447 0.1434 0.1427 0.1420 0.1412 0.1405 0.1397 0.1390 0.1382 0.1375 0.1367 0.1359 0.1350
0.235 0.1502 0.1495 0.1489 0.1482 0.1475 0.1468 0.1454 0.1447 0.1440 0.1432 0.1424 0.1417 0.1409 0.1401 0.1393 0.1385 0.1377 0.1369
0.240 0.1523 0.1516 0.1509 0.1502 0.1495 0.1488 0.1474 0.1467 0.1459 0.1451 0.1443 0.1435 0.1428 0.1420 0.1412 0.1403 0.1395 0.1386
0.245 0.1544 0.1537 0.1530 0.1523 0.1515 0.1508 0.1494 0.1486 0.1478 0.1470 0.1462 0.1454 0.1447 0.1438 0.1430 0.1421 0.1413 0.1404
0.250 0.1565 0.1557 0.1550 0.1542 0.1535 0.1527 0.1513 0.1505 0.1497 0.1489 0.1481 0.1472 0.1465 0.1456 0.1448 0.1439 0.1430 0.1421
0.255 0.1585 0.1577 0.1570 0.1562 0.1554 0.1546 0.1532 0.1524 0.1516 0.1507 0.1499 0.1490 0.1483 0.1474 0.1465 0.1456 0.1447 0.1438
0.260 0.1605 0.1597 0.1589 0.1581 0.1573 0.1565 0.1551 0.1543 0.1534 0.1525 0.1517 0.1508 0.1500 0.1491 0.1482 0.1473 0.1464 0.1454
0.265 0.1624 0.1616 0.1608 0.1600 0.1592 0.1583 0.1569 0.1561 0.1552 0.1543 0.1534 0.1525 0.1518 0.1508 0.1499 0.1490 0.1480 0.1470
0.270 0.1643 0.1635 0.1627 0.1619 0.1610 0.1601 0.1587 0.1579 0.1570 0.1561 0.1551 0.1542 0.1535 0.1525 0.1516 0.1506 0.1496 0.1486
0.275 0.1662 0.1654 0.1645 0.1637 0.1628 0.1619 0.1605 0.1596 0.1587 0.1578 0.1568 0.1559 0.1551 0.1542 0.1532 0.1522 0.1512 0.1502
0.280 0.1681 0.1672 0.1663 0.1655 0.1646 0.1636 0.1622 0.1613 0.1604 0.1594 0.1585 0.1575 0.1568 0.1558 0.1548 0.1538 0.1528 0.1517
0.285 0.1699 0.1690 0.1681 0.1672 0.1663 0.1654 0.1640 0.1630 0.1621 0.1611 0.1601 0.1591 0.1584 0.1574 0.1564 0.1553 0.1543 0.1532
0.290 0.1717 0.1708 0.1699 0.1689 0.1680 0.1670 0.1656 0.1647 0.1637 0.1627 0.1617 0.1607 0.1600 0.1589 0.1579 0.1569 0.1558 0.1547
0.295 0.1734 0.1725 0.1716 0.1706 0.1697 0.1687 0.1673 0.1663 0.1653 0.1643 0.1633 0.1622 0.1615 0.1605 0.1594 0.1584 0.1573 0.1562
0.300 0.1751 0.1742 0.1733 0.1723 0.1713 0.1703 0.1689 0.1679 0.1669 0.1659 0.1648 0.1637 0.1631 0.1620 0.1609 0.1598 0.1587 0.1576
0.305 0.1768 0.1759 0.1749 0.1739 0.1729 0.1719 0.1705 0.1695 0.1685 0.1674 0.1663 0.1652 0.1646 0.1635 0.1624 0.1613 0.1601 0.1590
0.310 0.1785 0.1775 0.1765 0.1755 0.1745 0.1734 0.1721 0.1710 0.1700 0.1689 0.1678 0.1667 0.1660 0.1649 0.1638 0.1627 0.1615 0.1603
0.315 0.1801 0.1791 0.1781 0.1771 0.1760 0.1750 0.1736 0.1726 0.1715 0.1704 0.1693 0.1681 0.1675 0.1664 0.1652 0.1641 0.1629 0.1617
0.320 0.1817 0.1807 0.1797 0.1786 0.1776 0.1765 0.1751 0.1741 0.1730 0.1718 0.1707 0.1695 0.1689 0.1678 0.1666 0.1654 0.1642 0.1630
0.325 0.1833 0.1823 0.1812 0.1801 0.1791 0.1779 0.1766 0.1755 0.1744 0.1733 0.1721 0.1709 0.1703 0.1692 0.1680 0.1668 0.1656 0.1643
0.330 0.1849 0.1838 0.1827 0.1816 0.1805 0.1794 0.1781 0.1770 0.1758 0.1747 0.1735 0.1723 0.1717 0.1705 0.1693 0.1681 0.1669 0.1656
0.335 0.1864 0.1853 0.1842 0.1831 0.1820 0.1808 0.1795 0.1784 0.1772 0.1760 0.1748 0.1736 0.1731 0.1719 0.1706 0.1694 0.1681 0.1669
0.340 0.1879 0.1868 0.1856 0.1845 0.1834 0.1822 0.1809 0.1798 0.1786 0.1774 0.1762 0.1749 0.1744 0.1732 0.1719 0.1707 0.1694 0.1681

pu (max)
0.279 0.273 0.266 0.260 0.254 0.248 0.296 0.290 0.283 0.276 0.269 0.263 0.316 0.309 0.301 0.294 0.287 0.280

c/d
p
= 181.3/ 370 0.49 0.5 =
f
pr
= 1860[1 (0.28)(0.49)] 1605 MPa =
Required area of compression block
=
2
(0.9)(8)(99)(1605)
58370 mm
(0.80)(0.70)(35)
=
From the figure above, for the area of the
compression block to equal 58370 mm
2
:

1
c = 165 mm
c = 165/ 0.88 181.3 mm =
The centre of the equivalent compression block is
conservatively estimated at 2/3
1
c from the top fibre:
2/3
1
c = (2/ 3)(0.88)(181.3) 106.7mm =
M
r
=
p p pr p 1
A f (d 2/ 3 c)
=
3
(0.9)(8)(99)(1605)(370 106.7) /10
= 301 kN-m
M
f
=
2
(9.7)
{[(7)(1.25) (0.32)(1.25)
8
+

o o
(7.68)(1.5)]cos(21.9 ) (0.3)(1.5)sin(21.9 )} + +
= 228 kN- m 301kN- m <
The bending moment around the major axis is small
compared to the section depth and can be safely
ignored. Reinforcement should be added to resist the
axial load.
3.3.3 Analysis Using Strain Compatibility
The fundamental strain compatibility approach is a
convenient method for analyzing fully and partially
prestressed flexural elements (see Sect. 3.4.3 for
definitions). Example 3-5 demonstrates the use of
this method of analysis.
Example 3-5 Strain compatibility analysis of a
partially prestressed flanged section
Given:
700 550 inverted tee beam certified in accordance
with A23.4 with a 50 mm composite topping as
shown:
Concrete:

c
f precast = 35 MPa
1
= 0.80
c
= 0.70

c
f topping = 25 MPa
1
= 0.81
c
= 0.65
Normal density
11 - 13 mm 1860 MPa strands (low relaxation)
A
p
= (11)(99) = 1089 mm
2

E
p
= 190000 MPa
Non-prestressed reinforcement:
4 - 25M bottom, f
y
= 400 MPa
A
s
= (4)(500) = 2000 mm
2

2 20M top, f
y
= 400 MPa
A
s
= (2)(300) = 600 mm
2

E
s
= 200000 MPa
f
po
= 0.75 f
pu

Section Properties:
A
g
= 365000 mm
2

I = 15852 10
6
mm
4

y
b
= 309.1 mm
Problem:
Find factored flexural resistance, M
r

Solution:
C
1
+ C
2
+ C
3
+ C
4
= T
1
+ T
2
C
1
=
1 c c f
f h b
=
3
(0.81)(0.65)(25)(50)(1300 300) /10
= 658 kN
C
2
=
3
(0.81)(0.65)(25)(100)(300) /10 395 kN =
C
3
=
3
(0.8)(0.7)(35)(300)(0.883c 100) /10
= (5.192c 588) kN
C
4
=
3
s s y
A f (0.85)(600)(400) /10 204 kN = =
f
pr
=
pu p p
f (1 k c / d )
T
1
=
p p pr
A f
=
3
p p
(0.9)(1089)(1860)(1 k c / d ) / 10
=
p p
(1823)(1 k c / d ) kN
T
2
=
3
s s y
A f (0.85)(2000)(400) /10 680 kN = =
According to Fig. 3.3.2:
c/d
p
=
p p pu s s s s s s 1 c c w f
1 c c 1 w p p p p pu
A f A f A f f (b b )h
f b d k A f
+
+

c/d
p
=
1823 680 658 395 588 204
0.545
(5.192)(550) (1823)(0.28)
+ +
=
+

Because c/d
p
> 0.5, use strain compatibility analysis.
Use the empirical equation for f
pr
for the first iteration:
f
pr
= (1860)[1 (0.28)(0.545)] 1576 MPa =
T
1
=
3
(0.9)(1089)(1576) /10 1545 kN =
Rearranging terms:
T
1
+ T
2
= C
1
+ C
2
+ C
3
+ C
4

C =
1545 680 658 395 588 204
5.192
+ +

=
1545 11
300mm
5.192
+
=

s
=
(0.0035)(300 40) / 304 0.00303 =

y
= 400/ 200,000 0.002 = (A
s
has yielded)

s
= (0.0035)(300) / 300 0.0035 = (A
s
has
yielded)

p
= (0.0035)(250) / 304 0.00283 =
The prestressed reinforcement has an additional
prestrain corresponding to the elastic strain in the
steel when the concrete stress is zero at the level of
the prestress.
Assume:
f
pe
=
pu
0.6f (0.6)(1860) 1116 MPa = =

pe
=
pe p
f / E 1116/190000 0.00587 = =
Concrete stress at level of tendons:
e = 309.1 100 209.1mm =
f
ce
=
2
e
g
1 e
P
A I

+

=
2
6
1 209.1
(1116)(1089)
365,000
15,852 10

+

= 6.68 MPa

ce
=
ce c
f / E 6.68/ 28165 0.00025 = =

pe
+
ce
= 0.00587 + 0.00025 = 0.00615

pr
= Total strain in tendons = 0.00615 + 0.00283
= 0.00899
From the stress-strain curve in Fig. 8.2.3:
f
pr
= 1640 MPa 1575 MPa >
f
pr
= (1576 1646) / 2 1611MPa + =
T
1
=
3
(0.9)(1089)(1611) /10 1579 kN =
2
nd
iteration:
c =
1579 11
306 mm
5.192
+
=

s
= (0.0035)(306 40) / 306 0.00304 =

s
=(0.0035)(600 306) / 306 0.00336 0.002 = >

p
= (0.0035)(550 306) / 306 0.00279 =

pr
= 0.00615 0.00279 0.00894 + =
From the stress-strain curve:
f
pr
= 1636 MPa 1609 MPa >
try:
f
pr
= 1622 MPa
T
1
=
3
(0.9)(1089)(1622) /10 1590 kN =
3
rd
iteration:
c =
1590 11
308 mm
5.192
+
=

p
= (0.0035)(550 308) / 308 0.00275 =

pr
= 0.00615 0.00275 0.0089 + =
After a number of iterations, from the stress-strain
curve:
f
pr
= 1629 MPa
c = 310 mm
This matches the trial value so that this is the correct
solution.
a =
1
c (0.883)(310) 274 mm = =
C
3
=5.192c 588 (5.192)(310) 588 1022 kN = =
T
1
=
3
(0.9)(1089)(1629) / 10 1596 kN =

M
r
= (658)(310 25) (395)(310 50) + +

3
(1022)(310 187) (204)(310 40)] /10 + +
=
1051kN-m

3.4 FLEXURAL DESIGN AT SERVICE LIMIT
STATE
For precast concrete elements, the two distinct
phases requiring design consideration are:
1. Manufacturing conditions stripping, handling,
storing shipping and erection.
2. In-service conditions, defined as those
conditions imposed upon an element after it is
permanently connected to the supporting
structure.
The specified in-service loads may not produce the
governing stress conditions. The forces imposed
during manufacturing to erection may control a
design. Concrete strengths at the time of stripping are
lower than when the element is in service.
The forces imposed on an element during stripping
and handling and erection are affected by:
1. The orientation of the element.
2. External restraints such as form suction and
impact.
3. Location and number of handling inserts.
4. Dead load of element and of any additional items
need to be lifted (such as forms which remain with
the element during stripping).
5. Location of temporary points of support during
storage.
6. Condition of the transporting vehicle, road and
site.
Since it is the manufacturer's choice of the
production, transportation and erection methods
employed, it is also the manufacturer's responsibility
to verify satisfactory behaviour of the precast element
during these processes.
3.4.2 Reinforced Element Design
Non-prestressed flexural elements are normally sized
and reinforced on the basis of the procedures
described in Sect. 3.3.
Recommended values for the maximum crack width
are given in Fig. 3.4.1. A larger number of closer
spaced bars will lead to smaller crack widths than
fewer, large diameter bars with an equivalent area.
Fig. 3.4.1 Values of z and corresponding crack
widths
Type of element
and exposure
Maximum
value of z
(N/mm)
Corresponding
value of w (mm)
Reinforced elements*
Exterior exposure 25,000 0.33
Interior exposure 30,000 0.40
Prestressed elements*
Critical appearance**
* Mandatory A23.3 requirements
** For elements where appearance is critical, it is
recommended that the Code requirement for crack control be
extended to prevent the formation of unsightly cracks [2].

The maximum recommended values of the quantity z
are shown in Fig. 3.4.1, where z is calculated from
the equation:
z =
3
s c
f d A
If values of f
s
under service load conditions are
required to be less than 0.6 f
y
to satisfy crack control
requirements, reinforcement provided should be
equal to:
A
s
=

s
M
0.9f d

This equation is based on working stress design
principles.
The above equation is derived from the Gergely-Lutz
expression [1]:
w =
6 2
3
s c
1
h
11 10 f d A
h

with h
2
/h
1
taken equal to 1.2
See ACI 350-02 for recommendations on the design
of water retaining sanitary structures.
When it is necessary for surfaces exposed to view to
remain free from discernable cracks, the flexural
tensile stresses during handling and under service
loads, it is recommended the stresses do not exceed
two thirds of the modulus of rupture, f
r
.

Example 3-6 Reinforced panel design
Given:
A 150 mm thick architectural precast concrete panel
exposed to the weather.
Concrete:

c
f = 35 MPa
Normal Density
Specified load moment M = 6.0 kN-m/m
Problem:
Find the required amount of non-prestressed 400
grade reinforcement with 40 mm cover to the centre
of the reinforcement.
Solution:
For a panel with critical appearance exposed to the
weather, the recommended maximum value of w
from Fig. 3.4.1 is:
w = 0.12 mm
Assuming j = 0.9 and k = 0.3, calculate:
d = 150 40= 110 mm
k
d
= (0.3)(110)= 33 mm
h
1
= 110 33= 77 mm
h
2
= 150 33= 117 mm

2
1
h
h
=
117
1.52
77
=
d
c
= 40 mm
Try a bar spacing of 150 mm:
A = 2d
c
b
= (80)(150) = 12000 mm
2

f
s
=
6 2
3
c
1
w
h
(11 10 ) d A
h

=
6
3
0.12
92 MPa
(11 10 )(1.52) (40)(12000)

A
s
=
6
2
s
M (6.0)(10 )
658 mm / m
0.9f d (0.9)(92)(110)
= =
Use 10M bars at 150 mm top and bottom
(A
s
= 666 mm
2
/m)
3.4.3 Prestressed Element Design General
Prestressed concrete elements are classified as
either fully or partially prestressed depending on the
value of the calculated tensile stresses due to the
effects of specified loads. The permissible stresses
for fully prestressed elements are summarized as
follows:
Permissible concrete stresses:
1. At release (transfer) of prestress, before time-
dependent losses:
a) Compression:
ci
0.6f
b) Tension (except at ends):
ci
0.25 f
c) Tension at ends of simply supported
elements:
ci
0.5 f
2. Due to prestress and specified loads, after all
losses:
a) Compression due to sustained loads:
c
0.45f
b) Compression due to total load:
c
0.6f
c) Tension in precompressed tensile zone
(except corrosive environments):
c
0.5 f
d) Tension in precompressed tensile zone
exposed to corrosive environments:
c
0.25 f
Prestressed elements not complying with 2(c) are
defined as partially prestressed and are required to
meet the crack control criteria given in Fig. 3.4.1.
Calculation of stresses at critical points follows
classical straight line theory as illustrated in Fig.
3.4.2. The calculation of these stresses is illustrated
in Example 3-7 at the end of this Subsection. S413
gives requirements for parking garages subjected to
chloride exposure.
Permissible stresses in prestressing tendons
1. During jacking:
a) For post-tensioning tendons: 0.85 f
pu
but not
greater than 0.94 f
py

b) For pretensioning tendons: 0.80 f
pu

2. Tension immediately after prestress transfer:
a) Except at post-tensioning anchorages and
couplers: 0.82 f
py
but not greater than 0.74 f
pu

b) At anchorages and couplers of post-
tensioning tendons: 0.70 f
pu
In accordance with ASTM 416-99, A421-98a and
A722-98, steel for prestressed concrete tendons, the
specified yield strength, f
py
, of prestressing tendons is
based on the following:
1. Low relaxation strand or wire:................... 0.90 f
pu

2. Stress relieved strand or wire: .................. 0.85 f
pu
3. Plain bars:................................................. 0.85 f
pu
4. Deformed bars: ......................................... 0.80 f
pu

Fig. 3.4.2 Calculation of concrete stresses due to specified loads
The maximum jacking stress given in 1(a) is based
solely on the stress-strain characteristics of the
tendons; this maximum value should only be used
after consultation with the manufacturer of the
anchorages or the supplier of the post-tensioning
system. It is recommended that the maximum jacking
stress in case 1(b) not exceed 0.75 f
pu
due to anchor
set loss and possible temperature corrections.
Critical sections for pretensioned elements
The most critical sections for stresses immediately
after transfer are usually near the end of the element.
In elements with single-point depressed tendons, the
release stresses at midspan may also be critical and
should be checked. The critical end stress is at the
point where the prestressing force has been
completely transferred to the concrete. The transfer
length is usually assumed to be 50 strand diameters
from the end of the member.
When release stresses are higher than allowed, it
may be necessary to increase the specified release
strength, provide supplementary tensile
reinforcement or debond some strands at the ends of
elements. In short-span, heavily loaded, elements,
such as beams, it is usually more practical to
reinforce for the release tension. This is illustrated in
Example 3-7.
Under uniform service loads, the critical section is at
midspan for elements with straight tendons and near
0.4l from the end ( l = span) for elements with
tendons depressed at midpoint. For unusual loading
conditions, such as concentrated loads, other
sections may be critical.
Straight tendons are normally used in flat deck
elements and beams and either straight or depressed
tendons are used in stemmed deck elements.
Composite elements
Cast-in-place composite topping is normally cast on
deck elements without shoring. The weight of the
topping must be carried by the precast element. Any
additional dead and live loads are carried by the
composite section.
The following example illustrates a tabular form of
superimposing the stresses caused by the prestress
force and the dead and live load moments.
Sign convention
The customary sign convention used in the design of
precast, prestressed concrete elements for service
load stresses is positive (+) for compression and
negative () for tension. Bending moment diagrams
are drawn on the tension side of flexural elements.
This convention is used throughout this Manual.
Example 3-7 Calculation of critical stresses
single point depressed strand
Given:
2400 600 double tee
Span = 21.0 m
Superimposed dead load = 0.5 kN/m
2
= 1.2 kN/m
Superimposed live load = 1.75 kN/m
2
= 4.2 kN/m

Concrete:

c
f = 35 MPa

ci
f = 25 MPa

Normal Density
14 -13 mm 1860 MPa stress-relieved strands
A
p
= (14) (99) = 1386 mm
2

f
po
= 0.7 f
pu

Section properties:
A
g
= 260000 mm
2

I = 8580 10
6
mm
4

y
b
= 424 mm
y
t
= 176 mm
S
b
= 20200 10
3
mm
3

S
t
= 48800 10
3
mm
3

m = 260 kg/m
2
= 624 kg/m
w = 2.6 kN/m
2
= 6.24 kN/m
Tendon eccentricity as shown:
Problem:
Find critical service load stresses.
Solution:
Prestress force:
P
o
= (1386)(0.70)(1860)/10
3
= 1800 kN
P
i

= (Assume 10% initial loss)
= (0.90)(1800) = 1620 kN
P
e
= (Assume 24% total loss)
= (0.76)(1800) = 1370 kN
Service load moments:
at midspan:
M
sw
= (6.2)(21)
2
/8 = 344 kN-m
M
sd
= (1.20)(21)
2
/8 = 66 kN-m
M
= (4.20)(21)
2
/8 = 232 kN m

Support at
release
P = P
i

Midspan at
release
P = P
i

0.4 at service
load
P = P
e

f
b
f
t
f
b
f
t
f
b
f
t

P / A
g
+ 6.2 + 6.2 + 6.2 + 6.2 + 5.3 + 5.3
Pe / S + 8.8 3.7 + 26.9 11.1 + 19.7 + 6.8
M
sw
/ S 17.0 + 7.1 16.3 8.1
M
sd
/ S 3.1 + 1.3
M
l
/ S 11.0 + 4.6
Stresses + 15.0 + 2.5 + 16.1 + 2.2 5.4 + 9.9
ci
0.6f
ci
0.6f
ci
0.6f
ci
0.6f 0.5 f
c

0.6f
c
+ 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0 3.0 + 21.0

Allowable
stresses
OK OK HIGH OK HIGH OK
at 0.4
M
sw
= (344)(0.96) = 330 kN m
M
sd
= (66)(0.96) = 63 kN m
M
= (232)(0.96) = 223 kN m
In this example, a release strength of:

ci
f

=

16.1
26.8 MPa
0.6
=

should be provided and, because the extreme fibre
stress in the precompressed tensile zone exceeds
0.5
c
f (5.4 > 3.0), the element is partially
prestressed (see Sect. 3.4.8).
Example 3-8 Serviceability check of a stadia
unit
Given:
The stadia unit and loads described in Example 3-4.
Problem:
Check service limits, final stresses, release stresses
and cracking moment.
Solution:
9 strands at 0.75 f
pu
initial stressing and 15% total
losses:
P =
(9)(99)(1860)(0.75)(0.85)
1000

= 1057 MPa
Final Stresses:

e
y
= ( 104 85 67 37 177 158 139
121 112) / 9

+

= 86 mm

e
x
= ( 712 665 619 124 180 226 273
319 899) / 9
+ + + +
+ +

3 mm =
M
x
= [(7 0.32 7.68)cos21.9 + +

2
(0.3)sin21.9 ](9.7) / 8 +
= 165.0 kN m
M
y
= [(7 0.32 7.68)sin21.9
+ +

2
(0.3)cos21.9 ](9.7) / 8 +
= 69.1kN m


Final stress at point E:
=
y y
x x
g x y x y
Pe M
Pe M P
A S S S S
+ +
=
3 3
6
(1057)(10 ) (1057)(10 )(86)(274)
298,500
(3350)(10 )
+

3 6
6 6
(1057)(10 )(3)(138) (165)(10 )(274)
(83,400)(10 ) (3350)(10 )
+

6
6
(69.1)(10 )(138)
(83,400)(10 )

= 3.54 7.43 0.01 13.50 0.11 + +
=
c
2.63 MPa 2.96 MPa 0.5 f < =
The final stresses at other points are summarized
below.
Release Stresses:
Check stresses at 50 strand diameters from end of
unit.
M
sw
(7)(0.65/ 2)(10 0.65) 21.3 kN- m = =
M
x

o
(21.3)cos21.9 19.8 kN- m = =
M
y

o
(21.3)sin21.9 7.9 kN- m = =
Release stress at point D:
=
3 3
6
(1181)(10 ) (1181)(10 )(86)(260)
298,500
(3350)(10 )

3 6
6 6
(1181)(10 )(3)(58) (19.8)(10 )(260)
(83,400)(10 ) (3350)(10 )
+ +

6
6
(7.9)(10 )(58)
(83,400)(10 )
+
= 3.96 7.88 0 1.54 0.01 + + +
=
c
2.37 MPa 2.5 MPa 0.5 f < =
The release stresses at other points are summarized
above
f
r
=
c
0.6 f (0.6) 35 3.55 MPa = =
f
ce
= 3.54 7.43 10.97 MPa + =
M
cr
=
6
6
(3350)(10 )
(3.55 10.97) /10
274
+
= 178 kN-m
M
r
= 301kN- m (1.2)(178) >
Although not part of this example, the designer
should analyze deflections and vibration to complete
the serviceability check.
3.4.4 Prestress Loss General
Sources of prestress loss
Loss of prestress is the reduction of tensile stress in
prestressing tendons. A23.3 identifies the following
sources of loss of prestress:
1. anchorage seating loss
2. friction loss due to intended or unintended
curvature in post-tensioning tendons
3. elastic shortening of concrete
4. creep of concrete
5. shrinkage of concrete
6. relaxation of tendon stress
Accurate determination of losses is more important in
some prestressed concrete elements than in others.
Losses have little effect on the flexural resistance of
an element unless the tendons are unbonded and/or
the final stress after losses is less than 0.50 f
pu
.
Underestimation or overestimation of losses can
affect service conditions such as camber, deflection
and cracking.
Anchorage seating loss and friction:
Anchorage seating loss and friction losses are
mechanical. They represent the difference between
the tension applied to the tendon by jacking and the
initial tension available for application to the concrete
by the tendon. The magnitude of the losses can be
determined with reasonable accuracy and, in many
cases, they can be fully or partially compensated for
by increasing the jacking force.
Elastic shortening of concrete:
The concrete around the tendons immediately
shortens as the prestressing force is applied.
Tendons already bonded to the concrete shorten with
it.
Shrinkage of concrete:
Shrinkage of the concrete surrounding the tendon
takes place after initial set of the concrete shortens
the tendon. Shrinkage continues for the life of a
member but the rate decreases with time.
Creep of concrete and relaxation of tendons:
Creep is the increase in shortening in concrete due to
sustained compressive stress. Relaxation is a
reduction in tendon stress without a change in tendon
length. The rate of loss due to creep and relaxation
change decrease with time.
Range of values for total prestress loss
All loss calculations in this manual are based on low
relaxation strands.
The total loss of prestress in typical elements ranges
from 200 to 350 MPa for normal density concrete
elements, and from 250 to 400 MPa for semi-low
density concrete.

A value of 240 MPa, corresponding to a 21% loss as
recommended in the 1958 ACI-ASCE committee
report, should only be used for preliminary design.
Two methods for loss calculation are:
1. the Simplified Method
2. the Detailed Method [3]
The Simplified Method takes into account the level of
concrete stress, type of prestressed reinforcement
and volume to surface ratio. The Detailed Method
takes into account all the major variables affecting
creep and shrinkage and includes the effect of non-
prestressed reinforcement located in the tension zone
of the element. The presence of non-prestressed
reinforcement in partially prestressed elements also
affects the losses in a significant way and should not
be neglected in the loss calculations.
3.4.5 Prestress Loss by Simplified Method
Recommendations for Estimating Prestress Losses,
by the PCI Committee on Prestress Losses, were
published in the PCI Journal, July/August 1975.
Reader's Comments on the Recommendations were
published in the PCI Journal, March/April 1976.
Using the Simplified Method, stress loss is
determined by computing the value of f
co
and f
ci
and
substituting them in the appropriate empirical
equations. These equations are used to compute the
total loss, f
p
. Total loss is the sum of losses due to
shrinkage, elastic shortening and creep of concrete
plus loss due to relaxation of tendons.
For normal density concrete:
f
p
= 137 MPa + 16.3 f
co
+ 5.4 f
c1

For semi-low density concrete:
f
p
= 121 MPa + 20.4 f
co
+ 4.8 f
c1

The above empirical equations apply only to
pretensioned elements. For typical elements the only
variable not included in the equations that could
make a difference in the net result is volume/surface
ratio. A correction factor is applied for V/S:

V/S ration (mm) 25 50 75 100
Adjustment (percent) +3.2 0 -3.8 -7.6
Example: For V/S = 75: reduce losses, eg. 21% x
(100 - 3.8)% = 20.2%
The above equations are based on the initial tension
of 0.75 f
pu
, after reduction for anchor slip. Use of a
higher or lower initial tension will result in an
appreciable change in net losses.
Use of the equations requires the calculation of the
stresses f
co
and f
c1
:
f
co
=
2
d i i
g
M e P Pe
A I I
+
f
c1
=
sd
M e
I

Example 3-9 Loss of prestress by the
Simplified Method
Given:
2400 800 double tee with 50 mm composite topping
Span = 21.0 m
No superimposed dead load except topping

Section properties (untopped):
A
g
= 371000 mm
2

I = 22800 10
6
mm
4

S
b
= 43700 10
3
mm
3

y
b
= 523 mm
V/S = 48 mm
w = 3.6 kN/m
2
= 8.6 kN/m
w of topping = 2.9 kN/m
Precast concrete:

c
f = 35 MPa

ci
f = 25 MPa
Normal Density
Topping concrete:
Normal Density
12 - 13 mm 1860 MPa
A
p
= (12)(99) = 1188 mm
2

Strands depressed at mid-span:
e
e
= 307 mm
e
c
= 441 mm

Problem:
Determine total prestress loss and effective prestress
by the simplified method.
Solution:
For depressed strand, assume the critical section is
at 0.4l . Determine moments, eccentricity, and
prestress force:
M @ 0.4l =
wx w(0.4 )
( x) ( 0.4 )
2 2
=
l
l l l
= 0.12 wl
2

M
sw
= (0.12)(8.6)(21)
2
= 455 kN-m
M
sd
= (0.12)(2.9)(21)
2
= 154 kN-m
e at 0.4l = 307 + (0.8)(441 307)
= 414 mm
P
o
= 0.75 A
p
f
pu
= (0.75)(1188)(1860)/10
3

= 1660 kN
P
i
= P
o
-f
po
or p = 7.5% assumed value
= 0.925 P
o
= (0.925)(1660) = 1536 kN
Determine f
co
and f
ci
:
f
co
=
2
sw i i
g
M e P Pe
A I I
+
=
3 2 3
6
(1536)(10 ) (1536)(414) (10 )
371000
(22800 10 )
+

6
6
(455)(414)(10 )
(22800 10 )

= 4.1 11.5 8.3 7.3 MPa + =
f
c1
=
I
6
sd
6
M e (154)(414)(10 )
2.8 MPa
(22,800 10 )

= =

For normal density concrete and low relaxation
strand:
f
p
= 137 MPa + 16.3 f
co
+ 5.4 f
c1

= 137 MPa + (16.3)(7.3) + (5.4)(2.8)
= 241 MPa
Adjust for V/S ratio (interpolate between 25 and 50):
Adjustment factor= 3.2
(23)
25
(3.20 0)
= + 0.26%
(+ means additional loss)

(0.26)
100
(241) = 0.6 MPa
Final loss is 241 + 0.6 = 242 MPa or 17.3% of 1395
MPa
Final prestress force after all losses:
P
e

3
(242)(1188)
1660 1373 kN
10
= =
3.4.6 Prestress Loss by Detailed Method
In this method, the creep and shrinkage of the
concrete and the relaxation of the prestressed
reinforcement have to be determined.
Creep
If data about creep and shrinkage is not available
from tests or observations on structural elements, the
method of ACI Committee 209 is used to predict the
time-dependent properties. In the Detailed Method,
creep is expressed in terms of the creep coefficient
C
t
, defined as the ratio of creep strain
cp
to initial
elastic strain
i
at the time of application of prestress.
The following expression is applicable to normal,
semi-low and low density concretes:
C
t

0.6
u cp
0.6
t
C Q
10 t
=
+

In the absence of specific creep data for local
aggregates and conditions, the value suggested for
C
u
is 2.35.
The above equation was developed for sustained
compressive stress not exceeding 50% of f
c
and
consists of an expression for creep under standard
conditions multiplied by the correction factor Q
cp
to
adjust for non-standard conditions. The standard
conditions and the correcting factor Q
cp
are given in
Fig. 2.4.1.
For long term creep (t = ), the above equation is
reduced to:
C
= C
u
Q
cp

Shrinkage
Shrinkage strains start taking place immediately after
initial set of the concrete. According to ACI
Committee 209, the shrinkage strain
sh
is determined
using the following equation, which is applicable to
normal, semi-low and low density concretes:

sh
=
shu sh
s
t
P
C t
+

In the absence of specific shrinkage data for local
conditions, the value of
sh
suggested for use is 780
10
-6
. P
sh
is a correction factor for conditions that are
other than the standard condition specified in Fig.
2.4.1.
For long term shrinkage, the above equation is
reduced to:

sh
=
shu
P
sh

Relaxation of prestressed reinforcement
The term relaxation signifies the loss of stress under
constant strain. In lieu of detailed information from the
steel manufacturer, the relaxation of prestressing
tendons may be predicted as:
f
re
(t)=
pi
pi
py
f
logt
0.55 f
45 f

Assuming 100 years as the lifetime of a precast
structure, the final value for the relaxation is:
f
re

pi
pi
py
f
0.101 0.55 f
f

=

These equations are valid for temperatures up to
20C. At higher temperatures, the relaxation
increases. (See Fig. 3.4.3.) There is also a loss of
prestress due to relaxation before transfer of
prestress. This loss may be high because of the
elevated temperature during accelerated curing, even
though the duration may be only about one day. Fig.
3.4.3 may be useful in estimating the relaxation loss
at higher temperatures.
Elastic loss
At the time of transfer, the concrete stress in any fibre
at a distance y
tr
from the centroid of the transformed
section, is determined by:
f
co
=
o o tr d
tr
tr tr
P P e M
y
A I

+

At the level of the tendons, y
tr
is equal to e
tr
, and the
change in stress in the prestressed reinforcement at
transfer is determined by:
f
po
=
o o tr d
o tr
tr tr
P P e M
n e
A I

+

For most pretensioned elements, unless additional
non-prestressed reinforcement is present, the use of
the gross section properties is sufficiently accurate in
the above equations.
The prestressing force after prestress transfer is:
P
i
= P
o
f
po
A
p

The flexural stress in the concrete after the transfer of
prestress due to the moments, M, as a result of
applied loads and prestressing effects, is:
f
c
=
tr
tr
M
y
I

and in the prestressed or non-prestressed
reinforcement:
f
s
=
tr
tr
M
n e
I

Fig. 3.4.3 Relaxation of low relaxation strand
The modular ratio n is determined by the modulus of
elasticity of concrete at the time of application of M.
The moment M
sd
due to superimposed dead load
increases the stress in the prestressed reinforcement
by:
f
pr
=
sd
tr
tr
M
n e
I

Time-dependent loss
The loss of prestress for an element with one layer of
tendons and non-prestressed reinforcement at
approximately the same level can be estimated from:
f
p
=
o co t sh p re
2 2
o p s t
n f C E f
1 n ( )(1 e / r )(1 0.8C )
+ +
+ + + +

The 0.8 factor, applied to C
t
in the denominator, is an
assumed ageing coefficient.
In the above equations, the concrete area is the net
concrete area not including the reinforcement area.
The gross concrete area is normally used due to the
variations in concrete properties.
If a moment M
sd
due to a superimposed load is
applied at a later stage, the additional time-
dependent change in the prestressed or non-
prestressed reinforcement stress is:
f
p1
= {n
1
f
c1
C
t1
}/{1+n
1
(
p
+
s
)(1+e
2
/ r
2
)(1+0.8C
t1
)}
The time-dependent stress f
p1
is a tensile stress
reducing the loss f
p
. The modulus of elasticity of the
concrete at age t
1
may be considerably higher than
the value at transfer of prestress. Therefore the creep

Fig. 3.4.4 Relaxation reduction coefficient
r

coefficient will be smaller than the value C
t

determined at transfer.
The creep and shrinkage of the concrete reduces the
stress in the prestress reinforcement resulting in
lower intrinsic relaxation losses. This effect may be
included in the calculations by replacing the intrinsic
loss f
re
by a reduced value of
r
f
re
. The coefficient
r

is determined from Fig. 3.4.4 using the parameters
= f
pi
/f
pu
and = f
p
/ f
pi
. The stress f
pi
is the initial
stress applied to the tendon, f
pu
is the tensile strength
and f
s
is the loss of prestress due to creep and
shrinkage only:
f
p
=
c t sh p
2 2
p s t
nf C E
1 n( )(1 e / r )(1 0.8C )
+
+ + + +

If a superimposed dead load is present, the stress
f
p1
is subtracted from f
p
.
When the centroid of the non-prestressed
reinforcement is coincident with that of the
prestressed reinforcement the value f
p
is also the
time-dependent stress in the non-prestressed
reinforcement. The total time-dependent change in
the prestressing force in the concrete is:
P = f
p
A
p
+ f
s
A
s
+ f
s1
(A
p
+ A
s
)
In this equation, f
p
and f
s
are compressive stresses
while f
s1
is a tensile stress being less than f
s
in
magnitude. The result of this stress change will be a
reduction of the tensile stress in the prestressed
reinforcement and a compressive stress in the non-
prestressed reinforcement.
Example 3-10 Loss of prestress for an element
without non-prestressed reinforcement - detailed
method
Given:
The 2400 800 double tee of Example 3-9
Concrete:
E
co
=
1.5
ci
2400
(3300 f 6900)
2300

+

= 24900 MPa at transfer
E
c1
=
1.5
c
2400
(3300 f 6900)
2300

+

= 28200 MPa at 40 days
Section Properties:
r =
6
c
c
I 228000 10
248 mm
A 371000
= =
Problem:
Determine the total loss of prestress by the Detailed
Method.
Solution:
It is assumed that the tendons are pretensioned to
0.75 f
pu
= 1395 MPa and that the topping does not
contribute to the section properties. A relaxation loss
prior to transfer of prestress is calculated assuming
an average temperature of 60C during accelerated
curing for a period of 24 hours. According to Fig.
3.4.3, f
re
= (0.025)(1395) = 35 MPa.
Prestress immediately before transfer:
f
po
= 1395 35 = 1360 MPa
Elastic loss (using transformed section properties):
f
po
=
o o tr d
o co o tr
tr tr
P P e M
n f n e
A I

= +

n
o
=
p
co
E
190000
7.6
E 24900
= =
P
o
= f
po
A
p
= (1360)(1188)/10
3
= 1616 kN
At 0.4 l , the transformed section properties are:
A
tr
= A
g
+ (n
o
1) A
p

= 371000 + (7.6 1)(1188)
= 379000 mm
2

From Example 3-9:
e = 414 mm
d
p
= h y
b
+ e
= 800 523 + 414 = 691 mm

y
tr
=
g b o p p
tr
A y (n 1)A (h d )
A
+

=
(371000)(523) (7.6 1)(1188)(800 691)
379000
+

= 514 mm
e
tr
= y
tr
(h d
p
)
= 514 (800 691)
= 405 mm
I
tr
= I
g
+ A
g
(y y
tr
)
2
+ (n
o
1) A
p
e
2
tr

= (22800 10
6
) + (371000)(523 514)
2

+ (7.6 1)(1188)(405)
2

= 24100 10
6
mm
4

Concrete stress at level of prestressed reinforcement
after transfer:

f
co
=
o o tr d
tr
tr tr
P P e M
e
A I

+

=
3
(1616)(10 )
379,000

3 6
6
(1616)(405)(10 ) (455)(10 )
(405)
24,00 10

+

= 7.6 MPa
Elastic prestress loss:
f
po
= n
o
f
co

= (7.6)(7.6) = 58 MPa
Prestress after transfer:
f
pi
= f
po
f
po

= 1360 58 = 1302 MPa
P
i
= A
p
f
pi

= (1188)(1302)/10
3
= 1547 kN
The value of P
i
is slightly higher than that obtained by
assuming a 7.5% loss in Example 3-9.
Concrete stress at level of prestressed reinforcement
due to M
sd
:
f
c1
=
6
sd tr
6
tr
M e (154)(405)(10 )
I
(24100 10 )
=

= 2.6 MPa (tension)
Corresponding change in tendon stress:
n
1
=
p
c1
E
190000
6.7
E 28200
= =
n
1
f
c1
= (6.4)(2.6) = 17 MPa (tension)
Creep and shrinkage coefficients from Fig. 2.4.1:
1 day at prestress transfer Q
a
= 1.00
40 days when topping is applied Q
s1
= 0.80
Cement content = 410 kg/m P
c
= 1.00
Relative humidity 70% Q
h
= 0.80
P
h
= 0.70
Ratio of fine to total aggregates Q
f
= 0.98
= 0.40 P
f
= 0.86
V/S = 48 mm Q
r
= 0.95
P
r
= 0.96
Slump 50 mm Q
s
l
= 0.95
P
s
l
= 0.97
Air 7% Q
v
= 1.09
P
v
= 1.01
Long term creep due to dead load and prestressing:
Q
cp
= Q
a
Q
h
Q
f
Q
r
Q
s
l
Q
v

= (1.0)(0.80)(0.98)(0.95)(0.95)(1.09) = 0.77
With the ultimate creep coefficient, C
u
= 2.35
C
= C
u
Q
cp
= (2.35)(0.77) = 1.81
Long term creep due to superimposed dead load:
Q
cp1
= (0.80)(0.80)(0.98)(0.95)(0.95)(1.09)
= 0.62
C
1
= C
u
Q
cp1
= (2.35)(0.62) = 1.45
Long term shrinkage:
P
sh
= P
c
P
h
P
f
P
r
P
s
P
v

= (1.0)(0.70)(0.86)(0.96)(0.97)(1.01)
= 0.566
With the ultimate shrinkage strain,
shu
= 780 10
6

shu
=
shu
P
sh
= (78010
-6
)(0.566)
= 442 10
-6

Time-dependent loss not including relaxation, precast
section:
f
p
=
o co sh p
2 2
p s
n f C E
1 n( )(1 e / r )(1 0.8C )
+
+ + + +

p
=
p
c
A
1188
0.0032
A 371,000
= =
f
p
=

c t sh p
2 2
p s t
nf C E
1 n( )(1 e / r )(1 0.8C )
+
+ + + +

=
6
2
(7.6)(7.6)(1.81) (442 10 )(190000)
414
1 (7.6)(0.0032 0) 1 [1 (0.8)(1.81)]
248
+

+ + + +


=
188.5
154 MPa
1.225
=
Reduction in time-dependent loss due to application
of M
sd
:
f
p1
=
1 c1 t1
2 2
1 p s t1
n f C
1 n ( )(1 e / r )(1 0.8C ) + + + +

=
2
(6.7)(2.6)(1.45)
414
1 (6.7)(0.0032 0) 1 [1 (0.8)(1.45)]
248

+ + + +

=
25.3
22 MPa (tension)
1.175
=
Intrinsic relaxation:
f
re
=
pi
pi
py
f
0.125 0.55 f
f

f
pi
= 1360 58 + 17 = 1319 MPa
f
re
=
1319
(0.125) 0.55 (1319)
(0.9)(1860)

= 39 MPa
Reduced relaxation taking into account creep and
shrinkage:
=
p p1
pi
f f
154 22
0.10
f 1319

= =
=
pi
pu
f
1319
0.71
f 1860
= =
from Fig. 3.4.4:

r
= 0.73

r
f
re
= (0.73)(39) = 29 MPa
Therefore, loss due to relaxation only:
f
p
=
r re
2 2
o p s
f
1 n ( )(1 e / r )(1 0.8C )
+ + + +

=
29
23 MPa
1.225
=
Prestress loss summary (MPa):
Relaxation prior to transfer: 35 MPa
Elastic losses:
precast section only f
po
= 58
due to M
sd
n
1
f
c1
= 17
Time-dependent losses:
creep and shrinkage f
p
= 154
due to M
sd
f
p1
= 22
relaxation f
p
= 23
Total prestress loss: 231MPa - or 16.6% of 1395 MPa
This value is 11 MPa (5% of 231) less than that
obtained by the simplified method.
Final effective prestress after all losses:
f
pe
= 1395 231 = 1164 MPa
which corresponds to a final stress of 0.62 f
pu,
and:
P
e
= (1164)(1188)/10
3
= 1382 kN
Example 3-11 Loss of prestress for element with
non-prestressed reinforcement detailed method
Given:
Same as Example 3-9, except that two of the 13 mm
strands are replaced by 2 25M bars (partially
prestressed element).
Concrete:
E
co
= 24900 MPa at transfer
E
c1
= 28200 MPa at 40 days
A
p
= (10)(99) = 990 mm
2

E
p
= 190000 MPa
d
p
= 691 mm (at 0.4l )
A
s
= (2)(500) = 1000 mm
2

E
s
= 200000 MPa
d
s
= 750 mm
Section Properties (including all reinforcement at
0.4l ):
A
tr
= 385000 mm
2

tr
= 25400 10
6
mm
4

e
trps
= 398 mm (prestressed reinforcement)
e
trs
= 457 mm (non-prestressed reinforcement)
e
tr
= 428 mm (both reinforcements)
y
tr
= 507 mm
r
6
228000 10
248 mm
371000
= =
Problem:
Determine the total prestress loss and effective
prestress by Detailed Method.
Solution:
Elastic loss:
From Example 3-10, the relaxation loss prior to
transfer is 35 MPa.
Hence:
f
po
= 1360 MPa
P
o
= (1360)(990)/10
3
= 1346 kN

Concrete stress after transfer at level of centroid of
both prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement:
f
co
=
o trp d
o
tr
tr tr
P e M
P
e
A I

+

=
3
(1346)(10 )
385000

3 6
6
(1346)(398)(10 ) (455)(10 )
(428)
25400 10

+

= 3.5+1.4 = 4.9 MPa
f
po
= n
o
f
co
= (7.6)(4.9) = 37 MPa
f
pi
= f
po
f
po

= 1360 37 = 1323 MPa
Concrete stress at level of centroid of steel due to
M
sd
:
f
c1
=
sd
tr
tr
M
e
I

=
6
6
(154)(10 )
(428) 2.6 MPa (tension)
25400 10
=

Corresponding change in reinforcement stress:
n
1
f
c1
= (6.7)(2.6) = 17 MPa (tension)
Time-dependent change in stress at centroid of both
prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement
(without relaxation):
p
+
s
=
3
3
990 1000 200 10
0.0055
371000 371000
190 10

+ =

f
p
=
151
109 MPa
1.387
=
=
o co sh p
2 2
o p s
n f C E
1 n ( )(1 e / r )(1 0.8C )
+
+ + + +

=
6
2
(7.6)(4.9)(1.81) (442 10 )(190000)
414
1 (7.6)(0.0055) 1 [1 (0.8)(1.81)]
248
+

+ + +

=
151
109 MPa
1.387
=
f
p1
=
1 c1 t1
2 2
1 p s t1
n f C
1 n ( )(1 e / r )(1 0.8C ) + + + +

=
2
(6.7)(2.6)(1.45)
414
1 (6.7)(0.0055) 1 [1 (0.8)(1.45)]
248

+ + +

25.3
19 MPa (tension)
1.301
= =
For strands, the intrinsic relaxation:
For simplicity in the calculation of the relaxation loss it
is assumed that the superimposed dead load is
applied at the time of transfer. This means that the
tendon stress due to M
sd
is included in f
pi

f
pi
= 1360 37 + 17 = 1340 MPa
f
re
=
pi
pi
py
f
0.125 0.55 f
f

=
1340
0.125 0.55 (1340)
(0.9)(1860)

= 42 MPa
shrinkage:
=
p p1
pi
f f
109 19
0.067
f 1340

= =
=
pi
pu
f
1340
0.72
f 1860
= =
from Fig. 3.4.4:

r
= 0.80

r
f
re
= (0.80)(42) = 34 MPa
f
p
=
r re
2 2
o p s
f
1 n ( )(1 e / r )(1 0.8C )
+ + + +

=
34
24 MPa
1.387
=
Prestress loss summary (MPa):
Relaxation prior to transfer: 35 MPa
Elastic losses:
precast section only f
po
= 37
due to M
sd
n
1
f
c1
= 17
Time-dependent losses:
creep and shrinkage f
p
= 109
due to M
sd
f
p1
= 19
relaxation f
p
= 24
Prestress loss in strand 169 MPa
Final forces:
In the prestressed reinforcement without the effect of
the non-prestressed reinforcement:

P
e
= (1395 169)(990)/10
3

= 1214 kN (tension) applied to the
transformed section
In the non-prestressed reinforcement:
P
s
= (37 17 + 90)(1000)/10
3

= 110 kN (compression)
In the concrete:
P
c
= P
e
P
s
= 1214 110
3.4.7 Prestress Losses and Deflection in
Composite Elements
Analysis of time-dependent effects in composite
members involves the time-dependent properties of
the two different concretes and the relaxation of the
prestressing steel. In addition, non-prestressed
reinforcement may be present. The problem can be
solved by the Creep Transformed Section Method
developed by Dilger. [4] For simplicity in the
calculation of the relaxation loss, it is assumed that
the superimposed dead load is applied at the time of
transfer. This means that the tendon stress due to
M
sd
is included in f
pi
. The method (see Fig. 3.4.5)
involves the following steps:
Step 1: Determine concrete stresses f
ci
(see Fig.
3.4.5(b)) in the precast girder (Sect. 1) after transfer
of the prestressing force. (see Sect. 3.4.6.) At level i:
f
ci
=
d i tr i
tr
tr tr
M Pe P
y
A I
+
+
(For elements without non-prestressed reinforcement,
the gross properties of the section may be used.)
The following sign convention is used in this analysis:
compression and shortening are positive, eccentricity
e and ordinate y above the centroid are positive.
Step 2: Determine the creep, shrinkage and E
c
of the
precast girder (Section 1) and the deck (Section 2).
The following data is required:
a) Creep coefficients of girder concrete C(t
,t
o
),
C(t
ca
, t
o
) and C(t
,t
ca
) where:
t
= time at infinity (days)

t
c
= time at transfer of prestress (days)
t
ca
= time at the beginning of the composite
action (days)
b) Creep coefficient of deck concrete C
deck
(t
, t
ca

t
cc
) where t
cc
is the time at casting of topping
(days).
For unshored construction, t
ca
t
cc
is usually 1 to 3
days.
c) Shrinkage of girder concrete:

sh
(t
, t
o
) = ultimate shrinkage

sh
(t
ca
, t
o
) = shrinkage occurring between time,
t
o
and t
ca
d) Shrinkage of deck concrete:

shdeck
(t
, t
ca
t
) = ultimate shrinkage of deck

concrete
e) Intrinsic relaxation of prestressing steel, f
re

f) E
c
(t
o
), E
c
(t
ca
), E
cdeck
(t
ca
t
cc
)
Calculate:

*
1
E = E
c
(t
1
)/[1 + 0.8C(t
, t
ca
)]

*
2
E = E
cdeck
(t
ca
)/[1 + 0.7C
deck
(t
, t
ca
)]
Step 3: Calculate prestress loss at time t
ca
when
composite action begins (see Sect. 3.4.6), neglecting
relaxation of the steel:
f
p
(t
ca
)
o co ca o sh ca o p
2 2
o p s ca o
n f C(t , t ) (t , t )E
1 n ( )(1 e / r )[1 0.8C(t , t )]
+
=
+ + + +

Loss of prestressing force:
P
ca
= f
p
(t
ca
) A
p

Step 4: Calculate stress in precast section due to
P
ca
. Referring to Fig. 3.4.5(c), stress at level i (i = 2,
... 5):
f
ci

ca ca 3
i
g
P P e
y
A I

=
Use properties of concrete section (not including A
p
),
or gross section properties.
Step 5: Calculate stresses due to weight of deck (or
topping) in fibres i (i = 2, ... 5):
a) For unshored construction, the stresses are:
f
sdi
=
sd
i
M
y
I

b) For shored construction the stresses are:

sdi
f =
sd
i
M
y
I

The prime indicates properties of the transformed
composite section, determined by multiplying the
width of the deck by the ratio E
cdeck
(t
ca
t
cc
)/E
c
(t
ca
).

Fig. 3.4.5 Prestress loss in composite elements
Step 6: Calculate strains In fibre 2:

*
2
=
c2
o ca o
c o
f
[C(t ,t ) C(t ,t )]
E (t )

sd2
ca sh o
c ca
f
C(t ,t ) (t ,t )
E (t )

+ +

sh ca o shdeck ca cc
(t ,t ) (t ,t t )

where f
c2
is the sum of the stress components of
steps 1 and 4 at level 2.
The strain
*
2
represents the difference in free strain
between the precast and deck concrete at level of
fibre 2. For shored construction the term:

sd2
ca
c o
f
C(t ,t )
E (t )
is replaced by:

sd2
ca deck ca cc
c ca
f
[C(t ,t ) C (t ,t t )]
E (t )

In fibre 3:
*
3
=
c3
o ca o
c o
f
[C(t ,t ) C(t ,t )]
E (t )

sd3
o sh ca sh ca o
c ca
f
C(t ,t ) (t ,t ) (t ,t )
E (t )

+ +
For fibres 4 and 5, f
c3
and f
sd3
are replaced,
respectively, by f
c4
and f
sd4
, and f
c5
and f
sd5
.
Step 7: Determine properties of creep-transformed
section. Multipliers for the calculation of the
properties of the creep-transformed section are:
For the steel:
(n
*
1) where n
*
= E
p
/ E
1
*

For the deck concrete:
E
*
2
/ E
*
1

Step 8: Calculate normal forces and bending
moments:

* * *
2 2 2 deck
N E A =
*
2
M =
* *
2 2
N y
A
deck
= Area of concrete deck (Section 2)

*
3
N = (
*
3
E
*
p
+ f
re
)A
p
*
3
M
=
* *
3 3
N y

*
4
N =
*
4
E
s
A
s4

*
4
M =
* *
4 4
N y

*
5
N =
*
5
E
s
A
s5

*
5
M =
* *
5 5
N y

*
N = N
*
1

*
M =
*
1 1
N y
The distances y
*
are the distances from the centroid
of the creep-transformed section.
Note: The reduced relaxation may be determined as
shown in Example 3-10.
Step 9: Calculate stress due to N
*
and M
*
: Concrete
stress in the top fibre of the deck for unshored
construction:


*
t
f =
2 2
t
deck
1
* * * *
E N N M
*
y
* * *
A
A I E

+ +

A
*
, I
*
and y
*
are properties of the creep transformed
section (see Example 3-10).
For shored construction:
f = f
sd
+ f
*

where f
sd
is the flexural stress in the top fibre due to
the weight of the deck (see Step 4).
Time dependent stress in the bottom fibre:

*
b
f =
* *
*
b
* *
N M
y
A I

+

This stress is to be added to the stresses due to
prestressing force at the time t
ca
, and moments M
d

and M
sd
at the bottom fibre.
The time-dependent change due to composite action
in the prestressed reinforcement:

*
3
f =
* *
* * *
3 3 p re
* *
N M
y n E f
A I

+ + +

and in the non-prestressed reinforcement, if any:

*
4
f =
* *
* * *
4 4 s
* *
N M
y n E
A I

+ +

The stresses f
*
have to be added to the stresses
present at the beginning of composite action (time
t
ca
).
Step 10: Calculation of deformations:
Initial plus time-dependent curvature (starting from
age t
o
):

=
o o p
(t )[1 C(t , t )]

+ +

*
ca ca
* *
1
M
(t )[1 C(t ,t )]
I E
+ +
(t
o
)=
d o 3
tr
M P e
EI
+

= elastic curvature of the precast girder at
transfer

p
=
ca 3
P e
EI

= elastic curvature due to prestress loss
before composite action begins.
(t
ca
) =
sd
tr
M
EI

= elastic curvature due to superimposed load
for unshored construction.
or:
(t
ca
) =
sd
M
EI

= elastic curvature due to superimposed load
for shored construction.
To calculate the deflection, curvature should be
established at 0.4l for draped tendons and at the
supports. An appropriate distribution is assumed for
integration between these points.
Example 3-12 Prestress loss in a composite
element using the detailed method
Given:
The 2400 800 double tee of Example 3-9 but
assume that the topping acts compositely.
c
f precast = 35 MPa
c
f topping = 25 MPa
The topping is applied on a precast double tee at 40
days. Assume that composite action begins at 43
days and that the concrete strength of the topping
after moist curing has reached 17.5 MPa at the
beginning of the composite action.
Problem:
Determine the total loss of prestress using the
detailed method.
Solution:
Step 1: Concrete stress after transfer:
At the centre of gravity of the topping (fibre 2):
f
c2
= 1.7 MPa
At level of prestressing steel (fibre 3):
f
c3
= 7.6 MPa
At other fibres: see Fig. 3.4.6(b).
Step 2: Creep and shrinkage properties:
Precast section:
C(t
,1) = 1.81 (see Example 3-9)

C(t
,43) = 1.45 (see Example 3-9)

C(43,1) =
0.6
0.6
t
C
10 t
+

=
0.6
0.6
(43 1)
(1.81) 0.88
10 (43 1)

=

+

sh
(t
, 1) = 442 10
6
(see Example 3-9)

sh
(43, 1) =
sh
s
t
C t

+

=
6
(43 1)
(442 10 )
55 (43 1)

+

= 191 10
6

Cast-in-place topping:
C
deck
(t
, 43) = 2.40
shdeck
(t
, 43) = 600 10
6

Moduli of elasticity:
E
c
(t
o
) = 24900 MPa for
ci
f

= 25 MPa
E
c
(t
ca
) = 28200 MPa for
c
f

= 35 MPa
E
cdeck
(t
ca
t
cc
) = 22100 MPa for
c
f = 17.5 MPa
and
c
= 2400 kg / m
3

Age adjusted moduli:

*
1
E =
c ca
ca
E (t )
1 0.8C(t ,t )
+

=
28 200
13100 MPa
1 (0.8)(1.45)
=
+

*
2
E =
cdeck ca cc
deck ca
E (t t )
1 0.7C (t ,t )
+

=
22,100
8200 MPa
1 (0.7)(2.40)
=
+

*
2
*
1
E
E
= 8200/13100 = 0.63
n
*
= 190000/13100 = 14.5
n
o
= 190000/24900 = 7.6 (at transfer)
n = 190000/28200 = 6.7 (at time t
ca
)
Step 3: Loss of prestress at time t
ca
(neglecting
relaxation):
f
p
(t
ca
)=
o c3 ca o sh ca o p
2 2
o p s ca o
n f C(t ,t ) (t ,t )E
1 n ( )(1 e / r )[1 0.8C(t ,t )]
+
+ + + +

=
6
2
(7.6)(7.6)(0.88) (191 10 )(190000)
414
1 (7.6)(0.0032) 1 [1 (0.8)(0.88)]
248
+

+ + +

=75 MPa
P
ca
= f
p
(t
ca
) A
p

= (75)(1188)/10
3
= 89 kN
Step 4: Stresses due to P
ca
= 89 kN:
f
ci

ca ca 3
i
g
P P e
y
A I

=
At the centre of gravity of the topping (fibre 2):
f
c2
=
3 3
9
( 89)(10 ) ( 89)(10 )( 414)
(287 25)
371000
(22.8)(10 )

+ +

= 0.3 MPa
At the level of prestressing steel (fibre 3):
f
c3
= 0.9 MPa (tension)
For other fibres: see Fig. 3.4.6(c)
Step 5: Stress due to superimposed dead load of
topping:
f
sdi
=
sd
i
M
y
I

f
sd2
=
6
9
(154)(10 )
(287 25) 2.0 MPa
24.1 10

+ =

f
sd3
=
6
9
(154)(10 )
( 405) 2.6 MPa (tension)
24.1 10

=

Increase in steel stress:
= n
1
f
sd3
= (6.7)(2.6) = 17 MPa (tension)
Steel stress at the beginning of composite action:
f
pr
= 1360 (7.6)(7.6) 75 + 17 = 1244 MPa
Step 6: Strain:

*
2
=
c2
o ca o
c o
f
[C(t ,t ) C(t ,t )]
E (t )

sd2
ca sh o
c ca
f
C(t ,t ) (t ,t )
E (t )

+ +

sh ca o shdeck ca cc
(t ,t ) (t ,t t )

=
1.7 0.3
(1.81 0.88)
24900
+

2.0
(1.45)
28200

+

6
(442 191 600)(10 )
+
=
6
171 10

*
3
=
c3
o ca o
c o
f
[C(t ,t ) C(t ,t )]
E (t )

sd3
ca sh o sh ca o
c ca
f
C(t ,t ) (t ,t ) (t ,t )
E (t )

+ +
=
7.6 0.9
(1.81 0.88)
24900

6
2.6
(1.45) (442 191)(10 )
28200

+ +

=
6
368 10

Step 7: Properties of creep-transformed section:
From Step 2, the multiplier for the deck concrete at
fibre 2 is:
=
*
2
*
1
E
0.63
E
=


and the multiplier for the prestressing steel at fibre 3
is:
=
*
1
n 1 = 14.5 1 = 13.5
A
*
= 463 10
3
mm
2

y =
6
3
16.29 10
35 mm
463 10

I
*
= (9.11 + 22.8)(10
9
) = 31.9 10
9
mm
4

Step 8: Normal force and bending moments:

*
2
N =
* *
2 2 2
E A
= (171 10
6
)(8200)(120 10
3
)/10
3

= 168.3 kN
N
*
3
=
*
3 p re p
( E f )A +
= (368 10
-6
)(190000)(1188)/10
3

= 83.1 kN
N
*
= N
*
i
= 168.3 + 83.1 = 85.2 kN
M
*
2
= N
*
2
y
*
2

= (168.3)(268)/10
3
= 45.1 kN-m
M
*
3
= N
*
3
y
*
3

= (83.1)(449)/10
3
= 37.3 kN-m
M
*
= M
*
2
+ M
*
3
= 45.1 37.3
= 82.4 kN-m
Reduced relaxation:
Time-dependent change in prestress due to
composite action without relaxation:
f
*
3
=
3 1 3 p
* *
N M
* * *
y n E
* *
A I

+ +

=
3 6
3 9
( 85.2)(10 ) ( 82.4)(10 )
( 449) (14.5)
463 10 31.9 10

+

6
(368 10 )(190000)
+
= 56 MPa
Intrinsic relaxation with:
f
pi
= 1244 MPa
f
re
=
pi
pi
py
f
0.125 0.55 f
f

=
1244
(0.125) 0.55 (1244)
(0.9)(1860)

= 30.0 MPa
=
56
0.045
1244
=
=
1244
0.67
1860
=
From Fig. 3.4.4:

r
= 0.86

r
f
re
= (0.86)(30) = 26 MPa
Add forces due to reduced relaxation to above values
of N
*
and M
*
. The new values are:
N
*
= 85.2 + (26)(1188)/10
3
= 54.3 kN
M
*
= 82.4 + (26)(1188)(449)/10
6
= 96 kN-m
Step 9: Stresses:
Final concrete stress in top and bottom fibres of
composite section:
f
t
= f
*
t
=
2 2
t
c2
1
* * * *
E N N M
*
y
* * *
A
A I E

+ +

=
3 6
3 9
( 54.3)(10 ) ( 96)(10 )
(293) (0.63)
(463 10 ) (31.9 10 )

+

3
3
( 168.3)(10 )
0.8 MPa (tension)
(120 10 )
+ =

and from Fig 3.4.6:
f
b
= f
*
b

=
3 6
3 9
( 54.3)(10 ) ( 96)(10 )
( 557) (0.63)
(463 10 ) (31.9 10 )

+

8.5 1.1 3.3 3.1MPa (compression) + =
Effective prestress:

*
3
f =
3 1 3 p r re
* *
N M
* *
y n E f
* *
A I

+ + +

=
3 6
3 9
( 54.3)(10 ) ( 96)(10 )
( 449) (14.5)
(463 10 ) (31.9 10 )

+

6
(368 10 )(190000) 26
+ +
= 78 MPa
Level
Area
(mm
2
10
3
)
Multiplier
A
*

(mm
2
10
3
)
y
A
*
y
(mm
3
10
6
)
y
*
= y y
(mm)
A
*
(y
*
)
2

(mm
4
10
9
)
I
(mm
4
10
9
)
I
*

(mm
4
10
9
)
1 371 1.0 371.0 0 0 35 0.45 22.8 23.25
2 120 0.63 75.6 303 22.91 268 5.43 5.43
3 1.188 13.5 16.0 414 6.62 449 3.23 3.23
Total 462.6 16.29 9.11 22.8 31.9

P
e
= (1244 78)(1188)/10
3
= 1385 kN
The distribution of the final concrete stresses is
shown in Fig. 3.4.6(f).
3.4.8 Partially Prestressed Element Design
In many prestressed concrete structures it is not likely
that the full specified load will be applied during the
lifetime of the structure. It is therefore possible to
design the structural elements such that some
cracking may occur under full specified load should it
ever be applied. Within the range of specified dead
and live loads found in most structures, elements
should be proportioned such that:
M
cr
> ( M
sw
+ M
sd
)
This is not a Code requirement but is good design
practice; it also assists the designer in the selection
of prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement.
The advantages of partial prestressing are:
1. A reduction in camber.
2. A reduction in prestress force, which may allow
an increase in tendon eccentricity.
3. A reduction in prestress losses due to creep and
relaxation (where partial prestressing is
achieved using lower tendon stresses).
4. A reduction of cracking in the end zones of post-
tensioned elements.
Partial prestressing may be achieved in two ways:
1. By providing non-prestressed reinforcement in
addition to the prestressing tendons. This may
provide greater economy in long pretensioning
fabrication beds when it is desirable to produce
elements of dissimilar capacity.
2. By reducing the effective prestress below the
maximum limit and relying on the increase in
tendon stress after decompression and cracking
to resist the increase in moment. This is a useful
option in pretensioned construction where there
may be difficulties in placing the non-prestressed
reinforcement.
The crack control criteria for partially prestressed
elements, given in Fig. 3.4.1, are more conservative
than for reinforced elements, due to the potential
effects of corrosion on small diameter tendons.
For the calculation of z, the same equation for
reinforced concrete elements is used:
z =
3
s c
f d A
f
s
= the increase in steel stress in the non-
prestressed reinforcement beyond the state of
decompression
d
c
= concrete cover to the centre of the
reinforcement (mm)
A = effective tension area of concrete surrounding
the flexural tension reinforcement and having
the same centroid as that reinforcement,
divided by the number of bars or wires (mm
2
).
When the flexural reinforcement consists of
different bar or wire sizes, the number of bars
or wires used to compute A is taken as the total
area of reinforcement divided by the area of the
largest bar or wire used.
Note: This definition was developed for elements with
a rectangular tension zone. For elements with a large
tension flange (e.g. a box section) this definition may
not be applicable and w
max
should be calculated as
shown in Step 5 of the Detailed Method.
The value of f
s
may be determined by either a
simplified or a detailed method. The first method is
conservative, particularly for elements with a small
reinforcement ratio. A second, more rigorous method,
is given here, together with research results
concerning maximum crack widths in partially
prestressed elements with different types of
prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement. The
detailed method follows Steel Stresses in Partially
Prestressed Concrete Members, Suri, K. M., Dilger,
Walter H., PCI Journal, May/June 1986. Design aids
to calculate f
s
presented in this paper are used here.
The CONCISE Beam computer software program
uses the detailed method and calculates crack widths
directly.
Simplified method
The stress, f
s
, may be calculated as the stress
corresponding to the difference between the moment
due to specified loads, M
s
, and the decompression
moment, M
dc
, according to:
f
s
=
s dc
p s
M M
(A A )d
+

The decompression moment, M
dc
, is the moment
producing zero stress at the extreme concrete fibre of
the precompressed tensile zone. The moment does
not result in complete decompression of the whole
section as this would require the removal of the

Fig. 3.4.6 Stress distributions for Example 3-12
bending moment due to applied loads and the
application of a fictitious decompression force. The
above equation eliminates the complicated
calculations required to compute the decompression
force P
dc
and facilitates a quick determination of the
stresses due to specified loads
Detailed method
The reference point for the calculation of the
incremental steel stress corresponds to zero stress
throughout the concrete section. The state of zero
concrete stress is achieved by applying a so-called
decompression force P
dc
to the concrete section.
The step-by-step procedure is summarized as
follows:
Step 1:
Determine the effective prestress P
e
and the time-
dependent change in stress in the non-prestressed
reinforcement, f
s
according to the procedure given in
Sect. 3.4.6. Note that f
s
= f
p
.
Step 2:
Determine the decompression force P
dc
:
P
dc
= P
e
+ P
p
P
s
+ P
s

P
e
= effective prestress (after all losses)
P
p
=
c
p p
c
f
E A
E

= force in tendons corresponding to the
concrete stress f
c
at the level of the tendon
under dead load and effective prestress
P
s
= A
s
f
s

= force in the non-prestressed reinforcement
due to time-dependent strain
P
s
=
c
s s
c
f
E A
E

= force in non-prestressed reinforcement
corresponding to the concrete stress f
c
at
the level of the non-prestressed
reinforcement under dead load and
effective prestress.
The forces P
p
and P
s
are normally small and are
often neglected.
Step 3:
Determine parameters:
d
p p p s s s
p p s s
E A d E A d
E A E A
+
=
+

p
dc p
s
P d
M
=
n
p p s s
c
A E A E
bdE
+
=

b

w
b
b
=

Fig. 3.4.7(a)T-beam design coefficients

Fig. 3.4.7(b)T-beam design coefficients

Fig. 3.4.7(c)T-beam design coefficients


f
=
f
h
h

For rectangular sections
b
=
f
= 1.0
Step 4:
From the charts in Fig. 3.4.7, find the coefficient for
the appropriate parameters and use it to calculate the
incremental steel stress:
f
s
= n notation from chart
n =
p
s
2
c
E
M
E
bd

The charts also provide the neutral axis depth
coefficient k. (See Example 3-12)
Step 5:
Calculate the crack control parameter z and compare
with allowable values. A designer may determine the
maximum crack width using the methods given below
for comparison to recommended values in Fig. 3.4.1.
w
max
=
r
1 s c st
k f d A / A

k
1
= 3 10
6
for a combination of deformed bars
and strands and for strands only
k
1
= 4 10
6
for a combination of deformed bars
and wires
k
1
= 5 10
-6
for wires only
d
c
= concrete cover to centre of the
reinforcement (mm)
A
r
= concrete area in tension below the neutral
axis
A
st
= A
p
+ A
s
E
s
/E
p

Unbonded tendons are not considered when
calculating z.
Step 6:
Calculate compressive stress in top fibre:
f
c
=
s
1 kd
f
n d kd

Example 3-13 Crack width analysis of a partially
prestressed element using the detailed method
Given:
3000 1200 single tee. Span = 27.0 m
Concrete:

ci
f = 25 MPa

c
f = 35 MPa

ci
E = 24900 MPa at transfer

c
E = 28200 MPa at 40 days
Normal Density

12 13 mm 1860 MPa, bonded strands
A
p
= 1188 mm
2

E
p
= 190000 MPa
4 25M Grade 400 bars
A
s
= (4)(500) = 2000 mm
2

E
s
= 200000 MPa
Section Properties at Midspan:
A
c
= 492000 mm
2

I
g
= 66300 10
6
mm
4

y
b
= 882 mm
e
c
= 731 mm
A
tr
= 513900 mm
2

I
tr
= 79150 10
6
mm
4

e
trp
= 699 mm (prestressed reinforcement)
e
trs
= 749 mm (non-prestressed reinforcement)
e
tr
= 731 mm (both reinforcements)
y
tr
= 849 mm
r = 367 mm
Creep, shrinkage and relaxation:
Creep Coefficient C
t
= 1.76
Shrinkage
sh
= 430 10
6

Intrinsic Relaxation f
re
= 50 MPa
Service Moments:
M
sw
= 1066 kN-m
M
sd
= 410 kN-m
M
l
= 546 kN-m
M
s
= M
sw
+ M
sd
+ M
l

= 1066 + 410 + 546 = 2022 kN-m
Problem:
Calculate z and check the crack width at midspan for
exterior exposure conditions.

Solution:
Step 1(a): Elastic loss:
Concrete stress after transfer at level of centroid of
both prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement:
f
co
=
o trp sw
o
tr
tr tr
P e M
P
e
A I

+

P
o
= f
po
A
p

f
po
= (0.75)(f
pu
)
= (0.75)(1860) = 1395 MPa
P
o
= (1395)(1188)/10
3
= 1657 kN
f
co
=
3
(1657)(10 )
513 900

3 6
6
(1657)(699)(10 ) (1066)(10 )
(731)
79 150 10

+

= 3.2 + 0.9 = 4.1 MPa
n
o
=
p
ci
E
190 000
7.6
E 24 900
= =
f
po
=
o co
n f (7.6)(4.1) 31MPa = =
f
pi
=
po po
f f
= 1395 31 1364 MPa =
Concrete stress at level of centroid of steel due to
M
sd
:
f
c1
=
sd
tr
tr
M
e
I

=
6
6
(410)(10 )
(731) 3.8 MPa (tension)
79150 10
=

Corresponding change in reinforcement stress:
n
1
=
p
c1
E
190000
6.7
E 28200
= =
n
1
f
c1
= (6.7)(3.8) = 25 MPa (tension)
Step 1(b): Time dependent losses:
p
+
s
=
p
s s
c c p
A
A E
A A E
+
=
3 3
1188 (2000)(200000)
492 10 (492 10 )(190000)
+

=0.0024 0.0043 0.0067 + =

The time dependent change in stress at centroid of
reinforcement (without relaxation):
f
p
=
o co sh p
2 2
o p s
n f C E
1 n ( )(1 e / r )(1 0.8C )
+
+ + + +

=
6
2
(7.6)(4.1)(1.76) (430 10 )(190000)
731
1 (7.6)(0.0067) 1 [1 (0.8)(1.76)]
367
+

+ + +

=
136.5
85 MPa
1.609
=
Assuming the superimposed dead load is applied at
40 days, then from Fig. 2.4.1:
Q
a1
= 0.80
C
t1
= 0.80 C

= (0.80)(1.76) = 1.41
f
p1
=
1 c1 t1
2 2
1 p s t1
n f C
1 n ( )(1 e / r )(1 0.8C ) + + + +

=
2
(6.7)(3.8)(1.41)
731
1 (6.7)(0.0067) 1 [1 (0.8)(1.41)]
367

+ + +

=
35.9
24 MPa (tension)
1.475
=
shrinkage:
For simplicity in the calculation of the relaxation loss,
it is assumed that the superimposed dead load is
applied at the time of transfer. The tendon stress due
to M
sd
is included in f
pi
.
f
pi
= 1395 31 + 25 = 1389 MPa
=
p p1
pi
f f
85 24
0.044
f 1389

= =
=
pi
pu
f
1389
0.75
f 1860
= =
From Fig. 3.4.4:

r
= 0.90
f
p
=
r re
2 2
o p s
f
1 n ( )(1 e / r )(1 0.8C )
+ + + +

=
(0.90)(50)
28 MPa
1.609
=

Step 2: Decompression force:
P
dc
= P
e
P
s
+ P
p
+ P
s

f
p
= 25 + 85 24 + 28 = 64 MPa
P
e
= (f
pi
f
p
) A
p

= (1364 64)(1188)/10
3
= 1544 kN
f
s
= 31 25 + 85 24 = 67 MPa
P
s
= f
s
A
s
= (67)(2000)/10
3
= 134 kN
f
c
= f
co
f
c1
= 4.1 3.8 = 0.3 MPa
P
p
=
c
p p
c1
f
E A
E

=
3
(0.3)(190000)(1188)
2 kN
(28200)(10 )
=
P
s
=
c
s s
c1
f
E A
E

=
3
(0.3)(200000)(2000)
4 kN
(28200)(10 )
=
P
dc
= 1544 134 + 2 + 4 = 1416 kN
It is apparent that the terms P
p
and P
s
could be
neglected.
Step 3:
Parameters to find f
s
:
d =
s s s p p p
s s p p
A E d A E d
A E A E
+
+

=
(2000)(200,000)(1100)
(2000)(200000) (1188)(190000) +

(1188)(190000)(1050)
(2000)(200000) (1188)(190000)
+
+

= 1082 mm
n =
p p s s
c1
A E A E
E bd
+

=
(1188)(190000) (2000)(200000)
(28200)(3000)(1082)
+

= 0.00684
p =
3
dc p
6
s
P d
(1416)(1050)(10 )
0.735
M
(2022)(10 )
= =

b
=
w
b 200
0.0667
b 3000
= =

f
=
f
h 90
0.0832
d 1082
= =
Step 4:
With these parameters, by interpolation from
Fig.3.4.7:
f
s
/n = 47
Steel stress at the level of the centroid of
reinforcement:
f
s
=
6
1 s
2 2
47n M (47)(6.7)(2022)(10 )
181MPa
bd (3000)(1082)
= =
Step 5: Crack control parameter and crack width:
Disregarding the bundled prestressed reinforcement
for the calculation of A, the effective concrete area
surrounding each bar:
A =
2
(200)(2)(100)
10000 mm
4
=
d
c
= 50 mm
z =
3 3
s c
f d A (181) (50)(10000) =
= 14400 N/ mm
For exterior exposure, z 15000 N/mm (Fig. 3.4.1).
Hence, 12 - 13 mm diameter strands plus 4 - 25M
bars satisfy crack control under the specified loads.
With concrete cover, d
c
= 32 mm and using the
parameters calculated in step 3 and Fig. 3.4.7, by
interpolation k = 0.25.
The area of concrete in tension is:
A
t
= (h kd) b
w
= [1200 (0.25)(1082)](200)
= 185900 mm
2

A
st
=
s
p s
p
E (2000)(200000)
A A 1188
E 190000
+ = +
= 3300 mm
2

The maximum crack width is:
W
max
=
1 s c r st
k f d A / A
=
6
185900
(3.0 10 )(181)(32) 0.13 mm
3300
=
This is less than 0.20 mm which is recommended for
exterior exposure of prestressed concrete elements.
see Fig. 3.4.1
Step 6: Check concrete stress in top fibre
(compression):
f
c
=
s
1
f kd
n d kd

=
181 (0.25)(1082)
6.7 1082 (0.25)(1082)

=
c
9.0 MPa 0.6f 21MPa OK < =
Buckling of Non-Prestressed Reinforcement
In Example 3-13, a compressive stress of 67 MPa is
introduced in the non-prestressed reinforcement by
creep and shrinkage. At this low stress, buckling of
bars will not occur.

Fig. 3.4.8 Variation of strand stress with
distance from free end
For compressive stresses exceeding 100 MPa, the
use of transverse reinforcement should be
considered.
The minimum shear reinforcement is considered
adequate to prevent buckling of non-prestressed
reinforcement up to a compressive stress of 200
MPa. Experiments by Hutton and Loov [6] on beams
without transverse reinforcement showed no sign of
buckling after a compressive stress of about 200 MPa
had been reached in the non-prestressed
reinforcement.
3.4.9 Prestress Transfer and Strand
Development
In a pretensioned element, the prestress force is
transferred to the concrete by bond. The length
required to accomplish this transfer is called the
transfer length, and is approximately 50 times the
nominal diameter of the strand.
The development length required to develop the full
design strength of the strand f
pr
is much longer, and is
specified by the Code as:
l
d

pr pe b
0.145(f 0.67f )d =
The approximate variation of strand stress along the
transfer length and the maximum stress that can be
developed near the end of a strand is shown in Fig.
3.4.8. The development length shown in the above
equation should be doubled where bonding of strand
does not extend to the end of a member, and the
design includes tension in precompressed zones at
specified loads.
In short span flexural members, strands may not be
developed at sections of high moment. In such cases,
it is possible that premature failure may occur in the
concrete due to slip. If this is the case, the capacity of
the section should be reduced to account for this
lower prestress.
When a portion of the strands is debonded, zones are
created where sections through the member will
contain strands with unequal strains. In that case,
calculation of nominal strength in the development
region should be based on strain compatibility, or
conservatively, the contribution of the debonded
strands neglected until they are fully developed.
Failure due to slip is brittle, therefore a value of
p
=
0.7 is recommended to determine flexural capacity
when this mode of failure is possible.
Recent industry research has raised questions as to
whether prestressing strands located near the as-cast
upper surfaces of precast concrete elements may
exhibit greater transfer and development lengths than
may have been assumed in design calculations. The
effect was observed primarility with high flow
concrete mixes (such as SCC) and with strands
located within eight inches of the as-cast upper
surfaces.
Example 3-14a Debonding strands
Given:
400 600 rectangular beam, normal density concrete
with:
tendons jacked to 0.75 f
pu

initial prestress losses 5 %
long term prestress losses 14.5 %
Span = 6 m plus a 2 m cantilever
Prestress:
4 13 mm 1860 MPa strands in top
7 13 mm 1860 MPa strands in bottom
P
i
= (99)(0.75)(0.95)(1860) /10
3
= 131.2 kN/strand
P
e
= (131.2)(0.855)= 112.2 kN/strand
Section Properties:
A
g
= 240,000 mm
2

I = 7200 10
6
mm
4

Fig. 3.4.9 Variation of prestress force
y
t
= 300 mm
y
b
= 300 mm
S
t
= 24000 10
3
mm
3

S
b
= 24000 10
3
mm
3

e
t
= (300 100)= 200 mm
(for 4 top strands)
e
bu

= 300 150= 150 mm
(for 3 upper strands in bottom)
e
bl
= 300 100= 200 mm
(for 4 lower strands in bottom)
Loading:
w = (24) (400)(600)(10
6
) = 5.76 kN/m

w
d
= 35 kN/m (not including self weight of beam)
w
l
= 26 kN/m
Problem:
Choose appropriate lengths of debonding and find
stresses at critical sections to determine the required
concrete strength, at transfer and the required
concrete strength at service load.
Discussion:
In a cantilever beam, some of the bottom strands will
usually be debonded because they produce tension
in the top concrete fibre and increase the deflection of
the cantilever. A few strands should continue through
to the end for reinforcement and crack control during
transfer, stripping, storage, transportation, erection
and construction.
In this example, the 4 strands in the bottom layer are
debonded over the full 2 m length of the cantilever.
The development length of these strands needs to be
adequate so they can provide their full flexural
resistance near mid span.
Based on A23.3, a development length of
approximately 2 m is required for 13 mm strands.
Debonded strands require a development length as
well as a transfer length twice the calculated value.
Top strands are necessary along the length of the
cantilever, but increase the bottom fibre tensile
stresses at midspan. To alleviate this condition, some
of the top strands should be debonded over most of
the span. The full flexural resistance of these strands
may be needed to resist the factored negative
moment over the right support.
In this example, 2 of the 4 top strands have been
debonded over a length of 3.4 m from the left end of
the beam. A length of 2.7 m is therefore available for
development of f
pr
of these strands at the right
support.
The variation of prestress force in each layer of
strands is shown in Fig. 3.4.9. These forces have
been labeled as P
t
, P
bu
and P
bl
to designate their
location in the beam. A transfer length of 650 mm is
used for bonded strands.
Solution:
To show the variation of stresses along the beam
under different loads, the stresses at the top and
bottom of the beam at transfer and the stresses in the
beam under service loads have been plotted. To
compute the stresses at transfer the beam is
assumed to be supported at the ends. The stresses
at service load are based on P
e
and two loading
cases: (a) with no live load on the cantilever and (b)
with no live load on the 6 m span. The following
equations with appropriate variations in P and M have
been used to determine the stresses:

t
=
t bu
t bu
g t g t
e e 1 1
P P
A S A S

+

bl
bl
g t t
e 1 M
P
A S S

+ +

b
=
t bu
t bu
g b g b
e e 1 1
P P
A S A S

+ + +

bl
bL
g b b
e 1 M
P
A S S

+ +

From Figs. 3.4.10 and 3.4.11, it is apparent that the
sections that require checking include:
(a) The transfer point, 650 mm from each end.
(b) The transfer point, 1300 mm from the end of the
debonded length
(c) The location of maximum positive moment near
mid span
(d) The right support

Fig. 3.4.10 Stresses at release

Other locations that may require checking are the
lifting and support points used during stripping,
storage, transportation and erection.
Stresses:
At the transfer point, 650 mm from the left support,
P
ti
= 257.8 kN, P
bui
= 386.7 kN, and P
bli
= 515.6 kN.
The moment at this point, assuming the beam is
simply supported 100 mm from each end,
M = 11.6 kN-m.
The compressive stress at transfer:

b
= 8.91 MPa
The required concrete strength at transfer is:

ci
f 8.91 / 0.60 = 14.9 MPa
The maximum positive moment occurs with no live
load on the cantilever. The left reaction under this
condition is 186.7 kN so that zero shear and the
corresponding maximum moment occur at 2.80 m
from the left support. The maximum service load
moment at this section is 261.0 kN-m. (The use of the
centre span moment would have introduced only
negligible error). The forces in the different layers of
prestressed steel are: P
t
= 224.4 kN, P
bu
= 336.6 kN,
and P
bl
= 448.8 kN.
The maximum stresses at this section are:

t

= 11.11 MPa and
b
= 2.70 MPa.
The maximum negative moment, M = 133.5 kN-m,
occurs at the right support with the cantilever fully
loaded. The forces in the prestressed steel at this
section are: P
t
= 448.8 kN, P
bu
= 336.6 kN, and P
bl
= 0.
The maximum stresses at this section are:

t

= 0.65 MPa and
b
= 7.20 MPa.
The required concrete strength for service conditions
will therefore be based on the stresses from the
positive moment:

c
f 11.11 / 0.45 = 24.7 MPa
and

c
f [2.70 / (0.5)]
2
= 29.1 MPa
A transfer strength of
ci
f = 20 MPa and an
c
f = 30 MPa will be adequate.
Example 3-14b Moment capacity of a member
with debonded strands.
Given:
3000 mm wide double tee with 10-13 mm diameter
strands, five strands per stem.

c
f = 35 MPa
E
c
= 28,165 MPa

1
= 0.80
f
pu
= 1860 MPa
f
pe
= 1170 MPa
E
p
= 190000 MPa

Fig. 3.4.11 Final stresses

Problem:
Strand No. 3 is debonded for 1500 mm from the end.
Find M
r
at 3500 mm from the end.
Solution:
Assume f
pr
for fully bonded strands = 0.98 f
pu

= 1823 MPa
Transfer Length

t
l =
pe
b
f
0.145 d
3

=
1170
0.145 (13)
3

= 718 mm
Development Length

d
l =
pr pe b
0.145(f 0.67f )d
= 0.145(1823 (0.67)(1170))(13)

= 1914 mm
For the debonded strand, double the transfer and
development lengths per A23.3, Clause 12.9.2.
Transfer length for debonded strand:

t
l = (2)(718) 1436 mm =
Development length for debonded strand:

d
l = (2)(1914) 3828 mm =
The maximum strength the strand can develop at
3500 mm from the end, 2000 mm from the point of
debonding is:
f
p
=
(200 1436)(1823 1170)
1170
(3828 1436)

+

= 1324 MPa
And the corresponding strain:

p
=
p
p
f
1324
0.00697
E 190 000

= =

Effective strain from transfer point to f
p
:

pa
=
p
-
pe

=
p
-
p
p
f
E

=
(1170)
0.00697
(190000)

=0.00697 0.00616 0.00081 =

The spacing of strands in this example is such that
the variation in the strains is inconsequential, thus the
strains and the stresses in all the strands may be
assumed to be equal, and the centroid of the tensile
force (T
r
) may be assumed to be at the centroid of the
strand group.
T
r
=
p
f
p
A
p
=
(0.9)(1324)(10)(99)
(1000)

= 1179.7 kN
Use the iteration process, varying the value of
concrete strain (
c
), until the compression force, C
r
,
reasonably approximates the tensile force, T
r
. At the
final iteration:

c
= 0.000310 0.0035 OK
C =
c
p
c pa
(d )
( ) ( )
+

=
(0.000310)(500)
(0.000310) (0.00081)

+

=138.4 mm
Compressive stress at the top of the flange
=
c c
E
=(0.000310)(28165)
=8.73 MPa
Compressive stress at the bottom of the flange
=
(138.4 100)(8.73)
(138.4)

= 2.42 MPa

Compression in the flange
=
c c c
f A
=
(0.7)(8.73 2.42)(3000)(100)
(1000)(2)
+

= 1170.8 kN
Compression in the stems
=
138.4 100
(0.7)(155) (2.42)(2)
2
1000

= 10.1 kN
Total Compression

1170.8 10.1
1180.9 kN 1179.7 kN
= +
=

M
r
=
(1170.8)(459.4) (10.0)(387.2)
(1000)
+

= 541.8 kN-m

Fig. 3.5.1 Maximum allowable computed deflections
Type of Element Deflection to be Considered
Deflection
limitation
Flat roofs not supporting or attached to
non-structural elements likely to be
damaged by large deflections
Immediate deflection due to specified
live load L, or snow load, S
n
180
l
(1)

Floors not supporting or attached to
non-structural elements likely to be
damaged by large deflections
Immediate deflection due to specified
live load, L
n
360
l

Roof or floor construction supporting or
attached to non-structural elements
likely to be damaged by large
deflections
Roof or floor construction supporting or
attached to non-structural elements
likely to be damaged by large
deflections
That part of the total deflection
occurring after attachment of the non-
structural elements ( the sum of the
Long-Term deflection due to all
sustained loads and the immediate
deflection due to any additional live
load)
(2)

n
480
l
(3)

n
240
l
(4)

(1)

This limit is not intended to safeguard against ponding. Ponding should be checked by suitable calculations of deflection including the
added deflection due to ponded water, and considering-long time effects of all sustained loads, camber, construction tolerances, and
reliability of provisions for drainage.
(2)

the Long-Term deflection shall be determined in accordance with A23.3, Clause 9.8.2.5 or 9.8.4.4, but may be reduced by the amount of
deflection which occurs before attachment of the non-structural elements.
(3)

This limit may be exceeded if adequate measures are taken to prevent damage to supported or attached elements.
(4)

This limit shall not be greater than the tolerance provided for the non-structural elements. This limit may be exceeded if camber is
provided so that the total deflection minus the camber does not exceed the limitation.
3.4.10 End Stresses at Transfer
At the time prestress force is transferred, tensile
stresses perpendicular to the prestressing force
(sometime called bursting or splitting stresses),
develop which may cause horizontal cracks near the
end of the member. These forces can be resisted by
vertical reinforcement, A
vt
, uniformly distributed over
a length

=h/5 and calculated by the following equation.
A
vt
= (2.1x 10
5
P
o
h) / (f
s
l
t
)
3.5 CAMBER AND DEFLECTION
The emphasis in this section is on prestressed floor
and roof elements. The same principles are
applicable to the design of non-prestressed concrete
elements and wall panels.
The deflection of precast elements under the
application of dead and live loads is an important
design consideration. For floor and roof elements,
excessive deflection can lead to damage to interior
finishes and equipment. Excessive deflection of roof
elements can lead to water ponding problems.
Inadequate stiffness of wall panels may lead to
sealant failure.
Most precast, prestressed concrete flexural elements
will have a net positive (upward) camber after the
transfer of prestress, caused by the eccentricity of the
prestressing force. This camber may increase or
decrease with time, depending on the stress
distribution across the element under sustained
loads.
There are many inherent variables that affect camber
and deflection, such as concrete mix, concrete
strength at release of prestress, method and duration
of storage, placement of superimposed loads, relative
humidity, etc. Calculated short and long-term
values should not be considered better than
estimates. Non-structural components attached to
elements that could be affected by camber variations,
such as partitions or folding doors, should be placed
with adequate allowance for these variations.
Calculation of topping quantities should also
recognize the imprecision of camber calculations.
Roof slopes should be large enough to overcome the
camber in roof elements.
Limitations on instantaneous and time-dependent
deflections are specified in the code, and are
referenced in Fig. 3.5.1.
3.5.1 Initial Camber
Initial camber can be calculated using conventional
moment-area equations
Figures 8.1.3 and 8.1.4 provide deflection equations
for typical loading conditions while camber equations
for common tendon profiles are given in Fig. 8.1.6.

Example 3-15 Calculation of initial camber
Given:
2400 600 double tee of Example 3-7

Section properties:
A
g
= 260000 mm
2
I = 8580 10
6
mm
4

y
b
= 424 mm
y
t
= 176 mm
S
b
= 20200 10
3
mm
3

S
t
= 48800 10
3
mm
3

w = 2.6 kN/m
2
= 6.2 kN/m
Concrete:

c
f = 35 MPa
Normal Density
E
c
=
1.5
c
c
(3300 f 6900)
2300

+

=
1.5
2400
(3300 35 6900) 28200 MPa
2300

+ =

ci
f = 25 MPa
E
ci
=
1.5
2400
(3300 25 6900) 24900 MPa
2300

+ =

Problem:
Find the initial camber at time of transfer of prestress.
Solution:
The prestress force immediately after transfer and
strand eccentricities is calculated in Example 3-7.
Calculate the upward component:
=
2 2
i e i c
ci ci
Pe Pe
8E I 12E I
+
l l

=
2 9
6
(1620)(110)(21) (10 )
(8)(24900)(8580 10 )

2 9
6
(1620)(225)(21) (10 )
(12)(24900)(8580 10 )
+

= 46 63 109 mm + =
Deduct the deflection caused by the self weight of the
element:
=
I
4
ci
5w
384E
l

=
4 12
6
(5)(6.2)(21) (10 )
73 mm
(384)(24900)(8580 10 )
=

Net camber at release = 109 73 = 36 mm
3.5.2 Elastic Deflections
Calculation of instantaneous deflections caused by
superimposed service loads follows classical
methods of mechanics. Design equations for various
load conditions are given in Chapter 8 of this Manual.
If the bottom tension in a simple span element does
not exceed the modulus of rupture, the deflection is
calculated using the uncracked moment of inertia of
the section. The modulus of rupture of concrete is
defined in the code as:
f
r
=
c
0.6 f
Bilinear behaviour
It is normal practice to use bilinear moment-deflection
relationships to calculate instantaneous deflections
when the bottom tension exceeds the modulus of
rupture, f
r
. The deflection before the element has
cracked is calculated using the gross moment of
inertia, I
g
, and the additional deflection after cracking
is calculated using the moment of inertia of the
cracked section, I
cr
. This is illustrated graphically in
Fig. 3.5.2.
The following equations are exact for rectangular
sections and approximate for other cross sections.
I
cr
= n bd
3
(1 k)(1 k/3)
= C bd
3

d =
s s p p p
s s p p
A E d A E d
A E A E
+
+

k =
2
(n ) 2n n +
n =
s s p p
c
A E A E
E bd
+

Fig. 3.5.2 Bilinear and effective moment of
inertia moment-deflection relationship
For elements in which there is only prestressed
reinforcement and the concrete tensile stress is less
than 1.0
c
f , the above expression may be
simplified to:
I
cr
=
2
p p p
nA d (1 1.67 n )
Another procedure for calculating I
cr
, that includes the
effect of the prestressing force, is given in Sect. 3.5.6.

Effective moment of inertia
An effective moment of inertia, I
e
, can be determined
and the deflection calculated by substituting I
e
for I in
the deflection calculation.
l
e
=
3 3
cr cr
g cr
a a
M M
I 1 I
M M

+

=
3
cr
cr g cr g
a
M
I (I I ) I
M

+

The difference between the bilinear method and the I
e

method is illustrated in Fig. 3.5.2.
The use of I
e
with prestressed concrete elements is
described in a paper by Branson [7]. The value of
M
cr
/M
a
for use in determining live load deflections can
be expressed as:

cr
a
M
M
=
t r
f f
1
f

l
l

f
t
l
= final calculated total stress in the element
f
l
= calculated stress due to live load
A more accurate application of the I
e
method is
described in a paper by Branson and Trost [8].
Example 3-16 - Deflection calculation using
bilinear moment-deflection relationships
Given:
2400 600 double tee of Example 3-7.
Problem:
Determine the total instantaneous deflection caused
by the specified uniform live load.
Solution:
f
r
c
0.6 f = = 3.6 MPa
From Example 3-7, the final tensile stress is 5.4 MPa,
which is more than 3.6 MPa, so bilinear behaviour
must be considered.
I
cr
= n bd
3
(1 k)(1 k/3)
= C bd
3

A
p
= 1386 mm
2

d
p
at midspan = e
c
+ y
t
= 335 + 176 = 511 mm
n =
p p
p
c
A E
E bd

=
(1386)(190000)
0.0076
(28200)(2400)(511)
=
k =
2
(n ) 2n n +
=
2
(0.0076) + 2(0.0076) 0.0076
= 0.1159

C = (0.0076)(1 0.1159)(1 0.1159/3)
= 0.0065
l
cr
=
3
p
Cbd
=
3 6 4
(0.0065)(2400)(511) 2082 10 mm =
Determine the portion of the live load that would
result in a bottom tension of 3.6 MPa:
5.4 3.6 = 1.8 MPa

The tension caused by live load alone is 11.0 MPa,
therefore, the portion of the live load that would result
in a bottom tension of 3.6 MPa is:

11.0 1.8
(4.2) 3.5 kN/ m
11.0

=

g
=
4
c g
5w
384E I
l

=
4 12
6
(5)(3.5)(21) (10 )
37 mm
(384)(28200)(8580 10 )
=

cr
=
4 12
6
(5)(0.7)(21) (10 )
30 mm
(384)(28200)(2082 10 )
=

Total instantaneous deflection,
l
= 37 + 30 = 67 mm
Example 3-17 - Deflection calculation using
effective moment of inertia
Given:
Same section and loading conditions of Example 3-7
Problem:
Determine the instantaneous deflection caused by
live load using the I
e
method.
Solution:
From the table of stresses in Example 3-7:

t
f
l
= 5.4 MPa (tension)
f
l
= 11.0 MPa (tension)

r
f =
c
0.6 f = 3.6 MPa

cr
a
M
M
=
5.4 3.6
1 0.83
11.0

=

3
cr
a
M
M

=
3
(0.83) 0.57 =
From example 3-7, I
cr
= 2082 10
6
mm
4

e
l =
3
cr
cr g cr
a
M
I (I I )
M

+

=
6
[2082 (8580 2082)(0.57)(10 ) +
=
6 4
5786 10 mm

l
=
4
c e
5w
384E I
l

=
4 12
6
(5)(4.2)(21) (10 )
65 mm
(384)(28200)(5786 10 )
=

3.5.3 Long-Term Camber/Deflection
The code provides a convenient multiplier for
estimating the additional long-term deflection of
reinforced concrete elements due to sustained loads:
=
S
1
1 50

+

+

where is A
s
/bd at midspan for simple and
continuous spans and at the support for cantilevers.
The time-dependent factor, S, may be taken equal to:
5 years or more: 2.0
12 months: 1.4
6 months: 1.2
3 months: 1.0
The determination of long-term cambers and
deflections in precast, prestressed elements is
somewhat more complex due to:
(1) effects of prestress and the loss of prestress
over time,
(2) strength gain of concrete after release of
prestress,
(3) camber or deflection is important not only at the
initial and final stages, but also at erection, and
(4) deflection, camber and bowing due to thermal
effects, see Section 2.4.3. See Section 3.5.4
regarding use of multipliers for determining long-
term camber and deflection.
3.5.4 Use of Multipliers for Determining
Long-Term Camber and Deflection
It has been customary in the design of precast,
prestressed concrete elements to estimate the
camber after a period of time by multiplying the initial
calculated camber by factors, usually based on the
experience of designers. To properly use these
multipliers, the upward and downward components of
the initial calculated camber should be separated to
take into account the effects of loss of prestress, that
only affect the upward component.
Figure 3.5.3 provides suggested multipliers to be
used for estimating long-term cambers and
deflections for typical elements, i.e., elements within
the span-depth ratios recommended in this Manual.
The derivation of these multipliers is explained in a
paper by Martin. [9]
Long-term effects can be reduced by adding non-
prestressed reinforcement to prestressed concrete
elements. An equation to account for non-prestressed
reinforcement as proposed by Shaikh and Branson
[10]

can be applied as follows:
C
2
=
1 s p
s p
C A / A
1 A / A
+
+

C
1
= multiplier from Fig. 3.5.4
C
2
= revised multiplier

Fig. 3.5.3 Suggested multipliers to be used for typical precast elements, C1

Without
composite
topping
With
composite
topping
At erection member assumed to be 40 days old:

(1) Deflection (downward) component - apply to the elastic deflection due to the
element weight at release of prestress
1.85 1.85
(2) Camber (upward) component - apply to the elastic camber due to prestress at the
time of release of prestress
1.80 1.80
Final:
(3) Deflection (downward) component - apply to the elastic deflection due to the
element mass at release of prestress
2.70 2.40
(4) Camber (upward) component - apply to the elastic camber due to prestress at the
time of release of prestress
2.45 2.20
(5) Deflection (downward) - apply to elastic deflection due to superimposed dead load
only
3.00 3.00
(6) Deflection (downward) - apply to elastic deflection caused by the composite topping) 2.30
Example 3-18 Use of multipliers for
determination of long-term cambers and
deflections
Given:
2400 600 double tee of Example 3-7, and
Examples 3-15, 3-16 and 3-17.
Non-structural elements are attached, but are
not likely to be damaged by deflections (light
fixtures, etc.).
Problem:
Estimate the camber and deflection and determine if
they meet the requirements of NBCC.
Solution:
Calculate the instantaneous deflections caused by
the superimposed dead and live loads:

sd
=
4 12
6
(5)(1.2)(21) (10 )
13 mm
(384)(28200)(8580 10 )
=

l
= 65 mm - see Example 3-17
For convenience, a tabular format is shown below.
The estimated cambers are:
At erection of the element = 60 mm
After superimposed dead load is applied = 48 mm
Final long-term camber = 32 mm
The deflection limitation of Fig. 3.5.1 for the above
condition is l/240:
(21)(1000)/240 = 88 mm
Total deflection occurring after the attachment of non-
structural elements:

t
l
= (48 32) + 65 = 81 mm < 88 OK

Example - Use of multipliers for determining Long-Term cambers and deflections
(1) Release Multiplier (2) Erection Multiplier (3) Final
Prestress 108 1.80 (1) 195 2.45 (1) 265
Self weight 73 1.85 (1) 135 2.70 (1) 197
Resultant 35 60 68
Superimposed dead load 12 3.00 (2) 36
Resultant 48 32
Live load 65
Resultant 33

Fig. 3.5.4 Moment of inertia of cracked
transformed section
3.5.5 Detailed Method for Determining Long-
Term Camber and Deflection Fully
Prestressed Elements
As discussed in Sects. 3.5.1 and 3.5.2, the elastic
cambers and deflections for uncracked elements are
calculated by conventional methods of analysis; the
downward deflection due to gravity load is reduced by
the upward deflection due to prestressing. The initial
deflection due to prestressing is calculated with P =
P
o
, the initial prestressing force.
The time-dependent deflections of uncracked
elements due to prestressing can be determined by:

p
t
=
p
t t i
o
P
C (1 0.8C )
P

+

The factor 0.8 is the aging coefficient [11] which can
be used for practical creep computations.
The time-dependent deflections of uncracked
elements due to sustained loads can be obtained
from the following expression:

su
t
=
su
i t
C

su
i
= Initial deflection
The values obtained from the above expressions are
additive to the elastic values.
3.5.6 Detailed Calculation of Live Load
Deflection of Partially Prestressed
Elements
As discussed in Section 3.5.2, the deflection of
partially prestressed (cracked) elements may be
calculated using an effective moment of inertia, I
e
, or
bilinear moment-deflection relationships.
The cracked section properties for a given section are
dependent on the decompression load, P
dc
, and the
moment due to specified loads, M
s
.
The calculation of the cracked section properties
involves the determination of the depth to the neutral
axis, c, the centroidal depth, y
cr
, the area, A
cr
, and the
moment of inertia, I
cr
.
The following parameters are required to determine
the neutral axis depth, c:

b
= b
w
/b

f
= h
f
/d
p = P
dc
d
p
/M
s

n =
s s p p
c
A E A E
E bd
+

d =
s s s p p p
s s p p
A E d A E d
A E A E
+
+

Having determined k from Fig. 3.4.7:
c = kd
The properties of the cracked section can be
calculated using the following equations:
Centroidal depth:
y
cr
=
2 2 2
f w f p p p s s s
f w f p p s s
0.5bh 0.5b (c h ) n A d n A d
bh b (c h ) n A n A
+ + +
+ + +

Transformed area:
A
cr
=
f w f p p s s
bh b (c h ) n A n A + + +
Moment of inertia:
l
cr
=
2
3 3 f
f f cr w f
h 1 1
bh bh y b (c h )
12 2 12

+ +

2
2 f
w f cr p p p cr
c h
b (c h ) y n A (d y )
2
+
+ +

2
s s cr
n A (d y ) +
Alternatively, I
cr
and y
cr
may be determined according
to Tadros et al. [13] from Figs. 3.5.4 and 3.5.5,
respectively.

Fig. 3.5.5 Centroidal axis depth of cracked
transformed section
According to a study presented in [14], the most
reliable predictions for live load deflections of partially
prestressed members are obtained by the method
proposed by Tadros et al. [13] which takes into
account the eccentricity of the tendons relative to the
centroid of the cracked section.
For calculating deflections, determine curvatures at
selected locations (normally at midspan for beams
with straight strands and an additional location of 0.4l
for draped strands). The effective moment of inertia
for calculating curvatures is:

c
I =
4
cr
cr g cr
s dc
M
I (I I )
M M

+

After cracking, the effective eccentricity of the
tendons is (d
p
y
e
), where:

e
y =
4
cr
cr t cr
s dc
M
y (y y )
M M

+

In this equation, y
t
and y
cr
are the distance between
the centroid and the top fibre of the uncracked
section and the cracked section respectively.
Example 3-19 Deflection calculation using
Detailed Method
Given:
Same section and loading condition as in Example 3-
16
Problem:
Determine instantaneous deflection caused by live
load using the detailed method.
Solution:
Determine I
cr
and y
cr
using Figs. 3.5.5 and 3.5.6 (or
using Equations):
At x = 0.4 l :
A
s
= 0
P
dc
= P
e
= 1370 kN
d = d
p
= e
0.4l
+ y
t
= 290 + 176 = 466 mm
p =
3
dc p
6
s
P d
(1370)(466)(10 )
1.04
M
(616)(10 )
= =
n =
s s p p
c
A E A E
(1386)(190000)
E bd (28200)(2400)(466)
+
=
= 0.00835
b
w
/b =
100 155
0.11
2400
+
=
h
t
/d = 50/466 = 0.107
With these parameters:
k
cr
= 0.085, k
pr
= 1.21 from Fig. 3.5.5
k
c
= 0.125, k
p
= 1.39 from Fig. 3.5.6
I
cr
=
3
cr pr
1
k k bd
12

=
3
1
(0.085)(1.21)(2400)(466)
12

= 2082 10
6
mm
4

y
cr
= k
c
k
p
d = (0.125)(1.39)(466) = 81 mm
M
cr
=
6
r g
6
f I
(3.6)(8580 10 )
72 kN m
y
(424)(10 )
= =
M
dc
=
6
pe g
t
f I
(24.9)(8580 10 )
504 kN- m
y 424
= =
f
ce
=
e e
P P e
y
A I
+
=
3 3
6
(1370)(10 ) (1370)(10 )(290)
(424)
260000
8580 10
+

=24.9 MPa
Effective I for curvature:
l
e
=
4
cr
cr g cr
s dc
M
I (I I )
M M

+

=
6
(2082 10 )

4
6
72
(8580 2082)(10 )
616 504

+

=
6 4
3192 10 mm
Effective distance of centroid from top fibre:
y
e
=
4
72
81 (176 81) 97 mm
616 504

+ =

Curvature due to live load at 0.4l:

e

=
s e p e
c e
M P (d y )
E I

=
6 3
6
(616)(10 ) (1370)(466 97)(10 )
(28200)(3192 10 )

=
6 1
1.23 10 m

l
=
sw sd e
e
c g
M M P e
E I

+

=
6
1.23 10

6 3
6
(330 63)(10 ) (1370)(10 )(290)
(28200)(8580 10 )

+

=
6 1
1.25 10 m

Repeating the same procedure for midspan:

l
= 0.96 10
-6
m
1
Deflection due to live load:

l
=
0.5 0.4
2
5
48 2

+

l l
l l
l
=
6 2
5 0.96 1.25
(10 )(21000) 51mm
48 2
+
=

3.5.7 Camber and Deflection of Composite
Elements
For camber and deflection of composite elements,
refer to Sect. 3.4.7 (Step 10).
3.6 SHEAR
A23.3, Clause 11 contains a single approach for the
design of structural concrete elements for both shear
and torsion. This approach is a sectional procedure
used in flexural regions where it is reasonable to
assume that plane sections remain plane and that the
shear stresses are uniform over the depth of the
member.
Using this approach, the shear resistance of a
member can be determined using one of two
methods, the choice of which is determined by the
depth of the member, the magnitude of axial tension
and the degree of accuracy desired.
In regions near discontinuities, where the
assumptions of the above approach are not satisfied,
the strut-and-tie model in A23.3, Clause 11.4 is used.
The strut-and-tie model, which considers the flow of
forces in a structural element, can also be used in the
flexural regions of a member. The strut-and-tie model
is discussed in Chap. 4 of this Manual.
3.6.2 Determination of the Factored Shear
Resistance
The shear resistance of structural concrete elements
must meet the requirement:
V
r

f
V
V
r
=
c s p
V V V + + but shall not be greater than
c c w v p
0.25 f b d V +
Sections located within a distance, d
v
, from the face
of the support may be designed for the same shear,
V
f
, as computed at distance, d
v
, provided that:
(a) the reaction force in the direction of the applied
shear introduces compression into the member;
and
(b) no concentrated load that causes a shear force
greater than
c c w v
0.03 f b d is applied within
the distance d
v
from the face of support.
3.6.2.1 Determination of the Factored Shear
Resistance of the Concrete
The shear resistance, V
c
, shall be computed as
V
c
=
c c w v
f b d , where the term
c
f shall
not be taken greater than 8 MPa.
The distance, d
v
is the effective shear depth taken as
the greater of 0.9d or 0.72h.
Clause 11.3.6 provides two methods for the
determination of .
A. The Simplified Method:
1. if the section has at least minimum transverse
reinforcement in accordance with Clause
11.2.8.2, shall be taken as 0.18.
2. if the section contains no transverse
reinforcement, and maximum aggregate size is
not less than 20mm,

v
230
1000 d
=
+

can be calculated for any aggregate size by
replacing d
v
above with s
ze
where
s
ze
=
z
z
g
35s
0.85s
15 a
+

s
z
is dependant on the longitudinal reinforcement. If
one layer of bottom steel is used, s
z
= d
v
. If multiple
layers are used, s
z
shall be taken as the
reinforcement spacing.
B. The General Method:
=
x ze
0.40 1300
1 1500 1000 s

+ +

x
=
f v f p f p po
s s p p
M / d V V 0.5N A f
2(E A E A )
+ +
+

Resistance due to Prestressing
The shear resistance, V
p
, shall be computed as the
vertical component of the effective prestress force
multiplied by the performance factor
p
.
Resistance of the Shear Reinforcement
The nominal shear resistance, V
s
, shall be computed
as:
V
s
= [
s
A
v
f
y
d
v
(cot +cot) sin] / s
For shear reinforcement perpendicular to the axis of
an element:
V
s
=
s v y v
A f d cot
s

where can be determined using the following two
methods:
A. Simplified Method:
= 42 as per conditions outlined in Clause
11.3.6.2, or;
= 35 as per conditions outlined in Clause
11.3.6.3
B. General Method:

x
29 7000 = +
Longitudinal reinforcement shall be proportioned so
that at all sections the factored resistance of the
tension reinforcement, taking account of the stress
that can be developed in that reinforcement, shall be
greater than or equal to:
F
lt

f v f p s
M / d (V V 0.5V )cot = +
3.6.2.3.1 Minimum Shear Reinforcement
A minimum area of shear reinforcement shall be
provided:
1. In regions of flexural members where the
factored shear force, V
f
, exceeds V
c
+ V
p

2. In regions of beams with an overall thickness
greater than 750 mm
3. In regions of flexural members where the
factored torsion, T
f
, exceeds 0.25 T
cr
, and
4. Unless shown not to be required by test
For stirrups, normal to the axis of reinforced and
prestressed elements, the minimum area A
v
required
is:
A
v
=
w
c
y
b s
0.06 f
f

3.6.2.3.2 Spacing
The maximum spacing of stirrups permitted is:
600 mm or 0.7d
v

Spacing is reduced to on-half this amount if:
V
f
>
c c w v
0.125 f b d
3.6.3 Shear Resistance Calculations and
Shear Diagrams
It is helpful to construct a shear resistance and
factored shear force diagram in order to determine
the amount and location of shear reinforcement. This
is described below and illustrated in Fig. 3.6.1.
Steps for constructing the diagram using the General
Method are as follows:
1. Calculate the factored shear and moment, V
f

and M
f
.
2. Use these values to calculate the longitudinal
strain,
x
.
3. Use
x
and calculate and at different points
along the member.
4. Calculate the shear resistance of the concrete.
5. Add any resistance provided by prestressing to
determine the amount of shear reinforcement
required.
Example 3-20 Construction of a shear diagram
following the above steps
Given:
2400 1000 single tee with 50 mm composite
topping
Span = 24.0 m
Self weight and topping = 11.7 kN/m
Superimposed dead load = 4.3 kN/m
Superimposed live load = 12.0 kN/m


Section properties:
(a) without topping
A
g
=
2
376000 mm
I
g
=
6 4
36300 10 mm
y
b
= 714 mm
(b) with topping
I
g
=
6 4
44200 10 mm
y
b
= 782 mm
Concrete:
Precast:
c
f = 35 MPa, normal density
Maximum aggregate size, a
g
= 19 mm.
Topping:
c
f = 30 MPa, normal density
18 -13 mm ( Super) 1860 MPa strands stressed to
70%
A
p
= (18)(107.7) = 1939 mm
2

P
e
=
3
(18)(107.7)(0.79)(0.70)(1860)
1994 kN
10
=
(Assuming 21% total prestress losses)
Single point depression.
Shear reinforcement:
f
y
= 400 MPa
Solution:
1. Determine factored loads:
Uniform dead = (1.25)(4.3 + 11.7) = 20.0 kN/m
Uniform live = (1.5)(12.0) = 18.0 kN/m
2. Determine V
f
and M
f

(Shown in Table)
Example calculations shown below are for a
section 8 m from the support
3. Determine d
v
= 0.72 h
d
v
0.72(1050) =
756 mm =
4. Determine V
p
=
p
P
e
(e
1
e
2
) / (0.5 l )
V
p
=
961 622
(0.9) (1994)
12000

= 50.7 kN
5. Determine shear stress at d
v
:

f
v =
3
f p
w v
V V
(427 50.7)(10 )
b d (200)(756)
= 2.5 MPa =

f
c c
v
f
=
2.5
(0.7)(35)

= 0.102 0.25 < the concrete cross-
sectional area is adequate.
6. Determine
x
at all designated locations
Example at x = 8 m:

x
=
f v f p f p po
s s p p
M / d V V .5N A f
2(E A E A )
+ +
+

6
3
2432(10 )
(152 50.7)10 (0.5)(0) (1939)(.7)(1860)
756
2(190000)(1939)
+ +
=
= 0.0010036 less than 0.003, therefore OK
If the value,
x,
calculated above, is negative, it
shall be recalculated with a revised denominator
of 2(E
s
A
s
+ E
p
A
p
+ E
c
A
ct
) or taken as zero if
further calculations are not warranted. In any
case
x
shall not be taken less than 0.0002, or
greater than 0.003.
7. Determine and
=
x
29 7000( ) +
=29 7000(0.001077) +
=36.5
o

=
x ze
0.40 1300
1 1500 1000 s

+ +

s
ze
=
z
g
35S
15 a +
= (35)(756)/(15+19) = 778
= 300 mm with minimum stirrups
=
0.40 1300
1 (1500)(0.0010036) 1000 300

+ +

=0.159
8. Determine V
c

V
c
=
c c w v
f b d
= (0.7)(1.0)(0.159)( 35)(200)(763)
= 100 kN
See Fig 3.6.1.

Fig. 3.6.1 Solution of Example 3-20
X
(m)
V
f
(kN)
M
f
(kN*m)
x
as per Eq.
11-13
x
Used

(deg.)
S
ze 0.72h
(m)
0.9d
(m)
d
v
(m)
V
p
(kN)
V
c
(kN)
V
c
+V
p
(kN)
Required
V
s
(kN)
0 427 0 -0.00031 -0.0002 27.6 300 0.571 756 559 756 0 358 358 69
0.05 427 223 -0.00028 -0.0002 27.6 300 0.571 756 573 756 50.7 358 408 19
0.750 427 334 -0.00026 -0.0002 27.6 300 0.571 756 579 756 50.7 358 408 19
1 418 437 -0.00024 -0.0002 27.6 300 0.571 756 585 756 50.7 358 408 10
2 380 836 -0.00016 -0.00016 27.9 300 0.526 756 611 756 50.7 329 379 1.0
4 304 1520 -0.000035 -0.000035 28.8 300 0.424 756 661 756 50.7 265 315 0
6 228 2052 0.00049 0.00049 32.5 300 0.23 756 712 756 50.7 144 195 33
8 152 2432 0.0010036 0.0010036 36.3 300 0.159 756 763 763 50.7 100 151 1.0
10 76 2660 0.001042 0.001042 36.3 300 0.156 756 814 814 50.7 105 155 0
12 0 2737 0.00087 0.00087 35.1 300 0.173 756 865 856 0 122 122 0
Fig. 3.6.2 Solution of Example 3-20
Example 3-21a Design of shear reinforcement
Given:
Single tee of Example 3-20.
Stirrups:
10M, 2 legs
A
v
=
2
(2)(100) 200 mm =
f
y
= 400 MPa
Problem:
Determine the required shear reinforcement spacing.
Solution:
From Fig. 3.6.1, V
smax
is 69 kN,
V
s
=
v
s y v
A
f d cot
s

= 27.6
o

v
A
s
3
69 10
(0.85)(400)(756)(cot 27.6 )
o

2
0.140 mm / mm
For double legged stirrups
s
2
2
200 mm
0.234 mm / mm

1429 mm - the area provided is adequate.
Determine maximum spacing
s 600 mm

v
0.7(d ) 0.7(756) 529 mm = = Governs
Space stirrups at 500 mm.
Check longitudinal reinforcement for additional
tension force caused by shear such that F
r
> F
it

F
r
= A
p
f
pu
= 3245 kN .
F
it
=
f v f p s
M / d (V V 0.5V )cot +
V
s
provided
3
(0.85)(200)(400)(763)(cot 36.3 )(10 )
500
141.3 kN
=
=
o

The calculations shown are for a section 8 m from the
support.
it
F =
6
2432 10 / 763.2

3
(152 50.7 (0.5)(141.3)) 10 (cot 36.3 ) +
o

= 3228 kN 3245 kN <
x(m) F
it
(kN) F
r
(kN)
0 0 3245
1 1093 3245
2 1545 3245
4 2302 3245
6 2866 3245
8 3228 3245
10 3200 3245
12 2966 3245
No additional longitudinal steel is required.
Example 3-21b 203 mm hollow core slab
Problem:
Determine the shear capacity of the following hollow
core slab.

Given:
Reinforcement: 7-13 mm strands,
L = 5.0 m

pu
f = 1860 MPa

c
f = 35 MPa

c
= 0.70

p
= 0.9
= 1.0

g
a = 14 mm

p
E = 196 500 MPa
Strands pulled to 70% f
pu

Total losses = 17%
A
ct
= 67 500 mm
2
Total factored load = 35.2 kN/m
Solution:
1. Determine b
w

Average additional width per core = 2% of radius
of core = 0.02 x 76 = 1.5 mm
b
w
= (58)(2) + 5(35 + 2(1.5)) = 306 mm

2. Determine d
v

0.9 d = (0.9)(203 - 41) = 146 mm
0.72 h = (0.72)(203) = 146 mm
d
v
= 146 mm

3. Determine S
ze
S
ze
=
z
g
35S (35)(146)
15 a 15 14
=
+ +

=
z
176mm 0.85S O.K. >
4. Formulate
=
x ze
(0.4) (1300)
x
(1 1500 ) (1000 S ) + +

=
x
0.442
(1 1500 ) +

5. Determine values of
x
:

x
=
f v f p f p po
s s p p ct
(M / d ) V V 0.5 N A f
2A E 2A E 2A Ec
+ +
+ +

=
f p p po
p p ct c
(M / dv) V A f
2A E 2A E
+
+

6. Calculate V
c

V
c
=
c c w v
f b d

Solution of Example 3-21b
Solution of Example 3-21b
x
(m)
V
f

(kN)
M
f

(kN m)
f
P0
(MPa)
x

V
c

(kN)
0.0 88.0 0.0 52 -0.000017 0.454 84.0
0.170 82.0 14.45 341 -0.000017 0.454 84.0
0.526 69.5 41.4 1044 -0.000095 0.515 95.4
0.656 64.9 50.15 1302 -0.000125 0.504 100.76
1.02 52.1 71.4 1302 -0.000091 0.512 94.83
1.41 38.4 89.1 1302 -0.000064 0.489 90.64
1.64 30.3 96.9 1302 -0.000053 0.480 88.9
1.94 19.7 103.1 1302 -0.000042 0.472 87.6
2.23 9.5 108.7 1302 -0.000037 0.468 86.71
2.50 0.0 110.0 1302 -0.000037 0.468 86.71

3.6.4 Longitudinal Shear Transfer in
Composite Elements
In order for a precast, prestressed element with
topping to exhibit composite behaviour, transfer of the
longitudinal force carried by the topping must be
achieved at the interface of the precast element and
the cast-in-place topping. The procedure
recommended in this section is based on Clause 17.4
of A23.3.
The longitudinal force, V
f1
, which must be resisted, is
the total force in the topping. This force is one of
compression in the positive moment regions and
tension in negative moment regions, as shown in Fig.
3.6.3.
When the contact surfaces are clean, free of
laitance, and intentionally roughened (but without
ties), the calculated factored longitudinal shear

Fig. 3.6.3 Longitudinal shear in composite section

resistance is V
r1
= 0.7
c
b
v
l
v
, where b
v
is the width of
the interface surface and l
v
is the longitudinal shear
length as defined in Fig. 3.6.4.
When minimum ties are provided but the interface is
not intentionally roughened, the same limit applies.
Where V
f
l
exceeds 0.7
c
b
v
l
v
, the design for
longitudinal shear shall be based on the interface
shear transfer provisions of Clause 11.5 of A23.3.
For concrete placed against hardened concrete with
the surface clean and intentionally roughened to a full
amplitude of at least 5 mm, the factored shear
resistance may be computed using Equation 11.25
with k = 0.5. For other situations, Equation 11.24
must be used.
The stirrups are almost invariably placed with
f
= 90
therefore sin
f
= 1 and cos
f
= 0. The permanent
load perpendicular to the shear plane is generally
negligible. For these circumstances Equation 11-25
simplifies to:
v
r
=
c c
0.5 f
=
vf y
cv
A f
A

For uniformly spaced ties:
=
v y
v
A f
b s

The required tie spacing is:
s
2
v y c
c
v r
A f f
0.5
b v

The shear stress is also limited to:
v
r
c c
0.25 f when
c
f 28 MPa
v
r
c
7.0 when
c
f 28 MPa >
In these equations:

c
= 0.65 (topping is cast-in-place)
When ties are required, their spacing must be not
greater than four times the thickness of the topping
nor more than 600 mm, and from Equation 11-1:
s
v y
c v
A f
0.06 f b

Fig. 3.6.4 Longitudinal shear length

Example 3-22 - Horizontal shear design for a
composite beam
Given:
Inverted tee beam with 50 mm composite topping,
100 mm over web, see Example 3-5.
Span length = 6.0 m
b
v
= 300 mm
Concrete:
Precast:
c
f = 35 MPa
Topping:
c
f = 25 MPa
11 - 13 mm 1860 MPa strands
A
p
= (11)(99) = 1089 mm
2

Tie reinforcement:
10M ties (A
v
= 200 mm
2
)
f
y
= 400 MPa
Problem:
Determine the tie requirements to transfer horizontal
shear force. Note that this force must include the
force in the compression steel which is located in the
topping.
V
f
l
= C
1
+ C
2
+ C
4
= 658 + 395 + 204 = 1257 kN
Solution:
Check maximum interface shear without ties:

v
l = / 2 6000/ 2 3000 mm = = l

r
V
l
=
3
c v v
0.7 b (0.7)(0.65)(300)(3000) /10 = l
= 410 kN
This is less than the factored shear, therefore ties are
necessary.
Check maximum interface shear with ties:
r V l
c c v v
0.25 f b l
=
3
(0.25)(0.65)(25)(300)(3000) /10
= 3375 kN 1257KN >
The shear force can be resisted by providing
sufficient ties across the interface.
Maximum tie spacing:
s 600 mm
s
f
4h (4)(100) 400 mm = =
s
v y
c v
A f
(200)(400)
890 mm
0.06 f b (0.06) 25(300)
= =

v
f
l
=
3
f
v v
l
V 1257 10
1.40 MPa
b (300)(3000)
= =
l

s
2
(200)(400)(25) (0.5)(1.0)(0.65)
300 1.40

=359 mm
The spacing based on shear friction governs. Use
10M ties @ 350 mm.
Check shear on a vertical plane through the flange at
the face of the web.
b
v
= 50 mm
V
f
l
=
1
C / 2 658/ 2 329 kN = =
Check maximum interface shear with ties:

r
V
l

c c v v
0.25 f b l
=
3
(0.25)(0.65)(25)(50)(3000) /10
= 609 kN 329kN OK >
s 600 mm
s
f
4h (4)(50) 200 mm = =
s
(100)(400)
2670 mm
(0.06) 25(50)
=
v
f
l
=
3
f
v v
l
V (329)(10 )
2.19 MPa
b (50)(3000)
= =
l

s
2
(100)(400)(25) (0.5)(1.0)(0.65)
50 2.19
440 mm

=

Use 10M bars @ 200 mm governed by 4 times the
topping thickness.

Fig. 3.6.5.A
Example 3-23 Horizontal shear design for
composite inverted T-beam
Given:
Inverted T-beam produced in a certified plant with
composite topping as shown:
Span length = 10.0 m
b
v
= 500 mm
Concrete:
Precast:
c
f = 35 MPa
Topping:
c
f = 35 MPa
32 - 13 mm 1860 MPa strands
A
p
=
2
(32)(99) 3168 mm =
Tie reinforcement:
10 M ties (A
v
= 200 mm
2
)
f
y
= 400 MPa
Problem:
Determine the tie requirements to transfer the
horizontal shear force.
Solution:
To determine the horizontal shear force to be
transferred, the size of the compression block must
be determined.
C
1
+ C
2
+ C
3
+C
4
= T
1
C
1
=
3
(0.80)(0.65)(35)(0.5)(900)(50)(2) /10
= 819 kN
C
2
=
3
(0.8)(0.65)(35)(1200)(75)(2) /10 3276 kN =
C
3
=
3
(0.80)(0.65)(35)(500)(150) /10 1365 kN =
C
4
=
3
(0.80)(0.70)(35)(500)(0.88c 150) /10
=(8.62c 1470) kN
T
1
=
p p pu p
p
c
A f 1 k
d

Fig. 3.6.5.B
Fig. 3.6.5.C
=
p
c
(0.9)(3168)(1860) 1 0.28
d

T
1
=
p
c
(5303) 1 0.28
d

p
c
d
=
5303 819 3276 1365 1470
(8.62)(750) (0.28)(5303)
+
+

=
1313
0.165
7950
=
c = (0.165)(750) 124 mm =
a =
1
c (0.88)(124) 108 mm = =
This is slightly less than the flange thickness.
Redesign as a rectangular flange with the triangular
part removed:
C
6
=
1 2
T T +
T
2
=
1
C 819 kN =
C
6
=
1 c c 1
f b c
=
3
(0.80)(0.65)(35)(2900)(0.88)c /10 46.4c =

p
c
d
=
5303 819
0.169
(46.4)(750) (0.28)(5303)
+
=
+

c = (0.169)(750) 127 mm =
a = (0.883)(127) 112 mm =
f
pr
= (1860)[1 (0.28)(0.169)] 1772 MPa =
T
1
=
3
(0.9)(3168)(1772) /10 5053 kN =
The total horizontal shear force to be transferred
across beam topping interface:
= 5053 kN

Check maximum interface shear without ties:
b
v
= 500 mm

v
l = / 2 10000/ 2 5000 mm = = l

r
V
l
=
3
c v v
0.7 b (0.7)(0.65)(500)(5000) /10 = l
= 1138 kN 5053 kN <
Therefore, ties are necessary.
Check the maximum interface shear with ties:

r
V
l

3
c v v
7.0 b (7.0)(0.65)(500)(5000) /10 = l
= 11375 kN
This is greater than V
f
l
, so compute tie spacing.
s 600 mm
s (4)(150) 600 mm =
s
v y
c v
A f
(200)(400)
450 mm
0.06 f b (0.06) 35(500)
= =

v
f
l

=
3
(5053)(10 )
2.02 MPa
(500)(5000)
=

s
2
(200)(400)(35) (0.5)(1.0)(0.65)

500 2.02

= 145 mm
This spacing governs. Consideration might be given
to the use of 15M ties at 250 mm but caution is
necessary because of the short anchorage length
available [17].
Use 10M ties @ 145 mm.
Check the interface shear in a vertical section
through the flange at the face of the web. The 25 mm
deep tooled joint at this location creates a crack
control joint and also reduces the shear area.
b
v
= 75 50 25 100 mm + =

f
V
l
=
6 2
C (1200/ 2900) T 1610 kN =
Check the maximum interface shear with ties:
r
V
l

3
(7)(0.65)(100)(5000) /10
= 2275 kN 1610 kN OK >
s 600 mm
s (4)(100) 400 mm =
s
v y
c v
A f
(100)(400)
1127 mm
(0.06) 35(100)
0.06 f b
= =

v
f
l
=
3
(1610)(10 )
3.22 MPa
(100)(5000)
=
Because the concrete is monolithic across this joint,
use k = 0.6.
s
2
(100)(400)(35) (0.6)(1.0)(0.65)

100 3.22

= 205 mm
Use 10M bars at 200 mm. These bars may also be
used to resist moment.
3.7 DESIGN FOR SHEAR AND TORSION
Introduction
A23.3 contains general provisions for shear and
torsion design based on the modified compression
field theory. The approach is based on a variable
angle truss model with a rational concrete
contribution. The same general procedure is used for
prestressed and reinforced members
This approach accounts for the fact that the critical
diagonal crack may be inclined at angles other than
45. For example, a member with significant
prestressing will usually have diagonal cracks
considerably flatter than 45, while in a member
subjected to axial tension, or in the flexure dominated
regions of a beam, the diagonal cracks will tend to be
steeper than 45. The effect of variables influencing
the crack inclination such as the amount of
prestressing, the magnitude of the applied axial load
and bending moment, and the stiffness of the
longitudinal reinforcement are quantified in terms of
the axial strain
x
of the tension cord of the member
as defined in 3.6.
The concrete contribution, V
c
, is the shear that can be
transmitted across diagonal cracks by concrete
stresses (e.g., shear stress transferred by aggregate
interlock). The ability of a diagonal crack to resist
shear stress is controlled mostly by the width of the
crack, and the width of the diagonal cracks is strongly
influenced by the axial strain
x
.
Considerations for torsion
1. If the magnitude of the torsion, T
f
, determined as
specified in an analysis using stiffness based on
uncracked sections exceeds 0.25T
cr
, torsional
effects shall be provided. Otherwise, torsional
effects may be neglected. In lieu of more
detailed calculations, T
cr
may be taken as:
T
cr
=
+

p cp 2
c c c c
c c
f
(A / p )0.38 f 1
0.38 f

2. For a hollow section, A
c
in Equation (11-2) shall
be replaced by A
g
if the wall thickness is less
than 0.75 A
c
/p
c
.

3. In a statically indeterminate structure where
reduction of torsional moment in a member can
occur because of redistribution of internal forces,
the maximum factored torsion, T
f
, at the face of
the support may be reduced to 0.67T
cr
provided
that the corresponding adjustments to torsions,
moments, and shears are made in the member
and in adjoining members to account for the
redistribution. For a spandrel beam where the
torsion is caused by a slab, the factored torsion
in the spandrel can be assumed to vary linearly
from zero at midspan to 0.67T
cr
at the face of the
support.
Reinforcement for sections subjected to
combined shear and torsion
The transverse reinforcement for combined shear
and torsion shall be at least equal to the sum of that
required for shear and that required for the coexisting
torsion.
The amount of transverse reinforcement required for
torsion shall be such that T
r
shall be computed from:
T
r
=
s t y
o
A f
2A cot
s

The cross-sectional dimensions to avoid crushing
shall be as follows:
(a) for box sections:

+
f p
f h
c c
2
w v
oh
V V
T p
0.25 f
b d
1.7A

If the wall thickness of the box section is less than
A
oh
/P
h
, where t is the wall thickness at the location
where the stresses are being checked.
(b) for other sections:

+

2
2
f p
f h
c c
2
w v
oh
V V
T p
0.25 f
b d
1.7A

To determine
x
for sections subjected to shear and
torsion, replace the term (V
f
V
p
) in Equation (11-13)
in Clause 11.3.6.4 with the expression:
2
2 h f
f p
o
(0.9p T )
(V V )
2A
+
The longitudinal reinforcement shall be proportioned
to satisfy the requirements of Clause 11.3.9, except
that the term (V
f
0.5V
s
V
p
) shall be replaced by
the following expression:
2
2 n f
f s p
o
(0.45p T )
(V 0.5V V )
2A
+
Example 3-24 Prestressed concrete spandrel
beam
Given:
Typical prestressed spandrel panel beam shown in
Fig. 3.7.1 supporting an 18 m span double tee
parking deck.
D.L. of deck = 4.4 kN/m
2

L.L. of deck = 2.4 kN/m
2

Beam properties:
A
c
= 435000 mm
2

p
c
= 4550 mm
w
d
= 10.2 kN/m

c
f = 35 MPa, Normal Density
f
y
= 400 MPa
y
b
= 827 mm
I = 141 10
9
mm
4

S
b
= 170 10
6
mm
3

Cover to stirrups = 25 mm
4 13 mm 1860 MPa low relaxation straight strands
A
p
= (4)(99) = 396 mm
2

d
p
= 1725 mm
e = 677 mm
f
pe
= 1030 MPa
Non prestressed reinforcement:
4 20M bars
A
s
= (4)(300) = 1200 mm
2
Compression reinforcement
2 15M bars

s
A = (2)(200) = 400 mm
2

Problem:
Find the required torsion reinforcement for the
spandrel.
Solution:
1. Determine factored loads on spandrel:
D.L. of Beam = (1.25)(10.2)
= 12.75 kN/m
D.L. of deck = (1.25)(4.4)(1.2)(18)/2
= 59.4 kN/stem
L.L. = (1.5)(2.4)(1.2)(18)/2
= 38.9 kN/stem

Fig. 3.7.1 Structural framing for Example 3-24

Concentrated load:
P
f
= 59.4 + 38.9 = 98.3 kN/stem
The loads and the resulting values of M
f
, V
f
and T
f
are
2. Minimum reinforcement requirements:
Check minimum flexural reinforcement:
P
e
=
3
p pe
A f (396)(1030) /10 408 kN = =
f
ce
=
e e
c b
P P e
A S
+
=
3 3
6
(408)(10 ) (408)(677)(10 )
2.56 MPa
435000
170 10
+ =

M
cr
=
b c ce
S (0.6 f f ) +
=
6
6
170 10
[(0.6)(1.0) 35 2.56]
10
+
= 1039 kN- m
1.2M
cr
=
1246.8 kN- m

Check the flexural resistance:

1
=0.85 (0.0015)(35) 0.80 =

1
=0.97 (0.0025)(35) 0.88 =

p
c
d
=
p p pu s s y s s y
1 c c 1 w p p p p pu
A f A f A f
f b d k A f
+
+

(0.9)(396)(1860) (0.85)(1200)(400) (0.85)(400)(400)
(0.88)(0.8)(0.70)(35)(200)(1725) (0.28)(0.9)(396)(1860)
+
+
=
= 0.152
f
pr
=
pu p p
f (1 k c / d )
= (1860)[1 (0.28)(0.152)]
= 1781MPa
a =
p p pr s s y s s y
1 c c w
A f A f A f
f b
+

(0.9)(396)(1781) (0.85)(1200)(400) (0.85)(400)(400)
(0.8)(0.70)(35)(200)
+
=
= 231mm
At centreline:
M
r
= ( )( )
p p pr p s s s y
a a
A f d A A f d
2 2

+

( )
s s y
A f d d +
= ( )( )( )
6
0.9 396 1781 1725 231/ 2 10

( )( )( ) 0.85 1200 400 400 1830 231/ 2 +


6 6
10 0.85(400)(400)(1830 40) 10

+
=
cr
1730.9 kN m 1.2 M >
At prestress transfer point (650 mm from end):
M
r

1030
(1021.6) 466.3 243.0
1781
+ +
=
cr
1300.1 kN m 1.2 M >
(b) Minimum shear reinforcement:

v
A
s
=
w
c
y
b
0.06 f
f

=
2
200
0.06 35 0.177 mm / mm
400
=
Using 10M closed stirrups (A = 100 mm
2
), the
spacing is:
s =
(2)(100)
1130 mm
0.177
=
3. Determine need for torsional reinforcement:
T
f
= 49.2 kN- m
f
cp
=
3
(408)(10 )
0.94 MPa
435 000
=
p
c
= 1875 200 1575 200 300 400 + + + + +
= 4550 mm
T
cr
=
2
p cp c c c
c
c c
f 0.38A f
1
p
0.38 f

+

=
2
6
(0.38)(435000) (1.0)(0.70) 35
(4550)(10 )

(0.9)(0.94)
1 81.2 kN- m
(0.38)(1.0)(0.70) 35

+ =

0.25 T
cr
f
20.3 kN- m T = <
Torsion reinforcement is required in zone A.
4. Determine section parameters:
d
v
= 0.75 h = (0.72)(1875) = 1350 mm
or = 0.9 d = (0.9)(1725) = 1553 mm
d
v
= 1553 mm
A
oh
= (138)[1875 (2)(31)] (200)(238) +
=
2
297000 mm
p
h
= (138 1813)(2) (200)(2) 4302 mm + + =
A
o
=
oh
0.85A
=
2
(0.85)(297000) 252500 mm =
5. Design shear and torsion reinforcement:
Zone A, at a distance 1600 mm from face of support:
Note: For precast framing, the face of the support is
taken to be the centreline of the support.
V
f
= 174.7 kN
T
f
= 29.5 kN
M
f
= 439.7 kN

x
=
2
2 f h f
f p p po
v o
p p s s
M 0.9p T
(V V ) A f
d 2A
2(E A E A )

+ +

+

=
( )
( )
( )
3 2
2
6
6
439.7 10
(174.7x10 )
1553

2((190000)(396) (200000)(1200))
0.9 4302 29.5 10
2 252500
(396)(0.7)(1860)
+
+
+

= 0.000084
= 29+7000
x

= 29.6
s
ze
=
z
g
35S
15 a +

assume a
g
= 20 mm
s
ze
=
(35)(1553)
1553 mm
15 20
=
+
, use s
ze
= 300mm
=
x ze
0.4 1300
1 1500 1000 s

+ +

=

+ +

0.4 1300
1 (1500)(0.000084) 1000 300

= 0.355
V
c
=
c c w v
f b d
=
3
(0.7)(1)(0.355)( 35)(200)(1553)x10
= 456.6 kN
= V
c
> V
f

Only minimum stirrups are required.

t
A
s
=

r
o s y v
T
2A f d cot

=
6
(29.5)(tan29.6 )(10 )
(0.85)(2)(252600)(400)

= 0.098 mm
2
/mm
Use 10M closed stirrups (A
s
= 100 mm
2
)
s = (100)/(0.098) = 1020 mm
Check need to halve spacing:

c c w v p
0.125 f b d V +

= (0.125)(1.0)(0.7)(35)(200)(1553) + 0.0
= 951.2 kN > V
f
OK.
s
min
= 0.7d
v

= (0.7)(1553)
= 1087 mm > 600 mm
However, T
f
> 0.25 T
cr
, stirrup spacing must be
halved to 300 mm.
Use 10M Stirrups at 300 mm O.C.
Check web crushing:
=
2
2
f p
f h
c c
2
w v
oh
V V
T p
0.25 f
b d
1.7A

+

=
2 2
3 6
2
(174.7)(10 ) ((29.5)(10 ))(4302)
(200)(1553)
(1.7)(297000)

+

=1.016 0.25(0.7)(35) 6.125 = MPa
Calculate actual V
s
(based on stirrups provided):

s
V =
v
s y v
A
f d cot
S

=
3
200
(0.85) (400)(1553)(cot 29.6 )(10 )
300

= 620 kN
Longitudinal reinforcement:

t
F =
2
2 f h f
f s p
v o
M 0.45p T
(V 0.5V V ) cot
d 2A

+ +

=
6
(439.7)(10 )
1553

3 3 2
(174.7(10 ) - 0.5(620(10 ) - 0)
2
3
(0.45)(4302)(29.5)(10 )
2
2(25200)
+
+

(cot 29.6 )
= (283129+310410)(10
-3
) (cot 29.6 )
= 593.5 kN
s
A
s
f
y
+
p
A
p
f
pr
= [(0.85)(1200)(400)
+(0.9)(3.96)(1781)] 10
-3

= 1043 kN > 593.5 kN
No additional longitudinal reinforcement is required.
Zone B: (Fig. 3.7.2) at 2675 mm from support.
No torsion design is required since T
f
< 0.25 T
cr
.
Check crushing:

f
v =
f p
w v
V V
b d

=
3
(65)(10 )
0.203 MPa
(200)(1600)
=

f
c c
v
f
=
0.203
0.0083
(1.0)(0.70)(35)
= < 0.25 OK.

x
=
+
+
f
f p p po
v
s s p p
M
(V V ) A f
d
2(E A E A )

=
( )
6
3
602 10
65 10 0 0 (396)(0.7)(1860)
1553
2((190000)(396) (190000)(1200))
+ +
+

= 0.00010 < 0.0002

x
= 0.0
= 29 + 7000
x

= 29.0
=
x ze
0.40 1300
1 1500 1000 s

+ +

= 0.40

c
V =
c c w v
f b d
=
3
(1.0)(0.70)(0.40) 35(200)(1553) /10
= >
f
514 kN V
Minimum stirrups are required for zone B, the
requirements for hanger steel and ledge
reinforcement at point loads will govern, so that this
type of member will still have transverse
reinforcement.
With minimum shear reinforcement:
s = 1130 mm for 10M stirrups.
Use s 600 mmo.c. = T
f
< 0.25 T
cr

s
V =
v
s y v
A
f d cot
s

=
o
(200)
(0.85) (400)(1553)(cot 29.0 )
600

= 317.5 kN

Fig. 3.7.2 Force diagrams for Example 3-24

Fig. 3.7.3 Reinforcement for Example 3-24

The reinforcement required for shear and torsion is
summarized in Fig. 3.7.3. Additional reinforcing may
be required using the Strut-and-Tie modeling method
for the following:
(a) end bearing reactions
(b) end torsional equilibrium reactions
(c) ledge point loads
(d) hanger steel at ledge point loads
(e) longitudinal reinforcement
(f) anchorage of longitudinal bars at ends
Note: In Fig. 3.7.3, the stirrup spacing of 215 mm and
600 mm would require longitudinal corner 15M bars.
Some adjustment is required of either or both the
longitudinal reinforcement and the transverse
reinforcement after reinforcement for (a) to (f) have
been considered.
3.8 COMPRESSION
Precast and prestressed concrete columns and load-
bearing wall panels are proportioned to resist
factored loads. Stresses during handling, erection
and service conditions must be considered. This
section is based on A23.3 and on the
recommendations of the PCI Committee on
Prestressed Concrete Columns [18] referred to in this
section as recommended practice.
3.8.1 Factored Resistance
The factored resistance of a reinforced concrete
compression element with eccentric loads is usually
determined by interaction curves. Points on this curve
are calculated using strain compatibility and
equations of equilibrium as prescribed in the A23.3.
The solution of these equations is shown in Fig.
3.8.1.
Interaction curves for typical prestressed square
columns and wall panels are provided in Chapter 7.
Construction of an interaction curve usually follows
these steps:
Step 1:
Determine P
ro
for M
r
= 0 (see Fig. 3.8.1(c)).
Step 2:
Determine M
ro
for P
r
= 0. This is normally done by
neglecting the reinforcement above the neutral axis
and determining the moment capacity by one of the
methods described in Sect. 3.3.
Step 3:
For reinforced columns, determine P
rb
and M
rb
at the
balance point, see Fig. 3.8.1(d). For prestressed
columns, the yield point of the prestressed
reinforcement is not well defined and the stress strain
relationship is non-linear over a broad range, see Fig.
8.2.4.
Step 4:
Proceed as follows for each additional point on the
interaction curve:
a) Select a value of c and calculate a =
1
c.
b) Determine the value and the centroid of A
comp

from the geometry of the section, that being the
shaded portion in Fig. 3.8.1(a).
c) Determine the strain in the reinforcement
assuming that = 0.0035 at the compression
face of the column. For prestressed
reinforcement, add the strain due to the
prestress corresponding to zero strain in the
concrete:

pe cp
pe ce
p c
f f
E E
=
Tensile strain is positive.

Fig. 3.8.1 Design relationships for prestressed and reinforced compression elements

Fig. 3.8.2 End reinforcement in a precast, prestressed concrete column
d) Determine the stress in the reinforcement. For
non-prestressed reinforcement, f
s
=
s
E
s
< f
y
.
For prestressed reinforcement, the stress is
determined by stress-strain relationship, see Fig.
8.2.4. The prestress force adds axial load to the
section and should not be reduced, therefore
p

= 1.0. If the maximum factored moment occurs
near the end of a prestressed element, where
the strand is not fully developed, an appropriate
reduction in the value of f
pr
can be made as
described in Sect. 3.8.2, Fig. 3.8.2.
e) Calculate P
r
and M
r
by statics.
Step 5:
Calculate the maximum factored axial resistance,
specified by A23.3, as 0.80 P
ro
for tied columns and
0.85 P
ro
for spiral reinforced columns.
3.8.2 Development Length
The factored flexural resistance is reduced for
prestressed elements at locations within a distance
equal to the strand development length from each
end as noted in Step 4(d) above. The factored
flexural resistance in this zone can be supplemented
by non-prestressed reinforcement anchored to top or
bottom plates, or otherwise developed.
The interaction curves for prestressed columns in
Chap. 7 are based on a maximum value of f
pr
= f
pe
,
that is valid at a development length equal to the
assumed transfer length from the end of the element.
The required area of end reinforcement can be
determined by matching interaction curves, or can be
approximated by the following equation, if the bar
locations approximately match the strand locations:
A
s
=
p pe
y
A f
f

The effects of adding end reinforcement to a 600 x
600 mm prestressed concrete column to improve
flexural resistance in the end 600 mm are shown in
Fig. 3.8.2.
Example 3-25 Construction of interaction curve
for a reinforced column produced in a plant
certified in accordance with A23.4.
Given:
300 500 column cross section as shown.
Concrete:

c
f = 35 MPa
1
= 0.80
1
= 0.88
c
=0.70
Normal Density
Reinforcement:
f
y
= 400 MPa
E
s
= 200 000 MPa

Problem:
Construct an interaction curve for bending about x-x
axis.
Solution:
Determine the following parameters:
d =500 60 440 mm =
d =60 mm
y
t
=250 mm
A
g
=
2
(300)(500) 150000 mm =
A
s
=
2
s
A (2)(700) 1400 mm = =
Step 1:
Determine P
ro
from Fig. 3.8.1(c):
P
ro
=
1 c c s s s s s y
( f )(A A A ) (A A )f + +
= [(0.8)(0.70)(35)(150000 2800)

3
(0.85)(2800)(400)] /10 +
= 3837 kN
Step 2:
Determine M
ro
- use a conservative solution by
neglecting the compression reinforcement:
a =
s s y
1 c c
A f
(0.85)(1400)(400)
81mm
f b (0.8)(0.70)(35)(300)
= =

M
ro
=
s s y
a
A f d
2

=
6
81
(0.85)(1400)(400) 440 /10
2

= 190 kN- m
Step 3:
Determine P
rb
and M
rb
from Fig. 3.8.1(d):
c =
(0.0035)(440)
280 mm
0.0035 400/ 200,000
=
+

s
f =
(0.0035)
(200000) (280 60)
280

=
y
550 MPa f >

s
f =
y
f 400 MPa =
A
comp
=
1
ab cb (0.88)(280)(300) = =
=
2
73920 mm
y =
a (0.88)(280)
123 mm
2 2
= =
P
rb
=
3
(0.8)(0.70)(35)(73 920) /10

3
[(0.85)(400) (0.8)(0.70)(35)](1400) /10 +

3
(0.85)(1400)(400) /10
=1421kN
M
rb
=
6
(0.8)(0.70)(35)(73 920)(250 123) /10
[(0.85)(400) (0.8)(0.70)(35)] +

6
(1400)(250 60) /10

6
(0.85)(1400)(400)(440 250) /10 +
= 360 kN m
Step 4:
To determine intermediate points on the curve:
a) Set a = 150 mm, c =
150
0.88
= 170 mm
b) A
comp
2
(150)(300) 45000 mm = =

c) Use Fig. 3.8.1(a):

s
=
(0.0035)(170 60)
0.0023
170
=

s
=
(0.0035)(440 170)
0.0056
170
=
d)
s
f =
y
(0.0023)(200000) 460 MPa f = >
f
s
=
y
(0.0056)(200000) 1120 MPa f = >
Use
s s y
f f f 400 MPa = = =
e)

P
r
=
3
(0.8)(0.70)(35)(45 000) /10

3
[(0.85)(400) (0.8)(0.70)(35)](1400) /10 +

3
(0.85)(1400)(400) /10
= 855 kN
M
r
=
6
(0.8)(0.70)(35)(45000)(250 75) /10
[(0.85)(400) (0.8)(0.70)(35)] +
=
6
(1400)(250 60) /10

6
(0.85)(1400)(400)(440 250) /10 +

=
330 kN- m

Step 4 can be repeated for as many points as
desired. A plot of such points is shown in Fig. 3.8.3.
Step 5:
Maximum axial load:

ro
0.8P (0.8)(3837) 3070 kN = = =

Fig. 3.8.3 Interaction curve for Example 3-25
Example 3-26 - Calculation of interaction points
for a prestressed concrete compression element
Given:
1220 203 hollow core wall panel shown.

Concrete:

c
f = 40 MPa
1
= 0.79
1
= 0.87
c
=0.70
Normal Density
A
g
= 138700 mm
2

E
c
= 29600 MPa
f
pu
= 1860 MPa
E
p
= 190000 MPa
f
pe
= 1030 MPa
5-13 mm 1860 MPa strands
A
p
=
2
(3)(99) 297 mm =
A
p
=
2
(2)(99) 198 mm =

f
cp
=
(1030)(297 198)
138700
+

3.7 MPa (not quite uniform)
Problem:
Calculate a point on the interaction curve for a = 50
mm.
Solution:
Step 1:
a =50 mm
c =
50
58 mm
0.87
=
Step 2:
From Fig. 8.3, calculate area and centroid of the
hollow core voids excluded from the compression
zone - Fig. 3.8.11 can be used:

A =
2
2 2 2 1 1
1 1
y R
y R y R sin
2 R

=
2
2 2 2 1
( )(76) 51
51 76 51 76 sin
2 76

=
2
1950 mm

_
y =
2 2 3/ 2 2 2 3/ 2
1
2(R y ) (2)(76 51 )
61mm
3A (3)(1950)

= =
A
comp
=
2
(1220)(50) (6)(1950) 49300 mm =
y =
2
(1220)(50 / 2) (6)(1950)(41)
49300

= 22 mm from top
Step 3:
Prestrain at zero concrete stress:
=
1030 3.7
0.00555
190000 29600
+ =
From Fig. 3.8.1(a):

p
=
(0.0035)(58 45)
0.00555 0.00477
58
=

p
=
(0.0035)(158 58)
0.00555 0.01158
58
+ =
Step 4:
From Fig. 8.2.4,
p
is on the linear portion of the
curve and
p
is on the non-linear portion:
f
pr
=
p p
E (0.00477)(190000) 906 MPa = =

f
pr
= 1703 MPa
Step 5:
From Fig. 3.8.1(a):
P
r
=
3
(0.79)(0.70)(40)(49 300) /10

3 3
(198)(906) /10 (297)(1703) /10
= 1090 179 506 406 kN =

The concrete area displaced by the compression-side
tendons is ignored here.
M
r
=
3
(1090)(102 22) /10

3
(179)(102 45) /10

3
(506)(158 102) /10 +
= 88 10 28 106 kN- m + =
Since no lateral ties are used in this element, the
values are multiplied by 0.85:
P
r
= (0.85)(410) 349 kN =
M
r
= (0.85)(106) 89 kN- m =
These values are for fully developed strands. If the
capacity at a point near the end of the transfer zone
is desired, then f
pr
f
pe
= 1030 MPa. Take f
pr
= 1030
and adjust the prestress contribution accordingly:
P
r
=
3
(0.85)[1095 179 (297)(1030) /10 ]
= 519 kN
M
r
= (0.85)[88 10

6
(297)(1030)(158 102) /10 ] +
= 81kN- m
In prestressed wall panels, the effects of
unsymmetrical prestress should be investigated.
3.8.3 Slenderness Effects
For compression elements braced against sideway,
effects of slenderness may be neglected when:
kl
u
/r <
1 2
f c g
25 10(M / M )
P /(f A )

M
1
/M
2
is positive if the element is bent in single
curvature, negative if bent in double curvature and
shall not be taken less than 0.5. M
2
is the larger and
M
1
is the smaller end moment.
The radius of gyration, r, may be taken as:
0.3 times the overall dimension in the direction that
stability is being considered for rectangular elements,
0.25 times the diameter for circular elements, or
computed from the gross concrete section for other
shapes.
r =
g
I
A

A23.3 contains provisions for evaluating slenderness
effects of compression elements, such as buckling,
based on the following three approaches:
1. The approximate magnified moment approach.
2. Empirical design for certain rectangular load
bearing walls.
3. A rigorous P- approach as described in
Chapter 2, where the first order lateral storey
deflection is computed using an elastic first order
frame analysis. Section properties are calculated
taking into account the influence of axial loads,
the presence of cracked regions along the length
of the member, the member curvature and
effects of duration of the loads.
Moment of inertia for P- approach:
Type of element Moment of inertia
Beams 0.35I
g

Columns 0.70I
g

Walls
- Uncracked
- Cracked

0.70I
g
0.35I
g

Flat plates and flat slabs 0.25I
g

3.8.3.1 Magnified moment approach
The principles of the magnified moment approach are
illustrated in Fig. 3.8.5 and are valid for compression
members with kl
u
/ r not greater than 100.
The approximate evaluation of slenderness effects
involves:
1. The determination of the effective length factor,
k, and end moments, M
1
and M
2
.
2. The calculation of the moment magnifier,
b
, as
shown in the Example 3-29.
3. The magnified moment in combination with the
factored axial load is compared with the
resistance of the element as determined by an
interaction diagram in accordance with Sect.
3.8.1.
Hinged columns and columns in braced frames
The magnified moment is taken as:
M
c
=
m 2
b 2
f
m c
C M
M
P
1
P
=

where
m
0.75 = and C
m
M
2
shall not be taken as less
than P
f
(15 + 0.03 h) about each axis separately.
For members without transverse loads between
supports, C
m
shall be taken as:
C
m
=
1
2
M
0.6 0.4 0.4
M
+
When there are transverse loads between supports,
C
m
= 1.0.
P
f
is the factored axial load, and P
c
is the critical
buckling load, calculated as:
P
c
=
2
2
u
EI
(k )
l

Fig. 3.8.4 Slenderness effects
Notation
l
u
= unsupported length of compression element
M
1
= smaller factored end moment, positive if bent in single curvature, negative if bent in double
curvature
M
2
= larger factored end moment always positive (if less than minimum Code values, use Code values
M
c
= moment to be used in design =
b
M
2

I
g
= gross moment of inertia
P
c
= critical load

Values of k
p
for P
c

*
For other concretes,
p g
c
c
2
k I
E
P
28200
k

=

, E
c
= modulus of elasticity, MPa

Fig. 3.8.5 Slenderness effects
M
1
= value of smaller design end moment on
the compression member calculated from
a conventional elastic analysis - positive if
member is bent in single curvature,
otherwise negative
M
2
= value of larger design end moment,
always positive
M
o
= first order bending moment at critical
section of compression members as
obtained from elastic analysis
The effective length factor, k, for pin connected,
laterally restrained elements with various edge
conditions can be determined from Fig. 3.8.6 as
follows:
1. For columns or panels braced against sidesway
and free along both vertical edges:
For all values of l
u
/b, k = 1.0
2. For panels braced against sidesway and
restrained along both vertical edges:

u
/ b 1/ 2 < l k 1.0 =

u
1/ 2 / b 1 l
u
k 1.5 / b = l

u
/ b 1 > l
2
u
k 1.0/[1 ( / b) ] = + l
3. For panels braced against sidesway and
restrained along one vertical edge:

u
/ b 1 < l k 1.0 =

u
1/ 2 / b 2 l
u
k 1.0 0.423[( / b) 1] = l

u
/ b 2 > l
2
u
k 1.0/ 1 ( / b) / 2 = + l
Fig. 3.8.6 Effective length factor k for different
edge conditions
The value EI may be determined from the following:
1. For columns or panels with a double layer of
reinforcement, the value of EI may be taken as:
EI =
c g s s
d
0.2E I E I
1
+
+

An approximate value for lightly reinforced elements
is:
EI =
c g
d
0.4E I
1+

2. For wall panels with a single layer of
reinforcement centered in the panel, the value of
El may be taken as:
EI =
c g c g
d d
E I 0.10E I
e
0.5
h

The above equations were developed for reinforced
concrete columns with at least 1% reinforcement.
Modified equations for EI are recommended as
prestressed compression elements and precast load
bearing wall panels have less than 1% reinforcement.
Fig. 3.8.7 presents one set of such equations. Such
approximations are necessarily conservative, and
therefore second order analysis procedures are

strongly recommended for slender prestressed
elements.
For non-sway frames and for stability checks of sway
frames as defined in A23.3,
d
is the ratio of the
maximum factored dead load to the total factored
axial load.
For sway frames, except as noted above,
d
is the
ratio of the maximum factored sustained shear within
a storey, to the maximum total factored shear in that
storey.
d
is a factor that takes into account creep due to
sustained loads. When the moment to be magnified is
caused by short-term loads, such as wind or seismic,
d
may be taken as zero. However, if the more
conservative, simplified expression for EI is used, an
allowance for
d
is required.
The maximum moment can occur at a section away
from the end of elements subjected to transverse
loading. The largest calculated moment occurring
anywhere along the element is used for the value of
M
2
. C
m
is taken as 1.0 in this case.
If computations show that there is no moment at
either end of a compression element or computed
end eccentricities are less than 15 + 0.03 h (mm), M
2

should be based on a minimum eccentricity of 15 +
0.03 h, where h is the thickness of the panel or
column. The ratio M
1
/M
2
should be determined by
either of the following:
1. Computed end moments may be used to
evaluate M
1
/M
2
when computed end
eccentricities are less than 15 + 0.03 h.
2. The ratio M
1
/M
2
may be taken equal to one if
computations show that there is essentially no
moment at either end of a compression element.
For elements with k l
u
/r > 100, the design of
compression elements shall be based on the factored
forces and moments from a second order analysis.
This should consider material nonlinearity, cracking,
the effects of member curvature, lateral drift, duration
of the loads, shrinkage, creep and interaction with the
supporting foundation.
Columns in sway frames
Storeys in structures shall be designated as sway
frames if:
Q =
f o
f c
P
0.05
V

>
l

P
f
is the total factored vertical load at the storey in
question.
V
f
is the factored storey shear in the storey in
question.
o
is the first order relative deflection of the top and
bottom of that storey due to V
f
.
The moments from a first order analysis are divided
into two parts:
1. M
ns
due to gravity loads, which do not contribute
to sway, and
2. M
s
, the moments associated with sway.
Gravity load moments causing deflections greater
than l
u
/ 1500, due to lack of symmetry, should be
classed as M
s
moments.
The M
s
moments are magnified by
s
, given by:

s
=
f
m c
1
P
1
P

P
f
is the summations of all axial loads at a storey.
P
c
is the summation of the critical loads at a storey
based on the unbraced effective length.
P
c
shall be determined from equation (10-17) and the
EI values in equation (10-18) or equation (10-19).
d
is defined above for moments associated with
sway.
If the stability index of a storey, Q, is less than 1/3,
then
s
can be computed as:

s
=
1
1 Q

The final end moments are then computed from:

ns s s
M M +
and the design moment is:

c
M =
2
M
where M
2
is the value of (M
ns
+
s
M
s
) at the top or
bottom of the column, whichever is greater.
In addition to the above requirements for columns in
sway frames, individual compression members
having
u
f c g
35
r P /(f A )
>
l
shall also be designed for:
M
c
=
m 2
f
m c
C M
P
1
P

P
c
is calculated using
d
for non-sway frames and k
1.0.
M
2
=
2ns s 2s
M M +
In addition to load cases involving lateral loads, the
strength and stability of the structure as a whole
should be considered as per A23.3 Clause 10.16.5.

Fig. 3.8.7 Coefficients, , for modified EI

El
c g
d
E l /
1
=
+
(For P
c
Equation)

3.2 =

u o
1.6
2.5
P / P
= +

6 70

And is given below

(A) Compression Flange

u
35
0.09
k / r
=
l

(B) No Compression Flange

u
35
0.05
k / r
=
l

Fig. 3.8.8 Effective width of wall panels

3.8.3.2 Empirical design of rectangular wall
panels
If the resultant of all factored axial loads including
moment and sway effects of lateral loads is located
within the middle third of the thickness of a panel, the
strength of the wall may be approximated as:
P
r
=
2
u
1 c c g
kh 2
f A 1
3 32t

1
= 0.85 - (0.0015)f
c
0.67
k = 0.8 for walls restrained against at top,
bottom or both
= 1.0 for walls retained against rotation at
both ends
For panels with irregular cross-sections, an
equivalent t may be determined from:
t =
g
3
12I
b

A23.3 waives the lateral reinforcement requirement
for walls if the concrete is prestressed to at least an
average of 1.5 MPa after all losses per Clause
18.11.2.1. In addition, PCI recommended practice
permits the elimination of lateral reinforcement in flat
walls if the factored resistance is multiplied by 0.85.
Example 3-27 Magnified moment approach for a
column in a braced frame
Given:
Pin ended column in a braced frame in single
curvature:
Column size = 350 350 mm
P
f
dead load = 1200 kN
P
f
live load = 600 kN
Eccentricity at top = 350 mm
Eccentricity at base = 35 mm
l
u
= 4800 mm
f
c
= 35 MPa
E
c
= 28200 MPa
Problem:
Determine non-sway moment magnifier
b
.
Solution:
M
1
=
3
(1200 600)(35)
63 kN- m
10
+
= +
M
2
=
3
(1200 600)(350)
630 kN- m
10
+
= +

1
2
M
M
=
63
0.10
630
+
=
+

This ratio is positive because the element is in single
curvature.
r = (0.3)(350) 105 mm =

u
k
r
l
=
(1.0)(4800)
45.7
105
=
Slenderness may be neglected when k l
u
/r is less
than:

1 2
f c g
25 10(M / M )
P /(f A )
=
3
25 (10)(0.1)
(1800)(10 ) /(35)(122,500)

= 37.0
Therefore slenderness must be considered.

d
=
factored dead load 1200
0.67
factored total load 1200 600
= =
+

El =
4
c g
d
0.4E I
(0.4)(28200)(350) /12
1 1 0.67
=
+ +

=
12 2
8.45 10 Nmm
P
c
=
2 2 12
2 2 9
u
EI ( )(8.45 10 )
3618 kN
(k ) [(1.0)(4.8)] (10 )

= =
l

C
m
=
1 2
0.6 0.4M / M 0.6 (0.4)(0.1) 0.64 + = + =

b
=
m
f
m c
C 0.64
1.90
P (1200 600)
1 1
(0.75)(3618) P
= =
+

Fig. 3.8.4 could also be used for this example.
3.8.4 Effective Width of Wall Panels
Concentrated compressive loads shall be distributed
over an effective width of a wall panel in accordance
with A23.3 Clause 14.1.3.1.
For a wall subjected to more than one concentrated
load, the design shall take into account the
overlapping of uniformly distributed loads from each
of the concentrated loads.

3.8.5 Load-bearing Insulated Wall Panels
Insulated sandwich wall panels of the type shown in
Fig. 3.8.9, may be designed assuming one or both
wythes carry the vertical loads. To use both wythes
as load bearing, it must be shown by experience,
test, or calculation that the wythes are fully or partially
composite. The method of transferring superimposed
loads to the panel, e.g. corbels, should be detailed to
assure a non-structural wythe does not carry these
loads, see Section 3.11.
3.8.6 Non-uniform Moment of Inertia
An equivalent moment of inertia, I
eqiuv
may be used
when analyzing non-uniform cross-sectional,
compression elements. This equivalent moment of
inertia is calculated to generate the same mid-height
deflection as the actual, non-prismatic, simply
supported element subjected to a uniformly
distributed lateral load.
P
c
is calculated using I
equiv
to determine the magnified
moment. The effective length factor, k, can be taken
as 1 in most designs for slenderness about the weak
axis. In some cases, slenderness design about the
strong axis may control. The following design
example illustrates a typical calculation for
slenderness effects in the centre mullion of a load-
bearing panel.
Example 3-28 - Varying I for slenderness design
Given:
The load bearing panel as shown in Fig. 3.8.10.
Concrete:

c
f = 35 MPa
Normal Density
E
c
= 28200 MPa
Problem:
Calculate magnified moment for design.
Solution:
Calculate factored loads and moments:
P
t
= (1.25)(1200 200) (1.5)(400 50) + + +
= 2425 kN
M
1
= 0
M
2
= [(1.25)(200) (1.5)(50)](0.3) 97.5 kN m + =
e
min
=
15 (0.03)(350) 25.5 mm + =

M
min
=
(2425)(0.026) 63.0 kN- m =

Find an equivalent moment of inertia, I
equiv
, by
applying a 1.0 kN/m uniform lateral load to the centre
mullion. Construct the M/EI diagram and calculate the
mid-height deflection using the moment-area method:
= 0.09 mm
Fig. 3.8.9 Typical precast concrete load-bearing
insulated wall panels
Substituting into the deflection equation for a simply
supported beam gives:
I
equiv
=
4 4
c
5w (5)(1.0)(4200)
384E (384)(28 200)(0.09)
=
l

=
6 4
1596 10 mm

Determine if slenderness must be considered.
Assume k = 1 (braced against sidesway) and
calculate the equivalent radius of gyration:
A
avg
=
2
147500 207500
177500 mm
2
+
=
r =
6
1596 10
94.8 mm
177500
=

1 2
f c g
25 10(M / M )
P /(f A )
=
3
25
2425 10 /(35)(177500)

= 40.0

u
k
r
l
=
(1.0)(4200)
44.3 40
94.8
= >
Therefore slenderness effects must be considered.
For
d
(1.25)(1000 200)
0.62
2425
+
= =

u
l = 4.2 m, from Fig. 3.8.4, find:

p
k =
6 4
3.9 10 kN/ mm

P
c
=
p g
2
k I
k
=
6 6
2
(3.9 10 )(1596 10 )
6224 kN
(1.0)

=
C
m
= 0.6 (0.4)(0) 0.6 + =
C
m
M
2
= (0.6)(98) 58.8 kN- m =

Fig. 3.8.10 Varying I Example 328
3 6
f
P (15 0.03h) (2425 10 )[15 (0.03)(350)](10 )
+ = +
= 61.8 kN m 58.8 >
M
f
=
61.8
129 kN- m
2425
1
(0.75)(6224)
=

The short column interaction diagram for this mullion
cross section should now be checked for the
following axial load and magnified moment:
P
f
=2425 kN
M
f
=129 kN- m
3.8.7 Piles
General
This section refers to the design of piles. It is
assumed that the capacity to transfer load to the soil
has been established by geotechnical engineers.
The design of piles for factored load conditions
follows the procedures outlined above for columns.
The necessary investigation of load conditions during
transporting, handling and driving follows standard
procedures based on first principles. Transportation
and handling stresses are discussed in Sect. 3.9. The
tensile stresses induced by driving can cause severe
cracking as discussed below. The seismic response
of piles can involve different conditions from other
structural elements. References are given for
complete discussion of the design procedures.

Driving stresses
As the hammer strikes a pile, a compression wave
travels down the length of the pile, moving at the
speed of sound - between 3600 m/s and 4000 m/s in
the concrete.
The length, and therefore the intensity, of this stress
wave depends upon:
1. the ratio of the hammer mass to the pile mass
2. the velocity of the hammer at impact
3. the stiffness of the cushion block
4. the stiffness of the pile
5. the driving resistance of the soil
When the compression wave reaches the tip of the
pile, it may be transmitted to the soil. If the tip has
encountered hard material, the wave may be
reflected back up the pile as a compression wave.
The reflected wave may be tensile in easy driving
conditions. In either case, the reflected wave passes

up through the trailing end of the downward traveling
wave and the stresses are momentarily
superimposed. If the reflected wave is compressive
due to hard-driving conditions, the stresses are
additive, and compression failure may occur near the
pile tip. Cracking may occur further up the pile in piles
longer than about 15 m when the reflected wave
clears the end of the downward-traveling
compression wave in easy-driving conditions.
Stress waves are dissipated by friction, damping and
tip resistance. In hard-driving conditions, a significant
compression wave may travel back up to the pile
head. This wave will be reflected as a tension wave
and cracking may occur near the pile head.
The most controllable parameters are the ratio of
hammer mass to pile mass, the stiffness of the
cushion block, and the capacity of the pile to resist
the imposed stresses. The parameters are selected
to increase the length of the traveling wave thereby
reducing the stress intensity.
Detailed discussions of driving stresses and required
prestress levels may be found in References [20] and
[21].
Piles tend to rotate slightly as they are driven.
Restraint by driving leads or by tightly fitting helmets
may induce torsional stresses leading to additional
tensile stresses. Spalling of concrete at a pile head
may be caused by high or irregular compressive
stress concentrations during driving. These points are
discussed in Reference [20].
Seismic response of piles
Piles reduce the rocking motions of structures during
earthquakes, but not the lateral motion. Battered piles
have little effect in reducing lateral motion. Piles
follow the horizontal motion of the surrounding soil,
which undergoes horizontal shear deformation as
seismic waves travel upward from bedrock. Piles may
be subjected to significant curvature causing large
stresses. This may occur just below the pile cap, at
the interface between hard and soft-soil layers, and at
any point within the pile length where the shear force
is zero. Thus, the ideal pile from the seismic point of
view is flexible and ductile.
A discussion of the expected curvatures is found in
Reference [22]. Designing for this curvature is a
matter of achieving the correct quantity and
distribution of spiral reinforcement as discussed in
References [23] and [24].
For further information on the response of hollow
piles in seismic regions. [25]
Example 3-29 Interaction curve for an octagonal
hollow bearing pile
Given:
A 500 mm octagonal pile with a 275 mm diameter
circular core.

c
= 2400 kg/m
3
f
c
= 50 MPa
f
pu
= 1860 MPa
8 - 13 mm strands

Problem:
Construct the factored resistance interaction diagram.
Determine the service load moment capacity at a
load of 800 kN. Limit the concrete stresses to 22.5
MPa (compression) and 3.5 MPa (tension).
Solution:

1
= 0.85 (0.0015)(50) 0.78 =

1
= 0.97 (0.0025)(50) 0.85 =

c
= 0.70
E
c
= 32200 MPa
A
c
=
2 2
(0.8284)(500) ( )(275) / 4
=
2
147000 mm
A
p
=
2
(8)(99) 792 mm =
Assume f
pe
= 1100 MPa:
f
cp
=
(1100)(792)
5.9 MPa
147000
=
Prestrain in strand at zero concrete strain:
=
1100 5.9
0.00597
190000 32200
+ =
Stress in strand at maximum concrete compression:
= (190000)(0.00597 0.002) 754 MPa =
P
ro
=
1 c c c p pr p
f (A A ) f A
= [(0.78)(0.70)(50)(147000 792)

3
(754)(792)] /10
= 3620 kN
Factored axial load resistance:
=
ro
0.85P (0.85)(3620) 3077 kN = =
To determine points on the interaction curve, select
values of neutral axis depth. Compute corresponding
strains, stresses, and forces. Calculations for a depth
of 400 mm are as follows:
c = 400 mm

Fig. 3.8.11 Area and centroid coefficients for octagonal and circular piles
a
1
c (0.85)(400) 340 mm = = =
a/D for the octagon 340/ 500 0.680 = =
a/D for the core

(340 112.5) / 275
0.827
=
=

From Fig 3.8.11:
Positive concrete area of the octagon:

2 2
(0.6)(500) 150000 mm = =
Centroidal distance from mid-depth axis:
(0.12)(500) 60mm = =
Negative concrete area circular core:

2 2
(0.70)(275) 52938 mm = =
Centroidal distance from mid-depth axis:
(0.045)(275) 12.4 mm = =
Concrete strain at steel levels:
1.
(400 77)
(0.0035)
400
= 0.00283
2.
(400 178)
(0.0035)
400
= 0.00194
3.
(400 322)
(0.0035)
400
= 0.00068
4.
(400 423)
(0.0035)
400
= 0.00020
Total strain of steel = prestrain minus concrete strain:
1. 0.00597 0.00283 = 0.00314
2. 0.00597 0.00194 = 0.00403
3. 0.00597 0.00068 = 0.00529
4. 0.00597 (0.0002) = 0.00616
Steel stresses from Fig. 8.2.4:
1. 597 MPa
2. 766 MPa
3. 1005 MPa
4. 1172 MPa
Concrete force = (0.78)(0.70)(50)(150000)
(0.78)(0.70)(50)(52 938)/10
3

= 4054 - 1435 = 2619 kN

Steel forces =
p p
f A :
1. (597)(198)/10
3
= 118 kN
2. (766)(198)/10
3
= 152 kN
3. (1005)(198)/10
3
= 199 kN
4. (1172)(198)/10
3
= 232 kN
Total factored axial resistance:
= 2619 118 152 199 232
Concrete moment:
= (4054)(0.060) (1435)(0.0124)
= 227.8 kN-m
Steel moments:
1. (118)(0.173) = 20.5
2. (152)(0.072) = 10.9
3. (199)(0.072)= +14.3
4. (232)(0.173)= +40.2
Total factored resisting moment:
= 227.8 20.5 10.9 + 14.3 + 40.2
= 250.9 kN-m
Values for other depths of neutral axis are:
c P
r
(kN) M
r
(kNm)
509 2643 0 to 120
500 2834 145
400 1949 251
300 1298 296
250 882 285
200 580 273
These values are plotted in Fig. 3.8.12. The value of
M
ro
for prestressed elements is easily found by
extending the plot or investigating further values of c
until values of P
r
on either side of zero are obtained.
To check service conditions, determine the moment
capacity, M, at a service axial load P of 800 kN:
F = prestress force at zero concrete strain
=
p p p
E A
= (0.00597)(190000)(792)/10
3

= 898 kN
A
tr
= transformed area (see Fig. 3.8.11)
=
2
2
( )(275)
(0.8284)(500)
4

2
(190000)(792)
152400 mm
32200
+ =
Fig. 3.8.12 Interaction curve for bearing pile
example
S
tr
= transformed section modulus (see Fig.
3.8.11)
=
4
4
( )(275)
(0.05474)(500)
64

2 2
(190000)(396) (72 173 )
/ 250
32200
+
+

=
6 3
12.9 10 mm
The error introduced by using the area and section
modulus of the gross concrete area may be
acceptable.
Equate the extreme fibre stresses to the allowable
values and solve for the smaller value of M:

tr tr tr
P F M
22.5 MPa
A A S
+ + =

3 3
6
(800)(10 ) (898)(10 ) M
22.5
(152400) (152400)
(12.9 10 )
+ =

M 146 kN- m =

tr tr tr
P F M
3.5 MPa
A A S
+ =

3 3
6
(800)(10 ) (898)(10 ) M
3.5
(152400) (152400)
(12.9 10 )
+ =

M 189 kN- m =
The service load moment capacity at an axial load of
800 kN is 146 kNm.
A plot of the complete curve of P vs. M at these
service load conditions is shown on Fig. 3.8.12.

Fig.3.9.1 Panel draft
3.9 HANDLING CONSIDERATIONS
Prefabrication requires careful attention to loads and
stresses during all the handling stages from
fabrication to erection. The design and layout of lifting
devices, handling and erection are usually the sole
responsibility of the precast manufacturer and/or
erector.
3.9.1 Form Suction and Impact Factors
Elements are subject to forces during stripping in
addition to the mass of the element. These forces,
such as suction forces due to form conditions as that
shown in Fig. 3.9.1, depend on methods of forming,
surface treatment, and element geometry. During
handling, elements may be subjected to dynamic
forces. For purposes of determining concrete
stresses and reinforcement, it is common practice to
factor up the panel mass and apply the resulting force
as an equivalent static dead load. Values used are
based on the experience of the manufacturer. Fig
3.9.2 provides multipliers that may be used to
determine equivalent static loads.
3.9.2 Flexure
The arrangement of lifting devices is designed to suit
the manufacturing process, the strength of concrete
at time of stripping and the erection method. Stresses
are evaluated based on the gross section properties
when the maximum moments at the time of stripping
have been determined. Embedded devices used for
stripping may be used again for erection. Additional
Fig. 3.9.2 Equivalent static load multipliers
(1)
to
determine stripping and dynamic
forces
Stripping
Finish
Element type
Exposed
aggregate
with
retarder
Smooth form
(form oil
only)
Flat, with removable side
forms, no false joints or
reveals
1.2 1.3
Flat, with false joints and/or
reveals
1.3 1.4
Fixed forms with proper
draft
(4)

1.4 1.6
Sculptured 1.5 1.7
Yard handling
(2)
and erection
(3)

All elements

1.2
Transportation
(2)

All elements

1.5
(1)
Factors used in the flexural design of elements. At
stripping, suction between product and form introduces
forces, that are treated here by introducing a multiplier on
product weight

(2)
Unfavourable conditions due to road surface, equipment,
etc. may require the use of higher values. See Sect. 3.9.5.
(3)
Under certain circumstances may be higher.
(4)
For example, double tees, channels and fluted panels.
devices may be required to rotate the panel from the
stripped and handled position to the final position in a
structure.
Flat panels
Figure 3.9.3 and Fig. 3.9.4 contain methods and
formulae for calculating stripping stresses. Ribbed
panels must be stripped by lifting vertically from the
form.
Lift lines that are inclined to the plane of a panel will
induce in-plane compression. This can increase the
flexural stresses in a panel, see Fig. 3.9.6 and Fig.
3.9.7. Even though the effects of non-vertical lifting
lines should be accounted for, it is not recommended
that this effect be allowed to dominate design
moments. When this condition exists, consideration
could be given to using spreader beams, two cranes
or other mechanisms to reduce the lifting angle and
thus the effect of lateral forces.

Fig. 3.9.3 Moments developed in panels
stripped flat
Two point pick-up
Maximum moments (approximate)
M
x
+
= M
x
= 0.0107 wa
2
b
M
z
= M
z
+
= 0.0107 wab
2

M
x
acting over a section of width 15t or
b
2
,
whichever is less
M
z
acting over a section of width
a
2

Four point pick-up
M
x
+
= M
x
= 0.0054 wa
2
b
M
z
= M
z
+
= 0.0027 wab
2

M
x
acting over a section of width 15t or
b
4
,
whichever is less
M
z
acting over a section of width a/2
Fig. 3.9.4 Moments developed in panels
stripped on one edge
Two point pick-up
M
x
= wa
2
/8 per unit width
M
z
= M
z
+
= 0.0125 wab
2

M
x
a
2

Four point pick-up
M
x
= wa
2
/8 per unit width
M
z
= M
z
+
= 0.0031 wab
2

M
z
a
2

Fig. 3.9.5 Stripping from a tilt table
When available, the use of a tilt table will significantly
reduce stripping stresses. The slight inclination of the
panel as it is lifted from the tilted position to the
vertical may be neglected when determining stripping
forces and stresses (Fig. 3.9.5).
Elements of constant cross section
The section modulii of top and bottom fibres may not
be identical. The designer must determine which face
is controlling when choosing the position and number
of lift points.
Controlling design limitations:
1. Tensile stresses on both faces shall be less than
that causing cracking (Sect. 3.4.2),
2. Tensile stress on one face shall be less than that
causing cracking, with controlled cracking
permitted on the other face, or
3. Controlled cracking permitted on both faces.
Elements of varying cross section
The design guidelines listed under the previous
section are only applicable for elements of constant
cross section. A trial and error process will determine
the location of lift points to result in acceptable
stresses. Rolling blocks may be employed to handle
and erect long elements of varying cross section
refer to Fig. 3.9.8. The forces in the lifting lines will be
equal. The stress analysis can proceed by
considering a beam with varying load supported by
equal reactions.
The force in inclined lift lines can be determined from
Fig. 3.9.9.
Fig. 3.9.6 Pick-up points for equal stresses of a
ribbed element
Fig. 3.9.7 Moments caused by eccentric lifting

Fig. 3.9.8 Arrangement for equalizing lifting
loads
Fig. 3.9.9 Determination of force in inclined lift
lines
Handling and lifting devices
Lifting devices may be strand, cable loops, threaded
inserts or other proprietary devices. Lifting devices
require ductility as they are subjected to dynamic
loads. Deformed reinforcing bars should not be used
for lifting loops as the deformations result in stress
concentrations from shackle pins. Looped aircraft
Fig. 3.9.10 Swivel plate
cable is used for stripping, edge lifting and erecting
panels. Precast manufacturers have developed safe
capacity values for strand and wire rope lifting loops
through tests. A swivel plate as shown in Fig. 3.9.10
can be used to ensure that an embedded insert acts
primarily in tension.
Industry practice is to design handling and erection
devices for a capacity of four times the anticipated
load.
Connection hardware should be used for lifting only
when designed for such purposes. The drawings
should clearly indicate which devices are intended to
be used for lifting and handling.
Example 3-30 - Design for handling
Given:
A window unit of exposed aggregate is to be cast
face down.

Section properties:
A
g
=
2
149000 mm
I =
6 4
4291 10 mm
y
b
= 369 mm
S
t
=
3 3
18600 10 mm
S
b
=
3 3
11600 10 mm
Problem:
Locate the pick-up points to minimize tension stress
in the concrete, and design handling reinforcement.
Solution:
Dead load of element assuming 1.6 multiplier (Fig.
3.9.1):
W
d
= (5.0)(11.5) (2.19)(42.1) 150 kN + =
Lifting loops are placed symmetrically about the
centre of gravity of the element. Assume critical
cracking stress will occur in the narrow sections of
the unit. For equal stresses on each face:
f
t
=
b
f

t
M y
I
=
b
M y
I
+

M
=
b
t
y 369
M M 1.60M
y 231
+ + +
= =
F
x
=
y
o
F
150
43.3 kN
tan
2tan60
= =

y
c
=
t
y 70 301mm + =
M =
3
(301)
(43.3) 13.0 kN- m
10
=
M
+
=
2
3 3
(3100 x) (11.5) 2500
(75)
2
10 10

3 3
600 2800
(42.1) 13.0
10 10

+

= 139 75.0x
M

=
2
3 3 3
600 (x 300) (11.5) x 600
(42.1)
2
10 10 10

+

=
2
5.8x 18.4x 5.5 +
M
= 1.60M
+

2
5.8x 18.4x 5.5 (1.60)(139 75.0x) + =

2
5.8x 138.4x 227.9 0 + =
x = 1540 mm
use: x = 1500 mm 1.5 m =
M
+
= 139 (75)(1.5) 26.5 kN- m =
M

=
2
(5.8)(1.5) (18.4)(1.5) 5.5 + = 35.2 kN-m

f
t
=
6
3
t
M (35.2)(10 )
0.9 MPa
S
(2)(18,600 10 )
= =

f
b
=
6
3
b
M (26.5)(10 )
1.1MPa
S
(2)(11,600 10 )
+
= =

This stress will allow stripping at f
ci
as low as 15 MPa
without cracking the section. Reinforcing is not
required. For illustrative purposes, determine the
reinforcing required for controlled cracking, assuming
a permissible crack width = 0.12 mm:
M

=
35.2
18.7 kN mper mullion
2
=
M
+
=
26.5
13.3 kN m
2
=
Reinforcement for M
+
:
d = 560 mm
Assume:
jd = 0.9d = 504 mm
kd = 0.3d = 168 mm
h
1
= 560 168 = 392 mm
h
2
= 600 168 = 432 mm
h
2
/h
1
= 1.10
For a crack width of 0.12 mm, from Section 3.4.2:
w =
6 2
3
s c
1
h
11 10 f d A
h

f
s
=
6
3
0.12
135 MPa
(11 10 )(1.10) (40)(80)(125)

Approx. A
s
=
6
2
s
M (13.3)(10 )
196 mm
0.9df (0.9)(560)(135)
+
= =
A
s,min
=
c
t
y
0.2 f
0.2 35
b h (125)(600)
f 400
=
=
2
222 mm (controls)
Use: 3 - 10M bars (A
s
= 300 mm
2
) at the bottom of
the section.
Reinforcement for M
:
Assuming 2 top bars:
f
s
=
6
3
0.12
111MPa
(11 10 )(1.10) (40)(80)(222)

Approx. A
s
=
6
2
(17.6)(10 )
315 mm
(0.9)(560)(111)
=
Use: 4 10M bars (A
s
= 400 mm
2
) at the top of the
section.
3.9.3 Lateral Stability
Consideration must be given to long elements with
narrow compression flanges during handling,
transportation and erection. Unlike the classical
buckling of steel I beams, the lateral stability of long
precast members is dependent on the roll stiffness of
the supports (i.e. lifting loops, truck, or bearing pads).
The issue of lateral stability is actually an analysis of
lateral bending and equilibrium, in which lateral
stresses can be significant.
A theory for evaluating the lateral stability of
prestressed I-beams developed in [26] is summarized
below.
For a hanging beam or a beam supported from
below, an equilibrium diagram is used to derive a
factor of safety against cracking (FS) and a factor of
safety against failure or roll-over (FS), where in
general:

resisting moment
factor of safety
applied moment
=
For a hanging beam, see Figure 3.9.11,
FS =
o r i max
1
Z / Y / +

FS=
r max
o max i
Y
Z e

+

For a beam supported from below, see Figure 3.9.12,
FS =
max
o max i max
r( )
Z e Y

+ +

FS =
max
o max i max
r( )
Z e Y

+ +

It is recommended to use FS 1.0 and FS 1.5. The
factor of safety against failure or roll-over, FS, is
based on a cracked section and therefore need not
be taken less than the calculated factor of safety
against cracking, FS.
The factor of safety is a function of beam geometry
and support location. For a beam with curvature due
to lateral sweep and vertical camber the centroid is
moved away from the roll axis, see Figure 3.9.13.

Fig. 3.9.11 Equilibrium of hanging beam
Reducing the distance between supports will reduce
the offset of the beam centroid from the roll axis and
improve stability. The distance to the centroid can be
calculated using the midspan offset for the full
member length multiplied by the offset factor where:
offset factor
2
1
( / ) 1/ 3 = l l
The deflection of the centroid of a beam under its
own weight is calculated by:

o
Z =
I
5 2 3 4 5
1 1 1
c y
w
[0.1 a 3a (6/ 5)a ]
12E
+ + l l l
l

This deflection can be adjusted for a cracked section
at the tilt angle under consideration where:

o
Z =
o max
Z (1 2.5 ) +
The tilt angle at the maximum factor of safety against
failure or roll-over is calculated as follows:
For a hanging beam:
max
=
i
o
e
2.5Z

for a beam supported from below:
max
=
max r
z h
r

+
The initial stresses at the time of handling
significantly affect the factor of safety against
cracking. The top flange is very lightly stressed in
compression or is in tension prior to applying the
design loads. Very little lateral bending may be
tolerated before cracking begins. The factor of safety
against cracking may need to be improved by adding
compression to the top flange. Similarly, if the
distance between supports is reduced to improve
stability, the top flange compression due to self
weight is reduced and additional compression may be
required.

Fig. 3.9.12 Equilibrium of beam on elastic supports

Fig. 3.9.13 Offset of centroid at a curved arc

For beams supported from below the factor of safety
can be improved by increasing the rotational stiffness
of the supports. A method of determining the stiffness
of vehicles, and guidelines for bearing pads are
detailed in Reference [26].
For safe handling of long elements, lateral stability
can be improved by the following methods:
1. Move the support points inward. Decreasing the
distance between supports by a small amount can
significantly increase the factor of safety against
failure or roll-over. Temporary post-tensioning can
be used to improve the factor of safety against
cracking.
2. Increase the distance y
r
for hanging beams by
using a rigid yoke at the lifting points. Decrease
the distance y for beams supported from below by
using lower vehicles for transportation.
3. Increase the roll stiffness of vehicles used for
transportation.
4. Attach temporary lateral stiffening in the form of
strongbacks, stiffening trusses or pipe frames.
Sometimes two or more units can be transported
together, side by side, and tied together to provide
the necessary lateral strength.
5. Increase the members lateral stiffness by revising
the shape to increase I
y
or increase the concrete
strength and thus E
c
.
Example 3-31 - Lateral stability
Given:
A 40 m long CPCI 1900 girder supported 2 m from
each end.
l = 40 m
a = 2 m

1
l

= 36 m

Concrete:

ci
f

= 35 MPa
E
ci

= 28200 MPa

c
f

= 45 MPa
E
c

= 31000 MPa
Loads:
w = 12.80kN/m
W = 512 kN
Section Properties:
y
b

= 940 mm
y
t

= 960 mm
I
y
= 14900 10
6
mm
4

b
t
= 900 mm
Stresses at harp point (x = 16000 mm):
f
tpres
= 6.50 MPa (at transfer)
= 6.00 MPa (at 40 days)
f
tself
= + 7.00 MPa for gravity moment:
M
g

= 1950 kN-m
Problem:
Evaluate the lateral stability of this beam during
handling and transporting.
Solution:
(A) Handling for a hanging beam
1) Initial eccentricity offset factor
= (36000/40000)
2
1/3
= 0.477
lateral sweep = 20 mm
lift loop placement offset = 6 mm
e
i
= (20)(0.477) + 6 = 16 mm
2) Height of roll axis above C.G. of beam
camber = 50 mm
Y
r
= 960 50(0.477) = 936 mm
3) Initial roll angle

i
= 16 / 936 = 0.0170 rad
4) Theoretical lateral deflection

o
Z

3
6
5 2 3
4 5
12.8 / 10
(12)(28200)(14900 10 )(40000)
[(0.1)(36000) (2000) (36000)
(3)(2000) (36000) (6 / 5)(2000) ]
=
+ +

= 372 mm
5) Tilt angle at cracking
f
r
=
0.6 35 3.55 MPa =

M
la
=
tpres tself r y
t
(f f f )I
(b / 2)
+ +

=
6 6
( 6.50 7.00 3.55)(14900 10 ) /10
(900/ 2)
+ +

= 134 kN- m

max
=
lat
g
M 134
0.0688 rad
M 1950
= =

6) Tilt angle at failure

max
=
16
0.1312 rad
(2.5)(372)
=

7) Theoretical lateral deflection at tilt angle
max

o
Z =(372)[1 (2.5)(0.1312)] 494 mm + =
8) Factor of safety against cracking
FS =
1
1.55 1.0 OK
372/ 936 0.0170/ 0.0688
= >
+

9) Factor of safety against failure
FS =
(936)(0.1312)
1.52 1.55
(494)(0.1312) 16
= <
+

Therefore, FS = FS = 1.55 > 1.5 OK
Note: If the girder was supported 0.5 m from
each end then FS = 1.15 and FS = 1.15 < 1.5
(B) Transporting when supported from below
1) Radius of stability
rotational stiffness of vehicle = K
O
= 4250 kN-m
r =
6
3
4250 10
8300 mm
512 10

2) Initial eccentricity
placing offset on truck = 25 mm
e
i
=
(20)(0.477) 25 35 mm + =

3) Height of C.G. beam above roll axis
camber = 50 mm
height of C.G. beam above road
= 1800 + 100 + 940 = 2840 mm
height of roll axis above road
= 600 mm
Y = 2840 (50)(0.477) 600 2264 mm + =

Fig. 3.9.14 Bowing due to differential strain

4) Theoretical lateral deflection

3
o
6
5 2 3
4 5
12.8/10
Z
(12)(31000)(14900 10 )(40000)
[(0.1)(36000) (2000) (36000)
(3)(2000) (36000) (6/ 5)(2000) ]
=
+ +

= 338 mm
5) Tilt angle at cracking
f
r
=
0.6 45 4.02 MPa =

M
lat
=
6 6
( 6.00 7.00 4.02)(14,900 10 ) /10
(900/ 2)
+ +

= 166 kN- m

max
=
166
0.0852 rad
1950
=

6) Tilt angle at maximum FS
roadway superelevation of vehicle
= 0.0800 rad
distance from centre of truck to centre of tire
= 900 mm

max
=
900 (600)(0.0800)
0.0800
8300
+
= 0.1827 rad
7) Theoretical lateral deflection at tilt angle
max

o
Z = (338)[1 (2.5)(0.1827)] 492 mm + =
8) Factor of safety against cracking
FS =
(8300)(0.0852 0.0800)
(338)(0.0852) 35 (2264)(0.0852)
+ +

= 0.17 1.0 NG <
9) Factor of safety against rollover
FS =
(8300)(0.1827 0.0800)
(492)(0.1827) 35 (2264)(0.1827)
+ +

= 1.58 1.5 OK >
Note:
If the girder was supported 0.5 m from each end then
FS = 0.37 < 1.0 and FS = 1.44 < 1.5
If the girder was supported 3.5 m from each end then
FS = 0.07 < 1.0 and FS = 1.71
The support location does not sufficiently improve the
factor of safety against cracking. Temporary post-
tensioning or lateral stiffening can be provided for the
top flange for transporting the girder with supports at
2m from each end. If f
tpost
= 2.70 MPa due to post-
tension then FS = 1.13 and FS = 1.58 are OK.
3.9.4 Storage
Stored elements should be supported at two points
located at or near those used for stripping and
handling. Check the member capacity when points
other than those used for stripping or handling are
used for storage.
When more than two support points are required, the
support system should be designed to preclude the
bridging of elements over supports. The equalization
of stresses on both faces will help to minimize
deformations in storage.
Storage conditions should be provided to minimize
warping. Warping may result from differential
temperatures, differential shrinkage and creep.
Bowing due to differential strain can be calculated
using Fig. 3.9.14.
Warping in both directions can occur due to the
support conditions shown in Fig. 3.9.15. The
maximum deflection,
max
, due to warping can be
calculated using:

max
=
4 4
d
c x z
5w sin a b
384E I I

+

a = panel support height
b = horizontal distance between supports

Fig. 3.9.15 Panel warping in storage
Creep, shrinkage and amount of reinforcement will
affect the amount of warping. The time dependent
displacement, , at any time can be estimated as:
=
i
(1 ) +

i
= instantaneous displacement
= amplification due to creep and shrinkage
see Fig. 3.9.16
=
s
A /b d
3.9.5 Transportation
Weight and size limitations
Provincial and municipal governments regulate the
size and weight of shipping loads. Additional
restrictions may be imposed by climatic conditions,
e.g. spring load limits.
The location of supports is an important factor when
transporting elements. Panel supports should be
chosen such that the imposed tensile stresses do not
exceed the value of
ci
0.4 f with due consideration
given to the effect of dynamic loading. If the tensile
stresses exceed the above limit, auxiliary bracing,
strong-backs, space frames or rocker supports may
be used.
Fig. 3.9.16 Effect of compression reinforcement
on creep
3.9.6 Erection
The stress limitations and multipliers previously
discussed for stripping and handling are applicable
during erection.
The centre of gravity of the element should be
computed and the lifting points located to ensure the
element will hang level during erection.
Walls with openings should be checked for erection
stresses and braced for handling when necessary.
Available erection equipment may influence the size
of precast elements, e.g. tower cranes.
The designer must consider site access to ensure
sufficient space to allow erection to proceed as
contemplated. This may require coordination with
other trades to assure that there will be no
interference with crane access.
Each element must be stable after erection and offer
resistance to wind, accidental impact, and loads that
may be imposed due to other construction
operations.
The arrangement of temporary bracing should not
interfere with adjacent erection and other construction
processes. Bracing must be maintained until
permanent connections are complete.
Seismic forces are considered only during prolonged
erection conditions, e.g. winter shutdown, or in high
seismic zones when member arrangement could
cause progressive collapse.

Fig. 3.10.1 Assumed load distribution
3.10 SPECIAL DESIGN SITUATIONS
3.10.1 Distribution of Concentrated Loads
Floors and roofs may be subjected to line loads and
concentrated loads.
The ability of hollow core systems to distribute loads
through grouted shear keys has been demonstrated
by tests. [27] The PCI Hollow Core Committee
recommends that line and concentrated loads can be
resisted by an effective section as described in Fig.
3.10.1. If the total deck width, perpendicular to the
span, is less than the span, modification may be
required. Contact local CPCI member producers for
recommendations.
Load distribution of stemmed elements may not
necessarily follow the same pattern, because of their
lower torsional resistance.
Example 3-32 Load distribution
Given:
An untopped hollow core floor with 1220 mm wide
slabs support a load bearing wall and concentrated
loads as shown in Fig. 3.10.2.
Problem:
Determine the design loads for the slab supporting
the wall and concentrated loads.
Solution:
Each step corresponds to a line number in the table
in Fig. 3.10.2:
1. Calculate the shears and moments for the uniform
loads:
w
f

2
(1.25)(2.7 0.5) (1.5)(2.0) 7.0 kN/ m = + + =
2. Calculate the shears and moments for the
concentrated and line loads:
w
f
(1.25)(9.5) (1.5)(15.2) 34.7 kN/ m = + =
P
1f
(1.25)(2.2) (1.5)(4.4) 9.4 kN = + =
P
2f
(1.25)(4.4) (1.5)(13.3) 25.4 kN = + =
3. Calculate the effective width along the span:
At the support: width = 1220 mm
At 0.25 l (1905 mm): width = 0.5 l = 3810 mm
Between x = 0 and x = 1905 mm:
width = 1220 + (x/1905)(3810 1220)
= 1220 + 1.36x
4. Divide the distributable shears and moments from
step 2 by the effective widths from Step 3.
5. Add the distributed shears and moments to the
shears and moments from Step 1.

Fig. 3.10.2 Example 3-32 Load distribution in hollow core slabs

Shears and moments
Distance from support 0 h/2 300 600 900 1200 1500 2250 3000 3810
1. Non-distributable V
f
26.7 26.0 24.6 22.5 20.4 18.3 16.2 11.0 5.7 0
loads M
f
0 2.6 7.7 14.7 21.2 27.0 32.1 42.3 48.5 50.8
2. Distributable V
f
135.4 132.0 125.0 114.6 104.2 93.8 83.4 48.0 0 0
loads M
f
0 13.4 39.1 75.0 107.8 137.5 164.1 211.4 235.2 235.2
3. Effective width (mm) 1220 1358 1628 2036 2444 2852 3259 3810 3810 3810
4. Distributed V
f
111.0 97.2 76.8 56.3 42.6 32.9 25.6 12.6 0 0
shear &
moments
M
f
0 9.9 24.0 36.8 44.1 48.2 50.4 55.5 61.7 61.7
5. Design shears V
f
137.7 123.2 101.4 78.8 63.0 51.2 41.8 23.6 5.7 0
and moments M
f
0 12.5 31.7 51.5 65.3 75.2 82.5 97.8 110.2 112.5
V
f
in kN/m; M
f
in kN-m/m
Once the moments and shears are determined, the
slabs are designed as described in Sect. 3.4.3.
The procedure can be simplified by investigating only
critical sections. For example, shear may be
determined by dividing all distributable loads by 1.2 m
and flexure at midspan can be checked by dividing
the distributable loads by 0.5 l .
3.10.2 Effects of Openings
Openings may be provided in precast decks by:
(1) saw cutting after the deck is installed and grouted,
(2) forming, blocking out or sawing in the plant, or
(3) using short units with steel headers or other
connections.
In hollow core or solid slabs, structural capacity is
least affected by orienting the longest dimension of
an opening parallel to the span, aligning several
openings parallel to the span, or by coring small
holes to cut the fewest strands. Angle headers can
frame large openings.
Smaller openings, up to about 200 mm, are usually
field drilled.
Openings through the flanges of double tee elements
should be limited to the flat portion of the underside of
the flange.
Guidelines for the design of hollow core slabs
around openings:
1. Openings located near the end of the span and
extending into the span less than the lesser of
0.125l or 1.2 m may be neglected when
designing for flexure in the midspan region.
2. Strand development must be considered at both
ends of an opening that cuts strand. (see Sect.
3.4.9)

3. Slabs adjacent to long openings ( l /4 or more), or
occur near the midspan, may be considered to
have a free edge for flexural design.
4. Slabs adjacent to openings closer to the end than
3 l /8 may be considered to have a free edge for
shear design.
Requirements for stemmed members with web
openings:
1. Web openings should be located outside the
strand development area
2. Vertical stirrups should be placed on each side of
the opening to control cracking
3. Opening should be in areas of low shear and
below the compression block
4. Member should be subjected to primarily uniformly
distributed loading. If concentrated loads exist
they have to be acting at solid sections outside the
opening
5. Minimum distance between openings should be at
least equal to the opening height or 250 mm
whichever is greater
6. Member should be designed such that the tensile
stresses do not exceed the modulus of rupture
3.10.3 Composite Topping with Hollow Core
and Double Tee Slabs
Many precast floor and roof systems are untopped. A
composite, cast-in-place concrete topping is
sometimes used for floor construction to add stiffness
and strength for gravity loads and as a diaphragm to
transfer lateral loads.
Tests have shown that the normal finished surface of
hollow core and double tee decks will develop the
0.42 MPa on the interface surface specified in A23.3
when the precast surface is thoroughly cleaned
before topping is placed. Sect. 3.6.6 describes design
procedures for horizontal shear transfer. In most
cases, the allowable 0.42 MPa is enough to develop
the full strength of the topping on precast decks.
The strength of the topping may be determined from
the design requirements for the deck.
3.10.4 Cantilevers
The most effective way to design cantilevered
elements will depend on the type of member, method
of production, span conditions and section properties
of the element. The designer is advised to consult
with CPCI members to determine the most effective
method.
Many producers prefer to design cantilevers as
reinforced concrete elements using deformed
reinforcing bars or short pieces of unstressed strand
to provide the negative moment resistance. When
using unstressed strand, the stress under factored
loads should be limited to 400 MPa. Pretensioned
strands are sometimes used to improve the
performance characteristics of cantilevers.
It is suggested that concrete tensile stresses due to
specified loads be limited to 0.7 MPa when
prestressed strands are used and the cracking
tension limited to
c
0.6 f when non-prestressed
reinforcement is used for negative moment
resistance.
Strand development may be a problem in cantilevers;
it is suggested that when prestressed strand is used,
the design stress, f
ps
, be limited to one-half that
indicated by Fig. 3.4.8.
3.11 SANDWICH PANEL DESIGN
3.11.1 General
Non-composite sandwich panels carry loads on the
interior wythe. Composite sandwich panels are
usually prestressed with loads carried by both
wythes. See Chapter 5 for more information.
The flexural design of two wythe sandwich panels for
stripping, handling and service loads follows the
same principles as those for single wythe panels as
described in Sects. 3.3 and 3.4. The flexural
resistance, flexural stiffness and axial resistance will
depend upon the degree of interaction between the
two wythes.
If the wythes are connected so full shear transfer can
be achieved, the resistance and stiffness can be
calculated using the composite section and gross
moment of inertia.
In a non-composite panel, the resistance and
stiffness are computed as a single structural wythe
with the structural wythe designed to carry the loads
from the non-structural wythe.
Semi-composite panels, with partial shear transfer
between wythes, behave between the above types.
The effective moment of inertia should be determined
by test or experience.
3.11.2 Reinforcement
Minimum reinforcement shall comply with the
requirements of A23.3 Clause 16.4.3.

Fig. 3.11.1 Effective beam widths for panel
design
Prestressed reinforcement should provide an average
prestress after all losses of not less than 1.0 MPa.
Prestressing can be located and stressed to minimize
undesirable bowing.
3.11.3 Non-load Bearing Panel Design
Non-load bearing panels are wall elements resisting
only their self weight and lateral forces from wind and
earthquake loads.
Unintended load transfer from or to adjacent panels
should be avoided. Joints should be detailed with
sufficient space to accommodate anticipated
deformations of the supporting structure and the
panel.
The effect of the eccentricity of the non-load bearing
wythe upon the forces and moments developed in the
structural wythe should be considered for non-
composite sandwich panels. If the total load of the
non-load bearing wythe, W, is transferred through a
series of shear connectors, a beam portion equal to
the spacing between connectors, but not greater than
8t, may be assumed, see Fig. 3.11.1(b).
3.11.4 Load Bearing Panel Design
Load bearing panels are those elements that, in
addition to their own weight, support or transfer loads
originating at other locations of a structure. Panels
continuously supported along their bottom edge will
uniformly transfer the superimposed loads to the
foundation or other components. Shear walls and
bearing walls can be designed to provide lateral load
resistance for a structure.
The vertical load resistance of load bearing panels
can be determined using the design methods in Sect.
2.7. Connection design for vertical and lateral load
transfer is covered in Chap. 4.
Example 3-33 Non-composite, reinforced, non-
load bearing panel
Given:
3500 2500 non-composite flat panel
Concrete:

c
f = 35 MPa

ci
f = 15 MPa
Normal Density
Section properties of structural wythe:
A
g
=
2
100000 mm / m
I =
6 4
83 10 mm / m
S =
3 3
1667 10 mm / m
Wind service load = 1.0 kN/m
2

Problem:
Determine the flexural stresses and required
reinforcement for stripping and for service conditions.
Solution:
1. Determine the moments during stripping:
Calculate the weight of the panel per unit area:
Exterior wythe: (0.065)(2400)(9.8)/10
3
= 1.5
Interior wythe: (0.100)(2400)(9.8)/10
3
= 2.4
Insulation: (7)(9.8)/10
3
= 0.1
Total = 4.0 (kN/m
2
)

Assuming that the exterior non-load bearing wythe
has a retarded exposed aggregate finish cast face
down, the load multiplier from Fig. 3.9.1 is 1.2.
For bending about the x-x axis, the tributary width is
half the total panel width = 1750 mm. Extrapolating
from Fig. 3.9.3, the effective flexural width is the
lesser of:
(2500 700)/2 = 900 mm (controls)
10t = (10)(100) = 1000 mm
3500/2 = 1750 mm

x
M
=
2
(4.0)(1.75)(1.2)(0.7)
2.29 kN- m/ m
(2)(0.9)
=

x
M
+

2
(4.0)(1.75)(1.2)(1.8) 2.29
2.64 kN- m/ m
(8)(0.9) 2
=
For bending about the z-z axis, the tributary width for
loading on the stripping inserts is determined from
statics to be 1450 mm and the effective flexural width
is the lesser of:
2000/2 = 1000 mm (controls)
10t = 1000 mm
(700)(2) = 1400 mm

z
M
=
2
(4.0)(1.45)(1.2)(0.75)
1.96 kN- m/ m
(2)(1.0)
=

z
M
+
=
2
(4.0)(1.45)(1.2)(2.0)
1.96 1.53 kN- m/ m
(8.0)(1.0)
=
The maximum moment at stripping is
x
M
+
= 2.64
kNm/m.
2. Determine moments due to wind:
For bending about the x-x axis, the tributary width is
1750 mm and the effective width is 950 mm:

x
M
=
2
(1.0)(1.75)(0.45)
0.19 kN- m/ m
(2)(0.95)
=

x
M
+
=
2
(1.0)(1.75)(1.9)
0.83 kN- m/ m
(8)(0.95)
=
For bending about the z-z axis, the tributary width is
1450 mm and the effective width is 1000 mm:

z
M
=
2
(1.0)(1.45)(0.75)
0.41kN- m/ m
(2)(1.0)
=

z
M
+
=
2
(1.0)(1.45)(1.0)
0.73 kN- m/ m
(8)(1.0)
=
3. Determine moments due to the eccentricity of the
loads:
From Fig. 3.11.1, assuming that the outside wythe is
supported by two shear connectors spaced equally
on the panel:
W
1
= (1.5)(3.5)(2.5) = 13.2 kN
W
2
= (2.5)(3.5)(2.5) = 21.9 kN
Assuming the support points for the panel
connections are 50 mm from the inside face of the
panel:
e
1
= 208 mm
e
2
= 100 mm
T = C =
(13.2)(0.208) (21.9)(0.1)
2.6 kN
1.9
+
=
8t = (8)(100) = 800 mm

x
M
+
=
Ta (2.6)(1.9)
3.09 kN- m/ m
2 (2)(0.8)
= =

z
M
+
=
Tb (2.6)(2.0)
1.63 kN- m/ m
4 (4)(0.8)
= =

4. Determine the combined moments due to wind
and load eccentricity:

x
M
+
= 0.83 3.09 3.92 kN- m/ m(controls) + =

z
M
+
= 0.73 1.63 2.36 kN- m/ m + =
5. Calculate flexural stresses:
At stripping:
f =
6
3
(2.64)(10 )
1.6 MPa
(1667 10 )
=

ci
0.4 f =(0.4)(1.0) 15 1.5 MPa 1.6 = <
At service load:
f =
6
3
(3.92)(10 )
2.4 MPa
(1667 10 )
=

c
0.4 f =(0.4)(1.0) 35 2.3 MPa 2.4 = <
6. Determine reinforcement requirements:
Assume a single layer of mesh with a wire spacing of
100 mm at mid-depth of the structural wythe:
d = 50 mm

d
j = (0.9)(50) = 45 mm

d
k = (0.3)(50) = 15 mm

1
h = 50 15 = 35 mm

2
h = 100 15 = 85 mm

2
1
h
h
=
85
2.42
35
=
Since the interior structural wythe is not exposed to
view or to the weather, use the maximum w = 0.40
mm:
f
s
=
6 2
3
c
1
w
h
(11 10 ) dA
h

=
6
3
0.40
213 MPa
(11 10 )(2.42) (50)(100)(70)

The controlling moment is
x
M
+
under combined
service wind load and eccentricity of the dead loads:
A
s
=
6
2
s
M (3.92)(10 )
410 mm / m
0.9df (0.9)(50)(213)
= =
For the non-structural wythe, use the minimum
reinforcement of (0.001)(65)(1000) = 65 mm
2
/m with
a maximum wire spacing of 150 mm.
7. Shear connector and tie design:
The shear connectors are designed to carry the entire
weight of the non-structural wythe:
V
f
= (1.25)(1.5)(2.5)(3.5) = 16.4 kN
If tension ties are provided on 600 mm centres in
each direction:
T
f
= (1.25)(1.2)(1.5)(0.6)(0.6) = 0.8 kN
See Sect. 5.6.8 for further information on wythe
connector design.
Example 3-34 Composite, prestressed, non-load
bearing flat panel
Given:
2400 6000 composite prestressed flat panel
Concrete:

ci
f = 35 MPa

ci
f = 25 MPa
Normal Density
Section properties of composite section:
A
g
= 420000 mm
2

I = 2230 10
6
mm
4

y
b
= 116 mm
y
t
= 109mm
S
b
= 19200 10
3
mm
3

S
t
= 20500 10
3
mm
3

m = 1020 kg/m
w = 10.0 kN/m
Wind service load = 1.2 kN/m
2

Problem:
Determine the required prestressed reinforcement
and check the horizontal shear capacity between
wythes.

Solution:
1. Stripping stresses:
From Fig. 3.9.1, use a load multiplier of 1.2 at
stripping. Stresses due to dead load of element are:
M =
2
(10.0)(1.2)(5.7)
48.7 kN- m
8
=
f
b
=
6
3
(48.7)(10 )
2.5 MPa
(19200 10 )
=

f
t
=
6
3
(48.7)(10 )
2.4 MPa
(20500 10 )
=

2. Storage stresses:
By inspection, stresses are not critical.
3. Transportation stresses:
Assume that the element is supported as shown
during transportation. Use a load multiplier of 1.5:
M
=
2
(10.0)(1.5)(1.2)
10.8 kN- m
2
=
M
+

2
(10.0)(1.5)(4.5) 10.8
32.6 kN- m
8 2
=
4. Service wind stresses:
M
=
2
(1.2)(2.4)(1.0)
1.5 kN- m
2
=
M
+
=
2
(1.2)(2.4)(5.0)
9.0 kN- m
8
=
5. Select prestressed reinforcement:
The critical loading condition is stripping.
It is good practice to increase the stress in the
exterior wythe above that in the interior wythe to
counteract the usual tendency of a panel to bow
outward. By applying the same prestress force to
both the interior and the thinner exterior wythe, the
desired effect will be achieved. Try providing 1.5 MPa
prestress in the 100 mm wythe:
P = (1.5)(100)(2400)/10
3
= 360 kN
Stress in 75 mm wythe:
f
3
(360)(10 )
2.0 MPa
(75)(2400)
= =
Use 5 11 mm 1860 MPa strands in each wythe.
6. Check total stresses at stripping:
Wythe Stripping Prestress Total
100 mm + 2.4 + 1.5 + 3.9 OK
75 mm 2.5 + 2.0 0.5 OK
7. Check the horizontal shear resistance:
Factored moment at stripping:
M
f
= (1.25)(48.7) = 60.9 kN-m
Assume a moment arm of 130 m between tension
and compression forces:
T = C =
60.9
468 kN
0.13
=
Or, alternatively, calculate the shear flow per unit
width at a section right at the underside of the top
wythe
q
u
/mm = ( V
u
Q)/ I
x
Y = { (100)(175) + (75)(75)/2}/ (100+75)
= 116 mm
I
x
= (100)
3
/12 + (100)(59)
2
+ (75)
3
/12 + (75)(78.5)
2

= 928758 mm
4
/mm
V
u
= (1.0)(1.2)(5.7)/2 = 34.2 kN
Q = (100)(59) = 5900 mm
2
/mm
q
u
= (34.2)(5900)(2400) / (928758)
= 521.4 KN > 468 kN
The shear ties must be designed to resist this force.
Total shear force in half span to be resisted by shear
ties = (q
u
)(l)/ 4
q
u
(per half span) = (521)(5.7)/4 = 742 KN
Area of shear ties in half a span
A
s
= (q
u
)/ ( f
y
)
= (742)(1000)/ ((.85)(400))
= 2182 mm
2

3.12 DESIGN OF POST-TENSIONED
ELEMENTS
3.12.1 General
Post-tensioning is a method of prestressing where
tendons are stressed after the concrete has reached
a predetermined strength. Post-tensioning is used
primarily in continuous cast-in-place construction, but
has useful application in precast structures for
continuity connections in segmental construction and
in heavily loaded members such as transfer girders.
This section applies to post-tensioned flexural
elements used in buildings.
The use of post-tensioning allows designers to
control the behaviour of a structure within a broad
range of loading conditions. Post-tensioning forces
can be applied at various stages during construction
to offset permanent loads and can be applied in
increments. Both bonded or unbonded post-
tensioning tendons may be used.
3.12.2 Methods of Analysis
It is necessary in a post-tensioned design to
determine the required prestressing force and the
number, size, and profile of the tendons required to
resist the service loads. The flexural resistance of an
element must be checked at all the critical points.
Elastic analysis procedures are used to determine
both the strength and serviceability characteristics of
indeterminate post-tensioned structures. The
serviceability of a structure is assessed by
determining the stresses and deflections, both initial
elastic and long term.
In simple span post-tensioned beams, the moments
induced by the post-tensioning are directly
proportional to the eccentricity of the tendons in the
beam cross-section.
The moments due to post-tensioning are not directly
proportional to the tendon eccentricity in continuous
or indeterminate post-tensioned structures.
Deformations imposed by post-tensioning a
continuous element are resisted at points of restraint
by other elements in a structure. The restraint to post-
tensioning deformations modifies the reactions and,
affects the elastic moments and shears resulting from
the post-tensioning. The moments resulting from the
restraints to the prestressing deformations are called
secondary moments, a term used because moments
are induced by the primary post-tensioning moment,
Pe, and not because the secondary moments are
negligible nor smaller than the primary moment.
Primary and secondary moments due to post-
tensioning are illustrated for a two-span continuous
beam in Fig. 3.12.1. This beam has a post-tensioning
force, P, acting at a constant eccentricity, e. The
primary moment in the beam has a magnitude, Pe, as
shown in Fig. 3.12.1(b) that will causes a theoretical
upward deflection at the centre support of
Pe l
2
/(2E). The reactions required to restrain the
beam on the supports A, B and C are shown in Fig.
3.12.1(c). Note that the algebraic sum of the
secondary reactions is zero and that, the secondary
moment at the interior support for this case is 150
percent of the primary moment and of opposite sign.
The secondary moment always varies linearly
between the supports since the secondary moment is
caused by the induced reactions.
Any method of elastic analysis may be applied to
indeterminate post-tensioned structures. Many simple
structures can be analyzed with a hand calculator
using the equivalent load method or the load
balancing method.
Equivalent load method of analysis
The effect of a prestressing force on an element can
be determined by considering the prestressing force
to be replaced by equivalent external loads. In the
simple-span beam shown in Fig. 3.12.2(a), the
horizontal forces P
1
and P
2
, are exerted at the ends
of the element along with a vertical force equal to P
2

tan, that may be neglected in the design of the
beam for flexure because the force occurs directly
over the support. In addition to these loads, the
curved tendon (assumed parabolic) exerts a
continuous upward force on the beam along its entire
length. If friction between the tendon and the
concrete is neglected, the force exerted on the
concrete by the tendon is normal to the plane of
contact and the tension in the tendon is constant. The
normal force, w
p
, exerted by the tendon is equal to
the tension in the tendon divided by its radius of
curvature, as shown in Fig. 3.12.2(b).
Most post-tensioned beams are shallow, therefore
the horizontal component of the tension in the tendon
may be assumed equal to the tension. Given this
assumption, the horizontal component of the tendon
force may be assumed constant. This maintains the
tendon in equilibrium with the uniform vertical load,
w
p
, as shown in Fig. 3.12.2(c).
The magnitude of the vertical load exerted by the
element to hold the tendon in equilibrium may be
derived in various ways. Taking one-half of the
tendon as a free body, the forces are as shown in
Fig. 3.12.2(d). Summing moments about the support
A and solving for the load, w
p
, provides:
w
p
=
2
2
8P e
l

The load exerted by the tendon on the element is
equal but opposite to this load:
w
p
=
2
2
8P e
l

Fig. 3.12.1 Primary and secondary moments
The sign convention considers w
p
to be positive when
it acts downward.
Summing the loads exerted by the tendons on the
simple span beam of Fig. 3.12.2(a) results in the
loads shown in Fig. 3.12.2(e). Calculating equivalent
loads is probably not justified for simple span beams
where the moments induced by the tendons are
directly proportional to the tendon eccentricity.
However, for continuous beams, the use of
equivalent load method permits analysis for the total
moment effects of post-tensioning by considering a
single additional loading case.
Equivalent load equations are given in Fig. 8.1.6.
Various combinations of equivalent loads may be
superimposed. For example, the moments due to end
eccentricity can be added to the equivalent load
moments caused by the tendon profile.
Using the equivalent load procedure, the total post-
tensioning moments at supports may be obtained
using methods of indeterminate structural analysis.
Determine the post-tensioning moments at the
supports. Post-tensioning moments between
supports may be obtained as shown in Fig. 3.12.3 by
Fig. 3.12.2 Equivalent load analysis
superimposing the simple beam moment diagram
due to the post-tensioning loads on the base line
provided by connecting the total post-tensioning
moments at the supports.
It is simpler to obtain interior post-tensioning
moments using the tendon profile. The interior
moments may be expressed as:
M =
AB BA AB A B A
x x
Pe M (M M ) P e (e e )

+ + +

l l

where M
AB
and M
BA
are the total post-tensioning
moments at two adjacent supports, P is the tendon
force, and e
A
, e
B
, and e are the eccentricities of the
tendon at A, B and x, respectively. Eccentricity is
taken as negative when the tendon is below the
centroid and positive when above the centroid of the
cross-section. For the tendon profile in Fig. 3.12.3,
the moment at x is the algebraic sum of the end

Fig. 3.12.3 Interior post-tensioning moments
moments at the point and the moment of the tendon
force, P, times the distance from the tendon to the
straight line connecting the ends of the tendon over
the supports
Load balancing method of analysis:
The prestressing force and eccentricity are selected
to balance or counteract the dead load of the
structure and often some portion of the live load. Fig.
3.12.4 illustrates the load-balancing method. The
moment diagram of the prestressing effects is chosen
to be similar to that of the applied loads but opposite
in sign. The goal is to have the net stress in the beam
equal to the axial compressive stress from the post-
tensioning, P/A
g
since the moment induced by the
tendon and the load offset one another. This concept
allows a designer to visualize the behaviour of
statically indeterminate structures. It simplifies design
calculations since only the total prestressing moment
induced by the post-tensioning needs to be
considered rather than separate considerations of
primary and secondary moments.
The net moment in a structure at any point is that
resulting from the load not balanced by the post-
tensioning. The net stress on the section may be
calculated from P/A
g
+ M
n
l
/S where M
n
l
is the net
(unbalanced) bending moment on the section. For
continuous designs, the tendon geometry can be as
shown in Fig. 3.12.4(b).
Some qualifications are necessary when using this
technique:
Fig. 3.12.4 Load balancing
1. It is not practical to install tendons with a sharp
break in curvature at the supports due to the
stiffness of the tendons. Therefore it is not
possible to duplicate the exact moment curve
resulting in some unbalanced moments.
2. The load-balancing technique should be
adjusted to consider friction losses and the
resulting variation of the force in a tendon along
its length.
3. Load-balancing does not account directly for
moments induced by tendons anchored
eccentrically at ends free to rotate.
3.12.3 Design for Service Loads
Flexural design for service loads is covered in Sect.
3.4, as well as in Examples 3-35, 3-36, and 3-37 of
this section. These examples illustrate a continuous
beam, a one way slab, and a flat plate respectively.
Calculation of camber and deflection is given in Sect.
3.5.
Preliminary sizing of elements
There are no code recommendations for the span-
depth ratios of post-tensioned elements. The values
shown in Fig. 3.12.5 are provided as a guide for
preliminary sizing of elements. These ratios may be
increased if calculations verify that deflection,
camber, vibrations are acceptable.
Concrete cover must also be considered when sizing
elements. A23.1 gives the required cover to
reinforcement.
Type and Placement of Tendons
Post-tensioned tendons may consist of high-strength
strand, wire or bars. Sizes and capacities are listed in
Section 8.2 Tendon profiles are usually parabolic.
Straight-line profiles are used in segmental
construction and for strengthening existing structures.

Fig. 3.12.5 Typical span-depth ratios*
One way slab 48
Two way slab 45
Two way slab with drop panel
(minimum drop panel L/6 each way)

50
Two way slab with 2-way beams 55
Waffle slab (1500 1500 grid) 35
Beams b h/3 20
Beams b 3h 30
* These values are appropriate for elements whose live load is
less than the dead load.
In two way post-tensioned cast-in-place slabs, it is
common practice to band post-tensioning tendons
over the supports in one direction, while evenly
distributing the tendons in the other direction. This
reduces the expense of placing the tendons by
removing the need to weave tendons over and under
each other to achieve draped profiles in both
directions. This method is useful in applications with
irregular column spacings. Experience has shown
that a post-tensioned flat plate behaves as a flat plate
regardless of where the tendons are placed. The load
balancing concept, described above, is useful in
understanding the banding and distribution of
tendons.
In the banded direction, the high points of the banded
tendons are placed at the column locations. In the
distributed direction, the high points of the tendons
are placed at the column gridlines. The drape of the
tendons provides an upward force along the column
gridline, except for a small area on either side of the
column caused by the reversed curvature of the
tendon. This can be ignored. Low points are placed at
or near midspan of the slab in both directions.
The distributed tendons carry the loads to the column
gridlines that, in turn, carry loads to the columns. The
balanced portion of the gravity loads is carried to the
columns.
3.12.4 Prestress Losses
Post-tensioned elements are subject to a loss of
prestress due to elastic shortening, creep, shrinkage,
and stress relaxation as described in Sect. 3.4.4. In
addition, post-tensioned tendons are subject to
losses caused by friction and anchorage set.
Friction losses
The stress loss due to friction is equal to f
po
- f
px
and
may be determined using the following:
f
px
=
(Kx )
p
f e
+

e = base of natural logarithm
= total angular change in radians between
the tangents to the tendon at the jacking
end at a distance x from the jacking end
For values of (Kx + ) less than 0.3, the above
expression can be written in the form:
f
px
=
po
f /(1 Kx ) + +
Approximate values of the coefficients, K and , are
given in Fig. 3.12.6. Actual values may be obtained
from the tendon manufacturer.
Anchorage set loss is due to the slip that occurs in
the anchor at the jacking end. Fig. 3.12.7 shows the
variation in the tendon force near the jacking end
after the anchorage has been set. The value f
pi
is the
stress at the jacking end of the tendon after the
anchorage set loss. The length, y, of the tendon
affected by the anchorage set is given by:
y =
p
E

= anchorage set
= slope shown in Fig. 3.12.7
The quantity, , is characteristic of a post-tensioning
system and has a minimum value of 6 mm for
prestressing strands.
If is known, y and f
pp
, the tendon stress at a
distance y,

can be computed and the level of
prestress along the tendon can be determined.
Alternatively, the anchorage set loss can be
calculated from the shaded area in Fig. 3.12.7 divided
by E
p
.
The maximum values shown in Figure 3.12.7 for f
po
,
f
pi
and f
pp
are given in A23.3, Clause 18.5.
f
po
may not be greater than:
0.85 f
pu

maximum value specified by strand manufacturer
0.94f
py
f
pi
may not be greater than:
0.82f
py
0.74f
pu
.
These values apply immediately after transfer and
before long term losses. The values of jacking stress,
f
po
, can be adjusted to ensure that these constraints
are met.

Fig. 3.12.6 Approximate friction coefficients for post-tensioned tendons
Type of tendon and sheath
Wobble coefficient, K
per metre of length
Curvature coefficient,
per radian
Tendons in flexible metal sheathing
Wire tendons
7 wire strand
High strength bars

(3.3 to 5.0) 10
-3

(1.6 to 6.5) 10
-3

(0.3 to 2.0) 10
-3

0.15 to 0.25
0.15 to 0.25
0.08 to 0.30
Tendons in rigid metal sheath
7 wire strand

0.7 10
-3

0.15 to 0.25
Pre-greased tendons in extruded plastic sheath
Wire tendons and 7 wire strand

(1.0 to 6.5) 10
-3

0.05 to 0.15
Mastic coated tendons in waxed paper
Wire tendons and 7 wire strand

(3.3 to 6.6) 10
-3

0.05 to 0.15
Fig. 3.12.7 Anchorage set prestress loss
A value f
pp
is determined from the design
requirements and f
pi
is calculated as shown in Fig.
3.12.7.
Anchorage set loss can have a significant effect in a
short tendon. In practice, the loss is usually
compensated for by temporary overtensioning or
shimming of the anchor head.
The elongation of the tendon during jacking is given
by:
=
px
p
0
f
dx
E
l
.
The computed elongation must be compared with
elongations measured during the actual jacking
operation.
Fig. 3.12.8 Shear in post-tensioned element with
reverse curvature in tendon
Long term losses
The calculation of losses in post-tensioned tendons
due to shrinkage, creep and relaxation are an
important part of the design process. Long term
losses reduce the effective stress in a tendon that
affects the service load stresses in structural
elements. Refer to Sect. 3.4.4 for information on
calculating these values.

3.12.5 Design for Factored Loads
Factored resistance
The applicable load factors should be applied to the
moments and shears obtained by elastic service load
analysis when checking the critical sections for
flexural and shear resistance. A load factor of 1.0 is
applied to secondary moments. Designs for flexure
and shear for factored loads are outlined in Sect. 3.3
and Sect. 3.6 and are illustrated in examples 3-35, 3-
36 and 3-37.
In continuous post-tensioned elements, attention
should be paid to the distribution of shear imposed by
the post-tensioned tendons. This is illustrated in Fig.
3.12.8. Shear resulting from secondary reactions
should also be included for statically indeterminate
structures.
Example 3-35 Two span continuous T-beam
Given:
Two span cast-in-place post-tensioned T-beams,
spaced 8 m on centres and supported by 500 600
mm columns, 3000 mm long, at 17 m spacing as
shown.
Concrete:

ci
f = 25 MPa

c
f = 35 MPa
1
= 0.798
1
= 0.883
Normal Density
15 mm 1860 MPa low relaxation strands
A
p
= 140 mm
2
/strand
f
py
= 1675 MPa
Section properties:
Conservatively the provisions of Clause 10.3.3 of
A23.3 were used to determine the effective flange
width even though not strictly required by Clause
18.1.3. The overall prestress level of the beam and
the slab are checked to ensure they meet code
minimums at the end of this example.
In accordance with Clause 10.3.3, the overhang width
on either side of the web is calculated as the lesser
of:
1. 1/5 the span length for simply supported beams,
2. 1/10 the span length for continuous beams
3. 12 times the slab thickness
4. One-half the clear distance to the next web.
For this beam, the effective flange width is the lesser
of:
1. Not applicable
2. 1/10l
1
+ b
w
= 1/10 (17000)(2) + 350 = 3750 mm
(governs)
3. (2)(12)t + b
w
= (2)(12)(150) +350 = 3950 mm
4. 0.5 l
2
= (0.5)(8000) = 4000 mm
Loads:
Dead Load (including full slab) = 35.1 kN/m
Live Load = (2.5)(8.0) = 20.0 kN/m
Problem:
Design bonded post-tensioned flexural reinforcement.
Service load moments:
The dead and live load moments, with two live load
patterns considered, namely: full live load covering
two spans and line load covering only one span, are
determined by any analytical method to solve
statically indeterminate structures such as moment
distribution, and are shown in the table on page 3-
120.
Tendon profile:
The effects of the post-tensioning are treated
separately from the effects of the loads, and are
dependent on frame action and the magnitude and
positioning of the post-tensioning tendons.

Assume one end stressing and bonded strands. A
parabolic tendon profile is selected as shown:
Friction losses:
Calculate friction losses using:
f
px
=
(Kx )
po
f e
+

K = 0.0023/ m
= 0.18/ rad
Assume a prestress loss of 230 MPa in addition to
the loss due to the anchor set of 14 mm, with one end
stressing at support C. To find the point of
contraflexure, equate the slopes of two parabolas at
distance x:
(2)(113)
x
=
(2)(612)
8500 x

x = 1325mm
The angles
1
and
2
are determined to be:

1
=
1
(2)(612)
tan 0.143 rad
8500

=

2
=
1
(2)(612)
tan 0.169 rad
7180

=

Assuming a maximum temporary jacking stress of
0.80 f
pu
in the tendon at point C, the jacking stresses,
expressed as a fraction of f
pu
, are determined to be:
1. = 0.800
2.
[ ] (0.0023)(8.5) (0.18)(0.143)
0.800e
+
= 0.765
3.
[ ] (0.0023)(8.5) (0.18)(2)(0.169)
0.765e
+
= 0.705
4.
[ ] (0.0023)(8.5) (0.18)(2)(0.169)
0.705e
+
= 0.651
5.
[ ] (0.0023)(8.5) (0.18)(0.143)
0.651e
+
= 0.622
The variation of prestress along the beam at jacking
is shown in curve A. After anchor set, the reduction in
the prestress at the jacking end is shown by curve B.
Note that the prestress at locations C and C
approximately equals the prestress at locations C
and C, respectively.
The length, y, over which the anchorage set is
effective is determined as follows, assuming a linear
variation in prestress between supports C and C:
=
(1860)(0.800 0.705)
(17)(1000)

=
3
10.39 10 MPa/ mm

y =
p
E

=
3
(190000)(14)
16000 mm
10.39 10

and the prestress at sections C and C can be
determined assuming equal but opposite slopes for
curves A and B.
Section Properties
A
g
= 800760 mm
2

S
b
= 69.1 10
6
mm
3

S
t
= 224.9 10
6
mm
3

The anchorage set loss can be checked using the
anchorage set area approach. The displacement of
the jacking end of the tendon is given by:
=
pu
p
(f )(anchorage set area)
E

Location CC CC C
M
d
(kN - m) 495 + 524 1021
M
l
(kN - m) 331 + 349 581
M
total
(kN - m) 826 + 873 1062
e (mm) 0 612 113
e (mm) 280 320 360
e + e (mm) 280 + 292 473
% initial prestress 62.2 65.1 70.5
f
pi
(MPa) 1157 1211 1311
f
pe
(MPa) 927 981 1081
P
i
(kN) 2106 2204 2386
P
e
(kN) 1687 1785 1967

=
(1860) (8500)
[(0.8 0.765)
190,000 2

(7500)
(0.624 0.659)] (0.765 0.659)
2
+ +

= 15.6 mm 14 mm specified
The elongation of the strand during jacking is equal to
the area under the curve A divided by E
p
, and is given
by:
= (0.5)[0.8 (2)(0.765 0.705 0.651) + + +

(1860)(8500)
0.622] 236 mm
190000
+ =
Initial and final tendon stress:
f
pi
= (f
pu
)(% prestress)
f
pe
= f
pi
230 MPa
The initial and final tendon stresses are calculated as
shown in the table on this page.
Secondary moments:
Secondary moments induced by post-tensioning are
accounted for by considering the effects of restraint at
the supports.
For simplicity, a virtual post tensioned force of 1 kN is
used, giving the following primary moments:
M
2
= (612)(1)/10
3
= 0.612 kN-m
M
3
= (113)(1)/10
3
= 0.113 kN-m
The unrestrained end rotations in the span are found
by any statical method, such as the moment area
method, as follows:
1
=
2
1 2 3
(0.113)(1.32)
(EI)(17.0) 3 8

+

2 3
(0.612)(7.18) 8.5 (7.18)
3 8

2 3
(0.612)(8.5) 8.5 (8.5)
3 8

=
3.38
EI

3
=
I
2
1 2 5
(0.612)(8.5)
(E )(17.0) 3 8

2 3
(0.612)(7.18) 8.5 (7.18)
3 8

+

2 3
(0.113)(1.32) 17.0 (1.32)
3 8

+

=
2.92
EI

Prestress Load CC CC C
f
b
f
t
f
b
f
t
f
b
f
t

P / A
g
+ 2.63 +2.63 + 2.73 + 2.73 + 2.94 + 2.94
P (e + e) / S 8.53 + 2.63 + .9.26 2.84 16.2 + 5.05
M
d
/ S + 7.16 2.2 7.58 + 2.31 + 14.7 4.52
Initial M
l
/ S
Stresses + 1.26 + 3.05 + 4.4 + 2.2 + 1.47 + 3.47
Permissible 0.6 f
ci
0.6 f
ci
0.6 f
ci
0.6 f
ci
0.6 f
ci
0.6 f
ci

stresses + 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0
OK OK OK OK OK OK
P
e
/ A
g
+ 2.1 + 2.1 + 2.2 + 2.2 + 2.42 + 2.42
P
e
(e + e) / S 6.84 + 2.1 + 7.58 2.31 13.5 + 4.1
M
d
/ S + 7.16 2.2 7.58 + 2.31 + 14.7 4.52
Final M
l
/ S + 4.74 1.47 5.05 + 1.58 + 8.42 2.63
Stresses + 7.1 + 0.52 2.8 + 3.8 + 12.3 0.63
Permissible c
0.6f
c
0.6f
c
0.5 f
c
0.6f
c
0.6f
c
0.5 f
stresses + 21.0 + 21.0 3.0 + 21.0 + 21.0 3.0

OK OK OK OK OK OK

Fixed end moments for 1 kN of virtual post-tensioning
force are:
F.E.M. @ C =
3 1
2EI
( 2 )
l

=
2EI 2.92 3.38
(2) 0.45 kN- m
17.0 EI EI

=

F.E.M. @ C =
3 1
2EI
( 2 )
l

=
2EI 3.38 2.92
(2) 0.29 kN- m
17.0 EI EI

=

Secondary moments are derived from these fixed end
moments by analysis such as moment distribution.
These secondary moments may be considered as
effective changes in the tendon profile in accordance
with the equation:
M = P e
with the resulting values of e of 280 mm at supports
C and C, 360 mm at C and 320 mm at C and C, as
shown in the table.
Required post-tensioning force:
Use an allowable tensile stress of:

c
0.5 f =3.0 MPa
The required final prestress force, P, is determined
from the equation:

c
0.5 f =
d
g
M M P P(e e)
S A S
+ +

l

P =
d
c
g
M M
0.5 f
S
1 e e
A S
+

+
+
l

CP =
3
3 3
3
826 10 3.0
223765 10 10
278 kN
1 280
811708
223765 10
=
+

CP =
3
3 3
3
873 10 3.0
69398 10 10
1761kN
1 292
811708
69398 10
=
+

CP =
3
3 3
3
1602 10 3.0
223765 10 10
1243 kN
1 473
811708
223765 10
=
+

Therefore, the prestress force at location C governs.
Determine number of strands required in the tendon:
n =
3
1761 10
12.8
(981)(140)
=
Use 13 strands (A
p
= 1820 mm
2
)
Determine initial and final prestress forces based on
previously calculated stresses:
P
o
=
p po
A f
P
e
=
p pe
A f
Values for the various locations are given in the table.
All stresses are within permissible values.
Factored flexural resistance:
At exterior supports C and C.
M
f
=
D d L
M M 1.0M * + +
l

=(1.25)( 495) (1.5)( 331) (1.0)(1687)(0.280) + +
= 643 kN-m
* According to Table 3.2.1, Case 1 should also be
considered.
Determine if strain compatibility must be used to
calculate the value of f
pr
:
k
p
=
py pu
2(1.04 f / f )
= (2)(1.04 1675/1860) 0.28 =
p
c
d
=
p p pu
1 c c 1 p p p p pu
A f
f bd k A f
+

(0.9)(1820)(1860)
(0.798)(0.65)(35)(0.883)(350)(687) (0.28)(0.9)(1820)(1860)
=
+
= 0.647 0.5 > per Clause 18.6.2 (a)
Therefore, use strain compatibility. The following
values were calculated: f
pr
= 1398 MPa and c = 407
mm.
a =
1
c (0.883)(407) 359 mm = =
Determine flexural resistance:
M
r
=
p p pr
A f (d a/ 2)
=
6
(0.9)(1820)(1398)(687 359/ 2) /10
= 1162kN- m 643 kN- m OK >
At midspan C and C:
M
r
=
D d L l
M M 1.0M + +
= (125)(524) (1.5)(349) (1.0)(1785)(0.320) + +
= 1750 kN- m
Check that the rectangular stress block lies within the
flange of the T-Beam:
k
p
=
py pu
(2)(1.04 f / f )
= (2)(1.04 1675/1860) 0.28 =
c =
p p pu
1 1 c c p p p pu p
A f
f b k A f / d
+

(0.9)(1820)(1860)
(0.28)(0.9)(1820)(1860)
(0.798)(0.883)(0.65)(35)(3750)
825
+
=
= 47.1mm 150 mm < flange thickness is OK
Treat as a rectangular section with b = 3750 mm:
p
c
d
=
47
0.057 0.5 OK
825
= <
f
pr
=
pu p p
f (1 k c / d )
=
(0.28)(47)
(1860) 1 1830 MPa
825

=

a =
1
c (0.883)(47) 41.5 mm = =
M
r
=
p p pr
A f (d a/ 2)
=
6
(0.9)(1820)(1830)(825 41.5/ 2) /10
= 2410 kN-m > 1750 kN-m OK
At interior support C:
The code allows moments calculated at the face of
supports to be used in the design of beams.
Calculate the shear force at the centreline of column:
w
f
=
D d L 1
w w +
= (1.25)(35.1) (1.5)(20.0) 73.9 kN/ m + =
V
fCL
=
(1021 495)(1.25)
(73.9)(8.5)
17

+

(581 331)(1.5)
689 kN
17

+ =

Shear force at the face of the column:
V
fCF
= 689 (73.9)(0.25) 670 kN =
Moment at the column face:
M
f
=
fCL fCF
D d L
V V
M M 1.0M (0.25)
2
+
+ +

= (1.25)( 1021) (1.5)( 581) +

689 670
(1.0)(1945)(0.36) (0.25)
2
+
+ +

= 1278 kN m

p
c
d
=
p p pu
1 1 c c p p p p pu
A f
f bd k A f
+

(0.9)(1820)(1860)
(0.798)(0.883)(0.65)(35)(350)(800) (0.28)(0.9)(1820)(1860)
=
+

= 0.570 0.5 > (Clause 18.6.2 (a))
Therefore, use strain compatibility. The following
values were calculated: f
pr
= 1581 MPa and c = 460
mm.
a =
1
c (0.883)(460) 407 mm = =
M
r
=
p p pr
A f (d a/ 2)
= (0.9)(1820)(1581)(800 407/ 2)
= 1546 kN-m > 1278 kN-m OK
Check the stress on the gross concrete area:
Average value of P
e
in bay C and C is 1785 kN.
Stress on the gross area of the concrete:
e
g
P
A
=
3
(1785)(10 )
855000

=2.09 MPa 0.8 MPa (Clause 18.12.2.3) >
To complete this design, check the midspan
deflection, and design the shear reinforcement.
Example 3-36 One way slab
Given:
150 mm thick slab spanning one way over five spans
between beams on 8000 mm centres.
Concrete:

c
f = 35 MPa
1
= 0.798
1
= 0.883
Normal Density
Prestressed reinforcement
15.2 mm - 1860 MPa low relaxation unbonded
strand tendons
A
p
=
2
140 mm / strand

f
py
= (0.9)(1860) 1675 MPa =
Section properties:
A
g
=
2
150000 mm / m
I =
6 4
281 10 mm / m
S =
3 3
3750 10 mm / m
Loads:
Dead load = 3.6 kN/m
2

Live load = 2.5 kN/m
2

Problem:
Design post-tensioned and non-prestressed
reinforcement and check the shear resistance.

Solution:
Use the load balance concept that offers a simple
approach to analyze statically indeterminate
structures:
w
p
= uniformly distributed upward load applied to
the concrete by the post-tensioning tendon
Experience shows that the required prestress
balance load, w
p
, is between 80 and 100% of the slab
weight when the total superimposed loads are less
than the slab weight.
Hence w
p
= 2.9 to 3.6 kN/m
2
, use w
p
= 3.3 kN/m
2

(0.92w
d
).
The net service load causing flexural stress is:
2
3.6 2.5 3.3 2.8 kN/ m + =
Assume a bottom cover of 20 mm, a top cover of 25
mm and a 20 mm duct diameter.
Dead and live load moments:
From the above, dead and live load moments, M
d
and
M
l
, are calculated by the moment distribution method,
using two live load configurations to give maximum
positive and negative live load moments respectively.
The dead and live load moments are summarized in
the table below.
Load balance moments:
The load balance moments, M
bal
, due to the post-
tensioning are directly proportional to the dead load
moments.
Since: w
p
= 0.92 w
d
, the values for M
bal
are shown
in the table below.
Location C C C C C
M
d
(kN - m/m) + 17.8 24.7 + 7.6 17.8 + 10.2 19.2
M
l
(kN - m/m) + 15.8 18.6 + 12.4 16.9 + 12.4 16.9
M
bal
(kN - m/m) 16.3 + 22.6 7.0 + 16.3 9.4 + 17.6
M
nl
(kN - m/m) + 17.3 20.7 + 13.0 18.4 + 13.2 18.5
e (mm) + 45 40 + 45 45 + 45 40
w
p
(kN/m
2
) 3.3 3.3 3.3
e (mm) 65 85 85
2
p
e
w
P (kN/ m)
8e
=
l

406 311 311
e
g
P
(MPa)
A

2.7 2.1 2.1
M
bal
(kN - m/m) + 22.6 + 16.3 + 17.6
P
e
e (kN - m/m) + 16.3 + 12.2 + 12.2
M (kN - m/m) + 3.2 + 6.3 + 5.2 + 4.1 + 4.7 + 5.4

Load
C
P
e
= 406 kN/m
C
P
e
= 406 kN/m

P
e
= 311 kN/m
C
P
e
= 311 kN/m
f
b
f
t
f
b
f
t
f
b
f
t
f
b
f
t

P
e
/A
g

+ 2.7 + 2.7 + 2.7 + 2.7 + 2.1 + 2.1 + 2.1 + 2.1
M
nl
/S
4.6 + 4.6 + 5.5 5.5 3.5 + 3.5 + 4.9 4.9
Total
1.9 + 7.3 + 8.2 2.8 1.4 + 5.6 + 7.0 2.8

c
0.5 f 0.6 f
c
0.6 f
c

c
0.5 f
c
0.5 f 0.6 f
c
0.6 f
c

c
0.5 f
Permissible
stresses
3.0 + 21.0 + 21.0 3.0 3.0 + 21.0 + 21.0 3.0

OK OK OK OK OK OK OK OK

Net load moments:
The net load moments, M
nl
, that cause flexure in the
slab, are calculated from the equation:
M
nl
=
d bal
M M M + +
l

Service load stresses:
Check the service load stresses on the basis of the
effective prestress, P
e
, required to achieve the
assumed balance load, w
p
:
P
e
=
2
p
w
8e
l

The effective prestress force, P
e
, required is shown in
the table above.
The service flexural stresses can now be calculated
from the equation:
f =
e n
g
P M
A S
+
l
as shown in the table.
The permissible tensile stresses are dependent upon
the amount of additional non-prestressed
reinforcement see Clause 18.8.
The value of the assumed effective prestress force
P
e
, is adequate as all service load stresses are within
the permissible limits.
Required number of strands:
Friction and anchor stress losses have to be
determined as shown in Example 3-35.
An average initial stress in the tendons after friction
losses of 0.71 f
pu
is assumed:

f
po
= (1860)(0.71) = 1321 MPa
Long term losses = 230 MPa
f
pe
= 1091 MPa
P
e
= (1091)(140)/10
3
= 153 kN/strand
The required number of strands is:
End spans: 406/153 = 2.66 strands/m width
Interior spans:311/153 = 2.04 strands/m width
Secondary moments:
The load balance moment, M
bal
, is equal to the sum
of primary and secondary moments. The secondary
moment is the difference between the load balance
moment and the primary moment:
M =
bal e
M P e
Values of M are given in the table:
Factored moments:
M
f
= 1.25 M
d
+ 1.5 M
f
+ 1.0 M
CM
f
= (1.25)(17.8) + (1.5)(15.8) + (1.0)(3.2)
= 49.2 kN - m/m
CM
f
= (1.25)(24.7) + (1.5)(18.6) + (1.0)(6.3)
= 52.5 kN - m/m
CM
f
= (1.25)(7.6) + (1.5)(12.4) + (1.0)(5.2)
= 33.3 kN - m/m
CM
f
= (1.25)(17.8) + (1.5)(16.9) + (1.0)(4.1)
= 43.5 kN - m/m
M
f
= (1.25)(10.2) + (1.5)(12.4) + (1.0)(4.7)
= 36.1 kN - m/m
CM
f
= (1.25)(19.2) + (1.5)(16.9) + (1.0)(5.4)
= 44.0 kN-m/m
The minimum area of non-prestressed reinforcement
required by Clause 18.8 is:
A
s
= 0.003A
=
h
0.003b
2

=
2
(0.003)(1000)(150/ 2) 225 mm / m =
Use a minimum of 10M Grade 400 bars at 400 mm
c/c - A
s
= 250 mm
2
/m
For location C:
A
s
=
2
250 mm / m
A
p
=
2
(2.66)(140) 373 mm / m =
Determine the value of f
pr
:
c
y
=
s s y p p py
1 1 c c
A f A f
f b
+

=
(0.85)(250)(400) (0.9)(373)(1675)
(0.798)(0.883)(0.65)(35)(1000)
+

= 40 mm
From Clause 18.6.2(b):
f
pr
=
pe p y
o
8000
f (d c )
l
+

=
(8000)
1091 ((120 40) (115 40))
40,000
+ +
=
py
1122 MPa 1675 MPa (f ) OK <

a =
s s y p p pr
1 c c
A f A f
f b
+

=
(0.85)(250)(400) (0.9)(373)(1121)
(0.798)(0.65)(35)(1000)
+

= 25.4mm
Determine the factored flexural resistance:
M
r
=
s s y p p pr
( A f A f )(d a/ 2) +
= [(0.85)(250)(400) (0.9)(373)(1122)] +

6
(120 25.4/ 2) /10
= 49.5 kN- m 49.2 kN- m OK >
For location C:

pr
f =
pe p y
o
8000
f (d c ) +
l

=
(8000)
1091 ((115 40)
40,000
+
(120 40) (115 40)) + +
=
py
1138MPa 1584 MPa (f ) OK <
A =
s s y p p pr
1 c c
A f A f
f b
+

=
(0.85)(250)(400) (0.9)(373)(1138)
(0.798)(0.65)(35)(1000)
+

= 26 mm
M
r
=
s s y p p pr
( A f A f )(d a/ 2) +
= [(0.85)(250)(400) (0.9)(373)(1138)] +

6
(115 26/ 2) /10
= 47.7 kN- m 52.5 kN- m <
Provide 10M bars at 200 mm c/c over the first interior
support, location C:
A
s
=
2
500 mm / m
A =
s s y p p pr
1 c c
A f A f
f b
+

=
(0.85)(500)(400) (0.9)(373)(1138)
(0.798)(0.65)(35)(1000)
+

= 30 mm
M
r
=
s s y p p pr
( A f A f )(d a/ 2) +
= [(0.85)(500)(400) (0.9)(373)(1138)] +

6
(115 30/ 2) /10
= 55.1 kN-m > 52.5 kN-m OK
Check the shear resistance:
V
f
=
D d L
( w w )
2
+
l
l

=
8.0
[(1.25)(3.6) (1.5)(2.3)] 31.8 kN/ m
2
+ =
Using the minimum value of V
c
specified in Clause
11.3.4 and from Clause 11.3.6.2:
V
r
= 107.7 kN 31.8 kN OK >
=
3
(0.21)(1.0)(0.65) 35(1000)(0.8)(150) /10
=
c c w
f b d
To complete the design, check the flexural resistance
at other locations and check the midspan deflection.
Example 3-37 Two way flat slab
Given:
Flat plate floor slab supported by columns with a
2600 mm storey height.
Concrete:

ci
f = 25 MPa

c
f =35 MPa
Normal Density
15.2 mm - 1860 MPa unbonded, low relaxation
strands
A
p
=
2
140 mm / strand
f
py
=1675 MPa
f
y
= 400 MPa
Loads:
w
sd
=
2
1.0 kN/ m
w
l
=
2
1.9 kN/ m
A cladding load of 6 kN/m, acting along grid lines 1
and 9, at an eccentricity of 75 mm from the centreline
of the exterior column.
Problem:
Design the post-tensioning tendons and non-
prestressed reinforcement, and check the shear
resistance.

Solution:
Determine the slab thickness:
From Fig. 3.12.5: h = l / 45
Longitudinal:
7500
h 167 mm
45
= = (governs)
Transverse:
6100
h 136 mm
45
= =
Try h = 165 mm
Loads:
Dead loads:
165 mm slab: (2.4)(9.81)(0.165)= 3.9 kN/m
2

Partitions: (w
sd
):= 1.0 kN/m
2

Total dead load:= 4.9 kN/m
2

Live loads:
Occupancy:= 1.9 kN/m
2

Live load 1.9
0.38 0.75
Deadload 4.9
= = <
Per Clause 13.9.4.2, load all panels with full live load.
Load balancing:
Assume 20 mm cover from the top of slab to the
tendon and 40 mm cover from the underside of the
slab to the tendon for fire protection.
Assume a parabolic tendon profile with a force
corresponding to an average compressive stress of
1.0 MPa:

e
g
P
A
= 1.0 MPa

Location C C C C C
e (mm) 0 32 +52 +52 32
e (mm) 58 85
w (kN/m
2
)

6.8 6.8
w
p

e
2
8P e
=
l
(kN/m
2
)
2.8 1.9
w
n
(kN/m
2
) 4.0 4.9

P
e
=
3
(1.0)(165)(1000) /10 165 kN/ m =
With an average initial prestress level after friction
losses of 0.7 f
pu
and an assumed long term loss of
230 MPa:
P
e
=
pu p
(0.7f 230)A
=
3
[(0.7)(1860) 230](140) /10
= 150 kN/ strand
For a 6.1 m bay, require:

(6.1)(165)
150
=6.7, use 7 tendons
P
e
=
(7)(140)
161kN/ m
6.1
=

e
g
P
A
=
3
3
(161)(10 )
0.98 MPa
(165)(10 )
=
If the upward uniformly distributed load due to the
prestress, w
p
, and the service load, downward
uniformly distributed load, w, the net service load
causing flexural stress is:

n
w
l
=
p
w w
Equivalent frame properties:
Moments in the slab due to net loading are
determined by the equivalent frame method outlined
in Clause 13.8.2:
At the exterior column C, 300 350:
I
c
=
3 3
6 4 2 1
c c (350)(300)
787 10 mm
12 12
= =

Floor to floor, h = 2600 mm. Clear height of column,
h
c
= 2600 165 = 2435 mm:
K
c
=
6
6 c c c c
c
c
k E I (4)(787 10 )E
1.29 10 E
h 2435
= =

The stiffness coefficient, k
c
, is taken as 4.0. For two
way flat plate construction, this is a reasonable
assumption although not strictly true, as the portions
of the columns within the floors are infinitely stiff.
Actual values of k
c
can be found in texts on structural
analysis.
There are columns above and below, therefore:
K
c
=
6 6
c c
(2)(1.29 10 )E 2.58 10 E =
Torsional element:
c
1
= 300 h 165 = l
t
=6100
y = 300 x 165 = c
2
=350
C =
3
x x y
1 0.63
y 3

=
3
(0.63)(165) (165) (300)
1
300 3

=
6 4
293 10 mm
K
t
=
c
3
2
t
t
9E C
c
1

l
l

=
6
6 c
c
3
(2)(9)E (293 10 )
1.03 10 E
350
(6100) 1
6100

Equivalent column stiffness:

ec
1
K
=
t c
1 1
K K
+

=
6 6
c c
1 1
1.03 10 E 2.58 10 E
+

K
ec
=
6
c
0.74 10 E
At interior columns C and C, 500 350:
I
c
=
3 3
6 4 2 1
c c (350)(500)
3646 10 mm
12 12
= =
h = 2600 mm and h
c
= 2435 mm
K
c
=
I
6
6 c c c
c
c
4E (4)(3646)E (10 )
5.99 10 E
h 2435
= =
K
c
=
6 6
c c
(2)(5.99 10 )E 11.97 10 E =
Torsional element:
c
1
= 500 h = 165
t
l = 6100
y = 500 x = 165 c
2
= 300
C =
3
x x y
1 0.63
y 3

=
3
(0.63)(165) (165) (500)
1
500 3

=
6 4
588 10 mm
K
t
=
c
3
2
t
9E C
c
1
2

l

=
6
6 c
c
3
(2)(9)E (588 10 )
2.02 10 E
300
(6100) 1
6100

Equivalent column stiffness:

ec
1
K
=
t c
1 1
K K
+

=
6 6
c c
1 1
2.02 10 E 11.97 10 E
+

K
ec
=
6
c
1.73 10 E
Moment distribution:
1. Relative stiffnesses:
At exterior column C:
Column:K
ec
6
c
0.74 10 E =
Span:K
s
2
c s c
6
c
4E I (4)(6100)(165) E
(12)(5200)
1.76 10 E
= =
=
l

Relative stiffness, column:
=
6
c
6
c c
0.74 10 E
0.3
(0.74E 1.76E )(10 )
=
+

Relative stiffness, slab:
=
6
c
6
c c
1.76 10 E
0.7
(0.74E 1.76E )(10 )
=
+

At interior column C:
Column:K
ec
6
c
1.74 10 E =

Exterior span:
K
se
=
3
c s c
4E I (4)(6100)(165) E
(12)(5200)
=
l

=
6
c
1.76 10 E

Interior span:K
si
3
c s c
6
c
4E I (4)(6100)(165) E
(12)(7500)
1.22 10 E
= =
=
l

Relative stiffness, column:
=
6
c
6
c
1.74 10 E
0.37
(1.74 1.76 1.22)(10 )E
=
+ +

Relative stiffness, exterior span:
=
6
c
6
c
1.76 10 E
0.37
(1.74 1.76 1.22)(10 )E
=
+ +

Relative stiffness, interior span:
=
6
c
6
c
1.22 10 E
0.26
(1.74 1.76 1.22)(10 )E
=
+ +

2. Fixed end moments:
Exterior span:
FEM=
2 2
n
w (4.0)(5.2)
9.0 kN- m/ m
12 12
= =
l
l

Interior span:
FEM=
2 2
n
w (4.9)(7.5)
23.0 kN- m/ m
12 12
= =
l
l

3. Carry over factors: all carry over factors = 0.5
4. Moment distribution (see table above).
Determine the midspan moments:
Exterior span:
Moment at C: M
1
= 1.9 kN-m/m
Moment at C: M
3
= 16.3 kN-m/m
Moment at midspan:
=
2
1 3 n
M M w
2 8
+
+

l
l

=
2
1.9 16.3 (4.0)(5.2)
4.4
2 8

+ =

kN-m/m
Interior span:
Moment at C: M
4
21.4 kN- m/ m =
Moment at : M
6
21.4 kN- m/ m =
Moment at midspan:
=
2
4 6
M M w
2 8
+
+

l
l

=
2
21.4 21.4 (4.9)(7.5)
2 8

+

= 13.1kN- m/ m
The service load moment diagram is as follows:
Service load stresses:
Flexural stresses are computed from the equation:
f =
e
g
P M
A S

The moment at the face of the support is used.
Calculations for the interior span are shown below.
Calculations are typical for all spans.
1. Determine moment and stress at C:
V
CL
=
n 1
w (4.9)(7.5)
18.4 kN/ m
2 2
= =
l
l

V
CF
=
CL
3500
V (18.4)(0.933) 17.2 kN/ m
3750

= =

Moment distribution of net loads
Joint C CC C
Span Col. 1-3 3-1 Col. 4-6 6-4 Col. 7-9 9-7 Col.
Rel. Stiff. 0.3 0.7 0.37 0.37 0.26 0.26 0.37 0.37 0.7 0.3
FEM 9.0 9.0 23.0 23.0 9.0 9.0
2.7 6.3 3.1
2.0 4.0 4.0 2.8 1.4
0.6 1.4 0.7 2.0 4.0 5.7 5.7 2.8
0.5 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.4 0.7 2.2 4.3 1.9
0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7
M
n
l 1.9 1.9 16.3 5.0 21.4 21.4 5.0 16.3 1.9 1.9

Moment at column face:
M
CF
=
CL CF 1
CL
V V c
M
2 2
+

=
(18.4 17.2)(0.5)
21.4 17.0 kN- m/ m
4
+
+ =
Total moment in design strip:
M
DS
= ( 17.0)(6.1) 104.0 = kN-m/m
Moment in column strip:
Width of column strip
1
(2)(0.25)
(2)(0.25)(6100) 3050 mm
=
= =
l

P
e
/A
g
is acting on the entire section, whereas M
cs
is
75% of the total moment distributed over the column
strip from Clause 18.12.2.1.
M
CS
=
( 104.0)(0.75)
25.6 kN- m/ m
3.05
=
Stress in column strip:
f
t
=
e cs
g
P M
A S

=
6
2
(25.6)(10 )(6)
0.98 4.7 MPa
(1000)(165)
=
The permissible tensile stress, per Clause 18.3.2(c)
is:

c
0.5 f =0.5 35 3.0 MPa 4.7 MPa = <
Therefore the section is partially prestressed and
non-prestressed reinforcement must be provided
according to Clause 18.8.1:
A
s
=
n
(1.25)(0.0006)hl
=
2
(1.25)(0.0006)(165)(7500) 928 mm =
Provide 5 15M bars as reinforcement over a width
equal to the column width, c
2
, plus 1.5 times the slab
thickness beyond each side of the column per Clause
13.10.3:

2
c (2)(1.5)h + =350 (3)(165) 845 mm + =
The spacing is:
=
845
169 say 150 mm
5
=
The minimum length of non-prestressed
reinforcement, according to Clause 18.9.4:
l =
1
2 / 6 (2)(7500) / 6 2500 mm = = l
Provide 5 15M bars, 2500 + 500 wide column =
3000 mm long, spaced at 150 mm c/c about the
column centreline.
Compressive stress:
f
c
=
6
e cs
2
g
P M (25.6)(10 )(6)
0.98
A S
(1000)(165)
+ = +
= 6.6 MPa
Permissible compressive stress, from Clause
18.3.2(b) is:

c
0.6f = (0.6)(35) 21MPa OK =
2. Determine stresses at C:
Total moment in design strip:
M
DS
=(13.1)(6.1) 79.9 = kN-m
Positive moment in column strip:
P
e
/A
g
is acting on the entire section, whereas M
cs
is
60% of the total moment distributed over the column
strip from Clause 18.12.2.1.
M
CS
=
(79.9)(0.60)
15.7 kN- m/ m
3.05
=
Tensile stress in column strip:
f
t
=
6
e cs
2
g
P M (15.7)(10 )(6)
0.98
A S
(1000)(165)
=
= 2.5 MPa
From Clause 18.8.1, permissible stress without
bonded reinforcement:

c
0.2 f =0.5 35 3.0 MPa 2.3 MPa = >
A
s
=0.004A (0.004)(1000)(165) / 2 =
=
2
330 mm
Provide 5 15M bars in the positive moment area of
the column strip, spaced evenly throughout:
Spacing
3050
610
5
= = - use 600 mm
From Clause 18.9.3, the length of bar:
l
b
=
1
/ 2 7500/ 2 3750 mm = = l
Provide 5 15M bars, 3750 mm long, spaced at 600
mm in the column strip.
Compressive stress:
f
c
=
6
e cs
2
g
P M (15.7)(10 )(6)
0.98
A S
(1000)(165)
+ = +
= 4.4 MPa
From Clause 18.3.2(b), permissible stress is:

c
0.6f =15.8 MPa OK
The results of service load analysis are shown in the
table below:
Check the stresses for the middle strip and the non-
prestressed reinforcement requirements to complete
service load analysis.

Determine the secondary moments, M, by
subtracting the primary moments from the load
balance moments:
M
bal
=Pe M +
M =
bal
M Pe
The load balance or uplift moments due to the post-
tensioning forces are calculated by moment
distribution as were the net load moments.
From the table, w
p
for the exterior span is = 2.8 kN/m
2

Fixed end moment:
FEM =
2
2
p
w
(2.8)(5.2)
6.3 kN- m/ m
12 12
= =
l

w
p
for interior span is = 1.9 kN/m
2
, therefore:
FEM =
2
2
p
w
(1.9)(7.5)
8.9 kN- m/ m
12 12
= =
l

Determine the factored dead and live loads:
Factored dead load: (1.25)(3.9+1.0) = 6.1kN/m
Factored live load: (1.5)(1.9) = 2.9 kN/m
Total factored load: = 9.0 kN/m

Location C C C C C
M
n CL
(kN-m/m) 1.9 4.1 16.3 21.4 13.1
M
n CF
(kN-m/m) 0.4 13.8 17.0
M
n CS
(kN-m/m) 1.0 6.2 24.3 25.6 15.7
f
t
(MPa) 0.8 0.4 4.4 4.7 2.5
f
c
(MPa) 1.2 2.3 6.3 6.6 4.4

Moment distribution of prestress (uplift loads)
Joint
C CC C
Rel. Stiff. 0.3 0.7 0.37 0.37 0.26 0.26 0.37 0.37 0.7 0.3
FEM 6.3 6.3 8.9 8.9 6.3 6.3 3.0
1.9 4.4 2.2
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
0.4 0.7 1.0 1.0 0.5
2.0 4.1 1.7
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.7
0 0 0
M
bal
1.8 1.8 8.7 0.2 8.8 8.8 0.2 8.7 1.8 1.8

Moment distribution of net loads
Joint
C CC C
Rel. Stiff.
0.3 0.7 0.37 0.37 0.26 0.26 0.37 0.37 0.7 0.3
FEM
20.3 20.3 42.2 42.2 20.3 20.3

6.1 14.2 7.1 7.1 14.2 6.1

2.8 5.5 5.5 3.8 1.9

0.8 2.0 1.0 2.2 4.3 6.2 6.2 3.1

0.6 1.2 1.2 0.8 0.4 1.1 2.2 0.9

0.2 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.3

0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1
M
bal

5.1 5.1 32.9 6.8 39.8 39.8 6.8 33.1 5.1 5.1

Fixed end moments:
Exterior span FEM
f
=
2 2
1
w (9)(5.2)
12 12
=
l

=20.3 kN- m
Interior span FEM
f
=
2 2
1
w (9)(7.5)
12 12
=
l

= 42.2 kN- m
Combine the moments due to factored loads with the
secondary moments to determine the total factored
moments, M
f
, as shown in table on page 3-132.
1. Negative factored moment at C:
The design strip may be analyzed in its entirety for
factored load conditions, see Clause 18.13.1.
Moments at the centreline of supports should be used
as the column accounts for less than 10% of the
design strip:
Total factored moment on the design strip:
M
f
= (40.0)(6.1) 244 = kN-m
Since there are 7 tendons located within the design
strip:
A
p
=
2
(7)(140) 980 mm =
As non-prestressed reinforcement is provided for
service load conditions, it may be used in the factored
load calculations. The length of the bars must be
increased from the minimum allowed by Clause
18.9.1 to comply with Clause 18.9.4:
A
s
=
2
1000 mm
Calculate f
pr
from Clause 18.6.2(b):
f
pr
=
pu
0.7f 230
= (0.7)(1860) 230 1072 MPa =
f
pe
=
pu
0.7f 230
= (0.7)(1860) 230 1072 MPa =
d
p
= 165 30 135 mm =

1
= 0.85 (0.0015)(35) 0.798 =

1
= 0.97 (0.0025)(35) 0.883 =
c
y
=
s s y p p py
1 1 c c
A f A f
f b
+

=
(0.85)(1000)(400) (0.9)(980)(1675)
(0.798)(0.883)(0.65)(35)(6100)
+

= 18.6 mm
f
pr
=
8000
1072 ((135 18.6) (115 18.6)
18,200
+ +
(135 18.6)) +
= 1217 MPa
a =
s s y p p pr
1 c c
A f A f
f b
+

=
(0.85)(1000)(400) (0.9)(980)(1217)
(0.798)(0.65)(35)(6100)
+

= 12.7mm
M
r
=
s s y p p pr p
( A f A f )(d a/ 2) +
= [(0.85)(1000)(400) (0.9)(980)(1217)] +

6
(135 12.7/ 2) /10
=
f
182 kN- m M 244 kN- m < =
Add non-prestressed reinforcement to increase the
flexural resistance - use 8 15M bars:
A
s
=
2
2600 mm
c
y
=
s s y p p py
1 1 c c
A f A f
f b
+

=
(0.85)(2600)(400) (0.9)(980)(1675)
(0.798)(0.883)(0.65)(35)(6100)
+

= 24 mm
f
pr
=
8000
1072 ((135 24)
18200
+
(115 24) (135 24)) + +
= 1210 MPa
a =
s s y p p pr
1 c c
A f A f
f b
+

=
(0.85)(2600)(400) (0.9)(980)(1210)
(0.798)(0.65)(35)(6100)
+

= 17.6 mm
M
r
=
s s y p p pr p
( A f A f )(d a/ 2) +
= [(0.85)(2600)(400) (0.9)(980)(1210)] +

6
(135 17.6/ 2) /10
=
f
246 kN m M 244 kN m OK > =
Use 13 15M reinforcing bars to provide the required
factored flexural resistance.
2. Positive factored moment at C:
Total factored moment on design strip:
M
f
= 147 kN- m
A
p
=
2
980 mm
A
s
=
2
1000 mm
d
p
= 165 50 115 mm =


Factored moment calculations
Location C C C C C
M
bal
(kN-m/m)
Pe (kN-m/m)
1.8
0
4.2
5.2
8.7
9.0
8.8
9.0
4.6
5.2
M (kN-m/m)
M
f
(kN-m/m)
1.8
5.1
1.0
11.4
0.3
32.9
0.2
39.8
0.6
23.5
M
fCL
(kN-m/m)
M
f
per strip (kN-m)
3.3
20.1
12.4
75.6
33.2
202.5
40.0
244.0
24.1
147.0
c
y
=
s s y p p py
1 1 c c
A f A f
f b
+

=
(0.85)(1000)(400) (0.9)(980)(1675)
(0.798)(0.883)(0.65)(35)(6100)
+

= 18.6 mm
f
pr
=
pe p y
o
8000
f (d c )
l
+

=
8000
1072 ((115 18.6) (135 18.6) (115 18.6))
18200
+ + +
= 1217 MPa
a =
s s y p p pr
1 c c
A f A f
f b
+

=
(0.85)(1000)(400) (0.9)(980)(1217)
(0.798)(0.65)(35)(6100)
+

= 12.7 mm
M
r

=
s s y p p pr p
( A f A f )(d a/ 2) +
= [(0.85)(1000)(400) (0.9)(980)(1217) +

6
(115 12.7/ 2) /10
=
f
153kN- m M 147 kN- m OK > =
The post tensioning and non-prestressed
reinforcement are sufficient to resist the applied
factored moment.
Shear considerations:
The calculation of shear and moment transfer
capacities in two way flat plates is an essential part of
the design. Shear capacity is checked for factored
resistance to punching shear at the supports.
Calculate the shear force:
w
f
=
D d L
w w +
l

=
2
(1.25)(4.9) (1.5)(1.9) 9.0 kN/ m + =
As shown in the diagram below, the reactions due to
factored dead load and the live load and prestress

are calculated. The factored shear forces at the
centreline of supports are determined from these
reactions. Upward reactions are positive.
At location C:
R
wf
=
1
w (9.0)(5.2)
23.4 kN/ m
2 2
= =
l

R
mf
=
f 3 f1
M M 32.5 4.0
5.5 kN/ m
5.2

= =
l

Shear at exterior column C:
Shear from diagram above: (17.9)(6.1) = 109 kN
Shear due to cladding: (1.25)(6)(6.1)= 46 kN
Total Shear V
f
: 155 kN
Critical section properties:
From the diagram:
c
1
= 300 mmd 132 mm =
d
2
66 mm =
c
2
= 350 mm
e
1
=
2
1
1 2
(c d/ 2)
2c c 2d
+
+ +

=
2
(300 66)
110 mm
(2)(300) 350 (2)(132)
+
=
+ +

e
2
=
1
1
(c d) (0.5)(300 132) 216 mm
2
+ = + =
e
3
=
2 1
e e 216 110 106 mm = =
A
VT
=
1 2
d(2c c 2d) + +
= (132)[(2)(300) 350 (2)(132)] + +
=
2
160 248 mm
J
1
=
3
3
1 1
1 d d
c d c d
6 2 2

+ + +

2
1
2
2 1 1 1
d
c
d
2
(c d)de 2 c d e
2 2

+

+ + + +

=
3 3
1
[(300 66)(132) (300 66) (132)]
6
+ + +

2
(350 132)(132)(110) (2)(132)(366) + + +

2
366
110
2

=
9 4
2.5 10 mm
Moment transferred by shear eccentricity:
The total moment due to the factored loads plus the
eccentric shear about centreline of the critical section
is:
M
vcr
=
f 3
M Ve +
=
3
( 4.0)(6.1) (109)(106) / 10 12.8 kN- m + =
From Clauses 13.3.3 and 13.3.5.3:

f
=
1
2
1
c d 2
1
3 c d
+
+
+

=
1
0.613
2 300 132
1
3 350 132
=
+
+
+

The moment due to eccentricity of the shear force:
M
v
=
f vcr
M (0.613)(12.8) 7.8 kN m = =
Maximum factored shear stress:
v
f
=
f v 1
VT 1
V M e
A J
+
=
3 6
9
(155)(10 ) (7.8)(10 )(110)
1.1MPa
160,248
2.5 10
+ =

From A23.3, Equation 18.5:
v
c
=
p cp p p
c c
o
c c
f V
0.38 f 1
b d
0.38 f

+ +

If the term
p
V
p
is ignored:
v
c
=
(0.9)(0.98)
(0.38)(1.0)(0.65) 35 1
(0.38)(1.0)(0.65) 35
+
=
f
1.65 MPa 1.06 MPa v OK > =
Check the shear capacity of the critical section for the
interior column. Provide column capitals if necessary.
Check the shear capacity in the span. The column
strip section should be checked to verify the capacity
to carry the factored design strip moment at the
column.
Deflection:
Calculate the live load deflection of a 1 m wide strip in
the centre span of the design strip.
Use the effective moment of inertia according to Sect.
3.5.2 since the tensile stress at C under service load
is greater than
c
0.5 f :
I
tr
I
3
6 4
g
(1000)(165)
374 10 mm
12
= =
d
p
= 135 mm
A
p
=
2
(7)(140) /(6.1) 161mm / m =
n
=
(190 000)(161)
0.0080
(28 200)(1000)(135)
=
C = 0.0068 from Fig. 3.5.5
l
cr
=
3 3
p
Cbd (0.0068)(1000)(135) =
=
6 4
16.7 10 mm
M
cr
=
6
6
(0.6) 35(374)(10 )
16.1kN- m/ m
(82.5)(10 )
=
f
ce
=
3 3
3 6
(161)(10 ) (161)(10 )(52.5)(82.5)
(165)(10 ) (374)(10 )
+
= 2.84 MPa
M
dc
=
6
6
(2.84)(374)(10 )
12.9 kN- m/ m
(82.5)(10 )
=
M
s
=
( 39.8)(6.8)
0.2 30.3 kN- m/ m
9.0
=
l
e
=
6
16.7 10 (374 16.7) +

3
6
16.1
10
30.3 12.9

=
6 4
g e
300 10 mm I Use I <
Since the tensile stress at C is less than
c
0.5 f , use
the gross moment of inertia throughout the span.
Specified live load= 1.9 kN/m
2

Live load moment at C=
(1.9)
( 39.8) 8.4 kN- m/ m
9.0
=
Live load moment at C=
(1.9)
( 24.1) 5.0 kN- m/ m
9.0
+ =
Deflection:
Using the moment area method, the deflection at
midspan due to live loads is:

ll
=
1 2 5
(5.0 8.4)(3750) (3750)
EI 3 8

+

6
3750
(8.4)(3750) (10 )
2

=
12
6
19.5 10
2 mm
(28 200)(300 10 )

Deflection at midspan due to the net dead load:

dr
=
(2)(4.9)
5 mm
1.9
=
Long-term deflection should also be computed
according to Clause 9.8.4.4. This must be compared
with permissible deflections specified in Table 9.3.
3.12.6 Other Considerations
Detailing considerations
The following items need to be considered when
detailing concrete elements, post-tensioning
anchorages and tendons, and anchorage zone
reinforcing:

1. The ends of concrete elements should be large
enough to comfortably contain all of the required
post-tensioning anchorages.
2. Anchors should be adequately spaced and
anchorage blockouts should be of sufficient size
to allow the unimpeded operation of stressing
jacks.
3. Protruding rebar dowels and obstructions in the
stressing face should be carefully detailed to
maintain adequate clearance for stressing
operations.
4. Provide adequate cover for bearing plates and
other anchorage hardware at the ends of
elements. Concrete cover to the centre of gravity
of the prestressing steel should take into
consideration the diameter of the tendon ducts
as well as the clear cover required at high and
low points of a tendon within the length of an
element. Individual tendons should be spaced to
allow effective placement and vibration of
concrete.
5. Post-tensioning tendons should take precedence
over conflicts with non-prestressed
reinforcement, electrical conduits or other items
included in the element.
6. Anchorage zone areas should be adequately
designed and detailed for the placement of
concrete and reinforcement.
7. Anchorage blockouts located within a column,
may reduce the gross area of the concrete.
Column capacity should be verified at these
locations.
Volume change restraints
The relative stiffness of post-tensioned beams and
columns must be carefully analyzed. Restraining
items such as walls that frame into columns, should
be given special attention, and if necessary, properly
designed control joints should be provided.
When a post-tensioned beam is framed into the top of
a relatively stiff column, the elastic, shrinkage, and
creep shortening of the beam and slab will cause
high moments and shears in the column. The
prestress force is reduced by the amount that is
diverted to column bending. In multi-story and multi-
bay frames, these effects are distributed throughout
the frame.
Anchorage zone reinforcement
General:
The post-tensioning force is applied through relatively
small anchorages, causing high local stresses that
decrease as the forces spread through the anchorage
zone to the full cross section of the element.
Standard bending theory does not apply and the work
of Guyon and Leonhardt should be consulted for
classical theories on anchorage zone stresses. Strut
and tie models may also be used.
Steps for designing anchorage zones:
1. Determine the size of the primary prism around
individual anchorages.
2. Provide primary bursting reinforcement within
each primary prism.
3. Provide reinforcement close to the loaded face
of the anchorage zone to resist the spalling
stresses.
4. Check bearing stresses behind the anchorages.
5. Consider the overall equilibrium of the
anchorage zone and provide secondary
reinforcement as required.
Fig. 3.12.9 illustrates the areas to be considered.
See Fig. 3.12.9 for determining tensile bursting and
splitting stresses in anchorage zones. Typical
calculations are given in Example 3-38.
Determination of primary prisms:
The primary prism is the area in a particular plane
where the bursting stresses are greatest. See Fig.
3.12.10 for the distribution in a particular plane.
The depth of the primary prism, d, is taken as the
lesser of:
1. The distance between centrelines of adjacent
anchors.
2. Twice the distance from the centreline of an
anchorage to the edge of the concrete.
The stress distribution on each axis must be
determined when the dimensions of a prism are
different on the two axes, or when the anchorage
plate is rectangular.
Bursting stresses:
Bursting stresses vary with the ratio of a/d as shown
in Fig. 3.12.11. The area under each curve yields the
total bursting force. This may be represented by the
equation:
Z = 0.3 P (1 a/d)
a = width of bearing plate
d = depth of primary prism

Fig. 3.12.9 Splitting stress in anchorage zones
Fig. 3.12.10 Determination of primary prisms

Fig. 3.12.11 Transverse tensile bursting stresses
in anchorage zones
Reinforcement acting at a stress of 0.5 f
y
should be
distributed through the depth of the primary prisms.
Widely spaced anchorages in large concrete sections
or small low stressed anchors in slabs may not
require any bonded reinforcement as the concrete
can resist the tensile forces.
Spiral reinforcement is commonly used for bursting
reinforcement. The reinforcement should be detailed
to allow for proper placement of the concrete.
Spalling reinforcement:
Anchored reinforcement to resist a total transverse
force of 0.04P, acting at a stress of 0.5 f
y
should be
placed in both directions as close to the end face of
the element as possible.
Bearing stresses behind anchors
Proprietary anchorage designs have been developed
to accommodate bearing stresses. Consult with post-
tensioning suppliers for dimensions, capacities,
recommended reinforcing and concrete strengths.
Equilibrium of the anchorage zone:
The overall equilibrium of the anchorage zone should
be verified. The prestress force is further distributed
behind the primary prisms until the stresses become
fully distributed over the entire cross section of the
element. The end zone is shown in Fig. 3.12.12. The
forces acting on opposite faces of the element
produce moment and shear forces on planes parallel
to the longitudinal axis of the element.
Anchored reinforcement should be provided to resist
the moment developed by the force couple given in
Fig. 3.12.13. The reinforcement should be distributed
over a distance of 0.5h from the loaded surface of the
anchorage block or over a distance of 0.25h from the
opposite end of the block.
The area of secondary reinforcement should not be
less than 0.003 of the area of the horizontal cross-
section calculated for the full length of the anchorage
zone.
Checks should be carried out to determine the worst
combination of loads since tendons are stressed
sequentially.
Example 3-38 Anchorage reinforcement design
Given:
A 400 1600 rectangular beam subjected to two
2500 kN post tensioning jacking forces, each on 300
300 anchorage plates.
Problem:
Determine the stresses in the end zone and design
the anchorage reinforcement for anchorages C 1200
mm apart, and C 400 mm apart.
Solution:
Determination of primary prisms:
The primary prisms are determined by comparing, for
each of the horizontal and vertical planes, the lesser
of:
1. The distance between the centrelines of adjacent
anchors, or,

Fig. 3.12.12 Freebody diagram of end zone
Fig. 3.12.13 Equilibrium forces in anchorage zone
2. Twice the distance from the centreline of an
anchor to the edge of concrete.
For case C, in the vertical plane, the depth of the
primary prism may be:
1. d
1
= 1200 mm, or
2. d
2
= (2)(200) 400 mm =
Since d
2
< d
1
, the primary prism in this plane is 400
400.
Similarly, in the horizontal plane, the primary prism is
found to be d = 400 mm, as there are no adjacent
anchors in this plane.
The same procedure for case C also gives a primary
prism of 400 400 400.
Bursting reinforcement, cases C & C:

a
d
=
300
0.75
400
=

o
=
3
P (2500)(10 )
15.6 MPa
(d)(d) (400)(400)
= =
From Fig. 3.12.11:

y
= 0 at 0.25 d = (0.25)(400) = 100 mm from
the bearing plate.
The maximum value of
y
is:

ymax
= (0.12)(15.6) 1.9 MPa =

This value occurs at a distance from the bearing plate
equal to:
0.47 d =(0.47)(400) 188 mm =
The total bursting force:
Z =
a
0.3P 1
d

= (0.3)(2500)(1 0.75) 188 kN =
A
s
=
3
2
y
Z 188 10
940 mm
0.5f (0.5)(400)
= =
For a 10M spiral, 5 turns are required between x =
100 mm and x = 400 mm. Use a 10M spiral with 7
turns at a 50 mm pitch from the anchor plate to x =
400 mm:

y
provided =
s y
A (0.5f )
bd

=
(7)(2)(100)(0.5)(400)
(350)(400)

= 2.0 MPa 1.9 MPa OK >
In this example, the lengths of the primary prisms in
the vertical and horizontal planes are both equal to
400 mm. If they had been different, the longer
dimension would have been used for the length of the
spiral.
Required reinforcement - spalling stresses,
Case C & C:
The spalling force at the end face of the beam:
F
sp
0.04P (0.04)(2500) 100 kN = = =
A
s
3
sp 2
y
F
(100)(10 )
500 mm
0.5f (0.5)(400)
= = =
Case C:
Provide 4 15M distributed evenly in both the vertical
and horizontal planes:
A
s
provided
2
(4)(200) 800 mm 500 OK = = >
Case C:
Provide 4 15M @ 100 mm c/c vertical plane.
Because spalling occurs outside anchors, 4 15M @
100 should be placed in this location.
Required reinforcement - equilibrium:
Case C:
At the horizontal plane of the top anchorage, the out
of balance moment is found as follows:
P
R
=
2Pyb (2)(2500)(200)(400)
625 kN
bh (400)(1600)
= =
M =
R
P (0.5y) (625)(0.5)(200) 63 kN- m = =
At the horizontal plane at the mid depth of the beam:
P
R
=
2Pyb (2)(2500)(800)(400)
2500 kN
bh (400)(1600)
= =
M =
R
0.4P 0.6P +
= (0.4)(2500) (0.6)(2500) 500 kN- m + =
Since the beam is symmetrical about the mid-depth,
the out of balance moment for the bottom anchor is
the same as for the top anchor. The maximum out of
balance moment is 500 kN-m.

F
eq
=
M (2)(500)
625 kN
h/ 2 1.6
= =
Refer to Fig. 3.12.14
A
s
=
3
eq 2
y
F
(625)(10 )
3125 mm
(0.5)(f ) (0.5)(400)
= =
Use 5 double 15M stirrups at 100 mm c/c. A
s
= 4000
mm
2

Case C:
At the horizontal plane of the top anchor:
P
R
=
2Pyb (2)(2500)(600)(400)
1875 kN
bh (400)(1600)
= =
M = 0 (1875)(0.3) 562 kN- m =
At the mid-height of the beam:
P
R
=
2Pyb (2)(2500)(800)(400)
2500 kN
bh (400)(1600)
= =
M =
R
0.2P 0.4P
= (0.2)(2500) (0.4)(2500) 500 kN- m =
The maximum moment is -562 kNm:
F
eq
=
M (2)(563)
704 kN
h/ 2 1.6
= =
A
s
=
3
eq
y
F
704 10
3520 mm
0.5f (0.5)(400)
= =
Provide 5 double 15M stirrups @ 100 mm c/c The
required anchorage zone reinforcement for both
cases C and C is summarized in Fig. 3.12.14. A
s
=
4000 mm
2

Fig. 3.12.14 Anchorage zone reinforcement for Example 3-38

3.13 REFERENCES:
[1] Gergely, P. and Lutz, L.A., Maximum Crack
Width in Reinforced Concrete Flexural
Members, Causes, Mechanism, and Control
of Cracking in Concrete, SP-20, pp. 1-17,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1968
[2] Papers by Nawy, E.G. and Huang, P.T.,
Crack and Deflection Control of Pretensioned
Prestressed Beams, PCI JOURNAL, May-
Jun 1977, pp. 30-47, and Nawy, E.G. and
Chiang, J.Y., Serviceability Behaviour of
Post-Tensioned Beam, PCI JOURNAL, pp.
74-95, Jan-Feb 1980
[3] Neville, A.M., Dilger, W.H., and Brooks, J.J.,
Creep of Plain and Structural Concrete,
Construction Press, London, New York 1983
[4] Dilger, W.H., Creep Analysis of Prestressed
Concrete Members Using Creep-
Transformed Section Properties, PCI
JOURNAL, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 98-118, Jan -
Feb 1982
[5] Suri, V., Dilger, W.H. Crack Width in Partially
Prestressed Members, Journal of the
American Concrete Institute, Sep-Oct 1986.
Note: As the coefficients k
1
have been
established from tests on relatively small
beams, the above value k
1
are somewhat
higher than those listed in the paper.
[6] Hutton, S.G., Loov, R.E., Flexural Behaviour
of Prestressed, Partially Prestressed and
Reinforced Concrete Beams, ACI Journal,
pp. 1401-1410, Dec 1966
[7] Branson, D.E., The Deformation of
Noncomposite and Composite Prestressed
Concrete Members, Deflection of Concrete
Structures, SP-43, American Concrete
Institute
[8] Branson D.E. and Trost H., Application of the
I-Effective Method in Calculating Deflections
of Partially Prestressed Members, PCI.
JOURNAL, Vol. 27, No. 5, pp 62-77, Sept-
Oct 1982
[9] Martin L.D., A Rational Method for Estimating
Camber and Deflection of Precast,
Prestressed Concrete Members, PCI
JOURNAL, Vol. 22, No. 1, Jan-Feb 1977
[10] Shaikh, A.F., and Branson D.E., Non-
tensioned Steel in Prestressed Concrete
Beams, PCI JOURNAL, Feb. 1970
[11] Neville, A.M. Dilger, W.H. Brooks, J.J., Creep
of Plain and Structural Concrete, Longman,
1983
[12] Bazant, Z., Prediction of Concrete Creep
Using Age-Adjusted Effective Modulus
Method, ACI Journal 69, 1972, pp. 212-17
[13] Tadros et al., Prestress Loss and Deflection
of Precast Concrete Members, PCI
JOURNAL, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 114-141, Jan -
Feb 1985
[14] Suri, U.V.M., Service Load Analysis and
Design of Partially Prestressed Members,
Ph.D. Thesis, University of Calgary, May
1986
[15] Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete
Structures, Collins, M. P., Mitchell, D.,
Routledge ; ISBN: 0419249206, 2005
[16] Loov, Robert E. and Patnaik, Anil K.,
Horizontal Shear Strength of Composite
Concrete Beams With a Rough Interface, PCI
JOURNAL, Vol. 39. No. 1, pp. 48-69, Jan-
Feb, 1994
[17] Mattock, Alan H., Anchorage of Stirrups in a
thin Cast-in-Place Topping, PCI JOURNAL,
Vol. 32, No. 6, pp. 70-85, Nov/Dec, 1987
Prestressed Concrete Columns and Walls,
PCI Committee on Prestressed Concrete
Columns, PCI JOURNAL, July - Aug 1988
[19] MacGregor, J.G., Oelhofen, V. and Hage, S.,
A Re-examination of the EI value for Slender
Columns, Draft Paper for ACI Column
Symposium, Ottawa, Canada, 1974
[20] Recommended Practice for Design,
Manufacture and Installation of Prestressed
Concrete Piling, PCI Committee on
Prestressed Concrete Piling, PCI JOURNAL,
Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 14-41, Mar - Apr 1993
[21] Anderson, A.R., and Moustafa, S.E.,
Dynamic Driving Stresses in Prestressed
Concrete Piles, Civil Engineering, ASCE, NY,
Vol. 41, No. 8, pp. 55-58, Aug 1971
[22] Margason, E., and Holloway, D.M., Pile
Bending During Earthquakes, Proceedings of
the Sixth World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, Vol. II, pp. 1690-1695, New
Delhi, India, 1977

[23] Sheppard, D.A., Seismic Design of
Prestressed Concrete Piling, PCI JOURNAL,
Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 20-49, Mar - Apr 1983
[24] Park, R., and Falconer, T.J., Ductility of
Prestressed Concrete Piles Subjected to
Simulated Seismic Loading, PCI JOURNAL,
Vol. 28, No. 5, pp. 112-143, Sep Oct 1983
[25] Pizzano, B. A., Behaviour of Prestressed
Concrete Piles Under Seismic Loading,
MSCE Thesis, University of Washington,
1984
[26] Mast, R.F., Lateral Stability of Long
Prestressed Concrete Beams Part 2, PCI
JOURNAL, Vol. 38, No. 1, pp 70 88, Jan
Feb 1993
[27] LaGue, D.J., Load Distribution Tests on
Precast Prestressed Hollow-Core Slab
Construction, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 16, No. 6,
Nov-Dec 1971
[28] Johnson, T. and Ghadiali, Z., Load
Distribution Test on Precast Hollow-Core
Slabs with Openings, PCI JOURNAL, Vol.
17, No. 5, Sep-Oct 1972
[29] Pfeifer, D.W., and Nelson, T.A., Tests to
Determine the Lateral Distribution of Vertical
Loads in a Long-Span Hollow-Core Floor
Assembly, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 28, No. 6,
Nov-Dec 1983
[30] Lateral Distribution of Loads on Prestressed
Concrete Decks, PCI sponsored research
project at the University of Washington
[31] PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition, 2005
[32] ACI Committee 318, Building Code
Requirements for Structural Concrete, ACI
318-02, and Commentary, ACI 318R-02,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, Ml, 1995
[33] Naaman, A. E., Ultimate Analysis of
Prestressed and Partially Prestressed
Sections by Strain Compatibility, PCI
JOURNAL, Vol. 22, No. 1, Jan - Feb 1977
[34] Noppakunwijai, P., Tadros, M., Ma, Z., and
Mast, R., Strength Design of Pretensioned
Flexural Concrete Members at Prestress
Transfer, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 46, No. 1, Jan
- Feb 2001
[35] Mattock, Alan H., Anchorage of Stirrups in a
Thin Cast-in-Place Topping, PCI JOURNAL,
Vol. 32, No. 6, Nov - Dec 1987
[36] Martin, L., and Korkosz, W., Strength of
Prestressed Concrete Members at Sections
Where Strands Are Not Fully Developed, PCI
JOURNAL, Vol. 40, No. 5, Sept - Oct 1995
[37] Logan, Donald R., Acceptance Criteria for
Bond Quality of Strand for Pretensioned
Prestressed Concrete Applications, PCI
JOURNAL, Vol. 42, No. 2, Mar - Apr 1997
[38] Marshal, W. T., and Mattock, A. H., Control of
Horizontal Cracking in the Ends of
Pretensioned Prestressed Concrete Girders,
PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 7, No. 5, October 1962
[39] Kelly, John B., and Pike, Kenneth J., Design
and Production of Prestressed L-Shaped
Bleacher Seat Units, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 18,
No. 5, Sept - Oct 1973
[40] Shaikh, A. F., Proposed Revisions to Shear-
Friction Provisions, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 23,
No. 2, Mar - Apr 1978
[41] Zia, Paul and McGee, W. D., Torsion Design
of Prestressed Concrete, PCI JOURNAL, Vol.
19, No. 2, Mar - Apr 1974
[42] Zia, Paul and Hsu, T.C., Design for Torsion
and Shear in Prestressed Concrete, Preprint
3424, American Society of Civil Engineers,
October, 1978. Reprinted in revised form in
PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 49, No. 3, May-June
2004
[43] Mirza, S. A., and Furlong, R. W.,
Serviceability Behavior and Failure
Mechanisms of Concrete Inverted T-Beam
Bridge Bentcaps, Journal of the American
Concrete Institute, Vol. 80, No.4, July - Aug
1983
[44] Mirza, S. A., and Furlong, R. W., Strength
Criteria for Concrete Inverted T-Girders,
ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol.
109, No. 8, August 1983
[45] Raths, Charles H., Spandrel Beam Behavior
and Design, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 29, No. 2,
March-April 1984
[46] Klein, G. J., Design of Spandrel Beams,
Research Project No. 5, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, 1986;
Summary Paper in PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 31,
[47] Design and Typical Details of Connections
for Precast and Prestressed Concrete,
Second Edition, MNL-123-88,

Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL, 1988
[48] Mattock, A. H., and Chan, T. C., Design and
Behavior of Dapped-End Beams, PCI
JOURNAL, Vol. 24, No. 6, Nov - Dec 1979
[49] Mattock, A. H., and Theryo, T. S., Strength of
Precast Prestressed Concrete Members with
Dapped Ends, Research Project No. 6,
Chicago, IL, 1986; Summary Paper in PCI
JOURNAL, Vol. 31, No. 5, Sept - Oct 1986
[50] Zia, Paul, Preston, H. K., Scott, N. L, and
Workman, E. B., Estimating Prestress
Losses, Concrete International, Vol. 1, No. 6,
June 1979
[51] Mast, Robert F., Analysis of Cracked
Prestressed Sections: A Practical Approach,
PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 43, No. 4, Jul - Aug
1998
[52] Martin, L. D., A Rational Method for
Estimating Camber and Deflection of Precast
Prestressed Members, PCI JOURNAL, Vol.
22, No. 1, Jan - Feb 1977
[53] Shaikh, A. F., and Branson, D. E., Non-
Tensioned Steel in Prestressed Concrete
Beams, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 15, No. 1,
February 1970
Prestressed Concrete Columns and Walls,
PCI Committee on Prestressed Concrete
Columns, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 33, No. 4, Jul -
Aug 1988
[55] Nathan, Noel D., Rational Analysis and
Design of Prestressed Concrete Beam
Columns and Wall Panels, PCI JOURNAL,
Vol. 30, No. 3, May - June 1985
[56] LaGue, David J., Load Distribution Tests for
Precast Prestressed Hollow-Core Slab
Construction, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 16, No. 6,
Nov - Dec 1971
[57] Johnson, Ted, and Ghadiali, Zohair, Load
Distribution Test on Precast Hollow-Core
Slabs with Openings, PCI JOURNAL, Vol.
17, No. 5, Sept - Oct 1972
[58] Pfeifer, Donald W., and Nelson, Theodore A.,
Tests to Determine the Lateral Distribution of
Vertical Loads in a Long-Span Hollow-Core
Floor Assembly, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 28, No.
6, Nov - Dec 1983
[59] PCI Manual for the Design of Hollow-Core
Slabs, MNL-126-85, Precast/Prestressed
[60] Savage, J. M., Tadros, M. K.,
Arumugasaamy, P., and Fisher, L. G.,
Behavior and Design of Double Tees with
Web Openings, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 41, No.
1, Jan - Feb 1996
[61] Saleh, M. A., Optimization of Prefabricated
Joists, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of
Nebraska-Lincoln, NE, December 1996
[62] Saleh, M. A., Brady, P. A., Einea, A., and
Tadros, M. K., Design and Performance of
Prestressed Precast Reinforced Concrete
Double-Tee Beams with Web Openings, U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, USACERL
Technical Report 97, April 1997
[63] Aswad, Alex and Burnley, George, Point
Load Tests of Double Tee Flanges, PCI
JOURNAL, Vol. 36, No. 4, Jul - Aug 1991
[64] ACI Committe 543, Design, Manufacture and
Installation of Concrete Piles (ACI 543R-00),
Farmington Hills, Ml
[65] Recommended Practice for Design,
Manufacture and Installation of Prestressed
Concrete Piling, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 38, No.
2, Mar - Apr 1993 + Prestressed Concrete
Piling Interaction Diagrams - Available from
Chicago, IL
[66] Bridge Design Manual, Second Edition, MNL-
133-97, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
[67] Wan, B, Harries, K. A., and Petrou, M. F.,
Transfer Length of Strands in Prestressed
Concrete Piles, ACI Structural Journal, Vol.
99, No. 5, Sept - Oct 2002

CHAPTER 4
DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS
4.0 NOTATION...................................................................................................................... 4-2
4.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 4-6
4.2 LOADS, LOAD FACTORS AND RESISTANCE FACTORS ........................................... 4-7
4.3 BEARING PADS.............................................................................................................. 4-7
4.4 FRICTION........................................................................................................................ 4-9
4.5 SHEAR-FRICTION........................................................................................................ 4-10
4.6 CONCRETE BEARING................................................................................................. 4-10
4.6.1 Plain Concrete Bearing..................................................................................... 4-10
4.6.2 Reinforced Concrete Bearing........................................................................... 4-12
4.7 COMPRESSION STRUT AND TIE MODEL ................................................................. 4-13
4.8 CORBELS...................................................................................................................... 4-14
4.8.1 Alternate Method for the Design of Corbels..................................................... 4-16
4.9 DAPPED END CONNECTIONS.................................................................................... 4-18
4.10 BEAM LEDGES............................................................................................................. 4-23
4.11 WELDED HEADED STUDS.......................................................................................... 4-25
4.11.1 Tension............................................................................................................. 4-25
4.11.2 Shear Resistance............................................................................................. 4-34
4.11.3 Interaction of Tension and Shear..................................................................... 4-40
4.12 DEFORMED BAR ANCHORS....................................................................................... 4-46
4.13 STRUCTURAL STEEL BRACKETS ............................................................................. 4-46
4.13.1 Steel Haunches ................................................................................................ 4-46
4.13.2 Cazaly Hanger.................................................................................................. 4-49
4.13.3 Loov Hanger..................................................................................................... 4-50
4.14 CONNECTION ANGLES............................................................................................... 4-52
4.14.1 Triangular Stiffener Design............................................................................... 4-52
4.14.2 Non-Triangular Stiffener Design....................................................................... 4-53
4.15 COLUMN BASE CONNECTIONS................................................................................. 4-54
4.15.1 Base Plates ...................................................................................................... 4-54
4.15.2 Anchor Rods..................................................................................................... 4-56
4.16 WELDING...................................................................................................................... 4-57
4.16.1 Welding of Steel Plates .................................................................................... 4-57
4.16.2 Welding of Reinforcing Bars............................................................................. 4-57
4.17 MOMENT CONNECTIONS........................................................................................... 4-59
4.18 DOWEL CONNECTIONS.............................................................................................. 4-59
4.19 BOLTS AND THREADED CONNECTORS................................................................... 4-60
4.20 CONNECTIONS FOR WALL PANELS ......................................................................... 4-61
4.21 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 4-65

4.0 NOTATION
a = distance from centre of strap to centre of
load
= depth of equivalent concrete stress block
= length of cantilever from applied load to
centre of A
sh
steel
= distance from centre of load to face of
column
= height of stiffener
A = bearing area
= area of gusset
A
1
= loaded area
A
2
= the area of the lower base of the largest
frustum of a pyramid, cone or tapered
wedge contained wholly within the support
and having for its upper base, the loaded
area, and having side slopes of 1 vertical to
2 horizontal

b
A = area of bar or stud

bh
A = the bearing area of the head of the stud or
anchor bolt

cr
A = area of crack face

cv
A = area of concrete section resisting shear
transfer

f
A = area of flexural reinforcement in corbel
= area of gross section
g
A

h
A = area of crack control reinforcement

n
A = area of reinforcement required to resist
axial tension
= tensile stress area of anchor rod
A
N
= projected failure surface area of the anchor
or group of anchors

No
A = projected failure of a single anchor not
affected by edge distance

s
A = effective area of welded reinforcement
nearest to the applied load
= area of reinforcement

s
A = area of vertical reinforcement near end of
steel haunch and welded to the steel
haunch

se
A = effective stress area of anchor

sh
A = area of reinforcement for horizontal or
diagonal cracks, hanger reinforcement

sh
A = diagonal tension reinforcement in re-entrant
corner

v
A = diagonal tension reinforcement in extended
end

vf
A = area of shear friction reinforcement
b = width of corbel
= length of bearing pad perpendicular to span
= effective width
= width of angle
= width of cantilever bar or tube
= average element width
= effective width of compression block
= projection of stiffener
b
1
= width of member
BED = distance from back row of studs to front
edge
c = cover distance to hanger
= cohesion stress
= distance from centre of anchor to the
concrete edge
c
1
= distance from the centre of an anchor to the
concrete edge in one direction. Where
shear force is applied, c
1
is in the direction
of the force.
c
2
= distance to edge of concrete perpendicular
to c
1

c
3
= distance from the centre of an anchor to
the opposite concrete edge from c
1

C
c3
= coefficient for corner influence for a d
e3
type
anchorage
ev1
C = coefficient for in-plane, eccentric shear load
for a type anchorage
e1
d
ev3
C = coefficient for eccentric shear force
influences for a type anchorage
e3
d
= compressive force
f
C
= coefficient for member thickness (h) for
type anchorage
h3
C
e3
d
= coefficient for cracking in a member, loaded
in shear
vcr
C
= coefficient for overall X spacing of a
connection with two or more X rows for a
type anchorage
x1
C
e1
d
type anchorage
x3
C
C
e3
d
= coefficient for overall Y spacing of a
connection with two or more Y rows for a
type anchorage
Y1
e1
d
C.E. = carbon equivalent
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to
centroid of reinforcement
= height of steel section
= bar or stud diameter
b
d
d = distance from side stud to side edge
e1
= distance from side stud to the other side
edge from

e2
d
e1
d
= distance from front stud to front edge
e3
d
= distance from back stud to back edge
e4
d
= outside diameter of anchor, or shaft area of
headed stud, headed anchor, or hooked
bolt
o
d
= effective shear depth, taken as the greater
of 0.9D or 0.72H
v
d
D = diameter of bolt
= distance from extreme compression fibre to
centroid of main reinforcement
= durometer of bearing pad
DBA = deformed bar anchors
e = eccentricity of resultant of vertical loads
from center of embedment length
= eccentricity of load
= distance from the inner surface of the shaft
of a J -bolt or L-bolt to the outer tip of the
bolt
h
e
= distance from centre of bolt to horizontal
reaction
i
e
e
N
= eccentricity of a normal force on a group of
anchors
= eccentricity of shear force on a group of
anchors
v
e
= eccentricity of vertical load
= modulus of elasticity
s
E
= factored bearing stress
bu
f
= specified compressive strength of concrete
c
f
= limiting compressive stress in concrete strut
cu
f
= crushing strength
f
max
= maximum stress
= modulus of rupture of concrete =
r
f
c
0.6 f
= stress at service load
s
f
= specified ultimate tensile strength of steel
used in headed studs
ut
f
= minimum specified yield strength of non
prestressed reinforcement or structural
steel
y
f
t
F
= tension force in longitudinal reinforcement

on flexural tension side of member
= maximum friction force
N
F
= ultimate strength of anchor bolt
u
F
g = width of joint
= distance from centre of bolt to loaded face
of angle
h = height of dap or corbel
= thickness of a concrete member parallel to
the anchor direction
= height of strap
= depth and thickness of steel web
= depth or length of nodal zone
a
h
= effective anchor embedment depth
ef
h
H = overall height of member
I = moment of inertia
= seismic coefficient (see NBCC)
E a a
I F S (0.2)
k = coefficient for factored concrete breakout
resistance in tension
k
cp
= factor for pryout resistance
= length
b
= compressed bearing length
d
= development length of reinforcement
e
= embedment length
hb

= development length of hooked bar
p
= length of bearing
w

= length of weld
= factored moment
f
M
M
r
= factored moment resistance
n = number of threads per inch
= number of anchors
n
x
= number of rows of studs parallel to load
n
y
= number of rows of studs perpendicular to
loads
N = unfactored permanent force perpendicular
to shear plane, positive for compression,
negative for tension
= factored concrete breakout resistance for a
single anchor in cracked concrete
br
N
cbgr
N

= the factored breakout resistance in tension
of a group of anchors
cbr
N = factored breakout resistance in tension of a
single anchor
cpr
N = the factored pullout resistance in tension of
a single anchor
f
N = factored horizontal or axial force
pr
N = factored pullout resistance of a single
anchor in cracked concrete
r
N = factored tension resistance
sbgr
N

= factored side face blowout resistance of a
group of anchors
sbr
N

= factored side face blowout resistance of an
anchor
sf
N = factored sustained load force normal to
friction face
sr
N

= factored tension resistance of anchors
governed by steel strength
N = perpendicular vector component of N
f
P = the pitch of the thread

= factored tension force
f
P
R = resistance modification factor
s = width of hanger steel
= width of strap
= distance from edge to load point
= distance between
s
A and
s
A when placed
symmetrically about centre of embedment
length (if reinforcement is not placed
symmetrically, s equals twice the distance
from centre of embedment to nearest
reinforcement)
s
1
,s
2
= centre to centre of anchors
s
o
= spacing of the outer anchors along the
edge in a group
S = stirrup spacing
= shape factor
SED = side edge distance
t = thickness of bearing pad
= thickness of steel web
= thickness of base plate
= thickness of plate
= thickness of angle
= thickness of stiffener
t
hs
= thickness of head of stud
= effective throat thickness of weld
w
t
T
f
= factored tensile load
T
r
= factored tensile resistance
UDL = uniformly distributed load

f
v = factored shear stress
= shear transmitted by anchor bolt by bearing
on concrete
= factored shear stress resistance of shear
plane
r
v
V
c
= factored shear capacity of embedded steel
haunch connection without additional
reinforcement
= shear resistance attributed to the concrete
factored by
c

V
co1
= concrete breakout strength for a single stud
connection unaffected by connection or
member geometry
V
co3
= concrete breakout strength for a single stud
connection unaffected by connection or
member geometry
V
cp
= factored pryout shear strength
V
f
= factored shear force at section
V
p
= component in the direction of the applied
shear of the effective prestressing force
factored by
p

r
V
= additional factored resistance provided by
reinforcement welded to embedded steel
haunch
s
V
V
sr
= factored shear resistance of anchors
governed by steel strength
V = parallel vector component of V
f
w

= width of bearing pad parallel to span
= dimension (see specific application)
= width of bearing
w
1
= distance from end of beam to assumed
crack plane
x,y = surface dimensions
c
x = distance from centre line of bolt to face of
column
= base plate projection
o
x
= distance from centre line of bolt to centre
line of reinforcement
t
x
x
1
,y
1
= stud spacing
X = overall out to out dimension of outer most
studs in back row of anchorage
(perpendicular to load)
Y = total out to out dimension of outer most
studs (parallel to load)
z = ratio of average stress to maximum stress
= plastic section modulus of structural steel
s
Z
= angle of hanger reinforcement
stress (see chapter 3)
1
= the angle between the shear friction

reinforcement and the shear plane
f
= horizontal deformation of bearing pad

= design horizontal movement at end of
member
= greatest sum of anchor bolt factored forces
on one side of a column
F
= principal tensile strain
1
= strain in tension reinforcement

s
= angle of assumed crack plane or angle of

diagonal compression
= angle of gusset plate

= angle between weld and direction of load
= smallest angle between compressive strut
and adjoining tension ties
s
= angle between strut and tie

= coefficient for use with low density concrete
= shear-friction coefficient

s
= static coefficient of friction

v
= ratio of shear friction reinforcement
= effective normal stress
= concrete strength reduction factor

a
= resistance factor for structural steel, 0.90

ar
= resistance factor for anchor bolts, 0.67

b
= resistance factor for bolts, 0.80

c
= resistance factor for concrete, 0.70 for
precast concrete certified in accordance
with A23.4 and 0.65 for all other concrete

p
= resistance factor for plates when welded to
reinforcing bars, 0.63

s
= resistance factor for reinforcing bars, 0.85

w
= resistance factor for welds
c,N
= modification factor for resistance in tension
to account for cracking
c,P
= modification factor for pullout resistance to
account for cracking
cp,N
= modification factor for concrete breakout
resistance to account for premature splitting
failure
ec,N
to account for anchor groups loaded
eccentrically
ed,N
to account for edge distances smaller than
1.5h
ef

4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter outlines the analysis and design of
precast concrete connections. Design equations have
been developed using structural analysis, laboratory
tests, and field experience. These recommendations
take into consideration current design practices and
are guidelines for the analysis and design of
connections.
Practical and economical connection design should
consider production and construction practice and the
performance of the connections for both serviceability
and ultimate limit states.
Resistance
Connections must resist the applicable forces due to
dead and live loads, wind loads, seismic loads, soil
and water pressures. Forces caused by restraint of
volume changes and forces required to maintain
stability must be considered.
Volume changes are caused by temperature
variations as well as creep and shrinkage of the
concrete.
Connection types can be categorized by the forces
they can resist: compression, tension, flexure, shear
and torsion.
Ductility
The performance of a precast building is greatly
enhanced through the use of ductile connections.
Ductility is defined as the ability to accommodate
large deformations without failure. In structural
materials, ductility is measured by the amount of
deformation that occurs between first yield and
ultimate failure. First yield occurs in the steel
component and final failure may be from rupture of
the steel or by crushing of the concrete.
Volume Change Considerations
Connections restraining movement can cause severe
stresses due to the combined effects of creep and
shrinkage of concrete and temperature variations.
Connections that allow movement will reduce these
stresses. Restraint of volume change movements in
large elements such as double tee slabs welded at
both bearing supports can develop severe stresses in
the members. When long elements are placed on
elastomeric bearing pads and welded only at the top,
volume changes can be adequately accommodated.
Durability
Evidence of poor durability is usually exhibited by
corrosion of exposed steel, or by cracking and
spalling of the concrete. Connections exposed to
weather should be made of, or coated with, corrosion
resistive materials. All exposed connections should
be periodically inspected and maintained.
Fire Resistance
Many precast concrete connections are not
vulnerable to the effects of fire and require no special
treatment. Combustible pads supporting slabs or
double tees do not require fire protection as failure
will not result in collapse. Protection is required for
exposed steel brackets supporting beams, as
collapse may occur when the steel is weakened by
fire. All gravity connections should be assessed for
their fire performance. Fire protection may be
provided by protecting connections with gypsum
wallboard, coating with intumescent mastic or
spraying with fire protective materials.
Production and Erection Considerations
The following items should be considered during the
selection and also the design and detailing of
connections to facilitate efficient manufacturing, safe
and rapid erection:
1. Additional reinforcing around inserts and
embedded plates may cause congestion.
Reinforcing bar bend radii must be considered
when locating connections. If congestion is
suspected, it is helpful to draw large scale
details of the area in question. In some cases, it
may be economical to increase the element size
to avoid congestion. Details such as dapped or
recessed ends should only be used if necessary
as they may require additional reinforcement in
confined areas.
2. Connections that require projections through the
forms can permanently damage steel forms.
Projections should be limited to the top of the
element as cast.
3. Inserts, plates, reglets, etc require additional
plant labour to be located precisely and attached
securely and should be kept to a minimum. It
may be better to drill in connections later if
required.
4. A plant casting operation is most efficient when
precast elements can be taken directly to the
storage area immediately after stripping from the
form. Operations carried out after stripping, such
as welding of projecting hardware should be
avoided whenever possible as these operations
may require additional handling, extra work
space, and added labour.
5. Use recommended industry tolerances for
precast members, as specified in A23.4.
Connections must accommodate the
construction tolerances of supporting members
at the jobsite.
6. Hardware items such as inserts, studs, steel
shapes, etc. should be readily available standard
items. Custom fabricated or very specialized
proprietary items can add cost and cause
delays.
7. Inserts used for lifting should not be confused
with inserts of a lesser capacity used as tiebacks
or for other purposes.
8. Repeat connection details as much as possible,
even if they result in a slight over design.
Repetition will result in improved productivity.
9. The contract should permit the manufacturer to
use alternative methods or materials, provided
the design requirements are met. Allowing
alternate solutions will often result in more
economical and better performing connections.
More flexible connections will often improve the
speed of erection.
10. Connections should be designed so that the
element can be lifted, set, stabilized and
unhooked in the shortest possible time. Some
elements may require some supplemental
shoring, guying, or fastening before the crane
can be unhooked.
11. Field adjustments of the connections are always
necessary. Adjustment in the field can be
accomplished using slots or oversized holes for
bolts and dowels, field welded plates, shims and
grout.
12. Worker safety and access should be considered
when locating connections. Operations that
require working in an overhead position should
be avoided, especially welding. Bolted
connections require room to place wrenches on
nuts and swing them in a large arc.
13. Materials such as grout, dry-pack, cast-in-place
concrete, and epoxies require special cold
weather provisions. Welding is slower when
ambient temperatures are low. Costly delays
may result if connections are designed so that
grouting and/or welding must be completed
before erection can continue.
14. Reinforcing bars, steel plates, dowels, and bolts
that project from precast elements may be
damaged if care is not taken in handling and
shipping. Threads on projecting bolts should be
protected from damage and rust.
4.2 LOADS, LOAD FACTORS AND
RESISTANCE FACTORS
The equations in this section are based on limit states
design. Load factors and resistance factors are
contained in Sect. 8.3 and 8.4 of A23.3 with
c
= 0.70,
as per Clause 16.1.3, for precast concrete elements
To ensure that the overall safety of the connection is
adequate, the use of an additional load factor has
historically been used in the precast industry. The
need and magnitude of additional load factors for a
particular connection must depend on the engineers
judgment.
Flexural elements seated on properly designed
bearing pads should be designed for not only the
vertical load at that joint but also for the horizontal
load imparted to the element as a result of restraint
provided by the bearing pad. This restraint force is
generally small and it is usually sufficient to design for
a horizontal load equal to 0.2 times the factored
vertical load. A higher value is required if the bearing
area of the element is not reinforced.
4.3 BEARING PADS
Bearing pads are used to prevent concrete on
concrete bearing and to distribute vertical loads over
the bearing area.
Some pads also reduce force build-up at the
connection by permitting small displacements and
rotations.
There are several materials commonly available for
use as bearing pads:
1. Commercial grade elastomeric (Neoprene) pads
exhibit wide variations in shear deformation
characteristics and bearing strength. These pads
are not recommended without performance data.
2. Structural grade chloroprene (Neoprene) pads
are those which meet the requirements of CSA
S6 Section 11. These pads should be specified
where uniform bearing is necessary or when it is
desired to reduce volume change restraints. For
high compression stresses and/or large
horizontal displacements, laminated pads
consisting of layers of elastomer bonded
between steel or fiberglass plates can be used.
Each layer behaves in compression like an
individual pad, but the shear deformation is a
function of the thickness of the total assembly.
3. Laminated fabric bearing pads composed of
multiple layers of 190 g/m
2
cotton fabric with a
high quality binder are generally used where a
higher compressive strength is desired. These
pads do not deform as readily as elastomeric
pads, and thus provide less horizontal
movement and rotation than do chloroprene
pads.
Fig. 4.3.1 Single layer bearing pads free to slip

Shape factor = S =
( )
wb
2 w b t +

D = Durometer (Shore A hardness)
= Design horizontal movement at end of member

Pad material
Allowable
(1)
compressi ve
stress (MPa)
Shore A
hardness durometer
(D)
Recommended
minimum thickness
(2)

Recommended
maximum rotation
(2)

Unreinforced
chloroprene or
rubber
DS
5.5
36

50 through 70 1.4
0.3t
b or w

Random fiber
reinforced
elastometric
7 + 0.7S 10.3 80 10 1.4
0.3t
b or w

Cotton duck fabric
reinforced
17 (uniform)
27 (nonuniform)
(3)
90 10 2.0
0.12t
b or w

Note:
(1) Allowable compressive stresses may be increased based on test data supplied by the bearing pad manufacturer.
(2) The values in the table are based on sliding criteria. If sliding is not critical or testing indicates more advantageous conditions, thinner
pads may be used. The minimum thickness and maximum rotation values for the cotton duck pad account for the effects of creep.
(3) See PCI Design Handbook, 6
th
Edition.
Fig. 4.3.2 Shear resistance of bearing pads
4. Pads reinforced with randomly oriented fibres
have been used successfully in recent years.
Vertical load capacity is higher than plain
chloroprene pads, but rotation and horizontal
movements are lower than chloroprene pads. No
national standard specifications are available for
this material.
5. Tetrafluorethylene (TFE, trade name Teflon)
sliding bearing pads reduce horizontal stresses
because of their low coefficient of friction. The
TFE is normally bonded to a backing material,
such as steel or chloroprene pads. These
bearing pads are usually used at expansion
joints. Fig. 4.3.3 shows a typical bearing detail
using TFE, and Fig. 4.3.4 shows the range of
friction coefficients that may be used for design.
6. A multi-polymer plastic bearing strip is manufactured
expressly for the bearing support of hollow-core
slabs, and is highly suitable for this application.
The material has a compressive strength higher
than the typical design range of concrete used in
precast construction.
7. For interior applications tempered hardboard
strips are sometimes used with hollow core
slabs to prevent concrete to concrete bearing.
Hardboard can stain concrete surfaces and
should not be used in moist conditions.
Fig. 4.3.3 Typical TFE bearing pad detail

Fig. 4.3.4 TFE friction coefficients
Design Recommendations
Research [1] has shown that most of the stress-
relieving characteristics of elastomeric bearing pads
are due to slippage instead of pad deformation. The
following recommendations should be followed, along
with Figs. 4.3.1 and 4.3.2, when selecting bearing pads:
1. All design loads should be service loads. Use actual
contact area as bearing area for design calculations.
2. At the maximum allowable compressive stress
shown in Fig. 4.3.2, 10% to 20% instantaneous
strain can be expected. Non-parallel bearing
surfaces may double the strain. Long-term creep
of the bearing material may add another 100% if
the sustained dead load is very high.
3. The length and width should be at least five
times the thickness to achieve adequate stability
in unreinforced pads. The shape factor, S, for
unreinforced pads should be greater than 2 for
double tee webs and greater than 3 for beam
seats.
4. Bearing pads for double tee webs should be at
least 10 mm thick. For beam seats, a minimum
thickness of 12 mm should be used.
5. The sustained dead load on chloroprene pads
should be in the range of 2 to 3.5 MPa. If there is
insufficient load on these pads, they tend to walk
out from under the beam.
4.4 FRICTION
The coefficients of static friction,
s
, shown in Fig.
4.4.1 are conservative values for use in determining
the upper limit of volume change forces for elements
without hard connections. The maximum friction
force can be determined by:
F
N
s sf
N =
Fig. 4.4.1 Coefficients of static friction of dry
materials,
s
Material
s

Elastomeric to steel or concrete 0.7
Laminated cotton fabric to concrete 0.6
Concrete to concrete 0.8
Steel to steel (not rusted) 0.25
Concrete to steel 0.4
Hardboard to concrete 0.5
Multipolymer plastic (non-skid) to concrete 1.2
(1)

Multipolymer plastic (smooth) to concrete 0.4
(1)

(1)
Courtesy Koro Corp.

Fig. 4.5.1 Values for c and

Crack Interface Condition c (MPa)
Concrete placed against
hardened concrete with surface
clean but not intentionally
roughened
0.6 0.25
Concrete placed against
hardened concrete with surface
clean and intentionally roughened
to an amplitude of 5 mm
1.0 0.5
Concrete placed monolithically 1.4 1.0
Concrete anchored to as-rolled
steel by headed studs or
reinforcing bars
0.6 0.0
4.5 SHEAR-FRICTION
The shear-friction theory described in A23.3 Clause
11.5 is applicable to situations where it is
inappropriate to assume shear stresses are uniformly
distributed over the depth of an element. Cracks are
assumed to occur at planes located in the most
critical locations. Shear transfer across this plane is
achieved by placing reinforcement across the
assumed crack, such that if the portions of concrete
on each side of the crack were to move relative to
one another, a tensile strain would be created in the
reinforcement. This in turn creates a force normal to
the shear plane. The shear resistance is provided by
the friction at the crack interface increased by the
effects of the normal force. Reinforcement inclined at
an angle greater than 90 degrees to the assumed
crack plane should not be included as shear friction
reinforcing.
Where an area of shear-friction reinforcement, A
vf
, is
placed across the shear plane, the factored resisting
shear stress, v
r
is calculated by:
v
r

c s v y
(c ) f cos = + +
f
The term shall not exceed
c
(c ) +
c c
0.25 f .
Values of c and are shown in Fig. 4.5.1.
The ratio of shear friction reinforcement,
v
,

is:

v

vf
cv
A

A
=
The effective normal stress, , is calculated by:

v y f
g
N
f sin
A
= +
If N is independent of the shear, for example under a
shear wall, its load factors should be as per the load
combinations in the NBCC. If N is just a component
of the shear across an inclined crack plane, then N
would have the same load factors as the shear force.
Any tension acting across the shear plane should be
resisted by an additional amount of reinforcement
computed by:
A
n
f
s y
N

f
=

When reinforcement, A
n
, is added for tension, N
f
,
across the shear plane, the force, N, becomes zero.
The shear friction reinforcement, A
vf
, on both sides of
the assumed crack plane should be properly
anchored by development length by welding to
angles or by welding to plates that are further
anchored by headed studs or welded reinforcing. If
the normal force, N
f
, goes directly into a plate or
angle, the A
n
reinforcement need only be anchored
on the side of the crack opposite the load.
4.6 CONCRETE BEARING
It is recommended that reinforcement be provided in
all bearing areas except where calculations show that
the stresses on the unreinforced concrete areas are
within acceptable limits.
Some commonly encountered situations where these
conditions may occur are as follows:
1. horizontal joints between wall panels
2. uniform bearing of hollow core, non-dapped flat
slabs and non-dapped stair units
3. footings where the bearing is away from any
edge
4. tops of walls and columns where the precast is
bearing near the centre and the load is relatively
small
4.6.1 Plain Concrete Bearing
The design strength of plain concrete bearing may be
calculated as:

r
V
2
c r c 1 c c 1
1
A
C (0.85f A ) 2(0.85 f A )
A
=
Note:
c
= 0.65 when bearing on cast-in-place
concrete.
c
= 0.70 when bearing on precast concrete
C

f
f
N
V sw

129000

=

The product of s and w should not be taken greater
than 5800 mm.

Fig. 4.6.1 Bearing on plain concrete
Example 4.1 Plain concrete bearing of a flat slab
Given:
Flat slab 1200 mm wide x 200 mm thick x 8 m long
carries a factored UDL of 16 kN/m, including its self
weight

= 35 MPa, normal density

c
f
Two elastomeric bearing pads, 50 mm x 300 mm, are
located one at each end, centered 50 mm from the
end of the slab.
Problem:
Determine if reinforcement is required at the end of
the element.
Solution:

f
V
(16)(8)
32 kN
(2)(2)
= =
As this area has no ductility, an additional load factor
of 1.3 will be used.
= (
f
V 1.3)(32) 41.6 kN =
If there was reinforcement, a crack in the bearing
area would relieve the restraint force without resulting
in a failure. In that case, a horizontal force equal to
0.2 times the factored vertical load would be
reasonable. In this case, a crack will result in a
structural failure, so a conservative upper limit value
should be used. In this case, choose 0.7 from Fig
4.4.1.

f
N (0.7)(41.6) 29.1 kN = =
An alternate method to determine N
f
would be to do a
volume change analysis as described in Chapter 2.
The bearing area is:

1
A =
2
(50)(300) 15000 mm =

2
A = (50 25 25)(300 25 25) + + + +
=
2
35000 mm
sw =
2
(50)(50) 2500 mm <5800 =
=
r
C
0.7
2500
0.0633
129000

=

=
r
V
35000
(0.70)(0.0633)(0.85)(35)(15000)
15000

= 30.2 kN <41.6
Reinforcement will be required.
However, if it is determined that:
=
f
N (0.40)(41.6) 16.6 kN =
=
r
C
0.4
2500
0.207
129000

=

=
r
V
35000
(0.7)(0.207)(0.85)(35)(15000)
15000

= 98.8 kN >41.6
Reinforcement will not be required.
Alternatively, if the pad is flush with the end of the
slab:
sw
2
(25)(50) 1250 mm = =

1
A
2
A =

r
C
0.4
1250
0.157
129000

= =

r
V
15000
(0.70)(0.157)(0.85)(35)(15000)
15000
=
49.0 kN >41.6 =
Reinforcement is not required.
Note that this analysis is very sensitive to the value of
N
f
used.
Also note that in all cases, V
r
should be checked to
ensure it is less than .
c c 1
2(0.85 f A )

3
(2)(0.85)(0.70)(35)(15000)/10
625 kN OK
=
=
4.6.2 Reinforced Concrete Bearing
Bearing reinforcement can be designed using shear
friction as discussed in Sect. 4.5. Referring to Fig.
4.6.2, the reinforcement A
vf
+A
n
, across the assumed
crack plane is required to resist the tension force, N
f
,
directly and the shear force, V
f
, by shear friction.
Design of the reinforcement for concrete bearing
using shear friction is shown in Example 4.2.
The vertical reinforcement, A
sh
, across potential
horizontal cracks can be calculated by:

sh
A =
y vf n
cr
y c
f (A A )
1
cA
f
+

Example 4.2 Reinforced bearing for a
rectangular beam
Given:
Rectangular beam 400 mm wide 700 mm deep
8 m long carries a factored UDL of 120 kN/m,
including self weight
= 400 MPa
y
f

c
f
Fig. 4.6.2 Reinforced concrete bearing
Bearing pad = 100 mm x 350 mm, 75 mm from the
end of beam to edge of pad
Problem:
Determine reinforcement required at the end of the
element.
Solution:
V
f
= (120)(8)/2 = 480 kN
N
f
= (0.2)(480) = 96 kN
Break V
f
into its vector components, parallel and
perpendicular to the cracked surface V and N
respectively. The crack angle is assumed to be . 20
V = (480) cos = 451 kN 20
N = (480) sin = 164 kN 20
The area of the cracked surface A
cr
is:
A
c
=
1
bw / sin20
=
2
(400)(175)/ sin20 205000mm =
Therefore the shear stress to be resisted is:

f
v = 451000 / 205000
= 2.2 MPa
Because the reinforcement is not perpendicular to the
crack plane, the required steel will be determined by:
v
r
=
c s v y
(c ) f cos
f
+ +
where
f
is the angle between the shear friction
reinforcement and the shear plane.
Substituting for the normal stress gives:

r c v y f s v y f
g
N
v c f sin f co
A

= + + +

s
Note: A
g
= A
cr
= A
cv
Setting v
r
= gives:
f
v
o
V
451000 164
(1.0)(0.70) 1.0 1.4 (400)sin70
205000 205

= + +

c

o
v
(0.85) (400)cos70 +
Solving for the required
v
gives:

v
= 0.00148
Check that :
c c
(c ) 0.25 f +
c
(c )
164
(1.0)(0.70) 1.0 1.4 (0.00148)(400)sin70
205
+ =

+

+

c c
2.03 MPa <0.25 f 6.13 MPa OK = =
The steel required is:
A
vf
= (0.00148)(205000) = 303 mm
2

The additional steel required for the horizontal
tension force is:
A
n

2 f
s y
N 96000
282mm
f (0.85)(400)
= = =

The total amount of reinforcement required is:
A
vf
+ A
n
= 303 + 282 = 585 mm
2

Use 2-20M bars (A
s
= 600 mm
2
) welded to a 175
plate.
The vertical reinforcement across the potential
horizontal crack can be calculated by:
A
sh
=
y vf n
cr
y c
f (A A )
1
cA
f
+

A
cr
=

d 1
( w ) + b
= (487 175)(400) +

=

2
265000 mm

A
sh
=
+

1 (400)(303 282)
(400)(1.4) (0.70)

2
(1.0)(265000) 124 mm

One 10M stirrup can be used at the end of the beam.
In lieu of 20M bars welded to a plate, 15M hairpins
can be used.
From A23.3 Clause 12.5:

hb
=
(100)(15)
254mm
35
=
available
= 175 40 (cover) = 135 mm
For 3-15M hairpins:
A
s
provided
2
135
(3)(2)(200) 638mm 585
254
= = >
4.7 COMPRESSION STRUT AND TIE
MODEL
The strut and tie model described in A23.3 Clause
11.4 utilizes truss models together with concepts from
the Compression Field Theory to determine the
crushing resistance of the struts.
The geometry of the truss model, that consists of
concrete compression struts and reinforcing tension
ties, is determined by following the flow of forces from
the support reaction into the body of the supported
element. Once the geometry of the truss is known,
the forces in the struts and ties are determined by
statics.
The intersection of compressive struts with tension
ties or support reactions delineates the nodal zones
of multidirectionally compressed concrete. Unless
special confinement reinforcement is provided, the
concrete compressive stresses in the nodal zones
should not exceed the following limits:
1. 0.85
c
c
f in nodal zones bounded by
compression struts and bearing areas.
2. 0.75
c
c
f in nodal zones anchoring only one
tension tie.
3. 0.65
c
c
f in nodal zones anchoring tension ties
in more than one direction.
The stress in a compression strut is determined by
dividing the strut force by the cross sectional area of
the strut and must be less than the crushing limit, f
cu
.
If a compressive strut is intersected by a tension tie,
then f
cu
must be reduced to account for the presence
of the principal tensile strain
1
. This principal tensile
strain may be determined from strain compatibility by
conservatively assuming that the strain,
s
, in a
tension tie is f
y
/ E
s
, as follows:

1

2
s s
( 0.002)cot
s
= + +
where
s
is the angle between the tie and the strut.
The crushing strength, f
cu
, accounting for the
reduction of strength due to the presence of the
principal tensile strain,
1
is:
f
cu

c
c
1
f
0.85f
0.8 170
=
+

Reducing
s
results in lower values of the crushing
strength, f
cu
.
Fig. 4.8.1 Corbel example
The tension tie reinforcement should be distributed
over and anchored in an area of concrete at least
equal to the tensile tie force divided by the stress limit
previously stated for compressive stresses in the
nodal zone. This area of concrete may be assumed
to be the area of concrete surrounding the tension tie
reinforcement and having the same centroid as that
reinforcement.
4.8 CORBELS
Concrete corbels must be designed in accordance
with the provisions of A23.3 Clause 11.6. The strut
and tie models as described in Sect. 4.7 can apply to
the design of corbels and are illustrated by the
following example:
Example 4.3 Design of a corbel
Given:
A 600 mm 600 mm column supports a beam with a
factored vertical load of 1000 kN
c
f
= 400 MPa, weldable
y
f
Problem:
Determine the corbel size and reinforcement required
to support the load.
Solution:
The forces in the truss members and the reactions
are determined from statics and are summarized
below:
V
f
= 1000 kN
N
f
= 0.2 V
f
= (0.2)(1000) = 200 kN
Corbel dimensions:
Reaction A
x
A
y
D
Force (kN)
219 819 1819
Choose an overall corbel depth of 600 mm and a
bearing pad size of 500 x 125 x 12. The depth of the
corbel at the outside edge of the bearing pad should
be at least 300 mm. The details of the corbel are

Member CB BD CD BA DA
Force (kN)
-669 +1057 +1097 -819 -219
Design of tension ties:
Strut and tie model:
The reinforcement required in tie CB is:
A
s
=
2
669000
1968mm
(0.85)(400)
=
The assumed compression strut, tension tie and
nodal zone model for the corbel is shown in Fig.
4.8.2(a). The truss model is shown in Fig. 4.8.2(b).
The minimum area required for the primary
reinforcement is: Nodes are located at the intersections of the centre
lines of tension ties and compression struts.
A
s,min
=
c
y
f
0.04 bd 0.002bh
f

To determine the location of node D, take the sum of
the moments about A for the first equation and use
the stress limit at D for the second: =
(35)
(0.04) (600)(550)
(400)

a
(1000)(693) (200)(600) D 600 70
2

+ =

=
2
1155mm
(0.002)(600)(600) =
2
720mm
a =
3
D(10 )
(0.75)(0.70)(35)(600)

In lieu of using A
s
,
min
one third more A
s
steel can be
used per A23.3 Clause 10.5.1.3.
Solving these equations:
For A
s
= 1968 mm
2
a = 166 mm
Use 4 25M bars (A
s
= 2000 mm
2
)
D = 1819 kN
Fig. 4.8.2 Strut-and-tie model for corbel example

The vertical reinforcement for the column should be
checked for the BA tie force, and if necessary the
25M reinforcement should be extended beyond a
standard hook length to develop this force.
The reinforcement required for tension tie DA is:
A
s
=
2
219000
644mm
(0.85)(400)
=
Use an additional 4 10M column ties at location DA.
Additional ties with an area equal to one half the
primary reinforcement area must be placed within
two-thirds the effective depth adjacent to A
s
:
Tie area
2
1968
984 mm
2
= =
Use 5-10M ties, A
s
= (5)(2)(100) = 1000 mm
2
, within
360 mm of top of corbel.
Check compression struts:
The stress limits for the struts are governed by the
nodal limits. Therefore, f
cu
is not reached.
The nodal limit at D was used to get the geometry, so
there is no need to check it.
Design of nodal zones:
Reinforcement at nodes A, B, C, and D is anchored
around the column reinforcement. Check the anchorage
conditions at the ends of the compression strut in
accordance with A23.3, Clause 11.4.3.2.
The primary reinforcement will engage an area of
concrete six times its diameter, as shown in A23.3

Fig. 4.8.3 Reinforcement for corbel example
Fig. 11.3(a). The stress over this area of concrete
must be less than the stress limits in the node
regions.
To satisfy the stress limits of node C the tension tie
requires a depth of concrete equal to:
669000
61mm
(0.75)(0.70)(35)(600)
=
This depth is available.
The other nodes are shown in Fig. 4.8.4.
The reinforcement configuration is shown in Fig.
4.8.3.
Fig 4.8.4 Anchorage check example

4.8.1 Alternate Method for the Design of
Corbels
A23.3 Clause 11.1.5 allows alternate methods to be
used for shear design.
PCI has published several reports on an alternate
design methodology. [2][3] The equations in this
section follow these recommendations and are
subject to the following limitations:
1. a/d 1
2. N
f
V
f

3. Anchorage at the front face must develop the
necessary reinforcement.
4. Concentrated loads on continuous corbels may
be distributed similar to a beam ledge.
The primary tension reinforcement, A
s
, is the greater
of the shear friction reinforcement or A
f
+ A
n
(Fig.
4.8.5).
A
f
=
f f
s y
V a N (h d)
f d
+

A
n
=
f
s y
N
f

For convenience, this equation can be rewritten so
that A
s
is equal to:
A
s
=
f f
s y
1 a h
V N
f d d
( | | | |
+
| | (
\ . \ .

The minimum required tension steel is:
A
s,min
=
c
y
f
0.04 bd
f

In lieu of using A
s
,
min
one third more steel can be
used per A23.3 Clause 10.5.1.3.
Crack control reinforcement should be added:
A
h
0.5(A
s
A
n
)
A
h
should be distributed within the upper
2
h.
3

The shear strength of a corbel is limited by the
maximum value given for shear friction across the
crack plane.
Fig. 4.8.5 Design of concrete corbels
Example 4.4 Design of a corbel using the
alternative method
Problem:
Redesign the corbel in the strut and tie model using
the cantilever beam design method. Use the same
loads and geometry as Example 4.3. See Fig. 4.8.1.
Check the suitability of this method using A23.3,
Clauses 11.6.2, 11.6.3 and 11.6.4.

a
d
=
165
0.303
545
= < 1.0 OK

h
2
= 300 depth of face OK
N
f
=

200 kN < V
f
=1000 kN OK
Check maximum V
r
of corbel:
From shear friction:
v
r
=
c
(c +) +
s
v

f
cos( )
where
c
(c+ ) 0.25
c

c
f
Since
f
= 90, the equation reduces to:
v
r
=
c
(c+ )
v
r,max
= 0.25
c
f
c
= (0.25)(0.70)(35) =6.13 MPa
V
r,max
= v
r,max
A
cr
= (6.13)(600)(600)(10
-3
)
= 2207 kN > V
f
OK
Design primary tension reinforcement:
(a) A
s
=
r n
A A + =
f f
s y
V a N (h d)
f d
+
+
f
s y
N
f

Note: Since the location of V
f
is sensitive to erection
tolerances, a 1.3 factor will be applied to V
f
.
A
f
=
3
(1.3)(1000)(165)+(200)(600-545)
10
(0.85)(400)(545)

=
2
1217 mm
A
s
=
2
1217 588 1805 mm + =
or:
(b) A
s
= 2/3
vf n
A A +

V
r
= [
c
(c ) + ]A
cr

=
c v y f
g
N
c f sin
A

+ +

cr
A
Note: Since reinforcement, A
n
, for the horizontal force
is added to the shear friction reinforcement, N =0 for
calculation of V
r
.
V
r
= V
f
=
c
(cA
cr
+A
vf
f
y
)
=
cr vf y
(1.0)(0.70) (1.0)A (1.4)A f +

A
vf
=
f c
y
V -0.70A
0.98f
r

=
3
(1000)(10 ) (0.70)(600)(600)
(0.98)(400)

= 1908 mm
2
A
s
= + =
2
(2/3)(1908) 588 1860mm
The area of primary tension reinforcement shall be
the greater of (a) or (b) above. Therefore, as 1860 >
1805, provide A
s
>1860 mm
2
Check A
s, min
from A23.3 Clause 11.6.6

s
A
bd

c
y
f
0.04
f

A
s,min
=
35
(0.04) (600)(545)
400

= 1145 mm
2
<1860 mm
2

Provide 4 25M (A
s
= 2000 mm
2
)
Check the remaining detailing requirements of A23.3,
Clause 11.6.
Clause 11.6.5
Add closed stirrups within 2/3 of depth d, adjacent to
A
s
.

h
A

= A
s
/2 = 1860/2 = 930 mm
2

2
d
3
=
2
(545) 363 mm
3
=
Add 5 10M ties within 360 mm of A
s
Clauses 11.6.7 and 11.6.8
Anchor primary tensile tie reinforcement at front face
of corbel. Check that bearing area does not project
beyond interior face of anchor.
In this example, the only difference between the strut
and tie method and the cantilever beam method is
that the strut and tie method requires a tension tie at
the base of the corbel. Note that the empirical
cantilever method has been tested. [2] [3]
4.9 DAPPED END CONNECTIONS
Dapped end connections may be designed by the
strut and tie model as per A23.3, Clause 11.4.
Example 4.5 400 mm wide beam with a dapped
end as shown in Fig. 4.9.1
Given:
V
f
= 400 kN
N
f
= (0.2)(400) = 80 kN
f
c
f
y
= 400 MPa weldable
Solution:
Assume a 375 mm long steel angle is used at the
support.
The required bearing length
3
f
c c
V (400)(10 )
58 mm
0.75 f b (0.75)(0.70)(35)(375)
= = =

Use a 100 x 150 x 10 mm steel angle, so that the pad is
not partially bearing on the concrete.
Locate a 300 x 100 x 12 mm pad centered 95 mm
from the beam end.
Strut and tie model:
The tension tie, compression strut and nodal zone
model is shown in Figs. 4.9.2 and 4.9.3.
The corresponding line drawing of the truss is shown
in Fig. 4.9.4. The truss can be determined in the
following manner:
Node A located at intersection of reaction force and
tension tie bars (20M bars assumed)
Node B located at intersection of tension hanger
bars and top longitudinal bars (15M bars
assumed)
Node C located at intersection of tension hanger
and bottom longitudinal bars (30M bars
assumed)
Node D taken to be d
v
/2(tan) from edge of tension
hanger so that strut CD can represent the
fan
Node E located at intersection of tension tie and
strut CD to represent the anchor for this
tension tie
Node F located directly below node D so that tie DF
can represent the stirrups within the fan
length d
v
/tan
The vertical loads on B and D are equal to the portion
of the uniform distributed load centered on each
node.
Fig. 4.9.1 Dapped end connection example
Fig. 4.9.2 Strut- and-tie model for dapped end connection
Fig. 4.9.3 End detail of strut-and-tie model for dapped end connection example
The forces in the truss members can be determined
by statics and are:
Member AB AE DE DB CE CB CF BE DF
Force
(kN)
+505 -388 +502 +137 +780 -488 -609 +244 -221
Note: Positive is compression and negative is tension.
Tie AE:
A
s
=
388000
(0.85)(400)
=1141 mm
2
Use 4 - 20M bars (weldable).
A
s
= (4)(300) =1200 mm
2

Hanger CB:
A
s
=
488000
(0.85)(400)
=1435 mm
2
Use 4 - 15M closed stirrups.
A
s
= (4)(2)(200) =1600 mm
2

Tie CF:
A
s
=
609000
(0.85)(400)
= 1791 mm
2
Fig. 4.9.4 Truss idealization for dapped end connection example

Area of 530M bars is sufficient but anchorage must
be checked.
Tie DF:
A
s

2
221000
650mm
(0.85)(400)
= =
The 4 10M U-stirrups in the fan region are
sufficient.
Check compressive stresses in the nodal zones:
At nodal zone A, the required depth of the nodal
zone:
h
a
=
388000 80000
45mm
(0.75)(0.70)(35)(375)
=

Therefore, 100 mm provided by the steel angle is
adequate.
At nodal zone B, because of a concern about spalling
of the concrete cover, neglect the concrete outside
the anchoring tension tie reinforcement.
The required length of the nodal zone:
h
a
=
505000
86mm
(0.75)(0.70)(35)(320)
=

A spacing of 60 mm between the 4 15M closed
stirrups will provide a nodal zone length of (3)(60) +
16 = 196 mm (conservative).
Nodal zone C anchors two tension ties. Hence,
required length:
h
a
=
505000
99mm
(0.65)(0.70)(35)(320)
=

Thus, 196 mm is still OK.
Required height of nodal zone C:
=
609000
120mm
(0.65)(0.70)(35)(320)
=
For this nodal zone height, provide 3 15M
horizontal U-bars at 50 mm spacing above the layer
of 30M bars.
Also, check the anchorage of tension tie CF in nodal
zone C.
As the 30M bars emerge from nodal zone C, they can
resist a tensile force of approximately:
=
t
F
s s y
d
196 A f

= =
3
(196)(0.85)(3500)(400)/(10 )
256kN
910

The 3 15M U-bars will be capable of resisting a
tension force of (0.85)(3)(2)(200)(400)/10
3
= 408 kN.
Hence, the total tensile resistance at face of nodal
zone = 256 + 408 = 664 kN
As 664 kN > 609 kN, anchorage is OK
To obtain the proper lap length, extend the 15M bars
at least
d
(370 mm) beyond the nodal zone and far
enough for the 5 30M bars to be capable of carrying
the 609 kN tie force on their own (i.e., 470+370 =840
mm from the end of the 30M bars).
Although the addition of the 15M U-bars will raise the

location of node C somewhat, this secondary effect
will be neglected.
Fig. 4.9.5 Nodal zone B

As the compressive strut CE-DE represents a fan
shaped region of radiating struts, and as the nodal
zone stresses at the base of the fan, that are at their
highest level, have already been checked, further
checks are not required.
Check compressive stress limit in the struts that meet
at node B (Fig. 4.9.5).
If this nodal zone is to be in equilibrium under a
hydrostatic stress condition, the length of the faces
of the nodal zone must be proportional to the loads
applied to these faces, and the faces must be
perpendicular to the loads. Hence, width of strut AB
at nodal zone B:
h
a
=
(505)(196)
172 mm
488 86
=
+

Thus, stress in strut (again neglecting cover):
=
505000
9.18 MPa
(172)(320)
=
As this strut is crossed by tension tie CB, its diagonal
crushing strength will be reduced.
The average tensile strain in tension tie CB can be
estimated as:

s
=
3
505000
0.00186
(8)(200)(0.85)(200)(10 )
=
The average strain will actually be somewhat smaller
than this due to tension stiffening effects.
The strain
1
perpendicular to the strut is:

1
=
s
s
2
s
0.002
tan
+
+

=
2 o
0.00186 0.002
0.00186 0.00818
tan 38
+
+ =

Diagonal crushing strength is:
f
cu
=
c
c
1
f
0.85f
0.8 170

+

=
35
0.8 (170)(0.00818) +

= 16.0 MPa (0.85)(35) 29.8 =
Since
cu
f 9.18 MPa, compressive stress in strut is
OK.
As the other struts meeting at node B will have the
same compressive stress but smaller values of
1
,
they will not be critical.
To improve crack control and ductility, provide a
minimum area of horizontal reinforcement parallel to
the primary tensile tie reinforcement in the region
above the support. If the dapped end is treated as a
bracket, the required area of such additional
reinforcement would be:
A
h
= 0.5 A
s
= (0.5)(1141) = 571 mm
2

Use 2 15M horizontal U-bars distributed over 2/3 of
the effective depth. Extend these bars
d
beyond the
anchor point.
To improve the support conditions for the highly
stressed compressive strut AB, use two 15M top
longitudinal bars in the region of node B. The final
details of the dap ended beam are shown in Fig.
4.9.6.
Example 4.6 Alternative method for design of
dapped end connections
A simpler calculation, based on statics, may be used
as an alternate method. It is not dependent upon
modeling assumptions (Fig. 4.9.7).
A
sh
=
2 f
s y
V 400000
1176 mm
f (0.85)(400)
= =

Use 3 15M closed stirrups
A
f
+ A
n
=
f f
s y
1 a h
V (1.3) N
f d d

+

Fig. 4.9.6 Reinforcement requirements for dapped end connection example

=
3 3
1 213 400
(400)(10 )(1.3) (80)(10 )
(0.85)(400) 375 375
( | | | |
+
| | (
\ . \ .

= 1120 mm
2

A 1.3 factor is used with V
f
since the force is sensitive
to misalignment of bearing pads.
Check shear friction:
A
cr
=

2
(400)(400) 160000 mm =
V
f
=

c c
400000
2.5 MPa 0.25 f 6.12
160000
= < =
v
r
=

c v y
(c f ) +
2.5 =
v
(0.7)(1 (1.4) (400)) +

v
= 0.00459
The steel required is:
A
vf
= =
2
(0.00459)(160000) 734 mm

The additional steel required for the horizontal
tension force is:
A
n
=
2
80000
235 mm
(0.85)(400)
=
2/3 A
vf
+ A
n
= (2/3)734 + 235
= 724 mm
2
< 1120 mm
2
Therefore, 1120 mm
2
governs: use 420M bars
welded to plate.
Crack Control Reinforcement.
A
h
= 0.5 (A
s
A
n
)
=
f
s y
a 1
0.5V (1.3)
d f
| |
| |
|
|
|
\ .
\ .

=
213 1
(0.5)(400)(1.3) (1000)
375 (0.85)(400)
( | |
| (
\ .

= 434 mm
2
Use 2 15M U bars.
Diagonal tension in the reentrant corner:

sh
A = A
sh

= 1176 mm
2
use 3 15M U bars.
Diagonal tension in extended end:
A
v,min
=
f
c y
1
(V bdc)
2 f

=
3
1
(400)(10 ) (400)(375)(1)
(2)(0.7)(400)
(

= 446 mm
2

Use 210M stirrups in dap plus 2 10M framing bars.

Fig. 4.9.7 Alternate method to design dapped end connections
4.10 BEAM LEDGES
The compression strut and tie model can be used in
the design of continuous beam ledges supporting
concentrated or uniformly distributed loads. The
truss model is very similar to the model used in
dapped end connection design.
Example 4.7 Design of a reinforced beam ledge
for a double tee leg
Given:
A 125 mm wide double tee leg is resting on a
L-beam as shown in Fig. 4.10.1.
V
f
= 100 kN
N
f
= 20 kN

c
f = 35 MPa

y
f

= 400 MPa
The flow of compressive stresses is shown in Fig.
4.10.2. The strut and the tie model is shown in Fig.
4.10.3.
Summing moments about C:
DB =
(100)(135 510)
126 kN tension
510
+
=
Fig. 4.10.1 Beam ledge design example

Summing vertical forces at A:
AB
v
= 100 kN
AB
h
=
(135)(100)
64 kN
(210)
=
AB =
2 2
100 64 119 kN + = compression
Fig. 4.10.2 Flow of compressive stresses for
beam ledge design example
Summing horizontal forces at A:
AC = 20 + 64 = 84 kN tension
The reinforcement area required for tension tie AC
is:
A
s
=
2
84000
247mm
(0.85)(400)
=
Use 3 10M stirrups.
The reinforcement area required for tension tie DB
is:
A
s
=
2
126000
371mm
(0.85)(400)
=
Provide 4 10M closed stirrups in addition to those
required for shear and torsion. If only the minimum
shear reinforcement is required,
r c p
the
above stirrups can replace the shear reinforcement
at this location.
V V V < +
Check compressive stresses at nodal zones:
Depth of the nodal zone at A required to anchor
tension tie AC is:
h
a
=
84000 20000
(0.75)(0.70)(35)(100)

= 35mm (2)(45) 90 < =
Since the compression strut AB is not crossed by a
tension tie, the stresses will be OK.
Check the anchorage conditions at the end of the
compression strut in accordance with A23.3 Clause
11.4.2.
The reinforcement can be distributed along the
length of the beam if the shear along the assumed
inclined cracks is checked using shear friction. See
Fig. 4.10.4.
Fig. 4.10.3 Force diagram for beam ledge
example

V = (100) cos20 = 94 kN
N = (100) sin20 = 34 kN

cr
A =
300
(2)(200)
cos20

[ ] 125 (2)(300)sin20 125 300
2
+ +
+

= 128000 + 68000 = 196000 mm
2
The worst case stirrup location is assumed. The
horizontal tension force is also resisted by shear
friction.
The shear friction reinforcement consists of 1 15M
longitudinal bar in the top of the ledge and 1 10M
stirrup.
Note: the bottom longitudinal reinforcement in the
ledge may be resisting bending moment so it is
ignored.
v
f
=
3 3
3 3
(94)(10 ) (20)(10 )
(196)(10 ) (128)(10 )
+
= 0.48 0.16 0.64MPa + =
A
vf
= (2)(200) = 400 mm (1 15M times 2)
=
v y
g
N
f cos20
A

=
3
400 (34)(10 )
(400)cos20
196000 196000

= 0.77 0.17 = 0.60 MPa
v
r
=
c
(c + )
= (0.70)(1 + (1.4)(0.60))
= 1.29 MPa > 0.64 MPa
Check
r c c
v 0.25 f 6.13 MPa OK =
Therefore, the load cannot punch through the ledge
and the reinforcement can be distributed along the
length of the beam
Fig. 4.10.4 Punching through ledge

Alternately, the amount of ledge reinforcement can
be designed using simple statics:
s n
A A + =

+

s f
s y s y
N V (1.3) a h
f d f d

=
(100000)(1.3) 135
(0.85)(400) 255

20000 300
+
(0.85)(400) 255

= 202 + 69
= 271 mm Use 3-10M ledge stirrups.
As the amount of ledge reinforcement is sensitive to
the pad location, V
f
is increased by 30%.
The hanger reinforcement in the beam becomes:
A
sh
=
2
100000 645
372 mm
(0.85)(400) 510

=

Use 4 10M beam stirrups.
4.11 WELDED HEADED STUDS
Welded headed studs are designed to resist direct
shear, tension or a combination of both. Both the
resistance of the concrete and the steel must be
checked as either may be critical.
The American Concrete Institute (ACI) developed
methods for analyzing the capacity of headed stud
anchors. These methods were used to develop
Annex D of A23.3. The Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute (PCI) commissioned a series of
tests [4] to further investigate stud capacity in
situations common in the precast industry. The
information presented in this section follows the
recommendations contained in the non-mandatory
Annex D in A23.3 with the exception of the shear
provisions, where the PCI design method is used.
The following examples assume that the majority of
precast member anchorages are in uncracked
concrete. This is reasonable as many precast
members are prestressed and most of the
anchorages designed for precast concrete
connections are located in regions where cracking is
unlikely. If there is any possibility the region may
crack, the cracked concrete capacity must be used.
4.11.1 Tension
A23.3 Annex D checks tensile loading for four
cases: steel resistance, concrete breakout
resistance, pullout resistance, and side blowout.
4.11.1.1 Steel Resistance in Tension
The factored resistance of a single anchor or group
of anchors in tension shall be limited by:
N
sr
=
se s ut
nA f R
f
ut
smallest of
y
1.9f or 860 MPa
R = 0.7 for brittle steel elements.
The effective area of a threaded anchor may be
assumed to be 70% of the gross area.
See Fig. 4.11.1 for typical headed stud factored
resistance.
Fig. 4.11.1 Factored resistance of headed studs
limited by steel strength
Nom.
Dia.
(mm)
Thickness
of Head
t
hs
(mm)
Diameter
of Head
(mm)
Area
(mm
2
)
N
sr
(kN)
V
sr

(kN)
Min Plate
Thickness
for Full
Strength
Weld
(mm)
6 5 13 32 8 7 3.0
10 7 19 71 18 16 5.0
13 8 25 127 32 29 6.5
16 8 32 198 49 46 8.0
19 10 32 285 71 66 9.5
22 10 35 388 97 90 11.0
Note: Based on Nelson stud data
f
ut
= 420 MPa, f
y
= 340 MPa,
s
= 0.85
R = 0.7 for tensile loads
R = 0.65 for shear loads (multiply by 0.8/0.7 or 0.75/0.65
if the anchor is governed by strength as a ductile steel
element)
Stainless studs can have considerably less strength,
contact local stud manufacturer.

4.11.1.2 Concrete Breakout Resistance in
Tension
The effective stress area is the projection of a
pyramid from the bearing edge of the anchor, shown
in Fig. 4.11.2, and should not include the
overlapping stress areas in a stud group. Reductions
must be made for the intersection of pyramids with
concrete surfaces and an adjustment is made for the
overall thickness of the concrete.
Fig. 4.11.2 Effective stress area for welded headed studs
In a stud group in which the centre to centre spacing
of anchors is less than three times the length of
embedment, the individual effective stress areas will
overlap and thus reduce the factored resistance of
the group.
The concrete strength used in these equations
should not exceed 70 MPa as this was the maximum
strength used in the tests.
The equations below contain a reduction factor to
account for the difference between the assumed
pyramidal failure planes and the conical failure
planes observed in practice.
The factored breakout resistance of anchors shall
not exceed:
(a) for a single anchor:
N
cbr
=
N
ed,N c,N cp,N br
No
A
N
A

(b) or a group of anchors:
N
cbgr
=
N
ec,N ed,N c,N cp,N br
No
A
N
A

N
A = projected failure surface area of the
anchor A
No
(Fig. 4.11.3)

No
A

=
2
ef
9h

ec,N
= modification factor for resistance in
tension to account for anchor groups
loaded eccentrically

ed,N
tension to account for edge distances
smaller than 1.5h
ef

c,N
tension to account for cracking
= 1.25 for uncracked concrete
= 1.00 for cracked concrete

cp,N
= modification factor for concrete
breakout resistance to account for
premature splitting failure, for post-
installed anchors only
N
br
= factored concrete breakout resistance
for a single anchor in cracked concrete
The factored concrete breakout resistance, N
br
, can
be calculated as the greater of:
(a) for cast-in headed studs and headed bolts,
where 275 mm < h
ef
< 625 mm:
N
br
=
5/ 3
c c ef
3.9 f h R
(b) N
br
=
1.5
c c ef
k f h R
k = 10 for cast-in headed studs, headed
bolts and hooked bolts
= 7 for post-installed anchors
h
ef
= effective anchor embedment depth,
(mm)
Fig. 4.11.3 Projected areas for single anchors and groups of anchors

R = 1.0 for most cases
= 1.15 if confining reinforcement is located
within 0.75h
ef
of the anchor and is fully
developed on both sides of the pullout
plane for the total tension force
= resistance modification factor for
concrete that is different than for steel
See Fig. 4.11.4 for single stud capacities not near a
free edge. See Fig. 4.11.6 for a tabular approach of
calculating concrete breakout resistance of headed
studs in tension.
Fig. 4.11.4 Capacity of a single stud not near a
free edge
h
ef
(mm) 75 100 150 200 300
c,N br
N (kN)
34 52 95 146 271
Note:
=
c ef b hs c
c,N
0.7,R 1,h stud length t t , f 35MPa
1.25(multiplyby0.8 for crackedconcrete)
= = + =
=
4.11.1.3 Concrete Pullout Resistance in
Tension
The factored pullout resistance of an anchor shall
not exceed:
N
pr
=

c,P pr
N
N
pr
is the pullout resistance in tension and can be
calculated as:
N
pr
=
bh c c
8A f R , for single headed stud or
headed bolts
=
c c h o
0.9 f e d R , for single J or L bolts
A
bh
= is the bearing area of the head of the stud
or anchor bolt
d
o
= outside diameter of anchor, or shaft area
of headed stud, headed anchor, or hooked
bolt
e
h
=
o h
3d e 4.5d
o

c,P
= 1 for cracked concrete
= 1.4 for uncracked concrete at service
loads (f
s
<f
r
)
Fig. 4.11.5 shows the head diameter required such
that this value does not govern over the steel
strength shown in Fig. 4.11.1.
4.11.1.4 Concrete Side Blowout Resistance
This requirement applies when c is less than 0.4h
ef
.
For a single headed anchor, with deep embedment,
close to an edge:
N
sbr
=
c b
13.3c R A f
Fig. 4.11.5 Head diameters sized so that steel
strength governs
Nominal
diameter (mm)
6 10 13 16 19 22
Diameter of
head (mm)
10.2 15.3 20.5 25.6 30.7 35.8
Note: R = 0.7 for brittle steel elements
R = 1 for concrete

c
= 0.7

c
f
20 MPa if concrete is uncracked

c
f
28 MPa if concrete is cracked
If a single anchor is located at a perpendicular
distance c
2
less than 3c from an edge, N
sbr
shall be
modified by multiplying it by the factor (1+c
2
/c)/4,
where
2
1 c /c 3.
For multiple headed anchors with deep embedment
close to an edge and spacing between anchors less
than 6c:
N
sbgr
=
o
sbr
s
1 N
6c

+

N
sbr
is not modified for the perpendicular edge
distance:
s
o
= distance between the outer anchors
along the edge in the group
4.11.1.5 Eccentrically loaded anchor groups
The modification factor for eccentrically loaded
anchor groups shall be:

ec,N
=
N
ef
1
2e
1
3h

+

This equation is valid for:
e
N
o
s
2

e
N
= eccentricity of a normal force on a
group of anchors
s
o
= the centre-to-centre spacing of the
outer anchors in tension (mm)
If the loading on an anchor group is such that only
some anchors are in tension, only those anchors
that are in tension shall be considered when
determining the eccentricity, e
N
.
In the case where eccentric loading exists about two
axes, the modification factor,
ec,N
, shall be
computed for each axis individually, and the product
of these factors used as
ec,N
.
h c

Fig. 4.11.6 Concrete breakout resistance of headed studs in tension
Assumptions

c
=0.70, for precast concrete certified in
accordance with A23.4. Otherwise,
multiply by 0.65/0.70
R =1 (multiply by 1.15 if confining
reinforcement is used)
h
ef
=stud length +t - t
hs
(not to exceed the
greater of 2/3 h or h 100)
=35 MPa (multiply by
c
f
c
f
35
for other
concrete strengths)
s
1
, s
2
(mm)
Symetrically loaded
k = 10 for cast in headed studs
c,N
= 1.25 (for cracked concrete, multiply by 0.8)
For the I
E
F
a
S
a
(0.2) 0.35 seismic requirement, multiply
by 0.75
If stud spacing in both directions exceeds 3h
ef
, treat as
single studs. If stud spacing in one direction exceeds 3h
ef
,
treat as two or more different group of studs.
Ensure that the failure of one stud or group will not cause
prying on the others, resulting in a progressive type
failure.
It is critical that the results of these tables be checked
against the sum of the individual stud capacities.
If the anchor group is eccentrically loaded, modify the
results by the
ec,N
factor shown in Sect. 4.11.1.5.
Case 1: Not near a free edge

Applies to rectangular stud pattern with outside dimensions s
1
and s
2

and c >1.5h
ef

1.5
1 ef 2 ef c c ef c,N ec,N
cbgr
2
ef
(s 3h )(s 3h )k f h R
N
9h
+ +
=
Design Tensile Strength, N
cbgr
/
ec,N
(kN)
h
ef

s
1
s
2

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
0 41 48 56 63 70 78 85 93 100 108
50 50 59 68 77 86 95 105 114 123 132
100 59 70 80 91 102 113 124 134 145 156
150 68 80 93 105 118 130 143 155 168 180
200 77 91 105 119 134 148 162 176 190 204
250 86 102 118 134 149 165 181 197 212 228
75
300 95 113 130 148 165 183 200 217 235 252
0 60 69 77 86 94 103 112 120 129 138
50 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 161
100 80 92 103 115 126 138 149 161 172 184
150 90 103 116 129 142 155 168 181 194 207
200 100 115 129 143 158 172 186 201 215 230
250 110 126 142 158 173 189 205 221 237 253
100
300 120 138 155 172 189 207 224 241 258 276
0 105 116 126 137 147 158 169 179 190 200
50 117 129 140 152 164 176 187 199 211 223
100 129 142 154 167 180 193 206 219 232 245
150 140 154 169 183 197 211 225 239 253 267
200 152 167 183 198 213 228 244 259 274 289
250 164 180 197 213 230 246 262 279 295 312
150
300 176 193 211 228 246 264 281 299 316 334
0 158 170 183 195 207 219 231 244 256 268
50 171 185 198 211 224 237 251 264 277 290
100 185 199 213 227 241 256 270 284 298 313
150 198 213 228 244 259 274 289 305 320 335
200 211 227 244 260 276 292 309 325 341 357
250 224 241 259 276 293 311 328 345 362 380
200
300 237 256 274 292 311 329 347 366 384 402
Fig. 4.11.6 Concrete breakout resistance of headed studs in tension (Cont.)
Case 2: Near one free edge

c
1
<1.5h
ef
c
2
>1.5h
ef

1.5
1 1 ef 2 ef c c ef c,N ed,N ec,N
cbgr
2
ef
(s c 1.5h )(s 3h )k f h R
N
9h
+ + +
=
min
ed,N
ef
c
0.7 0.3
1.5h
= +
Note: Table A results must be multiplied by
ed,N
from Table B
Table A: Design Tensile Strength, N
cbgr
/
ec,N
/
ed,N
(kN)
h
ef

s
1
+c
1
s
2
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
0 24 31 39 46 54 61 69 76 84 91 99 106
50 29 38 47 57 66 75 84 93 102 111 121 130
100 35 45 56 67 78 89 99 110 121 132 143 153
150 40 52 65 77 90 102 115 127 140 152 165 177
200 45 59 74 88 102 116 130 144 158 172 187 201
250 51 67 82 98 114 130 145 161 177 193 209 224
75
300 56 74 91 108 126 143 161 178 196 213 231 248
0 34 43 51 60 69 77 86 94 103 112 120 129
50 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
100 46 57 69 80 92 103 115 126 138 149 161 172
150 51 64 77 90 103 116 129 142 155 168 181 194
200 57 71 86 100 115 129 143 158 172 186 201 215
250 63 79 94 110 126 142 158 173 189 205 221 237
100
300 69 86 103 120 138 155 172 189 207 224 241 258
0 58 68 79 89 100 110 121 132 142 153 163 174
50 64 76 88 99 111 123 135 146 158 170 181 193
100 71 83 96 109 122 135 148 161 174 187 200 213
150 77 91 105 119 133 147 162 176 190 204 218 232
200 83 99 114 129 144 160 175 190 206 221 236 251
250 90 106 123 139 156 172 189 205 221 238 254 271
150
300 96 114 132 149 167 184 202 220 237 255 272 290
0 85 97 109 122 134 146 158 170 183 195 207 219
50 92 105 118 132 145 158 171 185 198 211 224 237
100 99 113 128 142 156 170 185 199 213 227 241 256
150 106 122 137 152 167 183 198 213 228 244 259 274
200 113 130 146 162 178 195 211 227 244 260 276 292
250 120 138 155 172 190 207 224 241 259 276 293 311
200
300 128 146 164 183 201 219 237 256 274 292 311 329

Table B: Modification for Edge Distance (
ed,N
)
c
1
h
ef
30 40 60 80 100 150 200 250 300
75 0.78 0.81 0.86 0.91 0.97 Case 1 governs
100 (a) 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.90
150 (a) (a) 0.78 0.81 0.83 0.90 0.97
200 (a) (a) (a) 0.78 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95
Note: (a) side blowout will govern as c
1
<0.4h
ef
(see Section 4.11.1.4)
Case 3: Free edges on two adjacent sides

c
1
<1.5
hef
c
2
<1.5h
ef

1.5
1 1 ef 2 2 ef c c ef c,N ed,N
cbgr
2
ef
(s c 1.5h )(s c 1.5h )k f h R
N
9h
+ + + +
=

ed,N
from Table B
cbgr
/
ec,N
/
ed,N
(kN)
h
ef

s
1
+ c
1

s
2
+ c
2
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
50 17 22 28 33 39 44 49 55 60 66 71 76
100 22 29 37 44 51 58 65 72 79 86 93 100
150 28 37 45 54 63 71 80 89 98 106 115 124
200 33 44 54 64 75 85 95 106 116 127 137 147
250 39 51 63 75 87 99 111 123 135 147 159 171
75
300 44 58 71 85 99 113 126 140 154 167 181 195
50 23 28 34 40 46 51 57 63 69 74 80 86
100 28 35 43 50 57 64 71 79 86 93 100 107
150 34 43 51 60 69 77 86 94 103 112 120 129
200 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
250 46 57 69 80 92 103 115 126 138 149 161 172
100
300 51 64 77 90 103 116 129 142 155 168 181 194
50 35 41 48 54 61 67 74 80 87 93 100 106
100 41 49 57 64 72 80 87 95 103 110 118 125
150 48 57 66 74 83 92 101 110 118 127 136 145
200 54 64 74 84 94 104 114 124 134 144 154 164
250 61 72 83 94 105 117 128 139 150 161 172 184
150
300 67 80 92 104 117 129 141 154 166 178 191 203
50 49 56 64 71 78 85 92 99 106 113 120 128
100 56 65 73 81 89 97 105 113 122 130 138 146
150 64 73 82 91 100 109 118 128 137 146 155 164
200 71 81 91 101 111 122 132 142 152 162 172 183
250 78 89 100 111 123 134 145 156 167 178 190 201
200
300 85 97 109 122 134 146 158 170 183 195 207 219

ed,N
)
c
min
h
ef
30 40 60 80 100 150 200 250 300
75 0.78 0.81 0.86 0.91 0.97 Case 1 governs
100 (a) 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.90
150 (a) (a) 0.78 0.81 0.83 0.90 0.97
200 (a) (a) (a) 0.78 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95
min
<0.4h
ef
Case 4: Free edges on two opposite sides

c
1
<1.5
hef
c
3
<1.5h
ef

1.5
1 1 3 2 ef c c ef c,N ed,N ec,N
cbgr
2
ef
(s c c )(s 3h )k f h R
N
9h
+ + +
=

ed,N
from Table B
cbgr
/
ec,N
/
ed,N
(kN)
h
ef

s
1
+c
1
+c
3
s
2
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
0 14 22 29 37 44 52 59 67 74 82 89
50 18 27 36 45 54 63 73 82 91 100 109
100 21 32 43 53 64 75 86 97 107 118 129
150 24 37 49 62 74 87 99 112 124 136 149
200 28 42 56 70 84 98 112 127 141 155 169
250 31 47 63 78 94 110 126 141 157 173 189
75
300 34 52 69 87 104 122 139 156 174 191 209
0 17 25 34 43 51 60 69 77 86 94 103
50 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
100 23 34 46 57 69 80 92 103 115 126 138
150 25 38 51 64 77 90 103 116 129 142 155
200 28 43 57 71 86 100 115 129 143 158 172
250 31 47 63 79 94 110 126 142 158 173 189
100
300 34 51 69 86 103 120 138 155 172 189 207
0 21 31 42 52 63 73 84 95 105 116 126
50 23 35 46 58 70 82 93 105 117 129 140
100 25 38 51 64 77 90 103 116 129 142 154
150 28 42 56 70 84 98 112 126 140 154 169
200 30 45 61 76 91 106 122 137 152 167 183
250 32 49 65 82 98 115 131 147 164 180 197
150
300 35 52 70 88 105 123 140 158 176 193 211
0 24 36 48 61 73 85 97 109 122 134 146
50 26 39 52 66 79 92 105 118 132 145 158
100 28 42 56 71 85 99 113 128 142 156 170
150 30 45 61 76 91 106 122 137 152 167 183
200 32 48 65 81 97 113 130 146 162 178 195
250 34 51 69 86 103 120 138 155 172 190 207
200
300 36 54 73 91 109 128 146 164 183 201 219

ed,N
)
c
min

h
ef
30 40 60 80 100 150 200 250 300
75 0.78 0.81 0.86 0.91 0.97 Case 1 governs
100 (a) 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.90
150 (a) (a) 0.78 0.81 0.83 0.90 0.97
200 (a) (a) (a) 0.78 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95
min
<0.4h
ef
Case 5: Free edges on three sides

c
1
<1.5
hef
c
2
<1.5h
ef
c
3
<1.5h
ef
where h
ef
shall be limited to c
max
/1.5 or 1/3 of the maximum spacing of the
anchors whatever is greater
1.5
1 1 3 2 2 ef c c ef c,N ed,N ec,N
cbgr
2
ef
(c s c )(c s 1.5h )k f h R
N
9h
+ + + +
=
Note Table A results must be multiplied by
ed,N
from Table B
cbgr
/
ec,N
/
ed,N
(kN)
h
ef

c
1
+s
1
+c
3

c
2
+s
2
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
100 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84
150 8 17 26 34 43 52 61 69 78 87 95 104
200 10 20 31 41 51 62 72 83 93 103 114 124
250 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144
75
300 13 27 41 54 68 82 95 109 123 136 150 164
100 7 14 21 28 35 43 50 57 64 71 79 86
150 8 17 25 34 43 51 60 69 77 86 94 103
200 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
250 11 23 34 46 57 69 80 92 103 115 126 138
100
300 12 25 38 51 64 77 90 103 116 129 142 155
100 7 15 22 30 38 45 53 61 68 76 83 91
150 8 17 26 35 44 52 61 70 79 88 96 105
200 9 19 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99 109 119
250 11 22 33 44 55 66 78 89 100 111 122 133
150
300 12 24 36 49 61 73 86 98 110 123 135 147
100 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 65 73 81 89 97
150 9 18 27 36 45 54 64 73 82 91 100 109
200 10 20 30 40 50 61 71 81 91 101 111 122
250 11 22 33 44 55 67 78 89 100 111 123 134
200
300 12 24 36 48 61 73 85 97 109 122 134 146

ed,N
)
c
min
h
ef
30 40 60 80 100 150 200 250 300
75 0.78 0.81 0.86 0.91 0.97
Case 1 governs
100 (a) 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.90

150 (a) (a) 0.78 0.81 0.83 0.90 0.97

200 (a) (a) (a) 0.78 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95
min
<0.4h
ef

4.11.2 Shear Resistance
The factored shear resistance limited by steel
strength, V
sr
, is shown in Sect. 4.11.1.1.
The factored shear resistance, governed by concrete
failure is based on PCI tests. [4] The lowest value
governs.
See Fig. 4.11.13 for a tabular approach of calculating
concrete shear breakout resistance of headed studs.
4.11.2.1 Front Edge
This condition is typical of the majority of shear
loaded connections. The shear force is applied
perpendicular to the front edge, as seen in Fig.
4.11.7.
Basic strength
V
r
=
co3 x3 h3 ev3 vcr
V C C C C
V
r
= factored shear resistance for a single or
multiple stud connection, accounting for
member and connection geometry (N)
= 0.65 without confinement reinforcement
= 0.70 with confinement reinforcement
Note that this concrete strength reduction factor is for
precast concrete certified in accordance with A23.4.
Otherwise, multiply by 0.65/0.70
Fig. 4.11.7 Headed stud plate edge variables
V
co3
= concrete breakout strength for a single
stud connection unaffected by connection
or member geometry (N)
C
x3
d
e3
type anchorage
C
h3
= coefficient for member thickness (h) for a
d
e3
type anchorage
C
ev3
= coefficient for eccentric shear force
influences for a d
e3
type anchorage
C
vcr
= coefficient for cracking in a member,
loaded in shear
Single anchor strength
V
co3
=
1.33
c
1 1.5 f (BED)
= lightweight concrete factor
BED = distance from back row of studs to front
edge
=
e3
i
d y +
=
e3
d Y + (mm)
d
e3
= distance from front stud to front edge
(mm)
Y = total out to out dimension of stud rows
(mm)
X-spacing factor
C
x3
=
studs-back
X
0.85 n
3BED
+
= 1.0, when X = 0
X = overall out-to-out dimension of outermost
studs in back row of anchorage =
i
x
(mm)
n
studs-back
= number of studs in back row
Thickness factor
C
h3
= 1.0 for h > 1.75 BED
=
h
0.75
BED
for h 1.75 BED
h = member thickness (mm)
Eccentricity factor
for e
v

X
2

C
ev3
=
v
1
1.0
e
1 0.67
BED

+

v
e = eccentricity of shear force on a group of
anchors; distance between point of shear
force application and geometric centroid
of group of anchors resisting shear in
direction of applied shear (mm)
Fig. 4.11.8 Cracking factors, C
vcr
for cracked concrete


Cracking factor
For uncracked concrete:
C
vcr
= 1.0
For cracked concrete (Fig. 4.11.8):
C
vcr
= 0.70 if no edge reinforcement or
reinforcement less than 15M bar
= 0.85 if edge reinforcement greater than
or equal to 15M bar
= 1.0 if edge reinforcement is greater than
or equal to 15M and confined within
stirrups with a spacing less than or equal
to 100 mm
Example 4.8 Headed concrete anchor front edge
failure mode
Given:
A plate with headed studs is placed in a position
where cracking is unlikely. The 200 mm thick precast
concrete panel has a 28-day concrete strength of 35
MPa. The plate is loaded with an eccentricity of 35
mm from the centre line of the stud group. The panel
has 15M confinement bars around the perimeter.
Problem:
Determine the design shear strength of the stud
group.
Check for corner condition:
SED 1200 100
3 3.25 3
BED 300 100
+
=
+

Not a corner condition.
Solution:
Steel capacity:
From Fig. 4.11.1

sr se s ut
V nA f R (4)(29) 116 kN = = =
Concrete breakout capacity:
V
r
=
co3 x3 h3 ev3 vcr
V C C C C
BED = d
e3
+ Y = 300 + 100 = 400
V
co3
=
1.33
c
11.5 f (BED)

=
1.33
(11.5)(1.0) 35(400)
197 kN
1000
=
X-spacing factor:
C
x3
=
X 100
0.85 0.85
3BED (3)(400)
+ = +
=
studs-back
0.93 n 2 =
Thickness factor:
C
h3
=
h 200
0.75 0.75 0.53
BED 400
= =
Eccentricity factor:
C
ev3
=
v
1 1
e 35
1 0.67 1 0.67
400 BED
=

+ +

= 0.94 1.0 <
Cracked concrete factor:
C
vcr
= 1.0 (uncracked)
With confinement steel = 0.7:
V
r
=
co3 x3 h3 ev3 vcr
V (C )(C )(C )(C )
= (0.7)(197)(0.93)(0.53)(0.94)(1.0)
= 64 kN 116 kN
Use V
r
= 64 kN
Using Fig. 4.11.13 Case A:
V
r
= (67)(0.93)(0.94)(1.08)
= 63 kN which is close enough to 64 kN.
The 1.08 factor is used as confinement steel is
present.
If higher capacity is desired, use tail bars welded to
plate.
For example, if 2 15M tail bars are used:
r s s y
V A f (0.85)(2)(200)(400) /1000 136 kN = = =

Fig. 4.11.9 Corner transition to a front edge breakout
4.11.2.2 Corners
The corner is considered to be a special case of the
front edge loaded anchorage. If the shear force is
applied perpendicular to the front edge, and the
anchorage is located close to the corner, a different
concrete breakout mode occurs. A corner condition
should be considered when:
0.2
SED
BED
3.0
where the Side Edge Distance (SED) as shown in
Fig. 4.11.8, is defined as:
SED = d
e1
+ x = d
e1
+ X (mm)
Basic strength
The strength governed by concrete breakout at the
corner is thus given by:
V
r
=
co3 c3 h3 ev3 vcr
V C C C C
C
c3
= coefficient for corner influence for a d
e3
type anchorage
Corner factor
=
c3
C
3
SED
0.7 1.0
BED

Note that the C
x3
factor is replaced by C
c3
when
computing corner capacity.
For the special case of a large X-spacing stud
anchorage located near a corner, such that SED/BED
> 3, a corner failure may still result if
e1
d 2.5BED .
See Fig. 4.11.9.
Example 4.9 Headed concrete anchor corner
failure mode
Given:
A plate with headed studs as shown, is placed in a
position where cracking is unlikely. The 200 mm thick
panel has a 28-day concrete strength of 35 MPa. The
panel has 15M confinement bars around the
perimeter. The plate is loaded with an eccentricity of
35 mm from the centre line of the stud group.
Problem:
Determine the nominal shear strength of the
connection.

SED
0.2 3
BED

450 100
1.375
300 100
+
=
+

Corner breakout is likely.

Solution:
Steel strength (Fig. 4.11.1):
V
sr
= (4)(29) = 116 kN
Concrete breakout strength:
V
r
= V
co3
C
vcr
C
ev3
C
h3
C
c3

Single anchor capacity (same as Example 4.8):
V
co3
= 197 kN
Thickness factor (same as Example 4.8):
C
h3
= 0.53
Corner-spacing factor:

c3
C =
3 3
SED 450 100
0.7 0.7 0.78
BED 300 100
+
= =
+

Eccentricity factor (same as Example 4.8):
C
ev3
= 0.94
C
vcr
= 1.0 (uncracked)
With confinement reinforcement;
= 0.70
V
r
= V
co3
C
h3
C
c3
C
vcr
C
ev3

= (0.70)(197)(0.53)(0.78)(1.0)(0.94)
= 53 kN
Use V
r
= 53 kN.
Using Fig. 4.11.13 Case B:
V
r
= (67)(0.94)(0.77)(1.08)
= 52 kN which is close enough to 53 kN
The 1.08 factor is used, as confinement
reinforcement is present.
4.11.2.3 Side Edge
A connection loaded in shear parallel to a side edge
results in a concrete breakout failure different from
the front edge breakout mode. In this case, the shear
force is applied parallel to the side edge (d
e1
in Fig.
4.11.10). The anchorage will likely behave in a side
edge mode if:

SED
BED
0.2
Research [4] has determined that the corner
influence can be quite large, especially in thin panels.
If the above ratio is close to the 0.2 value, it is
recommended that a corner breakout condition be
investigated as it may still control for large BED
values.
Basic strength
The strength governed by concrete breakout at the
side edge is given by:
V
r
=
co1 x1 Y1 ev1 vcr
V C C C C
= strength reduction factor for precast
concrete certified in accordance with
A23.4. Otherwise, multiply by 0.65/0.70
= 0.65 without confinement reinforcement
= 0.70 with confinement reinforcement
V
co1
= nominal concrete breakout strength for a
single stud connection unaffected by
connection or member geometry (N)
C
x1
d
e1
type anchorage
C
Y1
= coefficient for overall Y spacing of a
connection with two or more Y rows for a
d
e1
type anchorage
C
ev1
= coefficient for in-plane, eccentric shear
load for a d
e1
type anchorage
Single anchor strength
V
co1
1.33 0.75
c e1 o
5.5 f d d =
= concrete unit mass factor
d
e1
= distance from side stud to side edge
(mm)
d
o
= stud diameter (mm)
X-spacing factor
For a one edge connection condition or a single Y-
row of studs in a two, parallel edge condition (Fig.
4.11.10):
C
x1
=
x
sides
e1
n x
2 n
2.5d
+
1 C
x1
n
x

C
x1
= 1.0, when x = 0
n
x
= number of X-rows
x = individual X-row spacing (mm)
n
sides
= number of edges or sides that influence
the X direction (1 or 2, i.e., 2 for a
column in which connection is placed
equidistant from each side)
Fig. 4.11.10 Conditions for calculating C
x1
, for side edges

For all multiple Y-row anchorages located adjacent to
two parallel edges, such as a column corbel
connection, the X-spacing factor is:
C
x1
= n
x

Y-spacing factor
C
Y1
= 1.0 for n
y
= 1 (one Y-row)
C
Y1
=
0.25
y
y
e1
19(n Y)
0.15 n
d
+ for n
y
> 1.0
n
y
= number of Y-row stud lines
Y = out-to-out Y-row spacing = y (mm)
Eccentricity factor
C
ev1
=
v
e1
e
1.0 1.0
4d

e
v
= eccentricity from shear load to anchorage
centroid (mm)
Example 4.10 Headed concrete anchor side
edge failure mode
Given:
Headed stud plate as shown. The 200 mm thick
reinforced precast concrete panel has a 28-day
concrete strength of 35 MPa. The panel has 15M
confinement bars around the perimeter. The plate is
placed in a position where cracking is unlikely.
Problem:
Determine the design shear strength of the stud
group.

SED
0.2
BED
150 100
0.13 0.2
1800 100
+
=

+

Not a corner condition. Solve as side-edge condition.
Solution:
Steel strength (Fig. 4.11.1):
V
sr
= (4)(29) = 116 kN
Concrete breakout strength:
V
r
=
co1 x1 Y1 ev1 vcr
V (C )(C )(C )(C )

Single anchor strength:
V
co1
=
1.33 0.75
c e1 o
5.5 f (d ) (d )
=
1.33 0.75
(5.5)(1.0) 35(150) (12.7)
171kN
1000
=
X-spacing factor:

x1
C =
x
sides
e1
n x (2)(100)
2 n 2 1 1.53
2.5d (2.5)(150)
+ = + =
Y-spacing factor:
C
Y1
=
[ ]
0.25 0.25
y
e1
19(n Y) (19) (2)(100)
0.15 0.15
d 150
+ = +
=
y
0.63 n 2 =
Eccentricity factor:
C
ev1
= 1.0
C
vcr
= 1.0 (uncracked)
V
r
=
co1 x1 Y1 ev1 vcr
V C C C C
= (0.7)(171)(1.53)(0.63)(1.0)(1.0)
= 115 kN 116 kN <
Use V
r
= 115 kN
Using Fig. 4.11.13 Case C:
V
r
= (110)(1.53)(0.63)(1.08)
= 115 kN = 115 kN = OK
The 1.08 factor is used as confinement steel is
present.
4.11.2.4 Back Edge
The shear force is applied perpendicular to the back
edge d
e4
, as illustrated in Fig. 4.11.7. Under a
condition of pure shear, the back edge has been
found through testing to have no influence on the
connection capacity. Minimum concrete clear cover
from the studs to the edge must be maintained.
4.11.2.5 In-the-Field
When a headed stud anchorage is sufficiently far
from all edges, termed in-the-field of the member,
the anchorage strength will normally be governed by
the steel strength.
However, if short, stocky studs are used, tests [4]
have shown that pry-out failure may occur. This
failure is governed by the tensile strength of the stud.
Annex D of A23.3 limits the shear strength of studs to
the breakout resistance in tension for h
ef
less than
65mm and twice this amount if h
ef
is 65mm or longer.
V
cp
= k
cp
N
cbr
or k
cp
N
cbgr

k
cp
= 1 for h
ef
< 65mm
= 2 for h
ef
65mm
See Fig. 4.11.11 for conditions where in-the-field
studs are governed by pry-out failures.
Fig. 4.11.11 Pry-out resistance for single headed
studs away from any edges compared
to shear steel strength
Nom. Diameter (mm) 6 10 13 16 19 22
V
sr
(kN) 7 16 29 46 66 90

V
cp
(kN)
55 21 21 21 21 21 21
65 54 54 54 54 54 54
75 68 68 68 68 68 68

h
ef
(mm)

85 82 82 82 82 82 82
Note: Pryout does not govern for values left of the heavy line.
V
sr
values from Fig. 4.11.1
N
cbr
=
c,N br
N for this case, where
c,N br
N is calculated as
in Fig. 4.11.4
4.11.3 Interaction of Tension and Shear
A23.3, requires a tri-linear interaction as shown in
Fig. 4.11.12. This drawing shows that when both
tension and shear are applied to a connection with
anchors:
If the applied shear, V
f
, is less than or equal to
20% of the shear strength, V
r
, the shear can be
neglected, and the connection designed for
tension alone.
If the applied tension, N
f
, is less than or equal to
20% of the tensile strength, N
r
, the tension can
be neglected, and the connection designed for
shear alone.
If V
f
> 0.2V
r
and N
f
> 0.2N
r
, then:

f f
r r
N V
1.2
N V
+
Fig. 4.11.12 Tension-shear interaction

Fig. 4.11.13 Concrete shear breakout resistance of headed studs
Assumptions = 0.65 multiply by 0.70/0.65 = 1.08 if confinement reinforcement is provided.
Also, multiply by 0.65/0.70=0.93 if concrete is not certified in accordance with A23.4.
= 1, normal weight concrete
= 35 MPa (multiply by
c
f
c
f /35 for other concrete strength)
C
vcr
= 1, uncracked concrete
Number of studs times steel strength (Fig. 4.11.1) may govern
Case A: Front edge breakout
V
r
= V
co3
C
h3
C
ev3
C
vcr
C
x3

V
co3
C
h3
is from Table A
C
x3
is from Table B
C
ev3
is from Table C
C
vcr
= 1
Table A (V
co3
)(C
h3
) (kN)
BED (distance from back row of studs to front edge (mm))
50 75 100 125 150 175 225 250 275 300 350 400 450 500
75 7 10 13 15 18 20 25 28 30 32 37 41 45 49
100 8 11 15 18 21 24 29 32 35 37 42 47 52 57
125 8 13 16 20 23 26 33 36 39 42 47 53 59 64
150 8 13 18 22 25 29 36 39 42 46 52 58 64 70
175 8 13 20 24 28 31 39 42 46 49 56 63 69 76
200 8 13 20 25 30 34 42 45 49 53 60 67 74 81
225 8 13 20 27 31 36 44 48 52 56 64 71 79 86
250 8 13 20 27 33 38 46 51 55 59 67 75 83 91
275 8 13 20 27 34 40 49 53 58 62 71 79 87 95
Thickness of
concrete
parrallel to
stud (mm)

300 8 13 20 27 34 41 51 56 60 65 74 82 91 99
Table B X spacing factor C
x3

One Row 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
50 1.18 1.07 1.02 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.88
75 1.35 1.18 1.10 1.05 1.02 0.99 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.90
100 1.52 1.29 1.18 1.12 1.07 1.04 1.00 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.92 0.92
125 1.68 1.41 1.27 1.18 1.13 1.09 1.04 1.02 1.00 0.99 0.97 0.95 0.94 0.93
150 1.85 1.52 1.35 1.25 1.18 1.14 1.07 1.05 1.03 1.02 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.95
175 2.02 1.63 1.43 1.32 1.24 1.18 1.11 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.02 1.00 0.98 0.97
Overall out to
out spacing
of studs in
back row X
(mm)

200 2.18 1.74 1.52 1.38 1.29 1.23 1.15 1.12 1.09 1.07 1.04 1.02 1.00 0.98
Use above values or number of studs in back row, whichever is less
Table C Eccentricity
ev3
C

10 0.88 0.92 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.99
20 0.79 0.85 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.97
30 0.71 0.79 0.83 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.93 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.95 0.96 0.96
40 0.65 0.74 0.79 0.82 0.85 0.87 0.89 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.94 0.95
50 0.60 0.69 0.75 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94
60 0.55 0.65 0.71 0.76 0.79 0.81 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93
70 0.52 0.62 0.68 0.73 0.76 0.79 0.83 0.84 0.85 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.91 0.91
80 0.48 0.58 0.65 0.70 0.74 0.77 0.81 0.82 0.84 0.85 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.90
e
v
<X/2
(mm)

90 0.45 0.55 0.62 0.67 0.71 0.74 0.79 0.81 0.82 0.83 0.85 0.87 0.88 0.89


Fig. 4.11.13 Concrete shear breakout resistance of headed studs (Cont.)
Case B: Corner breakout
V
r
= V
co3
C
h3
C
ev3
C
vcr
C
c3

V
co3
C
h3
is from Case A, Table A
C
ev3
is from Case A, Table C
C
vcr
= 1
C
c3
is from the Table Below
Corner Factor C
c3

BED
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 350 400 450
100 0.88 0.77 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.58 0.56 0.53 0.52 0.50 0.49 0.46 0.44 0.42
200 0.97 0.88 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.65 0.63 0.61 0.58 0.56 0.53
300 0.94 0.88 0.84 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.72 0.70 0.66 0.64 0.61
400 0.97 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.82 0.79 0.77 0.73 0.70 0.67
500 0.99 0.95 0.91 0.88 0.85 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.73
600 0.97 0.94 0.91 0.88 0.84 0.80 0.77
700 0.99 0.96 0.93 0.88 0.84 0.81
800 All values in this area are 1.00 0.97 0.92 0.88 0.85
900 0.96 0.92 0.88
1000 0.99 0.95 0.91
1100 0.98 0.94
SED
distance
to
furthest
stud from
side or
corner
(mm)
1200 0.97

Case C: Side edge breakout
V
r
= V
co1
C
x1
C
y1
C
ev1
C
vcr

V
co1
is from Table A (below)
C
x1
is from Table B (page 4-43)
C
y1
is from Table C (page 4-44)
C
ev1
is from Table D (page 4-44)
C
vcr
= 1
Table A Case C V
co1
(kN)
d
e1
(distance from nearest stud to edge)
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 200 250 300 350 400
6 11 19 28 38 49 60 72 97 130 166 204 244
10 15 26 38 52 66 81 97 131 177 225 277 331
13 19 32 48 65 82 101 121 163 220 280 344 411
16 22 38 57 76 97 120 143 193 260 331 406 485
19 26 44 65 88 112 137 164 221 298 380 466 557
nominal
diameter
22 29 50 73 98 126 154 184 248 334 426 523 625

Table B Case C X spacing factor (C
x1
)
d
e1
(mm)

number
of rows
parallel
to load
(n
x
)
stud
spacing
x
1
, x
2

(mm)
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 200 250 300 350 400

1 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

2 50 2.00 1.67 1.50 1.40 1.33 1.29 1.25 1.20 1.16 1.13 1.11 1.10
75 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.60 1.50 1.43 1.38 1.30 1.24 1.20 1.17 1.15
100 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.80 1.67 1.57 1.50 1.40 1.32 1.27 1.23 1.20
125 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.83 1.71 1.63 1.50 1.40 1.33 1.29 1.25
150 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.86 1.75 1.60 1.48 1.40 1.34 1.30
175 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.88 1.70 1.56 1.47 1.40 1.35
200 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.80 1.64 1.53 1.46 1.40
Number
of 3 50 2.50 2.00 1.75 1.60 1.50 1.43 1.38 1.30 1.24 1.20 1.17 1.15
sides = 1 75 3.00 2.50 2.13 1.90 1.75 1.64 1.56 1.45 1.36 1.30 1.26 1.23
100 3.00 3.00 2.50 2.20 2.00 1.86 1.75 1.60 1.48 1.40 1.34 1.30
125 3.00 3.00 2.88 2.50 2.25 2.07 1.94 1.75 1.60 1.50 1.43 1.38
150 3.00 3.00 3.00 2.80 2.50 2.29 2.13 1.90 1.72 1.60 1.51 1.45

4 50 3.00 2.33 2.00 1.80 1.67 1.57 1.50 1.40 1.32 1.27 1.23 1.20
75 4.00 3.00 2.50 2.20 2.00 1.86 1.75 1.60 1.48 1.40 1.34 1.30
100 4.00 3.67 3.00 2.60 2.33 2.14 2.00 1.80 1.64 1.53 1.46 1.40
125 4.00 4.00 3.50 3.00 2.67 2.43 2.25 2.00 1.80 1.67 1.57 1.50
150 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.40 3.00 2.71 2.50 2.20 1.96 1.80 1.69 1.60

1 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

2 50
75 1.50
100 2.00 1.33 All values to the right of line = 1.00
125 2.00 1.67 1.25
Number 150 2.00 2.00 1.50 1.20
of sides 175 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.40 1.17
= 2 200 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.60 1.33 1.14
(onl y one
horizontal 3 50 1.50
row) 75 2.25 1.50 1.13
100 3.00 2.00 1.50 1.20
125 3.00 2.50 1.88 1.50 1.25 1.07
150 3.00 3.00 2.25 1.80 1.50 1.29 1.13

4 50 2.00 1.33
75 3.00 2.00 1.50 1.20
100 4.00 2.67 2.00 1.60 1.33 1.14
125 4.00 3.33 2.50 2.00 1.67 1.43 1.25
150 4.00 4.00 3.00 2.40 2.00 1.71 1.50 1.20

Number 1 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
of sides
= 2 (with 2 all 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
more
than one 3 all 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00
horizontal
row) 4 all 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00


Table C Case C Y spacing factor (C
Y1
)
d
e1
(mm)
number of rows
perpendicular to
load (n
y
)
out to out
spacing of
studs, Y (mm)
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 200 250 300 350 400
1 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

2 50 1.65 1.15 0.90 0.75 0.65 0.58 0.53 0.45 0.39 0.35 0.32 0.30
75 1.81 1.26 0.98 0.81 0.70 0.62 0.57 0.48 0.42 0.37 0.34 0.32
100 1.94 1.34 1.04 0.86 0.75 0.66 0.60 0.51 0.44 0.39 0.35 0.33
150 2.13 1.47 1.14 0.94 0.81 0.71 0.64 0.55 0.47 0.41 0.38 0.35
200 2.27 1.57 1.21 1.00 0.86 0.76 0.68 0.57 0.49 0.43 0.39 0.36
250 2.40 1.65 1.27 1.05 0.90 0.79 0.71 0.60 0.51 0.45 0.41 0.37
300 2.50 1.72 1.33 1.09 0.93 0.82 0.74 0.62 0.53 0.46 0.42 0.39

3 50 1.81 1.26 0.98 0.81 0.70 0.62 0.57 0.48 0.42 0.37 0.34 0.32
75 1.99 1.38 1.07 0.89 0.76 0.68 0.61 0.52 0.44 0.40 0.36 0.33
100 2.13 1.47 1.14 0.94 0.81 0.71 0.64 0.55 0.47 0.41 0.38 0.35
150 2.34 1.61 1.24 1.03 0.88 0.78 0.70 0.59 0.50 0.44 0.40 0.37
200 2.50 1.72 1.33 1.09 0.93 0.82 0.74 0.62 0.53 0.46 0.42 0.39
250 2.64 1.81 1.39 1.14 0.98 0.86 0.77 0.65 0.55 0.48 0.43 0.40
300 2.75 1.88 1.45 1.19 1.02 0.89 0.80 0.67 0.57 0.50 0.45 0.41

4 50 1.94 1.34 1.04 0.86 0.75 0.66 0.60 0.51 0.44 0.39 0.35 0.33
75 2.13 1.47 1.14 0.94 0.81 0.71 0.64 0.55 0.47 0.41 0.38 0.35
100 2.27 1.57 1.21 1.00 0.86 0.76 0.68 0.57 0.49 0.43 0.39 0.36
150 2.50 1.72 1.33 1.09 0.93 0.82 0.74 0.62 0.53 0.46 0.42 0.39
200 2.68 1.83 1.41 1.16 0.99 0.87 0.78 0.66 0.55 0.49 0.44 0.40
250 2.82 1.93 1.49 1.22 1.04 0.91 0.82 0.68 0.58 0.51 0.46 0.42
300 2.95 2.01 1.55 1.27 1.08 0.95 0.85 0.71 0.60 0.52 0.47 0.43
Table D Case C Eccentricity factor C
ev1

d
e1
(mm)

40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 250 300 350
10
0.94 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99
20
0.88 0.92 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.99
30
0.81 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.98
40
0.75 0.83 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.97
60
0.63 0.75 0.81 0.85 0.88 0.89 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96
80
0.50 0.67 0.75 0.80 0.83 0.86 0.88 0.89 0.90 0.92 0.93 0.94
distance
from shear
load to
anchorage
centroid
e
v1
(mm)
100
0.38 0.58 0.69 0.75 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.93

Example 4.11 Design of welded headed studs
for combined loads
Given:
A 13 mm thick plate with headed studs is used for
attachment of a steel bracket to a column as shown.
c
f
= 1.0
8 13 mm diameter studs
Nominal stud length = 200 mm.
f
ut
= 420 MPa (Fig. 4.11.1)
V
f
= 100 kN (plus a horizontal load equal
to 20% of the vertical load)
Column size: 500 mm by 500 mm
Problem:
Determine if the studs are adequate for the
connection capacity.
Solution:
The eccentric shear force, V
f
, is resolved by the force
couple shown in the sketch. Assume that the tensile
force is resisted by the top two rows of studs, with
breakout planes as shown. Note: assumptions for
load distribution involve engineering judgment.
For tension on the top group of studs:
N
f
=
f
f
V e
0.2V
h
+
=
(100)(150)
(0.2)(100) 80kN
250
+ =
Concrete:
h
ef
= length of stud + t t
hs

= 200 + 13 8 = 205 mm
use 200 mm

From Fig. 4.11.6 Case 4, free edge on two opposite
sides:

1 1 3
s c c 500 + + =
2
s = 100
N
cbgr
= ( 142)(0.87) 124 kN =
Steel:
From Fig. 4.11.1:
N
sr
= (4)(32) = 128 kN > 124 kN
N
r
= 124 kN
Assume the shear force is distributed equally
between the top and bottom shear groups
(engineering judgment): V
f
/2 = 100/2 = 50 kN.
Evaluate the top group of studs for combined shear
and tension:
For concrete shear strength, it is apparent that side
edge breakout will be critical:
From Fig. 4.11.13 Case C:
d
e1
=d
e2
= 175 mm; X = 150 mm
Y = 100 mm
Table A, Case C:
V
co1
= (137)(1.08) = 148 kN
The 1.08 factor is used because the vertical bars in
the column provide confinement for shear.
Table B, Case C:
C
x1
= 2
Table C, Case C:
n
Y
= 2
C
Y1
= 0.56
C
ev1
= 1.0; C
vcr
= 1.0
V
r
= V
co1
C
x1
C
Y1
C
ev1
C
vcr

= (148)(2.0)(0.56)(1.0)(1.0)
= 166 kN

Steel shear strength is the same as tensile strength:
From Fig. 4.11.1:
V
sr
= (4)(29) = 116 kN < 166 kN
Use V
r
= 128 kN
Combined loading:
N
f
= 80 kN; N
r
= 124 kN

f
r
N
N
=
80
0.645 0.2
124
= >
V
f
= 50 kN; V
r
= 128 kN

f
r
V
V
=
50
0.431 0.2
116
= >

f f
r r
N V
0.645 0.431 1.08 1.2
N V
+ = + = <
The studs have sufficient capacity.
Check embedded plate for bending between studs:
Plate M
f
=
f
P (80)(100)
2000
4 4
= =
kN-mm
M
r
=
2
a y s
bt
f Z (0.9)(300)
4

=

where b = 250 mm
For M
r
M
f
, calculate minimum plate thickness:
M
f
=
2
a y s
(250)t
f Z (0.9)(300)
4
=
= 2000 kN-mm
t =
6
(2.0)(10 )(4)
(0.9)(300)(250)
= 11 mm
Use 13 mm thick plate.
4.12 DEFORMED BAR ANCHORS
Deformed bar anchors, DBA, are available in
standard diameters and lengths. Anchors are
automatically welded to steel plates similar to headed
studs. These bars are anchored in the concrete by
bond and their required development length can be
calculated the same way as the development length
of reinforcing bars.
4.13 STRUCTURAL STEEL BRACKETS
Structural steel shapes such as wide flange beams,
double channels, angles, tubes or vertical plates
often serve as haunches or brackets as illustrated in
Fig. 4.13.1, Fig. 4.13.3 and Fig. 4.14.4.
4.13.1 Steel Haunches
The capacity of the haunches shown in Fig. 4.13.1
can be calculated using the notation shown in Fig.
4.13.2. [7]
V
c
=
1 c c e
e
f b
e
1 3.6

+

The effective width of the compression block is as
Holes through the structural section aid compaction.
Additional column ties provide confinement.
Where there is inadequate concrete or insufficient
superimposed axial dead load above and below the
haunch to develop the compressive forces, it will be
necessary to develop the force couple by using
reinforcing bars in tension as shown in Fig 4.13.1(b).
Additional capacity can be obtained by welding
vertical reinforcing bars to the steel section, as shown
in Fig. 4.13.1(b). When the welded reinforcement is
developed both above and below the steel section
and the weld is doubled, the effective area of
reinforcement is doubled. In lieu of a precise analysis,
the additional capacity can be calculated as follows:
Fig. 4.13.1 Embedded structural steel shape
Fig. 4.13.2 Effective width of embedded shapes

If A
s
= A
s
,
V
s
=
s s y
e
e
2A f
6e/
1
4.8s 1

The factored resistance governed by concrete failure:
V
r
= V
c
+ V
s

The factored resistance of the steel section can be
determined by:
Flexural resistance:
M
r
=
2
f
a s y f f
1 c c
0.5V
Z f M V a
f b
= +

Shear resistance:
V
r
=
a y
0.66f ht V
f
It is recommended that hollow structural steel
sections be filled with concrete to improve the bearing
condition.
For steel shapes projecting equally from each side of
the element, with approximately symmetrical loading,
the factored shear resistance on each side as
governed by the capacity of the concrete can be
calculated by:
V
r
=
1 c c
f bh
2

Horizontal forces, N
f
, are resisted by anchors
designed for shear friction on the perimeter of the
section.
Example 4.12 Design of structural steel haunch

Given:
The structural steel haunch shown.
e = 100 + 250 / 2 = 225 mm
b = 2.5 w = (2.5)(101.6) =254 mm

b
max
= 300 (2)(25) (2)(5) =240 mm
s = 150
Effective A
s
= 2A
s
= (2)(600) = 1200 mm
2

c
f = 35 MPa
f
y
(reinforcement) = 400 MPa (weldable)
f
y
(structural steel) = 350 MPa
Problem:
Find the factored resistance of the connection.
Solution:
V
c
=
1 c c e
e
f b
e
1 3.6

+

=
3
(0.80)(0.70)(35)(240)(250)(10 )
277kN
1 (3.6)(225/ 250)
=
+

V
s
=
s s y
e
e
2A f
6e
1
4.8s 1

=
3
(2)(1200)(0.85)(400)(10 )
211kN
(6)(225/250)
1
(4.8)(150/250) 1
=
+

V
r

= 277 + 211 = 488 kN
Plastic section modulus of HSS:
Z
s
= 205000 mm
3

Flexural resistance of HSS (neglect concrete fill):
M
r
=

6
a s y
Z f (0.9)(205000)(350)/10 =
= 64 .6kN- m
M
r
=
2
r
r
1 c c
0.5V
V a
f b
+

2
6 r
r
0.5V
(64.6)(10 ) V (100)
(0.8)(0.7)(35)(254)
= +
Solving for V
r
:
V
r
= 446kN 488kN <
Shear resistance of HSS:
V
r
=
a y
0.66f ht
=
3
(0.9)(0.66)(350)(152.4)(2)(9.53)/10
> = 60 4kN 446kN
Flexural resistance of the HSS controls and V
r
= 446
kN.

Fig. 4.13.3 Cazaly hanger
4.13.2 Cazaly Hanger
The Cazaly hanger has three basic components
(Fig. 4.13.3). Design assumptions are as follows:
1. The cantilevered bar is usually proportioned so
that the interior reaction from the concrete is
0.33 V
f
. The hanger strap should be
proportioned to yield under a tension of 1.33V
f
:
A
s
=
f
a y
1.33V
f

f
y
= yield strength of strap material

a
= 0.90 or 0.85 if reinforcing bar is used
2. V
f
may be assumed to be applied
p
/2 from the
face of the seat. The remaining part of the
moment arm is the width of the joint, g, and the
cover, c, from the end of the member to the
edge of the strap. Since the moment is sensitive
to this dimension, it is important that this
dimension be kept as small as feasible and the
value used in analysis is not exceeded in the
field. Most hangers in practice have exterior
cantilever lengths, , of 75 to 100 mm.
p
( g c + + )
3. The bearing at the bottom of the strap should be
checked as a reinforced bearing, see Sect.
4.6.2.
4. The moment in the cantilevered bar is given by:
M
f
=
f f p
V a V (0.5 g c 0.5s) = + + +
= bar overlap over support
p
a =
p
0.5 g c 0.5s + + +
Other notation is shown in Fig. 4.13.3(b).
The bar should be proportioned to carry this
moment in combination with shear and tensile
forces per CISC. [6] Alternatively, if the bar is
proportioned to take this moment at the yield
stress, but using elastic section properties (i.e.,
M
f
=
a
f
y
bd
2
/6), the shear and tensile forces can
usually be neglected.
5. The conservative and simplifying assumption
that strap weld forces are concentrated at the
strap centerline is implicit in the 0.5s factor.
6. Conservatively, if the width of the member in
which the hanger is cast equals b
1
; then
bu
f =
c c 1 c c
0.85 f b b 2 0.85f
The bearing length, , is then given by:
b
b
=
f
bu
V /3
bf

7. To maintain the conditions of equilibrium
assumed, the interior cantilever must have a
length:
3.0a = (1.5
p
+ 3.0g + 3.0c + 1.5s)
8. The minimum total length of bar is then:
p b
0.5 a 3.0a 0.5 + + +
9. Longitudinal dowels, A
n
, are welded to the
cantilevered bar to transmit the axial force, N
f
:
A
n
=
f
s y
N
f

f
y
= yield strength of dowel

s
= 0.85
10. The lower dowel area, A
vf
, can be proportioned
using reinforced concrete bearing described in
Sect. 4.6.2.

Example 4.13 Design of a Cazaly Hanger
Given:
Hanger is similar to that shown in Figure 4.13.3.
f
c
= 35 MPa (both member and support)
f
y
(reinforcing bars) = 400 MPa
f
y
(structural steel straps) = 300 MPa
f
y
(tubes) = 350 MPa
V
f
= 150 kN
N
f
= 30 kN
b
1
= 150 mm
c = 20 mm
g = 25 mm

p
= 100 mm
Problem:
Size the hanger components.
Solution:
A
s
(strap) =
f
s y
1.33V
f

=
2
(1.33)(150000)
739 mm
(0.9)(300)
=
Use 10 x 50 strap;
A
s
= 2(10)(50)
= 1000 mm
2
> 739
Try 8 mm fillet weld
Check weld using CISC [6] or Fig. 4.16.1:

w
=
(1.33)(150)
80 mm
(2)(1.24)
=
Weld 50 mm across top, 25 mm down both sides =
100 mm of weld.
a = 0.5 (strap width) + g + c + 0.5
p

= (0.5)(50) + 25 + 20 + (0.5)(100)
= 120 mm
M
f
= V
f
a = (150)(120) = 18000 kN-mm
Z
reqd
=
3
f
s y
M (18000)(10 )
57,143 mm
f (0.9)(350)
= =

Try structural tube: HSS 101.6 x 101.6 x 6.35
Z
s
= 81300 mm
4
[6] > 57143 OK
Minimum interior cantilever = 3a = (3)(120)
= 360 mm
f
bu
=
1
c c
b 150
0.85 f (0.85)(0.7)(35)
b 100
=
= 25.5 MPa

b
=
3
f
bu
V / 3 (150)(10 ) / 3
20
f (b) (25.5)(100)
= = mm
Minimum total length:
= (0.5)(100) + 120 + (3)(120) + (0.5)(20)
= 540 mm
Use HSS 101.6 x 101.6 x 6.35 x 550 long
A
n
=
3
2 f
s y
N (30)(10 )
88 mm
f (0.85)(400)
= =

Use 1 10M dowel = 100 mm
2

Extend strap close to bottom of beam and design
lower dowel using Sect. 4.6.2 reinforced concrete
bearing.
Check welding requirements for dowels.
4.13.3 Loov Hanger [5]
The hanger illustrated in Fig. 4.13.4 is designed using
the following equations:
A
sh
=
f
s y
1.3V
f cos

A
n
=
f
s y
N h d
1
f d a/ 2

+

The steel bar or tube is proportioned so that the
bearing strength of the concrete is not exceeded, and
to provide sufficient weld length to develop the
diagonal bars.
f
bu
=
c c
0.85 f
The connection should be detailed so that the
reaction, the centre of compression and the centre of
the diagonal bars meet at a common point, as shown
in Fig. 4.13.4. The compressive force, C
f
, is assumed
to act at a distance a/2 from the top of the bearing
plate.
a =
f
bu
C
bf

C
f
=
f
f
N (h d)
1.3V tan
d a 2

For most designs, the horizontal reinforcement, A
n
, is
placed very close to the bottom of the steel bar. Thus,
the term (h d) can be assumed to be equal to zero.
It is recommended that stirrups in the beam end be
designed to carry the total shear.

Fig. 4.13.4 Loov Hanger
Example 4.14 Design of a Loov Hanger
Given:
Hanger is similar to that shown in Fig. 4.13.4
= 35 MPa (both member and support)
c
f
V
f
= 100 kN
N
f
= 20 kN
b
1
= 150 mm
= 20
Problem:
Size the hanger connections.
Solution:
A
sh
=
3
2 f
s y
1.3V (1.3)(100)(10 )
407 mm
f cos
(0.85)(400)cos20
= =

Use 2 15M bars A
s
= 400 mm
2
(close enough)
Minimum weld length, 15M bar, E49xx

electrode, from
Fig. 4.16.4 is 84 mm on 300 MPa plate.
Detail A
n
so it is near the bottom of the steel bar.
h d 0
A
n
=
2 f
y
N 20000
59 mm
f (0.85)(400)
= =

Use 10M = 100 mm
2
Provide end bearing plate as shown:
f
bu
=
c c
0.85 f (0.85)(0.7)(35MPa) =
= 20 .8MPa
C
f
= 1.3V
f
tan = (1.3)(100) tan 20 = 47 kN
Use plate width of 32 mm. Check distance a:
a =
f
bu
C 47000
71 mm
bf (32)(20.8)
= =
a/2 = 71/2 = 36 mm <40 mm

Fig. 4.14.1 Design relationships for connection angles
Fig. 4.14.2 Horizonal loads on connection angle
4.14 CONNECTION ANGLES
Angles used to support light precast elements can be
designed by statics as shown in Fig. 4.14.1.
In addition to the applied vertical and horizontal
loads, the design should include all loads induced by
restraint of movement.
The minimum thickness of axially loaded non-
gusseted angles (Fig. 4.14.2) can be calculated by:
t =
f
a y
4N g
f b

The minimum thickness of non-gusseted angles
loaded in shear, as shown in Fig. 4.14.3, may be
determined by:
t =
f v
a y
4V e
f b

Design e
v
= specified e
v
+ 20 mm.
The tension on the bolt may be determined by:
P
f
=
v
f
i
e
V
e

Fig. 4.14.3 Vertical loads on connection angle
4.14.1 Triangular Stiffener Design
See Fig. 4.14.4 for typical stiffener plate details.
Yielding along the free edge frequently occurs prior to
buckling and stress redistribution occurs within the
system. [9]
The design normal force, N
f
, is assumed to be
resisted by the top line of weld of the bearing seat
and has no impact on the design of the stiffener. A
ratio z has been established for triangular stiffeners
that relates average stress, , to the maximum
stress f
max
. See Fig. 4.14.5.
f
V /bt
z =
2 3
b b
1.39 2.2 1.27 0.25
a a

+

b
a

The design strength is limited when the free edge
reaches the materials yield strength:
V
r
=
a y
f zbt
To ensure yielding along the free edge, the following
limits should be satisfied:
If
b
0.75 1.0
a
, then
y
b 650
t
f

If
b
1.0 2.0
a
, then
y
b
650
a b
t
f

Fig. 4.14.4 Triangular stiffener
Fig. 4.14.5 Triangular stiffener design limits
Example 4.15 Triangular stiffener analysis
Given:
The stiffened seat
connection is shown at
right.
Stiffener thickness, t =
10 mm f
y
= 300 MPa

Problem:
Determine the design
shear resistance of the
stiffener.

Solution:

b
a
=
200
0.80
250
=
that is > 0.75 and < 1.0
y
b 650 650
must be 37.5
t
f 300
= =

b
t
=
200
20 37.5 OK
10
= <
z =
2 3
b b b
1.39 2.2 1.27 0.25
a a a
| | | | | |
+
| | |
\ . \ . \ .

=
2 3
1.39 2.2(0.80) 1.27(0.80) 0.25(0.80) +
= 0.315
V
r
=
y
f zbt (0.85)(300)(0.315)(200)(10) =
= 161 kN
4.14.2 Non-Triangular Stiffener Design
The non-triangular stiffened beam seat is designed
based on the recommendations of Reference [9].
The minimum stiffener thickness to ensure yielding
along the leading free edge shown below. [8]
t =
y
b f
250

Using the minimum thickness, the nominal strength of
the stiffener may be determined using a combined
load analogy. The nominal normal force, N
f
shown in
Fig. 4.14.6, is assumed to be resisted by the top line
of weld on the bearing seat and has no impact on the
design of the stiffener.
According to [8], bearing stress, f
bu
, at outer edge of
stiffener must satisfy:

bu
f =
f
f
a y
b
M
V 2
1.5 f
A I
| |
|
\ .
+

a y
(1.5)f =
f
f
3
b b
V e
2 2 V
tb
tb /12
( | |
| (
\ .
+
Fig. 4.14.6 Non-triangular stiffener

V
r
=
a y
3
(1.5)f
b b
e
1 2 2
tb
tb /12
| |
|
\ .
+

The stiffener thickness required based on an applied
load is:
t =
f
2
a y
b
6 e
1 1 2
V
b (1.5)f
b
( | |
| (
\ .
(
+
(
(

Example 4.16 Non-triangular stiffener analysis
Given:
The stiffened beam seat shown.
Stiffener thickness, t = 10 mm
f
y
= 300 MPa

Problem:
Determine the design
shear resistance of the
stiffener.

Solution:
a y
r
3
(1.5)f
V
b b
e
1 2 2
b(t)
t b /12
=
| |
|
\ .
+

3
(0.9)(1.5)(300)
150 150
115
1 2 2
(150)(10)
(10)(150) /12
234 kN
=
| || |
| |
\ .\ .
+
=

4.15 COLUMN BASE CONNECTIONS
Column base plates and anchor bolts must be
designed for erection and service loads. Erection
loads are often critical.
4.15.1 Base Plates
Many column base plate details are used. Two typical
base plate details are shown in Fig. 4.15.1.
The base plate thickness, required to satisfy bending
for columns where all anchor bolts are in
compression and the base plate is not grouted, is
determined by:
t
c
a y
( F)4x
f b

The base plate thickness, for columns where the
anchor bolts on one or both of the column faces are
in tension, is determined by:
t
t
a y
( F)4x
f b

The base plate thickness for columns where the
thickness is controlled by bearing on concrete or
grout, is determined by:
t
c 1 c
o
a y
2 f
x
f

=

The factored shear resistance of a column base plate
can be determined by:
V
r
=
a y
0.66f bt
Though this seldom controls.
Fig. 4.15.1 Column base connections

Fig. 4.15.2 Metric fastener thread data
Diameter pitch combinations
Nominal diameter
D (mm)
Thread pitch
P (mm)
10 1.5
12 1.75
14 2.0
16 2.0
20 2.5
22 2.5
24 3.0
27 3.0
30 3.5
36 4.0
42 4.5
Note: Local availability of metric sizes should be checked.
Fig. 4.15.3 Imperial fastener thread data
Nominal bolt size, inches
D
Threads per inch
n
1/2 13
5/8 11
3/4 10
7/8 9
1 8
1 1/8 7
1 1/4 7
1 3/8 6
1 1/2 6
Note: Dimensions according to ANSI B18.2.1
Thread dimensions according to ANSI B1.1
4.15.2 Anchor Rods
The following equations are used to determine
anchor rod diameters.
The factored tensile resistance [6] shall be taken as:
T
r
=
ar
A
n
F
u

ar
= 0.67
A
n
= the tensile stress area of the rods
=
2
(D 0.938P)
4
for metric rod

=
2
0.974
(D )
4 n
for imperial rod

P = the pitch of thread, mm (Fig. 4.15.2)
n = number of threads per inch (Fig. 4.15.3)
D = diameter of the rod
A list of commonly used anchor rod materials are
found in Fig. 4.15.4.
The factored shear resistance [6] shall be determined
by:

r
V = 0.60
ar
a
r
F
u

Fig. 4.15.4 Anchor rod materials
Specification f
y
(MPa) F
u
(MPa)
CSA G30.18 M1992 (R2002)

400 R 400 620

400 W 400 620
CSA G40.21-04

300 W 300 450

350 W 350 450

380 W 380 480

400 W 400 520

480 W 480 590

550 W 550 620
ASTM F1554-04

36 248 400

55
(1)
380 517

105
(2)
724 862
(1)Weldable grade 55 must be specified.
(2)Grade 105 is not weldable.
When the rod threads are intercepted by the shear
plane, the factored shear resistance shall be taken as
70% of
r
V .
An anchor rod required to develop resistance to both
tension and shear shall be proportioned [6] so that:
2 2
f f
r r
V T
1
V T

+

f
V is the portion of the total shear per rod transmitted
by bearing of the anchor rods on the concrete.
An anchor rod, required to develop resistance to both
tension and bending, shall be proportioned to meet
the requirement of S16 Clause 13.9(a). The tensile
and moment resistance, T
r
and M
r
, shall be based on
the properties of the cross section at the critical
section:
f f
r r
T M
1.0
T M
+
When the rods are near a free edge, the buckling of
the rods before grouting must be considered.
Confinement reinforcement, as shown in Fig. 4.15.1,
should be provided. A minimum of 4-10M ties at
75mm spacing is recommended.
Anchor rods must be fully developed in the concrete
per A23.3 Clause 15.9.3.2. The methods shown in
Sect. 4.11 can be used to determine rod capacity
governed by concrete failure.
Fig. 4.15.5 Typical anchor rods
The pullout capacity can be increased using hooks,
nuts or plates as shown in Fig. 4.15.5. The bottom of
anchor rods should be a minimum of 100mm above
the bottom of a footing, and above the footing
reinforcement.
As Annex D of A23.3 is not mandatory, testing can
also be used to confirm pullout strength.
Compression on anchor rods during erection can be
substantially reduced using steel shims. The required
area of the shims can be determined by calculating
the bearing resistance of the concrete.
4.16 WELDING
4.16.1 Welding of Steel Plates
The welding of steel plates is governed by S16.
Typically precast connections are welded using fillet
welds. See Fig. 4.16.1 for capacities. See CISC [6]
for more information.
4.16.2 Welding of Reinforcing Bars
Welding of reinforcement is a practical method of
developing force transfer in many connections.
Typical reinforcing bar welds are shown in Fig.
4.16.2.
The welding of reinforcing bars is governed by W186.
Fig. 4.16.1 Factored shear resistance of equal leg
fillet welds for each mm of weld length
Fillet weld size
(mm)
Factored resistance
V
r
(kN/mm)
5
6
8
10
12
14
16
0.78
0.93
1.24
1.56
1.87
2.18
2.49
Note: E49xx electrode
S16 Clause 13.13.2.2
V
r
= 0.67
w
A
w
X
u
(1.0 + 0.5sin
1.5
)

w
= 0.67
A
w
= effective throat area of weld
X
u
= ultimate strength as rated by the electrode
classification number
(1.0+ 0.5sin
1.5
) has been conservatively taken
as equal to 1
Weldability of a bar is a function of its carbon
equivalent. Carbon equivalents should be limited to:
0.55% for 20M and smaller bars,
0.45% for 25M and larger bars
Carbon equivalent, C.E., is calculated using:
C.E. =
%Mn %Ni %Cr
%C
6 20 10
+ + +
Rebar should not be welded when mill reports are not
available or when the chemical composition of the
bars is not known.
Common considerations in the design and detailing of
welded bar connections are:
1. Welding should not be performed within two bar
diameters of a bent portion of a bar.
2. Allowance should be made for the thermal
expansion of steel to avoid concrete spalling or
cracking when welding bars to structural shapes
that are embedded in concrete.
When item 2 is a concern, adequate confinement
reinforcement should be provided in the immediate
area or a compressible material should be placed
around the steel plate to allow for expansion.
The size of fillet welds for full capacity of a reinforcing
bar welded to a plate is shown in Fig. 4.16.3. The
required length of a flare bevel groove weld, to
develop the full strength of the reinforcing bar, is
shown in Fig. 4.16.4. Reference should be made to
W186 for further background information on the
design and detailing of welded bar connections.

Fig. 4.16.2 Typical reinforcing bar welds


Fig 4.16.3 Fillet welds
Bar size
Size of weld
(mm)
Minimum
thickness of
248W plate
(mm)
Minimum
thickness of
300W plate
(mm)
10M
15M
20M
25M
30M
35M
6
8
10
13
15
18
5
7
8
10
12
15
4
6
7
9
10
12
Note: Table is based on 400W reinforcing bar and E49xx
electrodes.

s
= 0.85 (Non seismic)

w
=
p
= 0.63
Fig 4.16.4 Flare bevel groove welds
Bar size
Length of weld
on 248 MPa plate
(mm)
Length of weld
on 300 MPa plate
(mm)
10M
15M
20M
25M
30M
35M
72
102
125
161
191
228
60
84
103
133
158
188
Note: Table is based on 400W reinforcing bar and E49xx
electrodes.

s
= 0.85 (Non seismic)

w
= 0.63
This is based on the effective throat thickness assumed
by W186. Under Clause 6.6.2.5 the manufacturers
procedures may be qualified by the Canadian Welding
Bureau to increase the effective throat thickness and
reduce the weld lengths shown.
4.17 MOMENT CONNECTIONS
Moment connections are sometimes required in
building frames as discussed in Sect. 2.6. Moment
resistance can be achieved using connections that
develop a force couple. Tensile capacity through the
connection can be developed by a variety of load
transfer devices. Rebar splices can be used to
replicate monolithic cast-in-place concrete.
When designing moment resistant connections,
restraint to creep, shrinkage and volume changes
must be considered. Designers should specify the
erection sequence when moment frames are relied
on for stability during the erection of precast
structures.
4.18 DOWEL CONNECTIONS
Dowel connections can provide an efficient solution in
certain situations. The strength of dowels depends on
dowel size, embedment length and the developed
bond.
Fig. 4.18.1 Grouted tube connection
Cement-based grouted dowels
Dowels may be placed in a hole and grouted to
provide the necessary connection, as shown in Fig.
4.18.1. For compression connections, the required
embedment length can be taken as the dowel
development length.
Recommended construction requirements for
cement-based grouted connection are as follows:
1. Dowel holes should have an internal diameter of
no less that three bar diameters. The grout to
concrete bond strength need only be one third
the grout to rebar bond when the hole is three
times as large.
2. Stay-in-place hole forms should be corrugated.
3. Non-shrink grout is recommended where dowel
connections are subjected to tensile loads.
4. Development length will depend on the specified
grout strength.
5. Confinement reinforcement, consisting of a
spiral or ties, may be required to prevent
concrete splitting or bond failure between the
conduit and the surrounding concrete.
6. Adjustments after initial set of the grout may
destroy the dowel bond and reduce the
connection strength.
Smooth formed ungreased dowel holes exhibit very
good bond to the concrete around the hole when

rebar dowels and non-shrink grout are used.
Typically, a rebar dowel will debond from the grout
before the grout plug will debond from the smooth
hole. Additional grout strength is realized because the
excess water of a sand cement grout is absorbed into
the surrounding concrete.
Epoxy grouted dowels
Epoxy adhesives can be used for anchoring dowels,
bolts, bars, or similar shapes into concrete. The
physical properties of epoxy compounds vary widely.
Their tensile strength is generally much larger than
that of cement grout. Refer to manufacturers
specifications for specific material properties and field
applications.
The thermal expansion coefficients of some epoxy
compounds can be seven times that of cement grout
or concrete.
Recommended requirements for epoxy connections
should be similar to cement grouted dowels.
Mortar filled steel sleeves
Steel sleeves, when filled as per the manufacturers
instruction with the specified grout, have been shown
to develop 150% or more of the yield strength of the
reinforcing steel being spliced. These splices are very
useful as seismic connections.
4.19 BOLTS AND THREADED
CONNECTORS
Various types of bolts and other threaded connectors
are used in connections of precast concrete elements
to achieve rapid assembly. It should be ensured that
the connection can be installed without field
modifications. Whenever possible, provide over-sized
or slotted openings in hardware to be fastened to
accommodate fabrication and construction tolerances
and to reduce volume change forces.
Designers should standardize all loose threaded
connectors to prevent accidental substitution during
construction.
The generic types of threaded connectors are:
Standard Bolts
Standard bolts, as defined here, are those satisfying
ASTM A307.
Design of standard bolts should be in accordance
with S16 and CISC [6]. Refer to Fig. 4.19.1 for
factored resistance of bolts.
High Strength Bolts
High strength bolts, identified as ASTM A325 and
ASTM A490, were developed for friction type
connections between structural steel elements.

Fig. 4.19.1 Factored shear and tensile resistances (kN / bolt),
b
= 0.80 [6]
Bolt size Factored shear resistance
(2)
single shear
(3)
(kN/bolt)
Metric
(1)
Imperial
Nominal
area A
b

(mm
2
)
Threads excluded Threads intercepted
(4)

Factored tensile resistance,
T
r
(kN/bolt)
A325 A490 A307 A325 A490 A307 A325 A490 A307
A325M A490M A325M A490M A325M A490M
1/2 127 50.3 63.1 35.2 44.2 62.9 78.9
5/8 198 78.4 98.4 39.3 45.9 68.9 27.5 98.0 123 49.2
M16 201 80.1 100 56.1 70.2 100 125
3/4 285 113 142 56.6 79.0 99.1 39.6 141 177 70.8
M20 314 125 157 87.6 110 156 196
M22 380 151 190 106 133 189 237
7/8 388 154 193 77.1 108 135 54.0 192 241 96.4
M24 452 180 226 126 158 225 282
1 507 201 252 141 176 251 315
M27 573 228 286 160 200 285 358
1 1/8 641 223 318 156 223 279 398
M30 707 282 353 197 247 352 441
1 1/4 792 276 393 193 275 345 492
M36 1018 406 508 284 356 507 635
1 1/2 1140 397 566 278 396 496 708
(1) The number following the letter M is the nominal bolt diameter in millimeters.
(2) For long lap splices, see S16 Clause 13.12.1.1.
(3) For double shear, multiply tabulated values by 2.0.
(4) Threads are intercepted if thin material next to the nut is combined with detailing for minimum bolt sticking through the nut.

These bolts have more then twice the tensile
resistance of A307 bolts. Their application requires
controlled tensioning of the fastener to develop
sufficient force to prevent slipping of the connected
parts. Bolts must be tightened in accordance with
S16 to take full advantage of their high strength in
friction-type connections.
As a result of creep and minor crushing, it is unlikely
that high-strength bolts will hold their tension when
tightened against concrete. Some applications and
limitations are shown in Fig. 4.19.2.
High strength bolts are not weldable.
Threaded rods
Threaded rods of standard sizes and grades (both
mild steel and high strength steel) are sometimes
used in precast concrete connections. The most
common applications are for column base anchor
rods, beam-column connections and lateral
connections of architectural precast panels.
Coil bolts and rods
Coil bolts and rods are commonly used for precast
handling as they are less susceptible to thread
damage. Manufacturers specifications must be used
as they are not covered by standard specifications.
Due to the loose thread fit, they are not
recommended for final connections unless double
nuts are used.
4.20 CONNECTIONS FOR WALL PANELS
The multitude of sizes and shapes of precast, wall
panels has led to a variety of connections.
Your local CPCI member should be contacted for
more information.
The mass of the entire panel should be supported at
one level using two connections. Lateral alignment
connections, as required, should also be located near
the corners of the element.
Requirements of connections
Connections for load bearing wall panels are subject
to heavier and more varied loading than those for
non-load bearing wall panels. The connections form
an essential part of the structural support system.
Panels may be required to resist one or more of the
following:
1. Panel self weight.
2. Roof and floor loads.
3. Wind, seismic or earth pressure loads.
Fig. 4.19.2 Application of high-strength bolts
4. Effects of volume changes (shrinkage, creep,
temperature).
5. Abnormal loads such as blast loads.
Vertical joint connections
To assure lateral force transfer between adjacent wall
panels, vertical joint connections must be able to
transfer direct tension and compression in
combination with vertical shear. Fig. 4.20.1 illustrates
forces at vertical joints for coupled and uncoupled
wall panels.
There are several types of connections that can
transfer loads across vertical joints. Mechanical
fasteners are the most popular type of joint
connection used in precast bearing wall structures.
Connections may consist of cast-in steel sections or
inserts at panel joints fastened together by bolting or
welding, as seen in Fig. 4.20.2. These connections
have low to moderate shear resistance, but are
considerably less expensive to install than keyed
connections and are preferred for exposed walls
where they may be hidden in grouted recesses.

Fig. 4.20.1 Lateral force transfer in shear walls
Fig. 4.20.2 Panel to panel shear connection

Horizontal joint connections
Horizontal panel joints usually occur at each floor
level and at the junction of foundations or transfer
beams. Connections at these joints will often perform
multiple functions: support of gravity loads from floor
elements, transfer of horizontal shear, and resistance
of tension/compression forces due to lateral loads.
Typical floor to wall panel arrangement in high-rise
precast construction is illustrated in Fig. 4.20.3.
Hollow core floor slabs are supported directly on the
lower wall panel unit with an end gap of 50 to 70 mm.
The gap and a portion of the core can be filled with a
flowable grout. The upper wall unit is supported by a
continuous bed of dry pack grout.
Vertical reinforcement is generally spliced at the
horizontal joints as illustrated in Figs. 4.20.8 to
4.20.10. This vertical reinforcement provides
resistance to in-plane shear and provides shear
friction reinforcement across the joint.
The vertical tension tie shown in Fig. 4.20.9 uses a
pipe sleeve that is grouted with an expansive grout
after the upper element is aligned and braced. Tests
have shown that these splices develop the full
strength of the bar.
Fig. 4.20.10 illustrates a typical post-tensioned bar
vertical tie. Bars are tensioned at the top of each
panel. Threaded couplers are used to connect bars in
the panels above.

Fig. 4.20.3 Cross sections of interior and exterior platform type wall-to-floor connections
Fig. 4.20.4 Slab to shear wall connection

Fig. 4.20.5 Double tee to shear wall connection


Fig. 4.20.6 Floor to bearing wall connections
Fig. 4.20.7 Roof to bearing wall connection
Floor to wall shear connections
Other methods must be used to transfer vertical load
and horizontal diaphragm forces where floor
elements are not directly incorporated into the
horizontal joint of the wall panel. Examples of
connections used in multi storey shear wall
structures are illustrated in Figs. 4.20.4 to 4.20.7.
Wall to foundation connections
Typical wall panel to foundation connections are
often similar to the tensile connections shown in
Figs. 4.20.8 to 4.20.10.
Fig. 4.20.8 Vertical bar splice using weld angle


Fig. 4.20.9 Grouted sleeve tension tie

Fig. 4.20.10 Post-tensioned vertical tie

4.21 REFERENCES:
[1] Iverson, J .K. and Pfeifer, D.W., Criteria for
Design of Bearing Pads, Technical Report TR4-
85 Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, PCI
J OURNAL, Vol.30, No.5, Sept - Oct 1985.
[2] Kriz, L. B., and Raths, C. H., Connections in
Precast Concrete Structures Strength of
Corbels, PCI J OURNAL, Vol. 10, No. 1, February
1965.
[3] Mattock, A. H., Design Proposals for Reinforced
Concrete Corbels, PCI J OURNAL, Vol. 21, No. 3,
May - J un 1976.
[4] Anderson, Neal S., and Meinheit, Donald F.,
Design Criteria for Headed Stud Groups in Shear:
Part 1 Steel Capacity and Back Edge Effects,
PCI J OURNAL, Vol. 45, No. 5, Sept - Oct 2000.
[5] Loov, Robert, A Precast Beam Connection
Designed for Shear and Axial Load, PCI
J OURNAL, Vol. 13, No. 3, J une 1968.
[6] Handbook of Steel Construction, Canadian
Institute of Steel Construction, Eighth Edition.
[7] Marcakis, K., and Mitchell, D., Precast Concrete
Connections with Embedded Steel Members, PCI
J OURNAL, Vol. 25, No. 4, J ul - Aug 1980.
[8] Manual of Steel Construction Load and
Resistance Factor Design, Third Edition,
American Institute of Steel Construction,
Chicago, IL, 2001.
[9] Salmon, Charles G., and J ohnson, J ohn E., Steel
Structures: Design and Behavior, Fourth Edition,
Harper and Collins, New York, NY, 1996.
CHAPTER 5
ARCHITECTURAL PRECAST CONCRETE
5.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 5-2
5.1.1 Checklist............................................................................................................. 5-2
5.1.2 Design Objectives............................................................................................... 5-4
5.1.3 Structural Design and Analysis .......................................................................... 5-5
5.2 NON-LOAD BEARING ELEMENTS................................................................................ 5-5
5.2.1 General............................................................................................................... 5-5
5.2.2 Deformation........................................................................................................ 5-6
5.2.3 Crack Control...................................................................................................... 5-7
5.3 SPANDRELS................................................................................................................... 5-7
5.3.1 Non-load Bearing Spandrels .............................................................................. 5-7
5.3.2 Effect of Cantilever Supports.............................................................................. 5-7
5.4 COLUMN COVERS......................................................................................................... 5-8
5.4.1 General............................................................................................................... 5-8
5.4.2 Design Guidelines .............................................................................................. 5-9
5.5 LOAD BEARING ELEMENTS ......................................................................................... 5-9
5.5.1 General............................................................................................................... 5-9
5.5.2 Design Considerations ..................................................................................... 5-10
5.5.3 Order of Solution.............................................................................................. 5-11
5.5.4 Load Bearing Spandrels................................................................................... 5-11
5.6 SANDWICH PANELS.................................................................................................... 5-12
5.6.1 Non-Composite Design.................................................................................... 5-12
5.6.2 Composite Design............................................................................................ 5-13
5.6.3 Curing............................................................................................................... 5-13
5.6.4 Flexural Analysis .............................................................................................. 5-13
5.6.5 Insulation.......................................................................................................... 5-13
5.6.6 Bond Breakers.................................................................................................. 5-13
5.6.7 Vapour Barriers ................................................................................................ 5-13
5.6.8 Wythe Design................................................................................................... 5-13
5.6.9 Element Size .................................................................................................... 5-14
5.6.10 Wythe Connectors............................................................................................ 5-14
5.6.11 General Architectural Design Considerations .................................................. 5-17
5.7 AESTHETIC AND BUILDING ENVELOPE CONSIDERATIONS.................................. 5-17
5.7.1 General............................................................................................................. 5-17
5.8 VENEER FACED ELEMENTS ...................................................................................... 5-19
5.8.1 General............................................................................................................. 5-19
5.8.2 Reinforcement.................................................................................................. 5-20
5.8.3 Natural Stone.................................................................................................... 5-21
5.8.4 Structural Clay Products................................................................................... 5-23
5.9 PRECAST CONCRETE USED AS FORMS ................................................................. 5-28
5.9.1 General............................................................................................................. 5-28
5.9.2 Design............................................................................................................... 5-28
5.9.3 Construction Considerations ............................................................................ 5-28
5.10 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 5-29

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Architectural precast concrete products are precast
concrete units or elements that, through finish, shape,
colour and/or texture, define the architectural
aesthetics and function of a structure.
Architectural precast concrete units can range from
simple flat panels to complex, three dimensional,
multi-textured, multifaceted shapes that can serve not
only as cladding (non-load bearing walls), but also
combine their attractive appearance with their ability
to serve as structural (load bearing) elements.
Among the many applications for architectural
precast concrete, a distinction can be made between
load bearing and non-load bearing elements:
1. A non-load bearing (cladding) element is one
that can be removed from the structure without
any consequence to the structural integrity of the
structure. Although non-load bearing units are
normally provided only for the purpose of
separating environments, they are subjected to
externally applied loads, such as those due to
wind and earthquake.
2. A load bearing element is one which resists and
transfers vertical and transverse loads applied
from other elements in the structure. A load
bearing element cannot be removed without
affecting the structural integrity or stability of the
structure as a whole or any of its parts.
Non-load bearing architectural elements can also be
made of glass fibre reinforced concrete. These
elements may consist of concrete containing alkali-
resistant glass fibres in combination with a
sand/cement slurry or standard aggregates
depending on the application method. This type of
unit can be fabricated to be lighter in weight than
conventional precast units but still accommodate the
same range of shapes and face mixes with numerous
variations in colour.
In composite construction, precast concrete elements
may be used as forms for cast-in-place concrete. This
solution is especially suitable for combining
architectural and structural functions in load bearing
facades.
5.1.1 Checklist
A thorough knowledge of architectural precast is
required for the precast to be utilized most efficiently
and successfully in the design. Knowledge of current
production and erection practices is an asset for the
design to be successfully implemented without major
modifications during construction.
The following is a checklist of factors that the
designer must consider in the design, manufacture
and erection of architectural precast concrete
elements.
Architectural and structural design considerations
1. Is the precast to be load bearing or non-load
bearing?
2. What finish is desired for the structure? For full
information on the many and varied types of
finishes available, contact CPCI, refer to the
CPCI Colour and Textures Guide, previous
projects or contact your local precast
manufacturers.
3. Architectural features such as reveals, ribs and
cornices should be sized to complement the
overall scale of the project.
4. What type of wall assembly is to be utilized
Insulated or non-insulated elements? Refer to
Sect. 5.6.
5. What are the building science requirements in
order for the precast to function with adjacent
materials?
Element size
1. Loading limitations of the structural frame
2. Production facilities form and plant size, plant
crane capacity, handling capabilities, finishing
capabilities
3. Transportation load limits, seasonal load limits,
overhead clearances, width restrictions, trailer
capacity, height, width, distance from project
site, and condition of roads to the site
4. Erection Crane size and type, traffic control,
access, layout and other prevailing site
conditions
5. Handling Crack control
Supporting structure
1. Type of structure, deflection criteria, acceptable
magnitude and location of loadings
2. Overall structural stability
3. Structural stability during erection
Standardization
Obtain maximum repetition of units to reduce overall
form and production costs.
Design of connections
Refer to Chap. 4 of this Manual.
Detailed design of elements
Refer to Chap. 2, Chap. 3, Chap. 4, Sect. 5.5.3, and
Chap. 6 of this Manual, the CMHC Best Practice
Guide for Architectural Precast Walls [1] and PCI
Architectural Precast Concrete [2] for:
1. concrete mix design and concrete design
strength
2. reinforcement: (prestressed or non-prestressed)
a) for structural performance in final position
b) for stripping, storage, transportation and
erection
3. design of connections, inserts, internal
hardware, lifting hardware, etc. for stripping,
storage, transportation and erection
4. thermal performance
5. building science requirements - jointing,
air/vapour barrier details, connection to adjacent
building materials
Shop drawings
For acceptable standards refer to the PCI
Architectural Precast Concrete Drafting
Handbook, [3] including:
1. erection drawings
2. connection details
3. anchor layout drawings
4. panel production drawings
5. hardware details
6. storage diagrams
7. drawings of special erection handling
procedures and equipment
Formwork
There are various types of formwork used in the
manufacture of architectural precast elements. These
include steel, wood, fibreglass, concrete,
polyurethane, foam and more. Ask your local CPCI
member for information on the various materials used
in the manufacture of architectural precast concrete.
Production
For information regarding materials to be used and
production methods to be followed, refer to A23.4.
The following items should be considered:
1. plant size, production capacity and lifting
capabilities
2. placement of hardware and reinforcement
3. inspection of forms, hardware and reinforcement
4. mixing, placing and consolidation of concrete
5. curing
6. stripping
7. finishing
8. storage methods and space
Quality control
Refer to A23.4 for complete information on the
requirements of quality control throughout the entire
production sequence.
Transportation
The transportation of the precast may be the limiting
factor when determining panel sizes for a structure.
The size of panels should however, be kept as large
as possible, in order to reduce erection costs and the
number of joints.
Refer to Sect. 3.9.5 for:
1. types of trailers
2. types of frames
3. support material
4. transportation limitations for weight, width and
height
For further detailed information on methods, materials
and equipment used in handling and transporting all
types of precast concrete units, consult your local
CPCI member precast manufacturers.
Erection
The designer must clearly envision the erection
process to utilize architectural precast concrete
successfully. The following are some of the basic
requirements for consideration:
1. Ensure unimpeded site access to accommodate
continuous erection.
2. Provide a working area and adequate storage
space.
3. Allow for a staging area for trailers and cranes.
4. Consider the types and capacities of erection
equipment in relation to unit weights and sizes.
5. Allow for the lifting, turning, rotating and tilting of
units, at the pickup point, the final location on the
structure and any location in between.
6. Provide layout points for the survey of the
structural frame, the location of cast-in hardware
and the final position of the precast on the
structure.
7. Consideration of the erection requirements for
the panels left off to accommodate the man-
hoist, etc.
Safety
Refer to local safety regulations.
Economy
When the project is in the design development
stages, the following economic considerations should
be reviewed:
1. Assess the costs associated with the design
complexity, production methods, transportation
distances, erection complexities and timing as it
relates to production, transportation and
erection.
2. Provide for progress payments for completed
units stored at the production facility to ensure
product is ready when needed and if project
delays are anticipated.
3. Evaluate the economic advantages of precast
concrete in initial building costs as well as long
term function, operation, maintenance and
building envelope costs.
Tolerances
For the aesthetic requirements of the design to be
met and fully appreciated, the following tolerances
should be carefully allowed for, reviewed and noted:
1. scale of design features
2. in-situ concrete or steel support structure
tolerances such as construction elevations, out
of plumb and plane, straightness, sway, creep,
and differential deflection
3. production tolerances with respect to
dimensions; skew, bowing and warping
4. erection tolerances:
a) the precast concrete unit clearances to the
supporting structure
b) precast concrete unit to precast concrete
unit spacing and joint size - refer to A23.4.
The total effect of all tolerances will be seen at the
joints in the final structure.
5.1.2 Design Objectives
The design objectives that apply to the design of
each individual precast element should be consistent
with the objectives of the complete project, of which
the architectural precast concrete is a part.
Structural integrity of the completed structure is the
primary objective. Deflections must be limited to
acceptable levels, and stresses limited to prevent
instability, reduced service life or premature failure of
an individual element or the structure as a whole.
The economics of the construction of the entire
project is another important design objective. The
designer should attempt to optimize the entire
structure and consider the advantages provided by
multi-functional precast concrete elements. The
designer should be aware of the major economies
offered by standardization or repetition. Consideration
must also be given to the cost of large versus small
elements, bearing in mind, weight limitations in the
production facility, during transportation, site crane
lifting capacity and location.
The economics of the overall operation and
maintenance of the structure should also be factored
into the costs of the project. The maintenance of the
precast components will be low in comparison to
other materials as precast is a very durable product.
The aim of repetition in the design is to reduce costs
by increasing plant productivity. Repetition means
fewer forms and a subsequent reduction in form
construction costs. Production-line manufacturing can
be implemented in the plant when a particular casting
sequence is repeated each day, leading to
improvements in efficiency through the repeated
operations of familiar tasks. Handling, storage and
delivery are simplified with subsequent reductions in
the risk of errors. Site efficiency is also improved
through the repetition of familiar erection sequences.
These benefits can only be achieved if there is a high
degree of repetition in the design and production of
the precast elements.
Often, in the initial design stage, a high degree of
repetition appears possible, however as the design
details are finalized, very strict discipline is required
by the designer to avoid the creation of a large
number of non-repetitive elements. Any budget costs
given at the initial design stage should take into
account the possibility that the number of non-
repetitive elements may increase as the design
progresses. If non-repetitive units are unavoidable,
the increase in costs can be minimized when the
elements can be cast from a master mold with simple
modifications. This eliminates the need for
completely new forms. In general, it is easier to alter
a form if the variations can be contained within the
total form envelope. This can be accomplished
through the use of bulkheads or block outs. Cutting
into the form surface should be avoided, if possible,
and done only as a last resort.
The term "standard" is difficult to define, but elements
cannot truly be described as standard unless they are
identical in every respect. Even relatively minor
variations, such as the positions of connections, are
sufficient to make an element non-standard (non-
repetitive). Most manufacturers expect and allow for
some variations, and will normally accept minor
changes to standard elements without an increase in
price.
5.1.3 Structural Design and Analysis
Architectural precast concrete construction can be
considered in three parts:
1. the precast elements individually
2. the support system(s) for the precast elements,
such as beams, slabs, walls, columns, and
foundations
3. the connections that serve to attach the
individual precast elements to its support system
The design of the architectural precast elements and
the structure involves the transfer of load,
considerations of stability and the potential for
movement of the element and/or the structure.
The designer should consider the potential causes of
movement of an element. These include shrinkage,
expansion and contraction due to temperature and
moisture changes, and elastic and creep
deformations resulting from stresses within the
element.
The potential for movement of the structure should
consider the above-mentioned causes in addition to
movement due to gravity, wind and seismic loads,
foundation effects, short and long term deflection and
differential settlement.
The potential for movement can be determined by
analysis, and provisions should be made to
accommodate these movements.
The structural design of an architectural precast
concrete element requires the determination of all
loads that will act on the precast element. This
includes consideration of the following:
1. stresses induced during the stripping, handling,
transportation, and erection processes
2. strain gradients across the thickness of the
element (stresses induced by the restraint of
bowing due to thermal and moisture differentials
and non-uniform curing can be significant)
3. forces that may develop in the precast elements
and the connections due to restrained volume
changes and distortion of the structural frame
4. the deflection response of the precast elements
under the action of:
a) dead and live loads
b) wind and seismic loads
c) thermal loads
5. specified tolerances for the support structure
and those allowed for in the manufacturing and
installation of the precast elements for precast
production and installation
6. acceptable crack locations and crack widths
should be determined (while it is preferable to
have crack-free units, it is common to have
cracks in precast units)
7. historical performance of various types of
connections
The designer should recognize that loads and
behaviour cannot be established precisely,
particularly with elements continuously subjected to
the environment. The imprecise nature of design
loads will generally not affect the design of the
element provided that the above factors have been
considered, and provided that reasonable values
have been established in accordance with the
requirements of the relevant building codes.
The designer must pay close attention to the
allowable tolerances for the structural system. This is
particularly important for isolated elements forming
long vertical lines, such as column covers, where any
deviation from the vertical is readily noticeable.
All non-load bearing elements should be designed to
accommodate movement freely and, whenever
possible, without redundant supports, except where
provisions are necessary to partially restrain bowing.
Extremely high loads may be induced if bowing is
completely restrained.
5.2 NON-LOAD BEARING ELEMENTS
5.2.1 General
Non-load bearing elements are cladding elements
only. They are designed to resist wind forces, seismic
forces generated from their self-weight, and the
forces required to transfer the weight of the element
to the structural support system. Although service
loads, wind loads and seismic forces do frequently
produce the maximum stresses, the forces imposed
during the manufacturing, handling and erection
processes will usually govern the design due to the
lower strength of the concrete. Seismic forces will
generally govern connection design, but will usually
result in element stresses less than those imposed
during unit manufacture and handling.
5.2.2 Deformation
The relationship between the deformation of the
elements and the supporting structure must be
evaluated, and care taken to prevent unintended
restraints and imposed loads due to these
deformations. Deformations of the supporting
structure that induce unintended loading of the
precast elements may be caused by deflection due to
the weight of the precast elements, volumetric
changes of the structural frame, and torsion of
spandrel beams. To prevent imposing loads on the
elements, the connections must be designed and
installed to permit unrestrained deformations.
Behaviour of a series of elements supported on a
flexible beam is shown in Fig. 5.2.1. The tendency for
the elements with two gravity load bearing
connections to deflect with the beam may cause
unintended restraint forces to develop in the
longitudinal direction. Alternatively, this problem could
be resolved by providing a single bearing connection
for each element. This illustrates the need for the
precast designer to provide for vertical deformations
of the supporting beam.
The most prevalent cause of element deformation
after placement on the structure is bowing due to
thermal variations or gradients within the element.
This will generally cause elements to bow outward.
The elements will not be subjected to stresses if
supported in a manner that will permit deformation to
occur unrestrained, and assuming a homogeneous
material and linear temperature distribution. If an
element is restrained laterally at mid span, such
restraint may induce significant element stresses. It is
generally better to hang an element from its top than
support it at the bottom because the moment induced
by the eccentricity of the load bearing connections is
opposite to that of the predominant thermal gradient.

Fig. 5.2.1 Deformation of elements on flexible
beam
Bowing of elements while in a horizontal orientation
before erection can be caused by:
1. differential shrinkage due to evaporation from
the top face of the element while the lower face
is maintained at 100% humidity,
2. deflection due to self-weight and the position of
the support points,
3. deflection due to a temperature gradient
between faces (e.g., storage orientation), or
4. deflections due to creep of the concrete in
incorrectly stacked elements and variations in
the length of time in the storage yard.
Non-load bearing elements should be designed and
installed so that they do not restrain the structural
frame from lateral translation. If such restraint is
developed, significant diagonal tension and
compression may occur, as indicated in Fig. 5.2.2. To
prevent this, precast elements that are installed
between components of the structural frame should
be connected at the top and bottom only and left free
along the sides. The space tolerance required for
erection will usually be sufficient to prevent contact
during lateral deformation of the frame.
precasters sometimes prestress the section
eccentrically to counteract the bowing. It is
recommended that the prestress force in an element,
after all losses, be limited to the range of 1 to 6 MPa.
Transverse reinforcement may be required to prevent
longitudinal splitting of the concrete parallel to the
prestressing strands.
Fig. 5.2.2 Element forces induced by frame
distortion
When short elements are pretensioned, care must be
taken to ensure that adequate bond transfer length is
provided for the strands. For a discussion on transfer
lengths, see Sect. 3.4.9.
5.3 SPANDRELS
The vertical shortening of concrete columns should
be considered in tall structures. At intermediate
levels, the differential shortening between two
adjacent floors will be negligible, and the element will
follow the frame movement. At the lowest level, if the
element is rigidly supported at the base, the
accumulated shortening of the structure above may
induce loading of the lower element due to
unintended stacking. The connections and horizontal
joint widths should be designed to accommodate all
column shortening. A similar situation may result
when two adjacent columns have significantly
different loads.
5.3.1 Non-load Bearing Spandrels
Spandrels are precast elements that are less than
one storey in height, made up of either a series of
individual elements or as one element extending
between columns. Load bearing support for
spandrels should be located at the floor level near
columns or on the actual columns. Lateral restraint
for eccentric loading can be achieved using
connections to the floor structure (Fig. 5.3.1) or to the
columns behind at the top and bottom of the
elements.
Spandrels are usually part of a window wall system.
The vertical deflections, rotations and the twisting of
the spandrels should be limited to accommodate the
requirements of the window system.
Non-load bearing elements that contain openings
may develop stress concentrations at these openings
resulting from unintended loading or restrained
bowing. While these stress concentrations may be
partially controlled through the use of reinforcement,
the designer should always try to eliminate imposed
restraints. Areas of abrupt changes in cross section
should be well reinforced to resist these stress
concentrations.
Special provisions should be made for slender
elements, which are defined as elements in which the
spacing of lateral support of the compression zone
exceeds 50 times the compression flange thickness.
The figure 50 is based on the criteria outlined in
A23.3 and is somewhat conservative. [4]
5.2.3 Crack Control
The factored resistance of the lateral support should
be a minimum of 2% of the factored force in the
compression zone.
While it is desirable to manufacture and erect
elements that are crack-free, the design of non-load
bearing elements will often be governed by the
limiting crack width. Sect. 3.4.2 discusses allowable
tensile stresses and crack widths in concrete.
5.3.2 Effect of Cantilever Supports
Consideration should also be given to spandrels that
are hung at the ends of long cantilevered supports.
The designer must verify the effects of deflection and
rotation of the support structure, including the effects
of creep, and design all attachments to accommodate
these effects (Fig. 5.3.2). A particularly critical
condition can occur at the corners of buildings where
a cantilever exists on one or both faces.
Cracking can also be controlled by introducing pre-
stressing, using either pretensioning or post-
tensioning. In either case, the prestress force should
generally be concentric with the effective cross
section to minimize out-of-plane deformations. For
thin sections (75 mm to 100 mm thick) that may be
subjected to undesirable bowing, experienced

Fig. 5.3.1 Typical spandrel connections
Fig. 5.3.2 Effect of cantilever supports
5.4 COLUMN COVERS
5.4.1 General
The use of precast concrete elements as covers over
steel or cast-in-place concrete columns, beams, and
as mullions, is a common method of achieving
architectural expression, special shapes, and specific
finishes in an economical manner. When used over
steel columns and beams, the precast may provide

the required fire rating without resorting to further
protection of the steel (see Sect. 6.3). When used
over cast-in-place concrete columns and beams,
precast will often provide a uniform finish in
combination with special architectural shapes, all in
an economical manner. The interior surface of the
precast may be readily insulated, minimizing the
differential temperature variation through the concrete
section. Column covers can be multi-functional,
providing space for services and for the attachment of
vertical window-washing equipment. For a further
discussion of beam covers (spandrels) see Sect. 5.3.
Column covers are generally supported by the
structural column or the floor, and are usually
designed to carry no vertical load other than their own
weight. The vertical load of each length of column
cover section is usually supported at one elevation,
and tied back top and bottom to the floors for lateral
load transfer and stability. Connections must allow for
relative horizontal movement between floors. This
may cause the column cover to apply varying loads
between bearing connections. Column covers are
usually designed to be as long as possible. The
length is dependent upon transportation and lifting
limitations, architectural considerations, and upon the
ability of the structure to locally support a specific
concentrated load (element weight).
5.4.2 Design Guidelines
Column covers and mullions are usually a major focal
point in a structure. The following are some items that
the designer should consider:
1. The allowable tolerances for the structural
system: This is particularly important for column
covers and mullions since, as isolated elements,
they often form a long vertical line and any
deviation from a vertical plane is readily visible.
Invariably, this deviation is the result of the
allowable tolerances associated with the
structural steel and/or cast-in-place concrete
frames. These deviations can be compensated
for by precast connections with sufficient
adjustment. This need for adjustment must be
recognized during design, and clearances
should be established that will reflect realistic
construction tolerances. The designer should
anticipate a planned clearance of at least 25
mm, however 40 mm is more common between
precast elements and the structure. For steel
columns, the designer should also consider the
additional clearances required around splice
plates to accommodate the projecting bolt heads
and nuts.
2. Support for vertical loads should be provided at
only one level. Support for horizontal loads and
for stability should be provided at additional
levels as required.
3. Column covers and mullions that project from
the facade will be subjected to loads imposed by
shearing winds. Connections designed to
provide a horizontal moment resisting couple are
required to resist these forces.
4. The effects of temperature and humidity change
must be considered.
5. The width of horizontal joints between stacked
precast column covers should be sufficient to
accommodate elastic shortening of the structural
frame.
6. The designer must clearly envision the erection
process. Column cover connections are, by their
location, often difficult to reach and, once made,
difficult to adjust.
7. Insulation may be placed on the interior face of
the column cover or, alternatively, it may be

applied to the structural column directly. A
minimum setting clearance of 20 mm between
precast and insulation, or insulation and
structure is required. Connection details must be
chosen to accommodate either configuration.
8. Column covers or mullions may be combined
with adjacent spandrels to minimize joints where
possible.
9. Where uniformity of architectural finish is
required on two or three sides of a column
cover, the designer must be aware of the
manufacturing limitations of achieving this with
certain types of finishes, and should be guided
by a CPCI member manufacturer regarding the
feasibility of these requirements. For example, to
ensure uniformity of finish, it may be necessary
to stage-cast L or U-shaped elements with quirk
mitre joints. Vertical legs over 300 mm high will
generally require separate face down casting.
5.5 LOAD BEARING ELEMENTS
5.5.1 General
The design and structural behaviour of exterior
architectural precast concrete bearing wall elements
is dependent upon many factors. These include the
shape and configuration of the elements, the
magnitude of applied gravity and lateral loads, and
the manner by which loads are transferred between
elements. The capability of the individual element
components to resist shear, axial force and flexure
affect the element design.
The design of architectural precast elements is not
significantly different from the design of two-
dimensional frames. Once they have been isolated
and taken as free bodies, elements can be designed
using the applicable codes and standard procedures.
Design examples are included in Chap. 3.
Architectural precast concrete elements used as
exterior load bearing walls can be classified as either
flat or ribbed. Both flat and ribbed elements may have
window, door, or other openings.
Fig. 5.5.1 illustrates three types of ribbed elements.
The element of Fig. 5.5.1(a) is a horizontal
Vierendeel truss window mullion element, while the
other elements are vertical window mullion elements.
Fig. 5.5.1 Horizontal and vertical ribbed
elements
Whether the architectural element of the exterior wall
is placed horizontally or vertically depends primarily
upon handling and erection requirements and the
methods or details selected for making connections.
A horizontal Vierendeel truss type element lends itself
to simple handling since it is shipped in its erected
orientation, requires gravity load connections at each
floor level, and requires a minimum of erection
bracing.
A two-storey vertical element requires additional
erection handling and, because of its projected height
during erection, demands more sophisticated erection
procedures.
Shipping and erection requirements and the design of
the connections are factors that will play a part in
determining the element size and configuration. An
element can only be as large as can be shipped,
handled and hoisted with the available erection
equipment, and within the allowable design capacity
of the connections.
5.5.2 Design Considerations
Wall elements are subjected to loads applied in the
vertical and horizontal directions. Loads in the
horizontal direction may be both parallel to and
normal to the plane of the wall. Vertical loads are
usually parallel to the plane of the wall and are
applied at an eccentricity influenced by the geometry
of the wall, the location of the connections, and
erection and manufacturing tolerances.
Manufacturing tolerances are due to panel alignment
such as out of plumb or horizontal displacement
relative to the wall. These may be to accommodate
tolerances in construction of the building structure.
See A23.4 for industry tolerances.
Lateral loads due to wind are applied perpendicular to
the plane of the wall. Lateral loads due to seismic can
occur both parallel to and perpendicular to the plane
of the wall. These loads cause lateral deflections,
reducing the vertical load carrying capacity of the
wall. Horizontal loads may be resisted by shear walls
and floor diaphragms.
Fig. 5.5.2 illustrates a special framing arrangement
that provides uniform distribution of loads to elements
on all sides of a structure. The uniform loading of the
perimeter by the floor and roof construction has the
advantage of resisting tension forces caused by
lateral loadings, and thus minimizes connection and
other hold-down requirements. Uniform distribution of
floor and roof loadings around the building's
perimeter also reduces differential creep deformation
of elements as discussed in Sect. 2.4. The effect of
cumulative loads on connections between elements
must be considered, as they may govern minimum
element dimensions.
The transfer of gravity loads between elements or
combinations of gravity and axial loads caused by
lateral loading can become the major factor
influencing the structural dimensions of an element
and the required connection details.
Often the size of the element will not be controlled by
the required concrete area for flexural design but by
the minimum dimensions for sealing elements at the
joints and for placing reinforcement. The required
space for handling devices, or the space required to
accommodate a variety of connection conditions may
also influence the minimum element thickness.
For most precast exterior bearing wall structures, the
gravity dead and live load condition will control
structural dimensions rather than load combinations
that include lateral loads.
Unless analysis or experience indicates otherwise,
both load bearing and non-load bearing elements
should be reinforced with an amount of reinforcing
steel, as specified in the appropriate building code,
and a reinforcement ratio () at least equal to =
0.001.
Fig. 5.5.2 Perimeter floor loading to exterior
element wall
5.5.3 Order of Solution
The order of solution can be divided into the following
categories:
1. Determine the design loads, both gravity and
lateral, applied to the elements as a whole, and
identify the areas subjected to the greatest
loading.
2. Select the size and shape of the wall elements.
This will be influenced by the architectural
details and location of the vertical and horizontal
element to element connections.
Development of connection details must
consider such questions as:
a) Do the details lend themselves to
standardization?
b) Will volume change deformations (creep,
shrinkage, and temperature) influence the
detail or the connection design?
c) Can the details be plant-produced within
the required tolerances to provide adequate
quality and strength?
d) Can the details be maintained in the field
within the required tolerances to provide
adequate quality and strength?
3. Review the preliminary size and shape of the
elements considering the desired architectural
finish and the production requirements for
stripping, general handling, storage, shipping
and erection.
4. Review the creep, shrinkage and temperature
behaviour of the building as a whole to ensure
that the structural behaviour of the elements is
not influenced adversely, and determine if non-
structural items such as partitions, glass, and
sealants will be affected.
5. Check proposed connection types and concepts
to determine their suitability and capability to
resist the various applied loads. In some cases,
local practice may suggest one type of
connection over another, for example, the use of
bolts rather than welds. Ensure that all
connections will be accessible, where required.
5.5.4 Load Bearing Spandrels
General
Load bearing spandrels are elements that support
floor or roof loads. Except for the magnitude and
location of these additional loads, the design
consideration for load bearing spandrels is the same
as for non-load bearing spandrels.
Loads
Load bearing spandrels support structural loads that
are generally applied eccentrically to the shear centre
of the element. A typical arrangement of spandrels
supporting a floor is shown in Fig. 5.5.3.
Fig. 5.5.3 Load bearing spandrel
Torsion due to eccentric loading must be resisted by
the spandrel itself, or by a horizontal couple
developed by the floor construction. To take care of
torsion in the floor construction, the details must
provide for a compressive force transfer at the top of
the floor, and a tensile force transfer at the bearing of
the precast floor element. The load path of these floor
forces must be followed through the structure, and
considered in the design of other elements in the
building. Even when torsion is resisted in this manner
in the completed structure, twisting of the spandrel
during construction must be considered.
If torsion cannot be removed by floor connections, the
spandrel should be designed for the induced
stresses.
5.6 SANDWICH PANELS
Sandwich panels are comprised of two concrete
wythes separated by a layer of insulation. Depending
on the design, an air space between a pervious
exterior wythe such as stone or masonry and the
insulation may be required. The introduction of an air
space behind the face wythe of concrete is not
necessary in concrete faced panels as the face wythe
is virtually impervious to water penetration.
Sandwich panels provide a means of transferring
load while insulating a structure. Panels may be
cladding elements, where they support only their own
weight and transfer lateral loads to the supporting
structure, or they may act as beams, bearing
elements or shear walls, transferring loads applied
from other parts of the structure.
5.6.1 Non-Composite Design
Non-composite elements are panels where the outer
wythe is supported by the inner wythe using relatively
flexible ties or hangers, that accommodate differential
movement of the two wythes due to changing
temperatures and humidity conditions. The inner
wythe transfers vertical and lateral loads to the
structural framework and supports the weight of the
outer wythe. The structural inner wythe is normally
thicker and stiffer than the outer non-structural wythe.
Exceptions to this are cases, such as insulated
double tee wall panels, where the outer wythe may
be load bearing. The lateral tie-back connections
require special attention in these cases.
Air gap sandwich panels are elements where an air
space is provided behind the veneer facing to allow
moisture penetrating the pervious exterior facing to
drain to the exterior of the assembly. [5] Examples

Fig. 5.6.1 Non-composite and composite
elements
are elements where the exterior wythe consists of
natural stone or masonry.
In non-composite elements, one wythe provides the
total structural function and is analyzed assuming no
structural interaction with the other parts of the
element, although some limited amount of shear
transfer may occur. See Fig. 5.6.1(a).
5.6.2 Composite Design
Composite elements are panels where the inner and
outer wythes are interconnected through the
insulation by means of rigid ties or regions of solid
concrete that restrict relative movement between the
wythes. The two wythes act together to resist
externally applied loads. Wythe interaction may be
total or partial depending on the rigidity of the
connector system.
When a composite element has the same overall
thickness as a non-composite element, the composite
element will demonstrate greater stiffness. See Fig.
5.6.1(b). Deformation of the outer wythe will affect the
inner wythe. Composite panels are subject to thermal
bowing. The introduction of prestress in both wythes
of a composite element can be used to induce a
negative bow to counteract the tendency of the
element to bow outwards.
In some designs, a solid concrete rib between the
wythes is required for bearing. Freedom of movement
can be provided at the other three sides.
5.6.3 Curing
No special precautions are required for curing the
lower cast wythe of sandwich panels that is protected
by the insulation and retains the heat of hydration
increasing the early strength of the concrete. The
heat generated by large precast elements can be
significant. The shock effect of rapid cooling can
cause cracking of the lower cast wythe in extreme
winter temperatures. Temperature changes should be
kept within reasonable levels when stripping and
yarding sandwich panels.
5.6.4 Flexural Analysis
A discussion of the principles of sandwich panel
design can be found in Sect. 3.11.
5.6.5 Insulation
The thermal properties of insulation and concrete are
discussed in Sect. 6.1. Insulation with an aluminum
foil coating should be avoided due to the reaction
between aluminum and concrete.
The thickness of the insulation is usually determined
by project specifications, the thermal characteristics
of the insulating material and the design temperature
range of the structure. A minimum insulation
thickness of 50 mm is recommended, with no
limitation on maximum thickness. The deflection
characteristics of the inter-wythe connectors should
be considered in relation to the insulation thickness.
5.6.6 Bond Breakers
Rigid insulation is capable of transferring shear
between the concrete wythes. The degree of shear
transfer depends on the thickness and the properties
of the insulation. It is not necessary to break the bond
between the insulation and one of the concrete
wythes of non-composite elements. The initial bond
between concrete and insulation may be beneficial
during stripping as concrete strengths are lower at
this time.
5.6.7 Vapour Barriers
A 50 mm thickness of concrete is normally regarded
as a satisfactory vapour barrier. [6]
5.6.8 Wythe Design
The minimum thickness of panel wythes is dependent
upon structural requirements, finish, reinforcement,
protection, handling considerations and past
experience.
Non-structural wythe (non-composite elements)
The wythe should be as thin as architectural details
will permit to minimize differential temperature
effects. The following limitations are applicable:
1. At the thinnest point, thickness should not be
less than 50 mm, but preferably 65 mm.
2. Thickness should be sufficient to provide proper
reinforcement cover, in accordance with the
applicable codes.
3. Thickness should be sufficient to provide the
required anchorage of wythe connectors.
4. The minimum thickness should not be less than
three times the maximum aggregate size.
Structural wythe (non-composite and composite
elements)
The thickness of the structural wythe should be
determined by structural analysis, and to
accommodate architectural details. The wythe should
not be less than 75 mm thick.
The limitations listed above for the non-structural
wythe should also be considered. Panels require
lateral connections at the top and bottom and may
have lateral ties at midspan and/or connections to the
adjacent elements to prevent differential bowing. Top
hung elements eccentrically supported will bow
outwards less than bottom supported units.
5.6.9 Element Size
The size of elements will be primarily determined by
architectural considerations. Additionally, the
following restrictions are applicable:
1. The maximum dimensions and weight should be
determined based on transportation, handling
and erection limitations.
2. a) The maximum dimension for non-composite
panels should be in the order of:
L = 48 t
b) The maximum dimension for prestressed
composite elements should be in the order
of:
L = 60 t
L = maximum dimension
t = overall thickness of element
excluding any ribs
The above suggested lengths are empirical and
based on experience. Where bowing can be
accommodated, these values may be exceeded by
experienced CPCI member manufacturers.
Larger panel sizes may be accommodated using
concrete with a low water to cementitious materials
ratio.
5.6.10 Wythe Connectors
General considerations
For non-composite elements, the weight of the outer
wythe must be transferred to the inner structural
wythe. This is generally accomplished using shear
connectors and tension/compression ties passing
through the insulation at regularly spaced intervals. A
less desirable alternative to the use of shear
connectors is to provide a solid concrete rib at the
bottom of the element to serve as a support and allow
the wythes to move without restraint. The solid rib is
usually located at the foundation to minimize the
effects of thermal bridging.
Shear connectors
The vertical shear load is carried by the inclined legs
of 10M reinforcing bars bent into the configurations
shown in Fig. 5.6.2 (a), (b), (c) and (f). The use of
stainless steel reinforcing bar is only required in
panels with an air space. Galvanized mild steel
reinforcing bars are adequate in all other types of
panels. These bars are usually placed parallel to the
vertical axis of the element. Sometimes, additional
bars are placed parallel to the horizontal axis to allow
for element rotation, torsional forces or special shear
requirements.
Fig. 5.6.2 Typical shear connectors
Expanded metal or a steel truss can be installed or
tied to the reinforcement to connect the concrete
wythes as shown in Fig. 5.6.2(e). Cut or continuous
sections may be used to provide one-dimensional
shear capacity. Simple tie rods are also used as
tension/compression ties to resist wind loads and
prevent wythe separation.
For ribbed insulated elements, it is best to position
the shear connectors in the rib area of the element
(Fig. 5.6.3). This makes it easier to position and
ensure proper embedment depths for the
reinforcement connecting the two concrete wythes.
In non-composite panels, it is preferable to have only
one anchoring centre due to expansion and
contraction. In an element with two ribs, a shear
connector can be positioned in either of the ribs and a
flat anchor can be positioned vertically in the other
rib. The flat anchor should have the same vertical
shear capacity as the shear connector, and should be
located on the same horizontal axis. The flat anchor
has little or no horizontal shear capacity and therefore
the horizontal restraint of the exterior concrete face
by this anchor is minimized, (Fig. 5.6.4). In a multi-
ribbed element, the shear connector should be
positioned in the rib closest to the centre, with flat
anchors used in the other ribs as required.
Tension/compression ties
Examples of ties are shown in Fig. 5.6.5.
Wire tie connectors are generally 6 mm in diameter
made from Type 304 or Type 316 stainless or
galvanized steel. Stainless steel connectors are
preferred in elements with porous facings such as
limestone or brick. Refer to A370 - Connectors for
Fig. 5.6.3 Shear connector for ribbed element
Fig. 5.6.4 Anchorage for ribbed elements
Safe load
(kN)
A (mm) B (mm) Note
9 160 155 Use a minimum of 2,
18 320 155 6 mm diameter rods top
27 475 155 and bottom of flat sleeve
36 640 155 anchor to maintain stability.
Masonry" for further information. Plastic connectors
are also acceptable; however, consideration may
have to be given to the fire resistance of plastic ties.
Ties of welded wire fabric, conforming to G30.5, or
reinforcing bars, conforming to G30.18 are
acceptable. Shaped, crimped, or bent ties should be
cold bent.
Connectors intended to accommodate differential
movement between wythes should be sufficiently
Fig. 5.6.5 Tension/compression ties
ductile to withstand 5,000 cycles of reversal at an
amplitude of 3 mm.
Tension/compression ties should be flexible enough
to avoid significant resistance to temperature and
shrinkage movements in the plane of the element
surface.
Fig. 5.6.6 Functional behaviour of connectors
Ties should have sufficient anchorage in each wythe
to safely transfer the applied loads. This can be
accomplished by hooking around or tying to the
reinforcement, or by bending or deforming the ends
of the ties.
At the time of stripping with a non-structural wythe
cast face down, ties acting in tension will transfer the
weight of the exterior wythe and any form suction to
the structural wythe.
Ties will act in tension or compression under wind
pressure, or suction. While it is probable that the
insulation will act to transfer wind compression, it is
recommended that only the ties, acting in
compression, be assumed effective.
Horizontal shear ties should be provided for handling
and racking loads, such as inertia forces developed
during seismic activity or earthquakes. The functional
behaviour of connectors is illustrated in Fig. 5.6.6.
Fig. 5.6.7 Arrangement of connectors between
wythes
Arrangement
Satisfactory connector layout requires an assessment
of element geometry and weight, anticipated
movement of the exterior wythe, and a knowledge of
tie material strength and flexibility characteristics
which have been established by tests.
The exterior wythe will move in response to
environmental changes and concrete shrinkage. To
accommodate this movement without distress, the
connectors should be sufficiently flexible in the
direction of movement to prevent undue restraint.
In the erected position, the device that transfers the
weight of the non-structural wythe to the structural
wythe should ideally be a single element or a closely
spaced pair of elements located near the centre of
the element. This arrangement will permit the non-
structural wythe to expand and contract with the least
amount of total restraint (Fig. 5.6.7 (a)).
The shear centre of the connectors need not be at
the centre of mass; however, a maximum of 3 mm
maximum differential movement between wythes is
recommended. The shear connectors can be located
along two lines at right angles (Fig. 5.6.7 (b)). The
tension/compression ties that are used solely to
transfer weight during stripping or direct wind forces
should not unduly restrain lateral movement.
Additional forces due to torsion should be considered
when the shear centre of the connectors cannot be
located near the centre of mass of the supported
wythe. Similar consideration is required when the
lateral (racking) force is not coincident with the shear
centre in that direction.
The tension and compression ties within the field of the
element should be approximately 600 mm on centre.
Around the perimeter of an element and openings
larger than 600 mm, ties should not be located more
than 300 mm from the edge (Fig. 5.6.7).
5.6.11 General Architectural Design
Considerations
The architectural design of sandwich panels is similar
to that of solid architectural elements, with the
following special considerations:
Bowing
A recognized characteristic of composite sandwich
panels is the tendency of elements to bow outwards
under prolonged exposure to the sun. There is,
however, less tendency to develop thermal bowing in
non-composite sandwich panels.
The inner wythe of temperature-controlled buildings is
kept at a constant temperature with little thermal
variation. Although the exterior wythe experiences
extreme temperature variations, the temperature
gradient in each of the wythes is minimal. This
minimizes thermal bowing of non-composite
sandwich panels.
The tendency of elements to bow is influenced
primarily by element size, the rigidity of connection
between the wythes, and daily temperature variations
on the exterior face. Differential movement between
adjacent elements is generally not a problem. The
effect of thermal bowing can be satisfactorily
accommodated through good design and detailing
practices.
For elements with large openings, joints in the outer
wythe at the corners of such openings are desirable.
These joints may extend through to the insulation
layer and may subsequently be caulked or treated
architecturally, in the same manner as the joints
between elements.
Control joints should be provided in large non-
composite elements to divide the outer wythe into
smaller units to provide for the possibility of cracking
due to extreme temperature changes or from
shrinkage and creep of the concrete. The pattern for
these control joints becomes an important
architectural feature.
Corners
Sandwich wall panels require special details at the
corners of structures due to bowing. Mitred corners
must be restrained for the joints to perform
satisfactorily. J oints at corners are not as easily
sealed as bowing occurs in two different planes.
Elements, even with small returns, will be stiffer than
adjacent elements and joints on both sides of the
corner should be restrained. Restrained corners must
be adequately reinforced to resist the restraint forces.
Special corner units that are not flush with the
adjacent elements can be effectively used to hide
bowing at corners, (Fig. 5.6.8).
5.7 AESTHETIC AND BUILDING
ENVELOPE CONSIDERATIONS
5.7.1 General
The aesthetic requirements of projects vary widely
and must be determined with the scale of the
structure and site considerations in mind. Concrete is
formed while in a plastic state allowing for the
creation of designs that are virtually limitless and
cannot be accommodated with many other materials.
The introduction of profiles, panel joints and reveals
or false joints will change the overall appearance of a
structure.
The architects selection of colour and texture have a
dramatic effect on the aesthetics of a structure.

Fig. 5.6.8 Architectural and structural details

When the available aggregate colours and sizes are
combined with different matrix colours and finishing
techniques, a wide range of colours can be achieved.
The acceptable range of finish and texture should be
considered when the desired finish is specified and
finally approved. The expected range of some
finishes is much wider than others due to variations in
the aggregate source, colour and size and the
finishing technique. A uniform finish on a light
sandblast finish is more difficult to achieve than a
medium or heavy sandblast finish. The presence of
air or bug holes in a light sandblast finish will be
much more apparent than in a medium sandblast
finish due to the texture of the finish and the affect of
light on this texture.
The development of samples will aid in the
determination of an acceptable finish. Samples
should be viewed from a distance of no less than 10
metres and on taller structures, usually at one third
the building height for determination of colour and
texture uniformity. Once a project has been awarded,
a minimum of three (3) 1 metre square range
samples should be produced to determine the
expected range of finishes.
It is inevitable that some damage will occur to the
precast during shipping and erection. Patching
samples may be requested to determine the
capability of the precaster to repair this damage and
the amount of damage that can be tolerated.
Mockups may also be requested to determine the
constructability and efficiency of the interfaces
between the different materials in the building
envelope.
Placement in relation to supporting structure
Precast panels should extend above or below the
surfaces of slabs to mask the variations in the cast in
place concrete or steel structure behind. The panels
should also be placed a minimum of 25 mm away
from the supporting structure to accommodate
construction tolerances in the building frame. The
tops of panels should also extend a sufficient
distance above the top surface of slabs or beams to
accommodate working from the slab without the need
for ladders or lifts
Interfacing with other wall materials
No attempt should be made to make other materials,
such as curtainwall sections, windows or doors, flush
with the precast concrete face. These materials will
not behave in the same manner as the precast when
subjected to temperature and volume changes.
These materials will also have construction
tolerances as will the precast. By setting the precast
proud of these materials, construction tolerances and
variations in the material behaviour will be hidden
from view.
5.8 VENEER FACED ELEMENTS
5.8.1 General
Finishes using materials such as natural cut stone,
brick, structural tile, and architectural terra cotta
(ceramic veneers) provide a wide variety of colours
and textures for precast units.
Some advantages of using veneer faced elements
are:
1. Thinner veneers can be used in precast panels
than those required for field set construction.
2. Veneers can be readily attached to the face of
multi-plane units, such as column covers,
spandrels with integral soffit and sill sections,
deep reveal window frames and parapet
sections, (Fig. 5.8.1). These are often
impractical or expensive to construct on site.
Fig. 5.8.1 Applications of veneer faced precast
Fig. 5.8.2 Range of natural stone properties
Type
Compression
(MPa)
Tension
(MPa)
Modulus of
rupture (MPa)
Shear (MPa)
Modulus of
elasticity
(MPa 10
3
)
Coef. of thermal
expansion
(10
6
mm/(mmC))
Granite 70 - 280 4.1 - 6.9 7.6 - 20.7 13.8 - 29.7 39 - 66 8.1 (avg.)
Limestone 28 - 70 2.1 - 2.6 4.8 - 8.3 6.2 - 12.4 21 - 37 4.3 - 5.4
Marble
41 - 105
(1)
52 - 115.5
(2)

2.8 - 15.9
7.6 - 17.9
7.6 - 18.6
11.4 - 33.1
16.2 - 29.7
13 - 90
30 - 102
3.8 - 22.1
Serpentine 76 - 193 5.5 - 11.0 17.9 - 34.5 33 - 66
Sandstone 35 - 140 1.9 - 3.5 3.5 - 6.9 2.1 - 20.7 13 - 53 11
Slate 48 - 214 20.7 - 30.0 27.6 - 62.1 13.8 - 24.8 62 - 103 10
(1)

Parallel with respect to the bedding / cleavage planes
(2)

Perpendicular with repect to the bedding / cleavage planes
3. The erection of the precast units is faster and
more economical than field set construction
because panels can incorporate a large number
of veneer pieces and may include insulation,
interior finishes and windows.
The fabrication, handling and erection of stone-faced
elements is similar to that of traditional precast
elements. Special handling and shipping procedures
are required for more complex units such as those
Many veneers exhibit different physical properties
and structural behaviour to that of the precast
concrete backup. Tensile, compressive and shear
strength, modulus of elasticity, coefficient of thermal
expansion, creep and shrinkage are physical
properties that must be reviewed. Other factors
influencing interaction are temporary and permanent
applied loads, and thermal cycling. The behaviour of
an assembly is also dependent upon the
configuration of the element, i.e., the relative
thickness of the basic components, and the location
of insulation in the wall assembly.
Veneers may be either bonded to or isolated from the
concrete back-up, however, bonding is not
recommended for large veneer sections.
When isolation of the veneers is required, the
following bond breakers are recommended:
1. a polyethylene sheet
2. a polyethylene foam pad
3. an air gap
The bond breaker will render the veneer non-
composite provided the anchor arrangement does not
limit the free movement of the veneer.
An air space should be provided between a porous
veneer and the backup concrete. In these elements,
the veneer is subjected to a significantly reduced
wind load than that arising from gust effects as the air
space is vented to the outside (rain screen).
The strength of the facing veneer material must be
determined and an appropriate anchor system
chosen to ensure the adequacy of the veneer to
resist flexural stresses during handling,
transportation, erection and final loading.
Bowing of veneer elements can occur. The amount of
bowing depends upon:
1. size, type and colour of veneer
2. location and orientation on the structure
3. location and method of connection of the veneer
to the back-up
For cut stone finishes, emphasis on samples and
mock-up units is particularly important. Supplemental
tests of the behaviour of the unit for anticipated
temperature changes may be required. Durability of
the combined unit should be based on past
performance.
Full scale mock-up units are recommended to verify
the design performance for new and major
applications. Tests may be performed on sample
elements to confirm the suitability of the cut stone
and anchors and to determine the effects of in-
service loads and bowing.
5.8.2 Reinforcement
Cover depth of reinforcement in veneer faced backup
panels must be a minimum of 15 mm (A23.4).
5.8.3 Natural Stone
Natural stone veneers can be cut to various sizes and
shapes. Different colour and texture combinations
can provide a wide variety of aesthetic
possibilities. [7]
Properties
The structural properties of natural stone veneers
depend on several factors; the rift and cleavage of
crystals, the degree of cohesion, the interlocking of
crystals and the nature of the cementing materials.
Metamorphic and sedimentary rocks will exhibit
differing strengths parallel and perpendicular to their
original bedding planes. The properties of a given
type of stone will vary depending on the quarry of
origin. Specific data should be obtained from stone
suppliers. The range of properties for common
building stone is given in Fig. 5.8.2. These values will
serve as a guide for preliminary design.
Size and thickness
Piece size, manufacturing process, handling,
finishing, anchorage type and colour range will
govern the veneer thickness.
Granite is an excellent material for exterior use.
Granite veneer can be fabricated in thicknesses from
20 mm to 50 mm.
Marble and limestone, although softer than granite,
can also be used. Limestone can be fabricated in
thicknesses from 40 mm to 125 mm depending on
the size, finish and material properties.
Codes may specify minimum thickness and maximum
stone dimensions. Stone suppliers should be required
to provide material properties and recommended
sizes and thicknesses.
The length and width of veneer materials should be
sized to a tolerance of plus zero, minus 3 mm.
Flatness tolerances for finished surfaces will vary,
depending on the type of finish. For example, granite
industry tolerances vary from 1.2 mm for polished
surfaces to 4.8 mm for flame (thermal finishes) when
measured with a 1,200 mm straightedge. Thickness
variations are not as important. Differences in
thickness can be accommodated in the concrete
backup.
Anchorage of stone facing
Connection of natural stone to the concrete should be
made with mechanical anchors that will accommodate
some movement, (Fig. 5.8.3).
Bonding of the backup concrete to the stone veneer
should be prevented. A bond breaker should be used
between the veneer and the concrete to allow for
independent movement.
Stone veneer is usually supplied with holes predrilled
in the back surface for the attachment of mechanical
anchors. Generally, for sound, dense veneer
materials, four anchors should be used for each
square metre of veneer, with a recommended
spacing of 500 mm between anchors and a minimum
of two anchors per piece of veneer. Four anchors
should normally be used for square or approximately
square pieces.
Note that for limestone veneers, a moisture barrier is
recommended at the concrete face to eliminate a
possible chemical reaction between the limestone
and the concrete that could stain the exposed face.
Anchor size and spacing in veneers of variable
strength or with natural planes of weakness will
require special analysis. The depth of holes, drilled at
an angle of 30 to 45 to the plane of the stone,
should be approximately one-half the thickness of the
veneer. The anchors should be bonded to the veneer
using a moisture-resistant epoxy filler compatible with
the stone. Rubber or silicone sleeves slipped over the
anchors adjacent to the back face of the veneer
should be used to accommodate the differential
coefficients of thermal expansion of the veneer and
the precast concrete backup. Thicker foam bond
breakers can also be used for this purpose.
Anchors are produced in a variety of shapes and
sizes. Preformed anchors fabricated from stainless
steel are commonly used. Typical details for natural
stone veneers are shown in Fig. 5.8.3. Fig. 5.8.3 (a),
(b) and (c) present anchor details for marble, granite
and limestone veneers respectively. Fig. 5.8.3 (d)
illustrates a typical cross anchor dowel detail.
Truss anchors, shown in Fig. 5.8.4, are used for fully
insulated elements. Anchors should preferably be
located at joints in the insulation. The methods shown
in Fig. 5.8.4 (a) and (b) have tended to replace the
arrangement shown in Fig. 5.8.4(c) in which the
anchor is embedded in a concrete cylinder formed by
a hole drilled in the insulation. All methods are in
current use, although the thermal advantages of the
truss system are clear.
The precast manufacturer should submit test reports
on the veneer anchoring system proposed for use
unless the anchoring system has been used
successfully in the past. Test samples should be a
typical element section of approximately 0.25 square
metres and should approximate as closely as
possible actual element anchoring conditions.
Fig. 5.8.3 Typical anchor details for stone veneers for bonded and unbonded elements
Note: Recommended safety factor for galvanized deformed bar is 8.
Fig. 5.8.4 Typical anchor details for stone
veneers for insulated sandwich panels
A bond breaker should be used during sample
manufacture to eliminate any bond between the
veneer and the backup concrete.
Each test sample should contain at least two anchors
connecting the stone veneer to the concrete backup.
If the anchoring system has not been used previously
or with less than satisfactory results, a minimum of
ten tests should be conducted on samples to
determine the ultimate pullout and shear strength of
each anchor.
Veneer jointing
A non-staining, chemically neutral, resilient, backer
rod that will not adversely affect the sealant should be
installed in the veneer joints. Backup concrete
should be prevented from entering any portion of the
joint between the veneer units. J oint width between
veneer units is an architectural feature and may or
may not be equal to the specified joint width between
precast elements. A minimum width of 6 mm is
recommended.
Caulking used for the joints in the veneer should be
non-staining to the veneer material. Panels may be
caulked in the factory where it can be carried out
efficiently and inexpensively.
5.8.4 Structural Clay Products
Clay products that are bonded directly to the precast
concrete include brick, structural facing tile, and
architectural terra cotta (ceramic veneer). These
materials have different mechanical properties
compared to the precast and must be chosen
carefully. Where required for exterior use, high
strength, low permeability brick should be used. The
manufacturer of the clay product should be consulted
to determine suitability.
Ceramic glazed units may craze from freeze-thaw
cycles or the bond may fail on exposure to the
elements. Since ceramic glazed units have very low
permeance to water vapour, it is recommended that a
vapour barrier be installed on the warm side of walls
enclosing areas in which the average relative
humidity is expected to exceed 50%.
Clay product faced precast elements may be
designed as concrete elements, neglecting, for
design purposes, the structural action of the face
veneer. The thickness of the precast elements, in this
case, is reduced by the thickness of the veneer.
Design assumptions often exclude consideration of
differential shrinkage or thermal expansion. If the
element is to be prestressed, the effect of composite
behaviour and the resulting prestress eccentricity
must be recognized and considered in design.
Sizes
The selection of brick shapes and sizes depends on
local availability. Brick manufacturers should be
consulted early in the design stage to determine the
manufacturing capability for special shapes, sizes
and tolerances. In addition to standard shapes and
sizes, brick may be available from some suppliers in
veneer thickness, and also 1/2 to 1/4 standard brick
thickness. Brick Liners are available for holding the
bricks during casting of the elements. These liners
are available in single-use and multi-use versions.
Some liners eliminate the need for brick coating prior
to use by sealing the edges, preventing the flow of
slurry to the brick face. When self sealing liners are
used, brick size variation is important and may
require a tighter tolerance on brick size. Brick size
tolerances should be discussed with both the brick
and brick liner manufacturer prior to ordering.
Fig. 5.8.5 Wall ties
Architectural terra cotta (ceramic veneer) is a custom
product and, within limitations, is produced in sizes
specified for specific projects. Two sizes of units are
usually manufactured. These are 30 mm thick units,
510 mm wide x 760 mm long and include dovetail
slots spaced at 125 mm o/c, and 55 mm thick units,
815 mm wide x 1220 mm long and include dovetail
slots spaced at 180 mm o/c.
Bond
The bonding surface of clay products is important for
bond. Smooth, dense, heavily sanded or glazed
surfaces are usually not satisfactory where high bond
is required. Textures that may be specified to give
increased bond include scored finish, in which the
surface is grooved as it comes from the die; combed
finish, where the surface is altered by parallel
scratches; and roughened finish, produced by wire
cutting or wire brushing to completely remove the
smooth surface or die skin from the extrusion
process.
When die skin or heavily sanded brick must be used,
a mechanical bond is required. The ties used may be
those specified for cavity wall construction, such as
the 5 mm diameter Z-ties, rectangular shaped ties,
prefabricated truss ties, or ladder wire ties, shown in
Fig. 5.8.5. With the other brick surfaces mentioned
above, ties are not required.
Where ties are required, there should be one for each
0.40 square metres of wall area. Ties in alternate
courses should be staggered. The maximum vertical
distance between ties should not exceed 600 mm,
and the maximum horizontal distance should not
exceed 900 mm. (see Fig. 5.8.6.)
Additional bonding ties should be provided at all
openings, spaced not more than 900 mm apart
around the perimeter and within 300 mm of the
opening. Ties should be of corrosion-resistant or non-
corroding metal depending on the application.
Reference should be made to A370 "Connectors for
Masonry" and A371 "Masonry Construction for
Buildings" for guidance as to when ties should be
non-corrosive or corrosion-resistant.
Fig. 5.8.6 Spacing and staggering of metal ties
(where required)
Corrosion resistance is usually provided by coating
the metal with zinc or copper. To ensure adequate
resistance to corrosion, coatings should conform to
the following ASTM specifications:
1. zinc coated ties - A 153, class B1, B2 or B3
2. zinc coated wire - A 116, class 2 or 3
3. copper coated wire - B 277, grade 30HS
Non-corroding ties should be made of ASTM type
301 or 304 stainless steel, copper or bronze.
When ties are used, the brick joints are grouted and
the ties placed into the horizontal joint as the wet
grout is placed. The required concrete reinforcement
is anchored in place after the brickwork grout has
achieved its initial set. The concrete is then placed
and cured.
The backside of terra cotta units should have
dovetails in order to develop adequate bond to the
concrete.
Absorption
Brick with an initial rate of absorption (suction) less
than 1 mg/mm
2
/min net area when tested in
accordance with CSA A82.2, "Methods of Sampling
and Testing Brick," is not required to be wetted.
However, brick with high suction or with an initial rate
of absorption in excess of 1 mg/mm
2
/min should be
wetted to reduce the suction, and thereby improve
bond, prior to placement of the concrete.
Terra cotta units must be soaked in water for at least
one hour to reduce suction. They should be damp at
the time of concrete placement.
Properties
Engineering properties of brick vary considerably
depending on the source and grade of brick. Figure
5.8.7 shows the classification by compressive
strength of brick manufactured in Canada. Figure
5.8.8 shows the physical requirements of the brick.
Fig. 5.8.7 Classification of brick by compressive
strength

Compressi ve strength (MPa)
Designation
Average of
5 brick
Individual
minimum
Type I
(exposed)
A 18 to 30 16
B 30 to 42 27
C 42 to 55 38
D 55 to 70 50
E Over 70 63

Type II
(not exposed) 11 and over 10
Note: This classification conforms essentially to that given in the
current National Building Code of Canada that relates
compressive strength to the load requirements of
masonry. Type I Brick, A, B, C, D, and E are suitable for
exposed masonry, and when load-bearing capacity is not
critical, the selection may be made according to colour
and texture.
As the temperature or length of burning period is
increased, clays burn to darker colours, and
compressive strength and modulus of elasticity are
increased. The modulus of elasticity of brick ranges
from 10,000 to 35,000 MPa and Poisson's ratio from
0.04 to 0.11. In general, the modulus of elasticity of
brick increases with compressive strength up to a
strength of approximately 35 MPa. After this, there is
little change.
The average coefficient of thermal expansion of brick
is 10 x 10
-6
mm/(mm C). The thermal expansion of
clay units is not the same as the thermal expansion of
brick-faced precast elements due to joints.
Clay bricks, when removed from the kiln after firing,
will begin to permanently increase in size as a result
of absorption of atmospheric moisture. The design
coefficient for moisture expansion of clay bricks can
vary between .0002 and .0005 mm/mm and must be
considered in the design of brick or tile faced
concrete elements.
Figure 5.8.9 shows the relation of compressive
strength of structural clay tile to absorption. For the
same tile design, this relationship might be expected
to be reasonably constant; however, the same
relationship would not be expected to hold for tile of
different designs.
Relative temperature and moisture movements of
concrete, brick, tile and mortar are shown in Fig.
5.8.10.
The modulus of elasticity of structural tile varies from
12,000 to 43,000 MPa and Poisson's ratio from 0.05
to 0.10. Tile has an average coefficient of thermal
expansion of 5.9 10
-6
mm/(mm C).
The compressive strength of terra cotta units usually
ranges from 55 to 76 MPa, and the
average coefficient of thermal expansion is
7.2 10
-6
mm/mm/C).
All clay products are subject to such local variation
that the designer should obtain values from all
suppliers being considered.
Insulated sandwich elements
Clay products can be combined with insulation and
back-up concrete to construct fully insulated
sandwich elements similar to the stone faced
elements mentioned earlier. A suggested solution for
anchorage for gravity, seismic and lateral loads is
Fig. 5.8.8 Physical requirements
Designation
Minimum compressi ve
strength
(brick flatwise) (MPa)
gross area
Maximum water
absorption by 5-h boiling
(per cent)
Maximum saturation coefficient

Average of 5
brick
Individual
Average of 5
brick
Individual
Average of 5
brick
Individual
Type I 18 16 22.0 25.0 0.88 0.90
Brick
(Exposed)

Type II 11 10 No Limit No Limit No Limit No Limit
Brick (Not
Exposed)
Note: The saturation coefficient or C B Ratio is the ratio of absorption by 24-h submersion in cold water to that after 5-h submersion in
boiling water.
Fig. 5.8.9 Compressive strength and absorption of structural clay tile
Fig. 5.8.10 Relative temperature and moisture movements of concrete, brick, tile and mortar
Fig. 5.8.11 Anchor details for brick veneer for insulated sandwich panels

Toronto City Hall
Historic Project opened in 1965
East Tower (27 Storeys) and West Tower (20 Storeys)
were constructed using architectural precast panels with strips of
Italian marble embedded in the exterior. Panels were erected as
exterior formwork for the cast-in-place office structural frames.
5.9 PRECAST CONCRETE USED AS
FORMS
5.9.1 General
Architectural precast concrete elements may be used
as exterior formwork for cast-in-place concrete.
Advantages include:
1. Architects are free to choose the shapes, form
and finish of a structure, with the minimal
restrictions that apply to precast concrete. The
use of precast concrete ensures a uniform, high
quality facade with the desired shapes, colours
and textures. Precasting makes it possible to
inspect the exterior finish at ground level, prior to
the cast-in-place concrete being placed. The
removal of the exterior form, the patching of form
anchor holes and the presence of these surface
imperfections is eliminated.
2. The Engineer may employ the precast concrete
form as a portion of the structural support
system. Structural continuity may be achieved
by effectively tieing the precast forms to the
cast-in-place concrete backup. Ductility can be
readily achieved in high seismic zones. [8,9]
3. The Contractor and Owner can benefit from
reduced construction time due to the savings in
the erection of complex formwork. The precast
concrete panels can be manufactured in
advance of concrete placement to permit greater
flexibility and continuity in concrete operations.
The precast units can be erected quickly as
large sections rather than small individual pieces
as in conventional construction.
5.9.2 Design
For the design of formwork, reference should be
made to ACI Committee 347, Recommended
Practice for Concrete Formwork, (ACI 347). [9]
5.9.3 Construction Considerations
Realistic assumptions are required to implement this
design concept effectively. The support and bracing
of precast elements prior to and during the placement
of concrete must be determined prior to the
completion of the design. A mock-up may be
necessary to validate the proposed construction
procedures. The mock-up may also assist in
determining the appropriate element shape, size,
finish, joint placement and connection design.
5.10 REFERENCES
[1] Architectural Precast Concrete Walls and
Structure Best Practice Guide, 2002, (revised
2006), Canada Mortgage and Housing
Corporation, Ottawa, CA
[2] PCI Architectural Precast Concrete 3
rd
Edition
2007 Precast / Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL
[3] PCI Architectural Precast Concrete Drafting
Handbook, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL
[4] Speyer, Irwin J., Considerations for the Design of
Precast Concrete Bearing Wall Buildings to
Withstand Abnormal Loads, PCI JOURNAL, Vol.
21, No. 2, Mar-Apr 1976, pp. 18-51.
[5] Latta, J.K., Precast Concrete Walls - A New
Basis for Design, Canadian Building Digest, CBD
94, Oct. 1967.
[6] Neville, A.M. Properties of Concrete, Pitman
Publishing Limited, London, U.K.
[7] McDaniel, W. Bryant, Marble-Faced Precast
Panels, PCI JOURNAL, V, 12, No. 4, August,
1967, pp 29-37.
Marble-Faced Precast Panels, National
Association of Marble Producers, Downsview,
Ontario. 1966.
[8] Mantell, C.L., Engineering Materials Handbook,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Toronto, Ontario
[9] ACI Committee 347, Precast Concrete Units
Used as Forms for Cast-in-Place Concrete, ACI
JOURNAL, Proceedings V.66, No. 10, October,
1969, pp 798-813.
[10] Kulka, Felix, Lin, T.Y., and Yang, Y.C.
Prestressed Concrete Building Construction
Using Precast Wall Panels, PCI JOURNAL,
V.20, No. 1, Jan - Feb, 1975, pp 62-72.
CHAPTER 6
RELATED CONSIDERATIONS

6.1 THE BUILDING ENVELOPE........................................................................................... 6-3
6.1.1 Notation .............................................................................................................. 6-3
6.1.2 Glossary.............................................................................................................. 6-3
6.1.3 General ............................................................................................................... 6-4
6.1.4 Heating and Cooling Energy .............................................................................. 6-6
6.1.5 Calculation of RSI-Value .................................................................................... 6-8
6.1.6 Calculation of Temperature Gradient ............................................................... 6-12
6.1.7 Temperature Index ........................................................................................... 6-13
6.2 ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIES ....................................................................................... 6-14
6.2.1 Notation ............................................................................................................ 6-14
6.2.2 Definitions......................................................................................................... 6-14
6.2.3 General ............................................................................................................. 6-14
6.2.4 Architectural Acoustics ..................................................................................... 6-15
6.2.5 Airborne Sound................................................................................................. 6-15
6.2.6 Impact Sound Transmission............................................................................. 6-18
6.2.7 Sound Insulation in Multi-unit Dwellings........................................................... 6-19
6.2.8 Insulation from Outdoor Noise.......................................................................... 6-20
6.2.9 Concrete Floors and Concrete and Masonry Walls ......................................... 6-20
6.2.10 Control of Structureborne Noise in Buildings ................................................... 6-23
6.2.11 Sound Leaks..................................................................................................... 6-23
6.2.12 Sound Absorption of Concrete ......................................................................... 6-24
6.2.13 Highway Noise Barriers.................................................................................... 6-24
6.3 FIRE RESISTANCE ...................................................................................................... 6-24
6.3.1 Notation ............................................................................................................ 6-24
6.3.2 Definitions......................................................................................................... 6-25
6.3.3 Introduction....................................................................................................... 6-25
6.3.4 Standard Fire Tests.......................................................................................... 6-26
6.3.5 Designing for Heat Transmission ..................................................................... 6-29
6.3.6 Balanced Design .............................................................................................. 6-31
6.3.7 Designing for Structural Integrity...................................................................... 6-33
6.3.8 CPCI Manual, Fire Resistance Ratings for Prestressed
and Precast Concrete....................................................................................... 6-42
6.4 VIBRATION IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES................................................................ 6-42
6.4.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 6-42
6.4.2 Vibration Limits................................................................................................. 6-43
6.4.3 Natural Frequency............................................................................................ 6-43
6.4.4 Design for Walking Vibration............................................................................ 6-44
6.4.5 Design for Vibration Due to Rhythmic Activities............................................... 6-45
6.4.6 Stadium Seating ............................................................................................... 6-46
6.4.7 Vibration Isolation for Mechanical Equipment .................................................. 6-48
6.5 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION........................................................ 6-48
6.5.1 Terms and Definitions....................................................................................... 6-48
6.5.2 Introduction....................................................................................................... 6-50
6.5.3 Green Building Rating Systems ....................................................................... 6-51
6.5.4 Life Cycle Cost and Assessment...................................................................... 6-51
6.5.5 Energy Use....................................................................................................... 6-52
6.5.6 Material Selection............................................................................................. 6-54
6.5.7 Production of Precast Concrete ....................................................................... 6-56
6.5.8 Transportation and Erection............................................................................. 6-59
6.5.9 Summary .......................................................................................................... 6-60
6.6 MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND OTHER SUB-SYSTEMS COORDINATION........ 6-61
6.6.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 6-61
6.6.2 Lighting and Power Distribution........................................................................ 6-61
6.6.3 Electrified Floors............................................................................................... 6-61
6.6.4 Underfloor Radiant Heat................................................................................... 6-62
6.6.5 Ductwork........................................................................................................... 6-62
6.6.6 Openings Through Floor and Roof Units.......................................................... 6-62
6.6.7 Other Sub-Systems .......................................................................................... 6-62
6.6.8 Total Precast Buildings..................................................................................... 6-63
6.7 REFERENCES.............................................................................................................. 6-66
6.1 THE BUILDING ENVELOPE
6.1.1 Notation
A = surface area of component (m
2
)
I = temperature index
Q = heat loss rate (W)
RSI = sum of the thermal resistance of the layers,
(m
2
)(C)/ W
T = the temperature of the indoor surface of the
vapour barrier, C
T
h
= the indoor design dry-bulb temperature, C
T
c
= the outside winter design temperature, C
T = difference in temperature across the
assembly, C
6.1.2 Glossary
C = thermal conductance; The time rate of heat
flow through the unit area of a layer of material
induced by a unit temperature difference
between the layer surfaces (W / (m
2
)(C)).
J = joule; Unit of energy or work, defined here as a
flow of energy equivalent to the work done
when the point of application of one Newton
moves a distance of one metre in the direction
of the force, (Nm).
k = thermal conductivity; The time rate of heat flow
through a homogeneous material under steady-
state heat-flow conditions. A property of
homogeneous materials with units of
W / ((m)(C)). This is termed in most
documents using SI units.
Q = total energy for heating or cooling; Expressed
in joules (J) or gigajoules (10
9
J).
q = rate of heat flow; (J / s or watts).
RH = relative humidity; The ratio of the water vapour
pressure present in air to the water vapour
pressure present in saturated air at the same
temperature and atmospheric pressure.
T
s
= dew point or saturation temperature; The
highest temperature at which condensation of
water vapour in air can occur as the air is being
cooled.
U = overall thermal transmittance (U-value); A
measure of the rate at which heat is transferred
through a building assembly subject to a
temperature difference W / ((m
2
)(C)).
U
T
= Where there are two or more paths of heat flow
that have different thermal resistances, a sum
of heat flow per unit temperature difference
through each section (UA) is calculated and
divided by the total area to yield the average
rate of heat transfer per unit temperature.
R = thermal resistance (RSI value); The inverse of
the overall thermal transmittance. ((m
2
)(C)/
W).
R
T
= thermal resistance of an assembly; Parallel
paths with different areas and thermal
resistances is defined as the (areal) thermal
resistance and equals:

1 2
1 T 2 T n T
A A A
R A R A R A
= + + +
n

R
1
, R
2
, ... , R
n
are the thermal resistances (RSI
values) of individual areas of an assembly.
A
1
, A
2
, ... , A
n
are the areas of individual sections of
an assembly.
A
T
= The total area of the assembly.
M = water-vapour permeance; The time rate of
water vapour flow through a layer of material
expressed in ng/((Pa)(s)(m
2
)) (i.e., nanograms
of water per second through unit area of the
layer for each pascal of water-vapour pressure
difference across the layer).
V = water vapour resistance; The reciprocal of M if
a single layer of material is involved, or the sum
of all the V values for all the layers if an
assemblage of layers is involved. The unit of
water vapour resistance is ((Pa)(s)(m
2
)) / ng.
= the water vapour permeability of a material
expressed in terms of unit thickness with units
ng / (Pa s m). The permeability of a material
will vary with barometric pressure, temperature
and relative humidity.
National Energy Code Definitions
Adjusted energy consumption is an estimate of the
annual sum of the energy consumption for lighting,
service water heating and space conditioning of the
proposed building design.
Building energy target is the annual adjusted energy
consumption of a mathematical replica of the
proposed building, using the same energy sources for
the same functions and having the same
environmental requirements, occupancy, climate data
and operational schedules, but made to comply with
all the applicable prescriptive requirements of the
National Energy Code.
Fenestration is all building envelope assemblies that
transfer visible light, including windows, skylights,
clerestories, glass blocks, sliding or swinging glass
doors and glazed inserts in doors.
Fenestration-to-wall ratio is calculated as the total
area of fenestration divided by the sum of all exterior
wall areas including the fenestration areas.
6.1.3 General
Basic information is presented here for the design
and construction of precast concrete wall and roof
assemblies to meet energy-related performance
criteria and to assess some of the structural
implications of envelope design.
The elements and assemblies that form a building
envelope are usually required to attain a specified
thermal and structural performance.
The structural performance limits specify maximum
dimensional changes, in particular, temperature
deformations from localized daily and seasonal
climatic variations.
The thermal performance limits specify the maximum
energy flow for heating, cooling and operation of a
building. The limits may be prescribed by regulations
or in regulatory documents. The selection of a limit for
the thermal performance of a building may be
affected by factors such as building occupancy,
energy budget and life cycle costing.
Except where noted, the information and design
criteria that follow are derived from:
National Energy Code for Buildings - 1997,
Canadian Commission on Building and Fire
Codes / National Research Council of Canada.
National Energy Code for Houses - 1997,
Codes / National Research Council of Canada.
2005 ASHRAE Handbook - Fundamentals - SI
Edition, American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
Inc.
Basic information about building envelopes is
included in this section. Consult the references for
information about comprehensive treatment of the
mechanics of heat and moisture flow, all relevant
performance data, or detailed design procedures
necessary to establish an optimum level of thermal
resistance.
Moisture control
Moisture problems in building envelopes are mainly
due to outside and inside moisture moving with three
transport mechanisms: rain penetration, air leakage
and vapour diffusion. Often serious failures involve
two or more of these mechanisms. Blown and drifted
snow can also enter and melt inside a building
envelope.
Rain penetration control
Rain penetration control strategies for walls range
from face seal designs to pressure equalized
rainscreen (PER) designs. The face seal approach
relies on the use of sealants, that need regular
preventative maintenance to achieve the required
service life.
The performance benefits gained by the use of a
PER wall system should more than offset any extra
capital cost.
PER walls consist of three elements:
an exterior cladding or rainscreen
an air and vapour barrier system installed in
an interior assembly
a vented air space separating the two
Vented air spaces should be designed as a drained
cavity to direct any water which gets through the
cladding back to the exterior. The rain penetration
forces controlled by a PER wall include the kinetic
energy of rain drops, surface tension and capillarity,
gravity and air pressure difference. The air pressure
difference has a large variable, or dynamic
component, because a significant amount of the air
pressure difference is generated by wind. The design
of a PER wall must address both static and dynamic
components. It must consider the size and location of
the venting, volume and flexibility of the air space,
location of compartment seals and loads on the
barrier system and on the rainscreen.
A pressure equalized rainscreen wall system will
prevent rain leakage without face sealing.
Architectural precast rainscreen wall panels can be
manufactured to provide rain penetration control
using the pressure equalized rainscreen design
principle. An effective air barrier system is an inherent
feature of such panels. A plastic spacer material has
been shown to provide a simple but effective air
space. Adequate venting of panels with areas of
30 m
2
can be provided with a 12 mm high opening
located at the bottom of the air space and extending
the width of the panel. This design will minimize static
and dynamic pressure differences induced by wind
across the rainscreen, minimizing one of the rain
penetration forces.
Vapour diffusion control
The principal functions of a vapour barrier are:
To retard the passage of moisture as it
diffuses through the assembly of materials in
a building envelope.
To control the location of the dew point in the
assembly.
To ensure there is a manageable flow of
moisture across the assembly.
The vapour barrier is usually placed toward the warm
side of the insulation.
A vapour barrier is important, particularly in high
humidity buildings such as computer centres,
museums, hospitals and swimming pools. While a
vapour barrier need not be perfectly continuous, care
should be taken to minimize the occurrence of
imperfections such as unsealed laps, cuts and pin
holes.
Air leakage control
The principal function of an air barrier is to prevent air
flow from outside to inside, inside to outside, inside to
inside if near the inside, or outside to outside if near
the outside of a wall assembly. Moisture-laden air
passing through an insulated cavity may deposit
much more moisture than would diffuse through the
vapour barrier at that location in the same time
period.
Air leakage through openings in a building envelope
is driven by one or more of the following forces:
Stack effect results from warmer or moister inside air
having a lower density than the cooler drier outside
air. This difference in density creates a slight outward
positive pressure at the top of a building and a slight
inward negative pressure at the base as the denser
air attempts to displace the less dense air.
Wind can cause infiltration on the windward sides
and exfiltration on the leeward side of buildings.
Pressure distribution on the windward facade will vary
from a maximum at the centre and diminish toward
the perimeter. Pressure on walls parallel to the wind
flow direction is normally negative but a slight change
in direction can result in positive pressure. Flat roofs
will generally experience exfiltration due to negative
wind pressure above them. The difference in wind
pressure across the building envelope will be greater
in tall buildings since the wind velocity is dampened
near the ground.
Mechanical system pressurization caused by the
intake and exhaust of air from buildings may cause
significant pressure differences across the building
envelope, that will vary with the time of day according
to the building ventilation requirements and with the
weather.
Air barrier system design requirements:
1. There must be continuity throughout the building
envelope.
2. The air barrier system must transfer loads to the
structure and be rigid enough to avoid
displacement. The insulation must be in intimate
contact with the air barrier or have its own
convection barrier that prevents convection.
3. The air barrier system should be virtually air-
impermeable with an air flow of less than
0.1 L/s m
2
at 50 Pa. Precast concrete,
polyethylene, roofing membranes, gypsum
board, metal and glass qualify as air-
impermeable materials whereas concrete block,
acoustic insulation, open cell polystyrene
insulation and fibreboard are not.
4. The air barrier assembly must be durable and
constructed of materials known to have excellent
fatigue resistance and long service life.
While it is preferable that an air barrier system be
placed close to the warm side of an insulated
assembly, it is not an essential requirement, as it is
with a vapour barrier. If the air barrier is positioned on
the outside of the insulation, the air barrier should be
10 to 20 times more moisture permeable than the
vapour barrier material to allow any vapour to escape
through the wall assembly.
A single material such as the inner wythe of a precast
concrete sandwich wall panel can serve as both the
air and vapour barrier in a building.
Architectural precast wall panels can provide an
attractive, economical, long-lasting exterior cladding
for buildings. With appropriate design, insulated
precast panels can also provide a high performance
wall system.
Condensation control
Condensation of water on the inside of inadequately
insulated walls is another moisture-related problem.
This problem can be eliminated by using the proper
amount of insulation for energy conservation and by
paying proper attention to the prevention of thermal
bridging. Lowering humidity levels can reduce
condensation.
Ventilation
The provision of adequate ventilation in buildings is
very important, particularly in those buildings
designed to limit infiltration. Serious health, safety
and durability problems may result if proper
ventilation is not provided. Ventilation provided by
mechanical systems can be closely estimated with
conventional calculation procedures. Special
calculation procedures are necessary to predict
ventilation under limiting conditions in buildings where
natural ventilation is employed.
Joint design
Junctions that are considered to be most critical in
building construction are:
roof / wall connection
wall / foundation connection
wall / window or door connection
soffit connections
corner-detail connections
wall panel joint connections
One-stage joints, usually formed using a single field-
molded sealant installed close to the exterior surface
of precast panels, are not recommended. These
joints have a low initial cost but must be regularly
maintained. Fatigue and exposure to weather and
ultraviolet light can cause sealant failures. Even a
small break in the sealant can allow water
penetration.
Two-stage joints, sometimes called ventilated or
pressure equalized joints, use the PER principle. A
typical joint consists of a rain barrier near the exterior
face and an airseal near the interior face of a panel.
The rain barrier is designed to shed most of the water
from the joint. The wind-barrier or airseal maintains
the pressure difference across the wall assembly. In
between is an equalization chamber which must be
ventilated and drained to the outside. The airseal, on
or near the interior of the wall, is protected from the
elements (weathering and ultraviolet light).
A building designer can greatly improve the ease of
installation and effectiveness of the jointing system by
locating the precast panel joints where they are easily
accessible during construction.
6.1.4 Heating and Cooling Energy
In most buildings, the main contributors to the cost of
space conditioning (heating or cooling or both) are
internal heat gains, transmission heat loss, air
leakage across a building enclosure and solar gains.
Proper attention in the design of the enclosure of a
building must be made to provide comfort, durability
and the appropriate levels of thermal resistance. The
relative significance of transmission and air leakage
will vary from building to building, as will the cost of
insulation and the benefits derived.
The emphasis in the following sections is on
controlling transmission heat loss. However, heat loss
due to air leakage is often of similar significance.
Careful attention to prevent moisture penetration from
the exterior is essential. The number, orientation and
thermal resistance of windows must be analyzed to
save energy.
Heat loss due to transmission through precast
concrete elements and assemblies will comprise only
a portion of the total transmission heat loss in a
building envelope and may constitute only a small
proportion of the total space conditioning energy
requirements over a year. Use a cost benefit analysis
to determine the amount of insulation that can be
economically justified or that is required to achieve
the desired levels of comfort and durability.
Economic considerations
Energy costs can be a significant part of life-cycle
costs. The owner and designer must consider the
long-term impact of energy costs during the planning
stages of a building. More than half of the true total
costs incurred during the economic life of a building
may be attributable to operating and energy costs.
Life-cycle costing is a sound means of assessing the
cost of all elements involved in constructing and
operating a building throughout its life. It is a means
of analyzing and appraising alternative solutions to
design questions so that rational economical choices
can be made; comfort, rentability and what insulation
levels to provide.
Heating and cooling calculations
Heating and cooling calculations are used to provide
predictions of peak loads and annual energy usage.
Peak load estimates are required to size HVAC
equipment and to design distribution systems. Energy
can be saved by lowering peak loads. Increasing a
buildings thermal mass can lower and shift peak
loads that can reduce equipment size. Smaller
equipment running continuously uses less energy
than large equipment run intermittently to respond to
peak loads. Energy is saved by lowering peak loads.
The energy saved as a result of reduced annual
loads is also important. Annual load calculations will
become imperative as design standards switch from
prescriptive to performance requirements.
Calculation of both peak and annual loads in all but
the simplest of buildings are complex and require
special expertise and computer analysis.
Factors to consider
Regulations may prescribe minimum requirements for
thermal insulation to limit the rate of heat flow through
a building envelope. To comply, it is usually
necessary to evaluate heat flow through each
component of a building using a steady-state
procedure. Thermal resistance values for floors, walls
and roofs may be prescribed.
The National Energy Code for Buildings, 1997, gives
designers the option of proposing alternative
measures provided they can demonstrate the building
will not use more energy than if the mandatory
requirements of the code had been used.
Some factors which should be considered when
calculating energy loads are:
1. Geographic location: latitude, longitude and
building exposure (landscaping).
2. Occupancy: demands, requirements, number,
activities and hours of occupancy.
3. Building: site, orientation, plan, configuration,
insulation, insulation location, envelope mass,
mass of the construction and contents, window
design, shading and surface colour and texture.
4. Climate: dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb
temperature, wind speed and direction, solar
conditions and cloud cover.
5. Heat loss mechanisms: transmission, air
leakage and ventilation.
6. Heat gain: transmission, solar radiation, air
leakage and ventilation.
7. Internal heat gain: occupants, lights, appliances,
machines, power and equipment.
8. Environmental (comfort): window area, indoor
temperature, indoor relative humidity and indoor
air quality.
9. Schedules: occupancy, lighting, ventilation,
equipment, changes in thermostat set points and
changes in humidity.
Equipment efficiency must also be considered when
computing energy consumption. This is particularly
important when making life-cycle cost studies
involving factors such as mass, optimum insulation,
glass area, environmental factors, energy type and
energy costs.
Thermal inertia effects
The mass of heavy materials like precast concrete
wall, floor and roof construction can reduce the
annual heating requirements of a building. The effect
that mass and its thermal capacitance have on peak
loads and annual energy requirements is primarily
governed by:
1. location and storage characteristics of the mass
2. effectiveness of thermal coupling between the
heat source and the mass
3. ratio of internal heat gain to heat loss
4. hours when internal gains occur
5. solar radiation through glass or
6. number of air changes.
Mass and the heating season
For thermal mass to contribute during the heating
season, concrete surfaces must be inside the exterior
insulation and subjected to conditions that permit the
construction materials to absorb solar heat or
radiation and heat from light or equipment and
occupants. Mass inside the insulation is only effective
if the temperature set point of the air is allowed to
vary considerably. Temperature variations can have
an effect on comfort if they occur during working
hours. Furnaces can be turned down at night to allow
the absorbed heat to be released to nearby cooler
surfaces or space. This process of absorption and
release is dependent upon the location of the mass in
the structure relative to the space being heated, the
sources of heat and the insulation. Precast sandwich
wall construction is an excellent way to combine
mass and insulation in walls.
Mass and the cooling season
Mass on the outside of building envelopes can
absorb solar gain. Heat absorbed by the mass is
released later to the outside during cooler hours,
usually at night. The outdoor air temperature
averaged over the cooling season is generally below
the indoor air temperature. With the exception of
peak periods, the net heat flow through the walls is
outward, not inward. Thermal coupling between the
interior mass of the building and cool night-time
outside air is also important as is forced ventilation to
flush out excess heat stored within the structure
during the day. The mass of precast concrete building
construction can substantially reduce the need for
mechanical cooling.
Evaluation of mass effects
Computer solutions are essential to fully evaluate the
effect of thermal mass on heating and cooling loads.
Computerized solutions, however, are not essential to
determine what reduction can be made in insulation
requirements when mass is present.
Fenestration The basic equation for calculating the rate of heat
transfer through a portion of an enclosure is:
Fenestration is a term used for any light-transmitting
opening in a building wall, floor or roof. Windows are
the most important form of fenestration that designers
must consider. Regulatory documents, such as the
National Energy Code for Buildings, 1997, prescribe
restrictions on the amount of glass area to be
provided.
Q
A( T)
RSI
=
Example 6.1 Sandwich wall panel
Given:
Windows are a dominant source of heat gain. A
change in orientation can result in load reductions
when thermal storage is utilized. Unshaded glazing
located within 45 of South will receive maximum
heat gain.
Shading devices can reduce solar radiation in the
summer and allow solar radiation for winter heating.
Overhangs can be designed to provide shading for
windows when the summer sun is at a higher altitude
and direct sun on the windows in winter when the sun
altitude is much lower. Precast concrete is ideal for
the construction of sun shades.
Economic considerations
Designers of building-envelope assemblies must
consider the potential for providing the necessary
overall energy efficiency by insulating different
building assemblies in the most effective manner.
The design requirements and level of insulation
chosen for each assembly should be reviewed and
economically evaluated.
Problem:
Find the RSI-value of the wall assembly.
The cost of adding additional insulation to roofs is
usually less than for walls. Regulations generally
permit a reduction in the required thermal resistance
of one assembly, providing that of another assembly
is increased, so that the total calculated heat loss
through the entire envelope is no greater than if the
minimum prescribed values for each assembly were
used.
Solution:
Component (layer)
R-value
m
2
C /W
Surface air film (exterior) 0.030
75 mm normal density concrete 0.039
50 mm rigid polystyrene insulation type 1.285
150 mm normal density concrete 0.078
12 mm (non-vented) air space 0.160
10 mm gypsum board 0.062
Surface air film (interior) 0.120
Total RSI-value 1.774
6.1.5 Calculation of RSI-Value
The RSI-value is a measure of the thermal resistance
of a building component or assembly in a direction
normal to the surface. For an assembly, this
resistance is the sum of the resistances of each layer,
including air gaps when they are present, and air
films contiguous to each outer surface. RSI-values
are measured in units of m
2
C/ W.
Thermal bridges
Paths of high conductivity called thermal bridges may
lead to localized cold areas where surface
condensation may occur. In precast concrete
applications, these thermal bridges sometimes occur
in sandwich panels where connections, metal shear
ties or solid concrete sections penetrate the insulation
layer. Because of thermal mass and other variables,
measured values differ from calculated values of heat
flow through these thermal bridges.
Thermal resistance values of selected construction
materials and of air surface films and gaps are listed
in Figs. 6.1.1 and 6.1.2. Examples 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3
demonstrate RSI-value calculations for walls, floors
and roofs. These are not total wall systems. RSI-
values for fenestration, and joint areas also have to
be calculated.
Fig. 6.1.1 Thermal resistance and density of various building and insulating materials
Thermal
resistance
m
2
C /W
(R-value)
Density
(kg/m
3
)
Thermal
resistance
m
2
C /W
(R-value)
Density
(kg/m
3
)
Material
Per
100 mm
thick-
ness
For
thick-
ness
listed

Material
Per
100 mm
thick-
ness
For
thick-
ness
listed

Concrete

Siding (flat surface)
Density as indicated 0.35 1000 Asbestos-cement shingles 0.037 1900
0.29 1200 Wood shingles (400 mm,
0.22 1400 190 mm exposure) 0.153
0.17 1600 Asbestos-cement (6 mm,
0.13 1800 lapped) 0.037
0.091 2000 Asphalt roll siding 0.026
0.064 2200 Wood (11 mm, medium
0.052 2320 density) 0.052 640
0.045 2400
Finish flooring
Insulating concretes Carpet and fibrous pad 0.366
Density as indicated 1.03 300 Carpet and rubber pad 0.226
0.84 400 Cork tile (3 mm)
0.68 500 Tile (asphalt, linoleum,
0.61 600 vinyl, rubber, asbestos,
0.53 700 ceramic) 0.009
0.47 800 Terrazzo (25 mm) 0.014
0.40 900 Hardwood (19 mm) 0.12

Hollow core slabs
(1)
Acoustical tile
Concrete (normal density) Mineral fibreboard
150 mm thick 0.19 2400 Wet-felted (13 mm) 0.24
200 mm thick 0.24 2400 Wet-felted (19 mm) 0.36
250 mm thick 0.31 2400 Wet-moulded (13 mm) 0.21
300 mm thick 0.34 2400 Wet-moulded (19 mm) 0.31
Wood or cane (13 mm) 0.22
Concrete (semi-low density) Fibreboard (19 mm) 0.33
150 mm thick 0.30 1900
200 mm thick 0.35 1900 Building board
250 mm thick 0.43 1900 Asbestos-cement board 0.17 1900
300 mm thick 0.46 1900 Gypsum plasterboard 0.62 800
Particleboard (mat-formed) 0.87
Woods Plywood or wood panels 0.87 545
Hardwoods (maple, oak, etc.) 0.63 720
Softwoods (fir, pine, etc.) 0.77 500 Stucco
Stucco 0.14 1860
Roofing
Asbestos-cement shingles 0.037 1900
Asphalt roll roofing 0.026 1120
Asphalt shingles 0.078 1120
Built-up roofing (19 mm) 0.058 1120
Slate (12 mm) 0.009

Fig. 6.1.1 Thermal resistance and density of various building and insulating materials (cont.)
Thermal
resistance
m
2
C /W
(R-value)
Density
(kg/m
3
)
Thermal
resistance
m
2
C /W
(R-value)
Density
(kg/m
3
)
Material
Per
100 mm
thick-
ness
For
thick-
ness
listed

Material
Per
100 mm
thick-
ness
For
thick-
ness
listed

Insulation Flat glass (winter)
(4)

Rigid Vertical panels (exterior)
Glass fibre 2.77 64-144 Single glass 0.16
Cane fibre 1.73 Double glass
Mineral fibre 1.82 240 6.4 mm air space,
Cork 2.57 3.2 mm glass 0.30
Perlite 1.94 280 12.7 mm air space,
Fibreboard 1.94 255 6.4 mm glass 0.36
Phenolic foam 3.04 60 Triple glass
Polystyrene (expanded)
(2)
6.4 mm air space,
Type 1 2.57 3.2 mm glass 0.45
Type 2 2.77 12.7 mm air space,
Type 3 2.98 6.4 mm glass 0.57
Type 4 3.47 Single glass w/storm sash
Polyurethane 4.20 24 25.4 mm to 101.6 mm
Wood (shredded) 1.69 350 air space,
Cellular glass 1.82 135 3.2 mm glass 0.35
Polyisocyanurate 4.20
Batt
(3)
Horizontal panels (exterior)
Glass fibre 2.08 Single glass 0.14
Mineral fibre 2.08 Double glass
Loose fill 6.4 mm air space,
Cellulose 4.20 37-51 3.2 mm glass 0.27
Mineral fibre 2.91 130-240 12.7 mm air space,
Perlite (expanded) 1.94 80-130 6.4 mm glass 0.30
Vermiculite 1.44 64-96
Glass fibre (pouring wool) 2.22 190 Plastic domes
Glass fibre (blowing wool) 1.46 40 Single wall 0.15
Double wall 0.25
(1) R-value listed is for hollow core slabs with the cores empty. Consult manufacturers for R-values of insulation filled cores and for the
exact mass of concrete to be used. (Core configuration may also affect the thermal resistance values listed.)
(2) Complying with CGSB 41-GP-14a (1972) Thermal Insulation, Expanded, Polystyrene - June 1978.
(3) See Fig. 6.1.6 for adjusting R-values when batt insulation compression is anticipated.
(4) R-values include air films and gaps. Emissivity of uncoated glass surface = 0.84.
Fig. 6.1.2 Thermal resistance for air films and
spaces
Air
Thermal
resistance
m
2
C /W
(R-value)
Surface films
Internal surface:
Still air (vertical)
Heat flow horizontal 0.120
Still air (horizontal)
Heat flow up 0.110
Heat flow down 0.160
External surface:
Moving air (any position)
winter 0.030
summer 0.044
Spaces (with non-reflective
surfaces)
12 mm and greater
Vertical
Heat flow horizontal 0.160
Horizontal
Heat flow up 0.150
Heat flow down 0.180
Non-vented air
spaces (with reflective surfaces)
12 mm and greater
Vertical (heat flow horizontal)
1 side faced 0.330
2 sides faced 0.450
Horizontal (heat flow up)
1 side faced 0.280
2 sides faced 0.360
Horizontal (heat flow down)
1 side faced 0.980
2 sides faced 1.034
Depending on the type and amount of conductive
material used in the shear ties, the reduction of
overall resistance values may be calculated but is
often ignored if the relative area of the ties is small
and the insulation is installed tight against the outline
of the penetration. The influence of metal shear ties is
negligible and usually ignored.
Example 6.2 Hollow core slab floor system
Given:
Problem:
Find the RSI-value of the floor assembly.
Solution:
Component
R-value
m
2
C /W
10 mm stucco exterior finish 0.014
100 mm urethane insulation 4.200
Vapour barrier 0.000
Hollow core slab (equiv. area) 0.240
50 mm normal density concrete topping 0.026
Example 6.3 Double tee roof system
Given:

Problem:
Find RSI-value of roof assembly.
Solution:
Component
R-value
m
2
C /W
Built-up roofing and gravel 0.058
100 mm ridge fibreglass insulation 2.770
Vapour barrier 0.000
50 mm normal density tee flange 0.026
(Non-reflective) air space 0.150
Acoustical tile (13 mm wet-molded mineral
fibreboard)
0.210
6.1.6 Calculation of Temperature Gradient
The calculation of the temperature gradient through a
roof or wall assembly can be used to help determine
whether there may be a problem with condensation
or differential thermal movement. The temperature
gradient alone is not sufficient to accurately locate the
dew point (condensation point) within the assembly.
However, an approximation of its location can be
made which is useful in estimating where
condensation can occur from exfiltrating air. For
vapour diffusion, the solution involves the calculation
of vapour pressures within the assembly.
The calculation of heat flow through walls and roofs
can become very complicated. The assumed steady-
state conditions are seldom reached, due to
fluctuations in the temperatures that a building
envelope is exposed to and the heat storage
capacities of the building components and contents.
Simplified procedures introduce inaccuracies, but the
results obtained can be a valuable guide for the
design of walls and roofs.
The ability to calculate the thermal gradient allows a
designer to estimate the magnitude of the
movements caused by external temperature
changes, estimate the location of condensation and
freezing planes in the wall and to perform an initial
assessment of the suitability of wall and roof
assemblies.
Figure 6.1.4 lists dew-point temperatures for various
relative humidities and several indoor temperatures.
This chart can be used once a thermal gradient is
determined.
Fig. 6.1.3 Thermal gradient example
Example 6.4 Thermal gradient through a wall
section
Given:
The wall assembly shown above, with an overall RSI-
value of 2.33, is subjected to indoor and outdoor
temperatures of 22 C and 12 C, respectively, (a
temperature difference of 34 C).
Problem:
Find the thermal gradient through the wall section.
Solution:
A readily understandable record of the necessary
computation can be provided by labeling each layer
and each interface as shown above and by tabulating
the calculation procedure as shown in Fig. 6.1.5.
Given that the rate of heat flow (i.e. Q / A) is constant
and given that Q / A = T / RSI, then for the assembly
as a whole, Q / A = 34 / 2.33. Knowing one interface
temperature and the RSI value for each layer, starting
from the interior, the temperature at the other
interface can readily be found by determining the
temperature drop across the layer, i.e., (34 / 2.33)
RSI.
Assuming the interior relative humidity is 40%, from
Fig. 6.1.4 the dew point is just above 7C. An
examination of the temperature gradient indicates
that there should be no condensation on the inside
wall surface since the inside surface temperature of
20.2C is considerably above the dew point
temperature.
Without further knowledge about vapour pressures, it
is safe to predict that immediately behind the wall
finish, where it is 19.0C, there should also be no
condensation problem.
A dew point is likely to exist within the insulation. In
this case, condensation would probably occur where
there is a decrease in the rate of flow of moisture,
where the resistance to moisture flow per unit
distance increases. The extent of a problem will
depend upon the effectiveness of the air barrier and
vapour retarder.

6.1.7 Temperature Index
The temperature index, I, will allow the prediction of
the condensation resistance of a wall assembly for
other sets of operating systems; indoor relative
humidity, RH, and outdoor dry-bulb temperature. The
wall system should be designed to provide an I value
greater than the minimum I to control condensation.
The temperature index, I, is defined as:
I = (T T
c
) / (T
h
T
c
)(100%)
Fig. 6.1.4 Dew-point temperatures (C)
Relative Indoor temperature
humidity (%) 15C/59F 18C/64.4F 21C/69.8F 24C/75.2F 27C/80.6F
10 14 12 11 8 7
20 7 4 2 0 + 2
30 2 0 + 3 + 6 + 8
40 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 9 + 12
50 + 5 + 8 + 11 + 13 + 16
60 + 8 + 11 + 13 + 16 + 18
70 + 10 + 13 + 16 + 18 + 21
80 + 12 + 14 + 17 + 20 + 23
90 + 14 + 17 + 19 + 22 + 25
100 + 15.6 + 18.3 + 21.1 + 23.9 + 26.7
Fig. 6.1.5 Calculation of thermal gradient
Interface Layer Nature of layer
Thickness
(mm)
R Value
m
2
C /W
Computation
(T/R)R = T
(C)
Temp.
(C)
A

+ 22.0
1 Interior surface film 0.120 (34/2.331) (0.120) = 1.8
B + 20.2
2 2 coats enamel paint 0.000 (34/2.331) (0.000) = 0
C + 20.2
3 Gypsum drywall 13 0.081 (34/2.331) (0.081) = 1.2
D + 19.0
4 Glassfibre batt insulation 89 1.851 (34/2.331) (1.851) = 27.0
E 8.0
5 Air space (non-vented & non- 25 0.171 (34/2.331) (0.171) = 2.5
F reflective) 10.5
6 Precast concrete (normal 150 0.078 (34/2.331) (0.078) = 1.1
G density - 2320 kg/m
3
) 11.6
7 Exterior surface film 0.030 (34/2.331) (0.030) = 0.4
H 12.0
Summation R = 277 2.331 T = 34.0
Fig. 6.1.6 Relationship of temperature index and
relative humidity for different winter
design temperatures
Example 6.5
The following procedure illustrates how to select a
temperature index, I, for a given assembly at a given
location in Canada.
1. Select the inside relative humidity to be
maintained without causing condensation.
Select maximum RH = 30%.
The indoor dry-bulb temperature is taken
as 20C.
2. Select the outside winter design temperature, T
c
,
for the location where the assembly will be
installed. This value can be found in the
Supplement to the National Building Code.
Assume at a location T
c
= 15C.
3. Using Fig. 6.1.6:
(a) Enter the value of relative humidity, RH = 30%,
found in Step 1 on the vertical scale.
Fig. 6.1.7 Temperature Index (I)
City
Inside
design
conditions
T
h
(C)
Inside
design
conditions
RH (%)
Outside
design
temp.
(2%)
T
c
(C)
I (%)
Vancouver 20 35 -7 41
Saskatoon 20 35 -35 71
Winnipeg 20 35 -33 70
Toronto 20 35 -18 58
Montreal 20 35 -23 63
Halifax 20 35 -16 57
St. Johns 20 35 -14 53
(b) Move horizontally to the selected outside winter
temperature, T
c
= 15C. Interpolate linearly for
in-between values.
(c) From the intersection of each maximum
allowable RH and T
c
, move vertically downward
to find the minimum required temperature index,
I, for each case.
Here Min. I = 48%.
Fig. 6.1.7 shows the temperature index, I, for some
locations in Canada.
6.2 ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIES
6.2.1 Notation
TL = transmission loss (dB)
m = surface mass (kg / m
2
)
f = frequency (Hz)
f
mam
= the mass-air-mass resonance frequency (Hz)
m
1
= the surface mass of the first layer (kg/m
2
)

m
2
= the surface mass of the second layer (kg/m
2
)
d = separation of first and second layers (m)
6.2.2 Definitions
Hertz (Hz) A measure of sound wave frequency,
i.e., the number of complete vibration cycles per
second.
STC Sound Transmission Class
IIC Impact Insulation Class
6.2.3 General
The basic purpose of architectural acoustics is to
provide a satisfactory environment where desired
sounds are clearly heard by the intended listeners
and unwanted sounds (noise) are isolated or
absorbed.
Under most conditions, the architect/engineer can
determine the acoustical needs of a space and
design a building to satisfy those needs. Good
acoustical design utilizes absorptive and reflective
surfaces, sound barriers and vibration isolators.
Some surfaces must reflect sound so that the
loudness will be adequate in all areas where listeners
are located. Other surfaces can be designed to
absorb sound to avoid echoes, sound distortion and
long reverberation times. Sound is isolated from
rooms where it is not wanted by selecting appropriate
wall, floor and ceiling construction. Vibration
generated by mechanical equipment must be isolated
from the structural frame of a building.
Information is provided on the acoustical properties of
some of the more common precast concrete products
used in building construction. This information can be
incorporated into the acoustic design of a building to
demonstrate compliance with local bylaws or other
minimum acoustic requirements. (See Fig. 6.2.6.)
The services of a competent acoustic design
consultant or specialist are recommended for
buildings or occupancies that require more
sophisticated acoustical analysis, such as churches,
concert halls, auditoriums, recording studios, etc.
6.2.4 Architectural Acoustics
The science of architectural acoustics is used to
control sound propagation within buildings. The
objective is to provide environments where occupants
hear what they want to hear and are not seriously
bothered by unwanted sounds.
Sound control in buildings can be divided into two
categories:
1. Sound distribution within an occupancy - wanted
sounds are heard properly by the recipients,
without being blurred by reverberation or
masked by noise. This can involve the
appropriate shaping of the room boundaries and
the use of sound absorbing surfaces. Typical
concrete products do not provide good sound
absorption, and other materials may be
necessary. This is a specialized topic and is not
covered here.
2. Sound insulation between occupancies - noises
originating in one location should not intrude into
adjacent occupancies. This involves the
provision of adequate barriers to sound
transmission. Typical concrete elements are
sufficiently massive to form an effective part of a
sound insulation design. The following
information deals primarily with sound insulation.
6.2.5 Airborne Sound
Airborne sound reaches a partition by propagating
from the source through the air. When sound waves
strike a partition, the variation in sound pressure
causes the partition to vibrate. This sets the air on the
other side in motion, thereby generating sound. A
very small fraction of the vibrational energy carried by
the sound waves is transferred to the partition. The
amount of energy transferred depends on the
construction of the partition.
Sound transmission loss
When sound propagates between two rooms through
a common partition, the principal factor controlling the
sound pressure level in the room where the sound is
received is the sound transmission loss (TL) through
the partition.
The sound transmission loss, expressed in decibels
(dB), is a measure of the ratio of the energy striking
the partition relative to the energy that is transmitted
through it. The greater the sound insulation provided
by a partition, the higher its TL. The sound
transmission loss through a partition varies with
frequency, usually increasing as the frequency
increases.
The sound pressure level in the receiving room also
increases as the area of the common partition
increases, and decreases as the amount of sound
absorbing material increases. These two effects are
secondary. Sound transmission loss is measured in
specially constructed reverberation rooms in
accordance with ASTM E90. [10] Measurements can
also be made in buildings by following
ASTM E336. [11]
Mass Law
The mass law is a semi-empirical expression that can
be used to predict transmission loss for thin,
homogeneous single-leaf panels.
The mass law is expressed as:
TL = 20 log((m)(f)) 48
The mass law predicts that the transmission loss will
increase by 6 dB for each doubling of the surface
mass or frequency. To increase the TL by 3 dB
requires an increase in the mass by a factor of 1.4. A
change of less than 3 dB is considered insignificant.
Transmission loss also depends on material
properties, such as stiffness. The transmission losses
of two single-leaf walls are illustrated in Fig. 6.2.1.
For the 16 mm gypsum board, below about 2 kHz,
agreement with the mass law is good. At higher
frequencies, there is a dip in the TL curve, called the
coincidence dip, where the wavelength of the flexural
vibrations in the wall coincides with the wavelength of
the sound in the air.
The frequency where the minimum value of TL
occurs in the coincidence dip is called the critical
frequency. The critical frequency depends on the
material stiffness and thickness. The stiffer or thicker
the layer of material, the lower the critical frequency.
The mass law only applies at frequencies below
approximately one half of the critical frequency.
Fig. 6.2.1 Transmission loss curves for single-
leaf partitions 15.9 mm gypsum
board and 150 mm concrete. The thick
solid lines are measured data. The
dotted lines are mass law predictions
for each material.
For gypsum board, the critical frequency is given by
f
c
= 39,000/t, where t is the thickness in mm. For
solid, normal density concrete, the critical frequency
is given by f
c
= 18,700/t. For example, a 150 mm thick
concrete slab weighing 345 kg/m
2
has a coincidence
frequency at 125 Hz. As shown in Fig. 6.2.1, the
transmission loss for the 150 mm concrete slab is
well below that predicted by mass law over most of
the frequency range shown.
Sound Transmission Class
To simplify acoustical design, it is convenient to
replace the detailed TL data by a single-number
rating known as the sound transmission class
(STC). [12]
The STC is determined by comparing the TL values
in the 16 one-third octave bands from 125 to 4000 Hz
with a reference contour covering the same
frequency range. The reference contour is adjusted
until the TL curve has an average deficiency of no
more than 2 dB. (A deficiency occurs when a TL
value lies below the STC contour). Additionally, no
measured TL value may lie more than 8 dB below the
STC contour. The sound transmission class is then
given by the 500 Hz value for the fitted STC contour.
Figure 6.2.2 shows transmission loss data and the
position of the reference contour after the fitting

Fig. 6.2.2 Example of fitting the STC contour to
measured data for a 150 mm thick
concrete slab. Deficiencies are shown
by the shaded area.
process is complete. The higher the STC rating the
better the sound insulation provided by the partition.
Sound transmission class is intended for rating
partitions for sounds, such as speech, that have most
of their energy in the middle and high-frequency
range. Nevertheless, it is widely used for rating the
airborne sound insulation of partitions, doors, and
windows against other types of noise such as
transportation noise, music, and machinery noise.
When the noise to be attenuated has a strong low-
frequency content, the perceived noise reduction can
be less than the sound transmission class indicates.
In such cases, it is better to estimate the loudness of
transmitted sound using the noise and transmission
loss information down to the lowest frequency where
data is available.
Single-leaf walls
The term single-leaf partition refers to all types of
solid homogeneous panels where both faces are
rigidly connected. Examples are concrete, concrete
block, brick, plywood and gypsum board.
The transmission loss of a single-leaf partition
depends mainly on its surface mass (mass per unit
area). The heavier the partition, the less it vibrates in
response to sound waves and therefore less sound
radiates from the side opposite the sound source.
Two leaf walls
A two-leaf partition contains two single-leaf layers
with an airspace in between. Such partitions usually
provide substantially higher sound insulation than
single-leaf partitions with the same total mass. The
resulting STC will not be as high as the sum of the
STCs for the individual leafs.
The sound insulation provided by a two-leaf partition
depends on 4 main factors:
1. Mass per unit area of component leafs: In
general, the heavier the component leafs, the
higher the sound insulation provided by a two-
leaf partition.
2. Mechanical connection between the two leafs:
Rigid mechanical connections between the two
leafs, permit sound to travel efficiently from one
leaf to the other, reducing the sound insulation of
the construction. If possible, mechanical
connections should be avoided, for example, by
constructing the two leafs to stand independently
of each other. Where mechanical connections
are required, they should be sufficiently resilient,
to avoid reductions in TL.
3. Sound absorptive material in airspace between
leafs: The addition of sound-absorptive material
in the cavity of a double-leaf partition can
improve the sound insulation by 10 or more
points. The two leafs must not be rigidly
connected to each other to achieve this
improvement. Where the two leafs are rigidly
connected by structural supports, the addition of
sound-absorptive material within the cavity will
provide only a small improvements in the sound
insulation.
Porous fibrous materials (such as glass,
mineral or cellulose fibre) provide
significant improvement. The type and
density of the fibrous material do not
influence the STC much.
Closed-cell foam materials (such as
foamed polystyrene), are poor absorbers
of sound and do not improve the sound
insulation.
The airspace between leafs should be
filled with about three-quarters of sound-
absorptive material. Using more than this
will provide little additional increase in
sound insulation. The fibrous material
should not be so densely compressed
that it forms a solid bridge between leafs
and reduces the sound insulation
provided by the partition.
The position or arrangement of the sound
absorptive material inside the cavity has
no significant effect provided the whole
area of the partition is covered. For
example, in staggered stud construction,
it does not matter whether the material is
against one face or zigzags between the
studs.
4. Depth of the airspace between the two leafs:
One potential disadvantage of cavity wall or floor
systems is that air trapped in the cavity between
the two leafs can act as a spring and transfer
vibration energy from one layer to the other. This
interaction between the leafs causes a
resonance called the mass-air-mass resonance
and an associated dip in the transmission loss
curve. The TL can be reduced to less than that
for a single-leaf of the same total weight that in
turn can lower the STC rating.
The frequency of the mass-air-mass resonance can
be calculated from:
f
mam
=
1 2
1 2
m m
K
dm m
+

K = 60 for an empty cavity
K = 43 for a cavity filled with sound absorbing
material
Adding sound absorbing material to the cavity will
lower the resonance frequency resulting in two values
for the constant K.
The improvement in TL due to the double-layer
construction begins about two-thirds of an octave
above f
mam
. Therefore, to maximize the improvement
due to the cavity, the mass-air-mass resonance
frequency should be as low as practical; that implies
large air spaces or heavier materials. Usually,
designing for a mass-air-mass resonance of 80 Hz,
means that the presence of a cavity will improve the
TL from 125 Hz upward, thereby ensuring an
increase in the STC.
For a given total weight, the mass-air-mass
resonance is lowest when m
1
= m
2
. Having both
layers with the same weight and stiffness could,
however, lead to low TL values around the
coincidence dip.
Many common partitions have the mass-air-mass
resonance in the frequency range of common low-
frequency noise sources. The deficiencies in their
low-frequency transmission loss are clear when a
stereophonic sound system plays in an adjacent
room; the melody line is barely audible, but bass
sounds are easily heard.
Fig. 6.2.3 Tapping machine data for a 150 mm
bare concrete floor tested bare (IIC
25), with a carpet (IIC 68), and with a
carpet and foam underpad (IIC 86).
6.2.6 Impact Sound Transmission
Noise from footsteps and other impacts is a common
source of annoyance in buildings. Impact noise is
more difficult to control than airborne sound because
energy transfer is much more efficient when the
vibrating or impacting source touches and directly
excites the surfaces of a building.
Laboratory and field test methods give single number
ratings for the transmission of impact sound through
floors. [14, 15] These tests use a standardized tapping
machine with five steel-faced hammers that strike the
floor at a rate of 10 times per second. Sound
pressure levels are measured in the room below the
floor in the frequency range 100 to 3150 Hz. The
resulting data is fitted to a reference contour to obtain
a single number rating - impact insulation class
(IIC). [16] Some examples of test results are shown in
Fig. 6.2.3.
The higher the IIC rating, the greater the impact noise
insulation provided by the construction. The IIC value
is determined by those values lying above the
reference IIC contour once the fitting process is
complete. As with the STC, the average deficiency
must not exceed 2 dB and no single deficiency can
exceed 8 dB.
The IIC should be about 55 or more for reasonable
protection against impact noise. Figure 6.2.3 shows
that a bare concrete floor, that has an IIC rating
controlled by the high frequencies, can be
unacceptable. Adding carpet or carpet with an
underpad makes very large differences to the IIC.
Most of the high frequency noise is reduced and the
IIC is controlled by the lower frequencies.
Improving IIC ratings for concrete floors
Bare concrete floors or those with hard finishes, such
as tile or hardwood, provide low impact sound
insulation. The thickness of a slab makes little
difference. The IIC ratings are usually between 25
and 35. This is an example of a construction material
that provides good insulation against airborne noise
but does not necessarily provide good insulation
against impact noise. Also, good impact noise
insulation does not necessarily mean good airborne
sound insulation.
A soft, resilient floor covering cushions impact forces
and reduces the energy transferred to the building
structure. The more resilient or soft the floor covering
is, the greater the increase in the IIC. The
improvement in IIC depends on the characteristics of
the floor structure, so different carpets and underpads
give different results. Typical soft carpets and
underpads used in a home give IIC ratings around
80. Vinyl floor coverings and similar products improve
the IIC of the bare slab by only 5 to 10 points.
A ceiling supported on resilient hangers below a
concrete slab will also increase the IIC rating. The
improvement depends on the method of support, the
cavity depth, the weight of the ceiling and the amount
of sound absorbing material present in the cavity.
Test data is needed to establish ratings for such
floors.
Floating floors can improve the IIC ratings for a
concrete slab by about 30 to 40 points. The value of
IIC obtained depends on the properties of the resilient
material used to support the floating layer, the depth
of the cavity below the floating slab, the weight and
properties of the slab and whether or not there is
sound absorbing material present in the cavity. The
IIC ratings are not as good as those provided by a
soft carpet and underpad, but still very good for use
in multifamily homes.
Lightweight joist construction
Wood-joist and truss floors perform quite differently
than solid concrete floors. When finished with carpet
and underpad, the IIC rating of lightweight wood-joist
and truss floors can be quite high. However, such
lightweight floors may transmit enough low-frequency
noise to be judged unacceptable by many occupants.
the airborne sound transmission and impact
sound transmission characteristics of party
walls and floors
This conflict between subjective reactions and IIC
ratings arises because the impact insulation class
rating system does not consider low-frequency sound
below 100 Hz. The ratings for lightweight wood-joist
and truss floor systems tend to be optimistic in their
evaluation of impact sound insulation. Occupants
living below such floors often complain of thumps,
creaking sounds, or rattling sounds when people walk
on the floor above.
the noise level in the adjacent spaces
the background noise level in the occupant's
own dwelling
the sensitivity of the occupant
The last three factors vary widely. The sound
insulation value of a floor or wall partition must be
selected to provide the desired level of insulation.
Sound insulation requirements for multi-unit dwellings
are usually based on surveys and experience.
Similar low frequency problems can occur with
relatively thin concrete floors supported on steel
joists. Lightweight floors vibrate more in response to
impacts and thus generate more sound.
Recommended sound insulation criteria for multi-
unit dwellings
Heavy concrete floors typically generate about 10 dB
less noise at low frequencies than do lighter joist or
truss systems. For this reason, heavier construction
is usually preferable in critical locations.
Mandatory minimum sound insulation requirements
between adjoining units are generally specified in
building codes. The National Building Code of
Canada specifies a minimum STC of 50 for party
walls and floors.
6.2.7 Sound Insulation in Multi-unit
Dwellings
A more detailed approach that considers the sound
insulation needed between various activity spaces in
adjacent units is given in Fig. 6.2.4 and Fig. 6.2.5.
These tables give recommended effective sound
insulation values for walls and floors between units in
terms of STC and IIC ratings, respectively.
Several factors determine whether noise from
adjacent units will bother other occupants of multi-unit
dwellings:
Fig. 6.2.4 Recommended minimum sound transmission class (STC) requirements for airborne sound
insulation of walls and floors separating spaces.
A B C
Separated spaces Bedrooms Living, etc. Service spaces
A Bedrooms 50
B Living, dining, family rooms 55 50
C
Kitchen, bathroom, hallway, foyer, storage,
utility space
55 50 45
D
Service spaces common to two or more
dwelling units

(a) Typically quiet, e.g., corridors, stairways,
storage spaces
50 50 45

(b) Typically noisy: garages, garbage disposal
areas (including garbage chutes), mechanical
equipment rooms, furnace rooms, laundries,
squash courts, party rooms
70 65 60
Note: Values are given for separation of specific spaces. The higher requirement should be used when two or more categories are combined
in one unpartitioned space.

Fig. 6.2.5 Minimum requirements for impact insulation class (IIC) floors separating spaces. Values are
given for separation of specific spaces.

Room below

A B C

Upper room Bedrooms Living, etc. Kitchen, etc.
A Bedrooms 50 45 45
B Living, dining, family rooms 55 50 45
C
Kitchen, bathroom, hallway, foyer, storage, utility
space
55 50 45
D
Service spaces common to two or more dwelling
units

(a) Typically quiet, e.g. corridors, stairways, storage
spaces
55 50 45

(b) Typically noisy: garages, garbage disposal areas
(including garbage chutes), mechanical equipment
rooms, furnace rooms, laundries, squash courts,
party rooms)
65 60 50
Note: The higher requirement should be used when two or more of the categories are combined in one unpartitioned space.
The values given in Fig. 6.2.4 and Fig. 6.2.5
represent recommended insulation values. Flanking
transmission at the junctions of the construction
components can reduce noise insulation drastically.
Field testing of sound insulation at an early stage
while construction is in progress can allow changes to
be made before the construction is completed.
Therefore, selection of tested building components
meeting these ratings will not guarantee the
recommended insulation values will be achieved in a
finished building.
Influence of building layout on sound insulation
requirements
A simple means of controlling noise in buildings is to
separate noisy areas from quiet areas as much as
possible. For example, in a typical apartment, the
noise levels vary widely from one room to another.
Kitchens are often noisy; living rooms may be the
source of sounds from speaking, radios or TV. A
carefully chosen layout will reduce the required noise
reductions between spaces and therefore reduce the
sound insulation needed for the building components.
6.2.8 Insulation from Outdoor Noise
Insulation from outdoor noise has become a major
consideration in building acoustics, particularly in the
vicinity of major roads, railways and airports. Detailed
procedures have been prepared by Canada
Mortgage and Housing Corporation for the site
planning and design of residential buildings. Usually,
the sound insulation of a building facade is largely
determined by the performance of the windows and
doors. The effective performance of the composite
wall can be calculated.
6.2.9 Concrete Floors and Concrete and
Masonry Walls
Precast concrete floor and roof slabs are often
supported on concrete and masonry bearing walls.
Non-load bearing masonry partition walls are often
installed in precast concrete structures. Information
on the acoustical performance of concrete and
masonry assemblies is given in this section.
Single-leaf concrete walls and floors
Figure 6.2.6 gives representative STC values for
common concrete wall and floor assemblies. Simple
concrete partitions can provide STCs from 45 to 55.
Hollow core slabs have slightly lower values than
solid slabs. For STCs much greater than 55, the
weight required may be prohibitive. Surface mass
must be doubled for an increase of 6 dB. Multi-layer
partitions with a central massive wall and one or more
leafs attached to each side are often used where high
STC ratings are required. This is discussed below.
Single-leaf masonry walls
Concrete block provides approximately the same
sound insulation as a solid concrete or brick wall of
the same surface mass, provided all cracks, openings
and voids are properly sealed.
Solid and hollow concrete blocks are manufactured in
a variety of thicknesses, core sizes, aggregates, and
densities. Representative values of the sound
transmission class (STC) for block walls are given in
Fig. 6.2.7. These values apply only when the wall
surfaces are properly sealed and the mortar joints are
sound.
Fig. 6.2.6 Airborne sound transmission loss (STC) and impact insulation class (IIC) ratings from tests of
precast concrete assemblies. [37]
Assembly No. Description STC IIC
Wall Systems
1 100 mm flat panel, 240 kg/m
2
49 -
2
55 -
3
Assembly 2 with "Z" furring channels, 25 mm insulation and 12 mm gypsum board,
390 kg/m
2
62 -
4 Assembly 2 with wood furring, 12 mm insulation and 12 mm gypsum board, 390 kg/m
2
63 -
5
Assembly 2 with 12 mm space, 40 mm metal stud row, 75 mm insulation and 12
mm gypsum board
63
(1)
-
2
58 -
7 355 mm prestressed tees with 100 mm flange, 360 kg/m
2
54 -
Floor-Ceiling Systems
8 203 mm hollow core prestressed units, 280 kg/m
2
50 28
9 Assembly 8 with carpet and pad, 285 kg/m
2
50 73
10
203 mm hollow core prestressed units with 12 mm wood block flooring adhered
directly, 290 kg/m
2
51 47
11
Assembly 10 except 12 mm wood block flooring adhered to 12 mm sound-
deadening board underlayment adhered to concrete, 300 kg/m
2
52 55
12 Assembly 11 with acoustical ceiling, 305 kg/m
2
59 61
13
Assembly 8 with quarry tile, 30 mm reinforced mortar bed with 10 mm nylon and
carbon black spinerette matting, 400 kg/m
2
60 54
14
Assembly 13 with suspended 16 mm gypsum board ceiling with 90 mm insulation,
435 kg/m
2
61 62
15 355 mm prestressed tees with 50 mm concrete topping, 365 kg/m
2
54 24
2
54 72
17
Assembly 15 with resiliently suspended acoustical ceiling with 40 mm mineral fiber
blanket above, 375 kg/m
2
59 51
2
59 82
19 100 mm flat slabs, 240 kg/m
2
49 25
2
52 24
21 130 mm flat slab concrete with carpet and pad, 315 kg/m
2
52
(1)
68
2
52
(1)
34
2
55 34
(1)
2
58 31
25 250 mm flat slab concrete with carpet and pad, 605 kg/m
2
59
(1)
74
(1) Estimated values.
Fig. 6.2.7 Sound transmission class (STC)
ratings for normal and lightweight
hollow concrete block walls sealed on
at least one side. The block face
dimensions are 190 390 mm.
Lightweight block Normal weight block
Block
thickness
(mm)
Weight
per block,
(kg)
STC
Weight
per block,
(kg)
STC
90 7 43 10 44
140 10 44 15 46
190 13 45 17 48
240 15 47 21 49
290 18 48 25 51
The sound insulation provided by a hollow concrete
block depends on both the density of the block
material and its porosity. The more porous the block,
the more sound will leak through the block structure.
Improvements of 5 to 10 STC points are common
after sealing using concrete paint, epoxy paint, or a
skim coat of plaster. Gypsum board attached directly
with screws or dabs of glue to the block surface is not
an effective seal because it is able to vibrate as a
separate layer.
When gypsum board is used to finish a masonry wall,
at least one face of the block should be sealed. This
can be an advantage when gypsum board is added
on resilient supports to finish a wall. Covering a flaw
with gypsum board does not eliminate the detrimental
effects of the flaw.
Two-leaf masonry walls
Two-leaf concrete or masonry walls are capable of
providing very high sound insulation because they
comprise two heavy layers separated by an airspace.
The insulation attained can be limited by the practical
difficulties of constructing two leafs that are
structurally isolated.
Depending on the height, masonry walls may require
metal ties for structural reasons. Ties transmit sound
energy from one leaf to the other. The detrimental
effects of mechanical ties can be minimized by the
use of special ties with interlocking hooks or resilient
couplings. During construction, the airspace between
two leaf masonry walls can become filled with mortar
droppings or rubble. This can bridge the gap between
the walls and reduce the sound insulation. These
construction defects are usually concealed and
impossible to correct after the wall is complete.
Sound energy is transmitted along floors and ceilings,
along walls abutting the periphery of cavity walls, and
through other parts of the structure. These flanking
paths can bypass a cavity wall and reduce its
effective TL. This kind of flanking is illustrated in Fig.
6.2.8. Physical breaks in the floor, ceiling, and
abutting walls are needed to reduce transmission
along these paths.
In summary, two-leaf concrete walls can provide very
high sound insulation but great care and experience
are needed in the overall design and construction. In
most cases, it is more practical to attach gypsum
board or other lightweight panels on resilient mounts
as described below.
Fig. 6.2.8 Flanking paths under a cavity block
(or concrete) wall resting on a
continuous slab of concrete. Any solid
connection between the walls will
reduce the sound insulation.
Concrete or masonry walls with added gypsum
board
A common method for improving the sound insulation
of an existing concrete or masonry wall is to add a
layer of gypsum board on one or both sides of the
wall. It is essential to first seal masonry walls.
The gypsum board is best supported using:
Steel or wood studs not in contact with the
wall,
resilient metal furring attached to the wall, or
wood furring and resilient metal channels
attached to the wall
Wood furring alone attached to the wall with nails,
screws and other fasteners is often used to attach
gypsum board to the wall. This practice is not
recommended as these types of rigid connections
provide a path for vibrational energy and the benefits
of the added gypsum board may be lost.
The measured improvement in sound transmission
class (STC) rating that can result from the attachment
of 16 mm gypsum board in a variety of ways to
concrete and masonry walls is given in Fig. 6.2.9.
The STC ratings for complete wall systems can be
calculated by adding the improvements given in
Fig. 6.2.9 to the STC rating of the concrete walls from
Fig. 6.2.6 or the masonry walls from Fig. 6.2.7.
Multi-element partitions
Components having low values of sound insulation,
such as windows and doors, reduce the overall sound
insulation. When a partition comprises two or more
different components, for example, a wall containing
a door or window, the effective value of airborne
sound insulation is determined by the areas and
sound transmission properties of the individual
components.
The STC rating for a multi-element partition can meet
the design criterion by selecting the areas and
transmission losses of the individual components. It is
usually uneconomical to require that all components
have the STC rating required for the composite
structure. Instead, sound transmission through the
weaker components, is compensated for by
improving the stronger components, usually the wall,
beyond the overall design criterion. There are limits,
however, to what can be achieved.
Calculations should be made for each of the
individual TL values at each frequency band, and
then the STC is derived for the resultant TL curve.


Fig. 6.2.9 Increase in STC ratings when a single layer of 16 mm gypsum board is added to one or both
sides of a concrete block or a concrete wall, with and without fiberglass batts filling the cavity
between gypsum board and the concrete. The same values can be used for 13 mm gypsum
board without serious error.
Without fiberglass in cavity With fiberglass in cavity
Gypsum board attachment
one side both sides one side both sides
Directly on concrete block + 0 1
On 13 mm resilient steel channels + 2 1 + 4 1
On 40 mm wood furring + 3 + 4 + 5 + 9
On 50 mm resilient steel furring + 2 + 2 + 9 + 14
On 65 mm steel studs + 8 + 7 + 10 + 22
On 75 mm resilient steel furring + 7 + 11
Note: When the cavity behind the gypsum board is too small, the STC is actually lowered relative to the bare block case. Note also the very
large increases in STC when the cavity is large and filled with sound absorbing material.
6.2.10 Control of Structureborne Noise in
Buildings
Structureborne sound arises when a machine or
vibrating device is rigidly attached to a building
structure. Structureborne sound may be controlled at
its source, along its transmission path, and at its point
of reception. Control at the point of origin is best.
The following techniques are recommended to
effectively control structureborne noise:
Provide vibration isolation between machines
and a structure by mounting the machines on
soft rubber or neoprene pads, on springs or
on an inertia block that rests on springs.
Reduce the power of a source of vibration by
changing its operating conditions or by
selecting different models that introduce less
vibration into the structure. Well-balanced
rotating machinery will generate less
vibration than reciprocating equipment.
Locate the source of vibration as far as
possible from areas where low noise levels
are required. For example: Locate elevators
and garbage chutes away from bedrooms in
apartments. Dont place a gymnasium above
a school library.
Use breaks (for example, expansion joints) in
an otherwise solid building construction to
impede the transmission of structureborne
noise.
Plumbing noise
The plumbing system in a building can be considered
as an extended machine and source of vibration. The
same considerations given above apply. Wherever
possible, pipes and appliances should not be directly
attached to the structure of a building. Resilient
collars and supports should be used. Quiet faucets
and toilets are available but may cost more than the
standard devices.
6.2.11 Sound Leaks
Common causes of sound leaks in buildings:
cracked or incomplete mortar joints in
masonry walls
unsealed gaps around power outlets
gaps under gypsum board walls where
caulking has been omitted
openings around pipes where they penetrate
walls
cracks around the edges of doors and
windows
To eliminate sound leaks:
Inspect and repair all mortar joints in
concrete block walls and seal the surface.
Apply non-hardening caulking to seal all
holes and fissures in party walls or floors.
Apply rubber gaskets or non-hardening
caulking to seal openings around pipes and
conduits. This prevents the pipes forming a
solid link and an easy path for vibration
between the two sides of a wall.
Apply weather-stripping to windows and
doors.
Repair and seal holes made during
installation of services.
Although the area of a leak can be quite small, the TL
is roughly zero. The STC is determined largely by the
leak area unless the area of the leak relative to that of
the wall is very low. For example, if the leak area is
0.0001 times the wall area, the STC can never
exceed 40 no matter how good the wall construction.
The higher the acoustical isolation required, the more
important it is to eliminate all sound leaks.
6.2.12 Sound Absorption of Concrete
Normal density concrete is not an efficient sound
absorber. An absorptive surface such as a sprayed or
trowelled-on acoustical plaster can be placed over
the concrete. Layers of fibrous sound absorbing
materials can be attached and protected by a durable
covering.
Thin layers of material attached directly to the surface
of a wall are relatively inefficient at lower frequencies.
To improve low-frequency absorption, thick porous
layers, resonant cavity systems, porous layers behind
a perforated screen, sound absorbing material
mounted on furring or a suspension system that
leaves space behind. Manufacturers' trade literature
will provide sound absorption characteristics for
sound absorbing materials on typical mounting
systems.
6.2.13 Highway Noise Barriers
Noise barriers are solid obstructions built between a
highway and homes along a highway. Effective noise
barriers can reduce noise levels by 10 to 15 dB,
cutting the loudness of traffic noise in half, see Fig.
6.2.10. Barriers can be formed from earth berms or
from vertical walls that take less space. Walls are
usually limited to 8 meters in height for structural and
aesthetic reasons. Precast concrete is often used to
construct noise barriers that are visually pleasing and
blend in with their surroundings.
Wall material selection is based on a number of
factors: aesthetics, durability, maintenance, cost,
public comments, etc. The material chosen should be
rigid and of sufficient density (approximately
20 kg/sq m minimum requiring at least 2.6 mm
steel, 36 mm wood or 9 mm precast concrete) to
provide a transmission loss of 10 dBA greater than
the expected reduction in the noise diffracted over the
top of the barrier.
Noise barriers do have limitations. For a noise barrier
to work, it must be high enough and long enough to
block the view of a road. Noise barriers do little good
for homes on a hillside overlooking a road or for
buildings that rise above the barrier. A noise barrier
can achieve a 5 dB noise level reduction when it is
tall enough to break the line-of-sight from the highway
to the receiver and it can achieve an approximate 1.5
dB additional noise level reduction for each meter of
height after it breaks the line-of-sight (with a
maximum theoretical total reduction of 20 dBA). To
avoid undesirable end effects, the barrier should
extend 4 times as far in each direction as the
distance from the receiver to the barrier.
Fig. 6.2.10 Barrier attenuation [38]
Reduction in
Sound Level
Reduction in
Acoustic Energy
Degree of Difficulty
to Obtain
Reduction
5 dBA 70% Simple
10 dBA 90% Attainable
15 dBA 97% Very Difficult
20 dBA 99% Nearly Impossible
Other factors that affect sound barrier noise reduction
are reflections from the ground on either side of the
barrier and the bending of sound wave paths due to
wind or temperature effects. Having a sound
absorptive face on the barrier that faces the traffic
increases sound attenuation. Computer programs
[18] are used to estimate the effectiveness and
environmental impact of busy roads, highways and
sound barriers.
Proposed barrier structures may be tested to
determine the sound transmission through a sound
wall. Where it is required to have a sound absorptive
face towards the traffic, measurements of the sound
absorption coefficients are made. Typical values are
STC 20 and NRC 0.7.
Sound attenuation is not the only consideration.
Barriers must be structurally sound to withstand wind
loads, snow plow loads, weathering, and corrosive
attack. Further information about transportation noise
and highway barriers can be found in journals
focused on this topic. [19]
6.3 FIRE RESISTANCE
6.3.1 Notation
Note: Subscript indicates the property as affected
by elevated temperatures.
A
p
= area of prestressed reinforcement
A
s
= area of non-prestressed reinforcement
A
s
= area of reinforcement in negative moment

region
a = depth of equivalent rectangular compression
stress block
b = width of element
c = neutral axis depth at nominal resistance
d
p
= distance from centroid of prestressed
reinforcement to the extreme compression
fibre

c
f = specified compressive strength of concrete

f
pr
= stress in the prestressed reinforcement at
nominal resistance
f
pr
elevated temperature
f
pu
= specified tensile strength of prestressed
reinforcement
f
pu
= tensile strength of prestressed
reinforcement at elevated temperature
h = total depth of an element
k
p
= factor for type of prestressing steel
l = span length
M = service load moment
M
n
= nominal flexural resistance

n
n
M ,
M
+
= positive and negative nominal flexural

resistance at elevated temperatures,
respectively
u = distance from prestressed reinforcement to
the fire exposed surface
w = uniform total load
w
d
= uniform dead load
w
l
= uniform live load
x = horizontal distance
1
= stress block intensity factor
1
= stress block depth factor
s
= temperature of steel reinforcement
c
= resistance factor for concrete
p
= resistance factor for prestressed
reinforcement
6.3.2 Definitions
Type S concrete Type of concrete in which the
coarse aggregate is granite, quartzite, siliceous
gravel or other dense materials containing at least 30
per cent quartz, chert or flint.
Type N concrete Type of concrete in which the
coarse aggregate is cinders, broken brick, blast
furnace slag, limestone, calcareous gravel, trap rock,
sandstone or similar dense material containing not
more than 30 per cent of quartz, chert or flint.
Type L concrete Type of concrete in which all the
aggregate is expanded slag, expanded clay,
expanded shale or pumice.
Type L40S concrete Type of concrete in which the
fine portion of the aggregate is sand and low density
aggregate and in which the sand does not exceed 40
per cent of the total volume of all aggregates in the
concrete.
Fire endurance A measure of the elapsed time
during which a material or assembly continues to
exhibit fire resistance under specified conditions of
test and performance. As applied to elements of
buildings it shall be measured by the methods and to
the criteria defined in ULC S-101 (defined in ULC).
Fire resistance The property of a material or
assembly to withstand fire or to give protection from
it. As applied to elements of buildings, it is
characterized by the ability to confine a fire or to
continue to perform a given structural function, or
both (defined in ULC S-101).
Fire resistance rating, sometimes called fire rating,
fire resistance classification, or hourly rating, A
legal term defined in building codes, usually based on
fire endurances. Fire resistance ratings are assigned
by building codes or building officials for various
types of construction and occupancies and are
usually given in half-hour increments.
Lightweight aggregate concrete Concrete made
with lightweight, coarse and fine aggregate
(expanded clay, shale, slag, or slate, or sintered fly
ash) and having a 28-day air-dry unit weight of 1500
to 1700 kg/m
3
.
Sand-lightweight concrete Concrete made with
lightweight, coarse aggregate (expanded clay, shale,
slag, or slate, or sintered fly ash) and normal weight
fine aggregate and having a 28-day air-dry unit
weight of 1700 to 1900 kg/m
3
.
Note: CSA A23.3 uses the term: low-density
concrete.
6.3.3 Introduction
Precast concrete elements can be provided with the
degree of fire resistance required by building codes,
insurance companies, and other authorities. The fire
resistance of building assemblies is determined from
standard fire tests defined in ULC standard CAN/ULC
S101-04, Standard Methods of Fire Endurance Tests
of Building Construction and Materials. [39]
Engineers can use the tabulated information provided
in Appendix D, Fire-Performance Ratings, of the
National Building Code of Canada to ensure that fire
resistance requirements are satisfied. This
information is based on the results of standard fire
tests of assemblies.
Fig. 6.3.1 Standard time temperature curve
In the absence of fire test results or tabulated data,
the fire resistance of precast concrete elements and
assemblies can be determined in most cases by
calculation. These calculations are based on
engineering principles and take into account the
conditions of a standard fire test. This is known as the
Rational Design Method of determining fire
resistance. It is based on extensive research
conducted by the National Research Council of
Canada, the Portland Cement Association and many
laboratories in Europe and the U.S.
While every attempt has been made to present
information that is factual and is in usable format, the
material presented herein does not have official
status. Acceptance of designs based on this
information rests entirely with the authority having
jurisdiction.
Fire tests and heat transmission are discussed in
Sect. 6.3.4 and Sect. 6.3.5. Calculations using the
Rational Design Method for common situations are
presented in Sect. 6.3.7. Brief explanations of the
underlying principles are also given. For additional
examples, design charts, and a complete explanation
of the method, refer to the CPCI manual, Fire
Resistance Ratings for Prestressed and Precast
Concrete. [45]
High strength concretes with compressive strengths
up to 70 MPa, will perform under fire conditions as
described herein provided minimum cover and other
dimensional requirements are adhered to. ULC
provides certification of fire resistance ratings of
some building assemblies for precast concrete
manufacturers that subscribe to the service. These
certifications are based on standard fire tests. ULC
certification is not required by NBC.
6.3.4 Standard Fire Tests
The fire resistance of building components is
measured in standard fire tests defined by ULC S101.
During these tests, the building assembly, such as a
portion of a floor, wall, roof or column is subjected to
increasing temperatures that vary with time as shown
in Fig. 6.3.1.
This time-temperature relationship is used as a
standard to represent the combustion of about 4.5 kg
of wood with a heat potential of 200 Mj/kg/m
2
of
exposed area per hour of test. The fuel consumption
to maintain the standard time-temperature
relationship during a fire test depends on the design
of the furnace and on the test specimen. When fire
tested, assemblies with exposed concrete members,
such as double tees and hollow core slabs, require
considerably more fuel than other assemblies due to
their favorable heat absorption capacity. This fact is
not recognized when evaluating fire resistance by
current standard test methods.
ULC S101 specifies the minimum size of assemblies,
the magnitude of applied load, the region of the
assembly to be exposed to the fire, and the end point
criteria on which fire endurance is based.
The Standard, ULC S101, specifies the minimum
sizes of specimens to be exposed in fire tests, see
Fig. 6.3.1. For floors and roofs, at least 16.8 m
2
must
be exposed to fire from beneath, and neither
dimension can be less than 3.66 m. For tests of walls,
both loadbearing and non-loadbearing, the minimum
specified area is 9.3 m
2
with neither dimension less
than 2.75 m. The minimum length for columns is
specified to be 2.75 m, while for beams it is 3.66 m.
The maximum permissible superimposed load as
required or permitted by nationally recognized
standards is applied during fire tests of floors, roofs,
beams, load-bearing walls and columns. A load other
than the maximum load may be applied, but the test
results then apply only to the restricted load
condition.
Floor and roof specimens are exposed to fire from
below, beams are exposed from the bottom and
sides, walls are exposed from one side, and columns
are exposed on all sides.
Restrained assemblies
ULC S101 distinguishes between restrained and
unrestrained assemblies and defines them as follows:

Unrestrained and restrained assembly classifications
can be derived from fire tests of restrained
specimens. When based on results of fire tests of
restrained specimens, additional end point criteria for
unrestrained floor, roof, and beam classifications are:
Floor and roof assemblies and individual beams
in buildings shall be considered thermally
restrained when (1) the surrounding or
supporting structure is capable of resisting,
without collapse, thermal expansion such as
would be induced in an environment described
by the Standard Time-Temperature Curve, or,
(2) the assemblies or beams have structural
continuity over supports. Constructions not
complying with either of these two conditions or
a combination thereof are assumed to be free to
expand and rotate and should be considered as
thermally unrestrained.
1. Structural steel elements spaced more than 1.22
m on centres: temperature of the steel at any
one section must not exceed an average of
593C or a maximum of 704C.
2. Structural steel elements spaced 1.22 m or less
on centres, e.g., multiple open-web steel joists:
average temperature must not exceed 593C.
3. Concrete structural elements: average
temperature of the bottom reinforcement at any
section must not exceed 427C for cold-drawn
prestressing steel or 593C for reinforcing bars.
While the focus of this definition is mainly on the axial
resistance of the supporting or surrounding structure
to thermal expansion, the intent of restraint can be
expanded for concrete members, unlike other
materials, to include rotational restraint and continuity
as well see the sub-section on continuous elements
under Sect. 6.3.7.
Additional end point criteria for restrained assembly
classifications are:
1. Beams more than 1.22 m on centres: the steel
temperatures in (1) and (3) above must not be
exceeded for classifications of 1 h or less; for
classifications longer than 1 h, these
temperatures must not be exceeded for the first
half of the classification period or 1 h, whichever
is longer.
ULC S101 includes a guide for classifying types of
construction as restrained or unrestrained and is
reproduced in Fig. 6.3.2. The guide indicates that
cast-in-place and many precast concrete assemblies
can be considered to be restrained.
Fire endurance, fire-resistance rating, and end
point criteria
2. Concrete beams 1.22 m or less on centres and
slabs are not subjected to steel temperature
limitations.
The fire endurance of an assembly is the period of
time which elapses before a prescribed condition of
failure or end point is reached during a standard fire
test. A fire-resistance rating is a legal term for the fire
endurance required by a building code or authority
having jurisdiction.
3. Structural steel members spaced 1.22 m or less
on centres: the steel temperature in (2) above
must not be exceeded for classifications of 1 h
or less; for classifications longer than 1 h, that
temperature must not be exceeded for the first
half of the classification period or 1 h, whichever
is longer.
The following end point criteria are defined by ULC
S101:
1. Loadbearing specimens must sustain the
applied loading. Collapse is an obvious end
point (structural end point).
Note that there are no limiting temperatures for
reinforcing steel or prestressing steel for restrained
classifications of slabs. Also, there are no limiting
steel temperatures for unrestrained assembly
classifications derived from fire tests of unrestrained
specimens. Restrained assembly classifications
cannot be obtained from fire tests of unrestrained
specimens.
2. Holes, cracks, or fissures through which flames
or gases hot enough to ignite cotton waste must
not form (flame passage end point).
3. The temperature increase of the unexposed
surface of floors, roofs, or walls must not exceed
an average of 140C or a maximum of 180C at
any one point (heat transmission end point).
Walls and partitions must meet the same structural,
flame passage, and heat transmission end points
described above. In addition, they must withstand a
hose stream test (simulating, in a specified manner, a
fire fighters hose stream).
4. In alternate tests of large steel beams (not
loaded during test), the end point occurs when
the steel temperature reaches an average of
538C or a maximum of 649C at any one point.
Fig. 6.3.2 Construction Classifications, Restrained or Unrestrained*
STEEL OR CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
A) One Bay Structures:

(i) Floors, roofs or beams should be considered as THERMALLY UNRESTRAINED
unless:

(a) They have structural continuity (see Clause A1.5) with supporting members;
or

(b) The supporting members are designed and detailed to resist thermal thrust
from the floor or roof system.

B) Multi-Bay Structures:

(i) Floors, roofs or beams in interior bays should be considered as THERMALLY
RESTRAINED, provided that:

(a) Open web steel joists, steel beams, or metal decking have a positive
structural connection with the structural concrete slabs they support. Such a
connection need not develop full composite action.

(b) Cast-in-place floor and roof systems (such as beam-and-slabs, flat-slabs,
pan-joists and waffle slabs) are integral with or secured to the framing
members.

(c) All types of prefabricated floor or roof systems are secured to the framing
members so that the potential thermal expansion of the floor or roof system
is resisted by the framing system or adjoining floor or roof construction. For
example, resistance to potential thermal expansion is considered to be
achieved with either of the following:

(A) Continuous structural concrete topping is used; or

(B) The space between the ends of precast units or between the ends of
units and the vertical face of supports is filled with concrete or mortar;
or the space is the lesser of 25 mm or 0.25% of the length for normal
weight concrete members or the space is the lesser of 15 mm or
0.1% of the length for structural lightweight concrete members.

(ii) Floors, roofs or beams in exterior bays (exterior bays are defined as those having
an exterior support in the direction of the span or spans of the floor, roof or beam in
question) should be considered as THERMALLY UNRESTRAINED unless:

(a) They have structural continuity (see Clause A1.5) with supporting members,
or

(b) The supporting framing members are designed and detailed to resist thermal
thrust from the floor or roof system.

WOOD CONSTRUCTION
All types of wood construction shall be considered to be thermally unrestrained.
* Reproduced from ULC 5101

Fire tests of prestressed concrete assemblies
The first fire test of a prestressed concrete assembly
in North America was conducted in 1953 at the
National Bureau of Standards. Since that time, more
than 150 prestressed concrete assemblies have been
subjected to standard fire tests in North America.
Although many of the tests were conducted for the
purpose of deriving specific fire ratings, most of the
tests were performed in conjunction with broad
research studies whose objectives have been to
understand the behaviour of prestressed concrete
members subjected to fire.
The knowledge gained from these tests has resulted
in the development of:
1. lists of fire resistive prestressed concrete
building components and
2. procedures for determining the fire endurance of
prestressed concrete elements by calculation.
Many different types of prestressed concrete
elements have been fire tested. These elements
include joists, double tees, mono-wing tees, single
tees, solid slabs, hollow core slabs, rectangular
beams, ledger beams, and -shaped beams. In
addition, roofs with thermal insulation and
loadbearing wall panels have also been tested.
Nearly all of these elements have been exposed
directly to fire, but a few tests have been conducted
on specimens that received additional protection from
the fire by spray-applied coatings, ceilings, etc.
Fire tests of flexural elements
Reports of a number of tests sponsored by the
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) have
been issued by Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL).
Most of the reports have been reprinted by PCI, and
the results of the tests are the basis for UL's listings
and specifications for non-proprietary products such
as double tee and single tee floors and roofs, hollow
core and solid slabs, and prestressed concrete
beams.
The Portland Cement Association (PCA) conducted
many fire tests of prestressed concrete assemblies.
PCA's unique furnaces made it possible to study in
depth the effects of support conditions. Four series of
tests dealt with simply supported slabs and beams;
two series dealt with continuous slabs and beams;
and one major series dealt with the effects of
restrained thermal expansion on the behavior during
fire of prestressed concrete floors and roofs. PCA has
also conducted a number of fire tests of prestressed
and reinforced concrete assemblies. Test results that
have been published as Research and Development
Bulletins are available from PCA. [41], [42]
Fire tests of walls and columns
A test was conducted by Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
on a double tee wall assembly for research purposes
in which fire was applied to the flat surface of the 50 mm
thick flange. A gravity load of about 145 kN/m was
applied at the top of the wall. The wall withstood a 2-hour
fire and a subsequent hose stream test followed by a
load test with the design load doubled. No distress was
observed. The heat transmission requirement was
exceeded for most of the test because the flange was
only 50 mm thick. By providing adequate flange thickness
or insulation, the heat transmission requirement would
have been met in addition to the structural requirement.
Fire tests of reinforced concrete columns have been
conducted by PCA and the National Research
Council of Canada. While no tests have been
conducted for prestressed concrete columns, results
from these tests are considered to be equally
applicable to prestressed concrete columns with
adjustments made for the difference in thermal
properties between mild reinforcing steel and
prestressing strand as may be appropriate.
6.3.5 Designing for Heat Transmission
ULC S101 imposes heat transmission criteria for
floor, roof, and wall assemblies. Thus floors, roofs, or
walls requiring a fire-resistance rating must satisfy the
heat transmission requirements as well as the various
structural criteria. The heat transmission fire endurance
of a concrete assembly is essentially the same
whether the assembly is tested as a floor, oriented
horizontally, or as a wall, tested vertically. Because of
this, and unless otherwise noted, the information
which follows is applicable to floors, roofs, or walls.
Single course slabs or wall panels
For concrete slabs and panels, the temperature rise
of the unexposed surface depends mainly on the
thickness, relative density, and aggregate type of the
concrete. Other less important factors include unit
weight, moisture condition, air content, and maximum
aggregate size. Within the usual ranges, water-
cementitious materials ratio, strength, and age have
insignificant effects. Fig. 6.3.3 shows the fire
endurance (heat transmission) of concrete slabs or
wall panels as influenced by aggregate type and
element thickness. For a hollow core slab, this
thickness may be obtained by dividing the net cross
sectional area by its width. The curves represent air-
entrained concrete made with air-dry aggregates
having a nominal maximum size of 20 mm and fire
tested when the concrete was at the standard
moisture condition, 75% R.H. at mid-depth. On the
graph, concretes are designated as Types L, L40S,
N, and S, see Sect. 6.3.2 Definitions.
Fig. 6.3.3 Fire endurance (heat transmission) of
concrete slabs or wall panels
Ribbed panels
Heat transmission through a ribbed panel is influenced
by the thinnest portion of the panel and by the panels
equivalent thickness. Equations for calculating the
equivalent thickness are given in Appendix D of the
NBCC. An illustrated example is shown in Sect. 1.4 of
the Cement Association of Canada (CAC) Concrete
Design Handbook.
Multi-course-assemblies
Floors and roofs often consist of concrete base slabs
with overlays or undercoatings of other types of
concrete or insulating materials. In addition, roofs
generally have built-up roofing. Walls may consist of
more than one wythe, with or without an internal air
space.
The fire resistance of multi-course assemblies is
outlined in Chapter 2 of the Supplement to NBCC. An
illustrated example is shown in Sect. 1.4 of the CAC
Concrete Design Handbook.
Sandwich panels
Sandwich wall panels are made by sandwiching
insulation material between two concrete wythes.
It should be noted that cellular plastics melt and are
consumed at about 200 to 300C. Additional
thickness or changes in composition will have a minor
effect on the fire endurance of sandwich panels. [43]
The fire resistance of sandwich wall panels is
equivalent to the fire resistance of a solid panel with a
thickness equal to the sum of the thickness of the two
wythes. For further information, see Chapter 2 of the
Supplement to NBCC.
Window walls
NBCC limits the area of unprotected openings
(windows and doors) in exterior walls which are
required to be fire resistive. Percentages of
unprotected opening areas are tabulated for various
combinations of area of building face, height-length
ratio, and spatial separation.
The percentage of openings permitted increases:
1. as the spatial separation increases
2. as the area of the exposed building face
decreases
3. as the ratio of either height-length (H/L) or
length-height (L/H) increases, i.e., a greater
percentage is permitted for H/L or L/H of 10:1
than for H/L or L/H of 3:1
For example, an exposed face of an office building
having an area of 350 m
2
, an L/H = 2:1, and a limiting
distance of 7 m can have a maximum of 16 percent of
unprotected openings. If the ratio of L/H or H/L were
10:0 or more, the area of unprotected openings could
be increased to 30 percent, or if the spatial
separation were 12 m and the L/H were 10:1, the
area of unprotected openings permitted is 59 percent
of the exposed face.
NBCC also permits a higher limit on the unexposed
surface temperature if the area of unprotected
openings is less than the maximum allowed, and thus
somewhat thinner panels can be used.
An equivalent opening factor is applied in the
following formula to determine the corrected area of
openings:
A
c
= A + A
f
F
eo
A
c
= corrected area of unprotected openings
including actual and equivalent openings
A = actual area of unprotected openings
A
f
= area of exterior surface of the exposing
building face exclusive of openings, on
which the temperature limitation of the
standard fire test is exceeded
F
eo
= equivalent opening factor
Figure 6.3.4 shows the relation between F
eo
(as
defined in NBCC and panel thickness for three types
of concrete.

Joints between adjacent precast floor or roof
elements may be ignored in calculating the slab
thickness provided that a concrete topping at least 40
mm thick is used. Where no concrete topping is used,
joints should be grouted to a depth of at least one-
third the slab thickness at the joint, or the joints made
fire-resistive in a manner acceptable to the authority
having jurisdiction.
To illustrate the use of Fig. 6.3.4, suppose that for a
particular building face, a 2 h fire-resistance rating is
required and the area of unprotected openings
permitted is 57 percent. Suppose also that the actual
area of unprotected openings is 49 percent and that
the window wall panels are made of Type N concrete.
Determine the minimum thickness of the panel.
In this case, A
c
= 57 percent, A = 49 percent,
A
f
= 100 49 = 51 percent, hence:
6.3.6 Balanced Design
F
eo
=
c
f
A A 57 49
0.16
A 51

= =
A balanced design approach to fire safety is a
philosophy of fire protection based on hazard and risk
assessments applied to buildings on an individual
basis. A balanced design approach to fire safety
recognizes the importance of fire resistive
compartmentation, smoke detection and automatic
suppression in buildings to reduce the risk of injury,
loss of life and property damage from the effects of
fire. The use of the components of balanced design,
singularly or in combination, is dependent upon the
buildings occupancy, construction and type of
hazards that may be present. Each of the protection
components of a balanced design approach has both
strengths and weaknesses. It is essential to
understand the building's fire protection requirements
to avoid compromising lives and property, and avoid
unnecessary redundancy in fire protection features.
This approach provides code officials and authorities
having jurisdiction with the latitude to determine an
appropriate level of protection based on specific
conditions for particular building types and
occupancies.
From Fig. 6.3.4, for F
eo
= 0.16 at 2 h, the minimum
panel thickness is 54 mm. Thus, if the panel is 54 mm
thick or thicker, the code requirements will be
satisfied.
Treatment of joints
Joints between wall panels are similar to openings,
and can be treated in the manner discussed for
window walls. In many cases, joints need not be fire-
protected, however, in other cases, openings,
including joints, must be protected.
Fire tests of wall panel joints [44] have shown that the
fire endurance, as determined by a temperature rise
of 181
o
C over the joint, is influenced by joint type,
joint materials, joint width, and panel thickness. When
the proper thickness of insulating materials is
provided within the joint, it is possible to attain fire
endurance equal to that of the panels.
Fig. 6.3.5 is based on results of fire tests of panels
with butt joints. The tabulated values apply to one-
stage butt joints and are conservative for two-stage
and ship-lap joints.

Fig. 6.3.4 Equivalent opening factor F
eo
, for concrete wall panels
*
*For use with the National Building Code of Canada.
Fig. 6.3.5 Protection of joints using ceramic fibre felt

Thickness of ceramic fibre felt (mm) required for fire resistance ratings
and joints widths shown
Joint width = 10 mm Joint width = 25 mm
Panel
equivalent thickness
*
(mm)
1 h 2 h 3 h 4 h 1 h 2 h 3 h 4 h
100 6 19
125 0 19 13 58
150 0 0 32 6 32 89
175 0 0 0 25 6 19 51 96
*
Panel equivalent thicknesses are for Type N concrete. For Type S concrete change 100, 125, 150, and 175 in column 1 to 110, 135, 165,
and 190, respectively. For Type L40S or L concrete change 100, 125, 150, and 175 in column 1 to 85, 105, 125, and 145.
The tabulated values apply to one-stage but joints and are conservative for two-stage and ship-lap joints as shown below.
Multi-unit dwellings, high-rise buildings and high
hazard occupancies are examples where all of the
components of a balanced design approach may be
necessary. Open parking structures may not require
all the balanced design approach components. The
balanced design approach applies in either case. A
design based on hazard and risk assessments is
applied on an individual basis to determine the fire
protection requirements.
Post earthquake fires continue to be a serious threat,
particularly in densely populated urban areas.
Although earthquake resistant automatic sprinkler
systems exist, it is probable that the public water
supply system will fail, rendering the automatic
suppression systems inoperable. When
compartmentation has been traded-off in favour of an
automatic suppression system, fire can quickly
spread through a building destroying everything in its
path. Fire resistant elements, designed to maintain
structural integrity in the event of an earthquake, can
be constructed to stop or retard the spread of fire,
permit safe occupant evacuation and provide an
acceptable environment for fire fighting operations.
Automatic suppression systems are not always
effective for the following reasons: sprinkler valves
may be shut off before or during a fire; water supply
may be insufficient; clogged piping; system may be
out of service due to freezing, earthquake, explosion,
or lack of maintenance; inadequate sprinkler
protection (coverage); broken piping or fittings; and
sprinkler head obstructions. In arson related fires,
automatic suppression systems can be rendered
inoperable by simply closing a valve.
Compartmentation and inherent fire resistant
construction is very difficult if not impossible to
disable.
Permitting trade-offs between fire resistant construction
or compartmentation or automatic suppression
generally leads to protection imbalances as there are
no established equivalency relationships between the
elements of balanced design. Statistics show that the
total dollar property loss for sprinklered buildings
average about twice the dollar amount for
unsprinklered buildings probably because of trade-
offs such as a reduction in fire resistance ratings, or
an increase in allowable area and height of the
building or permitting a larger percentage of exterior
wall openings.

Fig. 6.3.6 Moment diagrams for simply-
supported beam or slab

6.3.7 Designing for Structural Integrity
It was noted above that many fire tests and related
research studies have been directed toward an
understanding of the structural behaviour of
prestressed concrete subjected to fire. The
information gained from that work has led to the
development of calculation procedures which can be
used in lieu of fire tests. The purpose of this section is
to present an introduction to these calculations. The
method of support is the most important factor
affecting structural behaviour of flexural elements
during fire. The discussion that follows deals with
three conditions of support: simply supported
elements, continuous slabs and beams, and
elements in which restraint to thermal expansion
occurs. Refer to PCI MNL-124 [40] for additional
examples and more detailed information.
The fire endurance of concrete walls, as determined
by fire tests, is normally governed by the ULC criteria
for temperature rise of the unexposed surface rather
than by structural behavior during fire tests. This is
due to low stress levels, even in concrete bearing
walls, and that reinforcement does not perform a
primary structural function. The amount of cover
protection required by code usually exceeds that
required for fire protection so there is reserve
structural fire endurance within a concrete wall.
Unrestrained elements
Expansion can occur without restriction when an
unrestrained prestressed concrete slab is exposed to
fire from below and the ends of the slab are free to
translate and rotate. With the underside of the slab
exposed to fire, the bottom will expand more than the
top, causing the slab to deflect downward. The
strength of the steel and concrete near the bottom will
decrease as the temperature rises. When the
strength of the steel diminishes below that required to
support the slab, flexural collapse will occur. The
applied moment remains constant during the fire
exposure, but the resisting moment capacity is
reduced as the steel weakens.
Figure 6.3.6 illustrates the behaviour of a simply-
supported slab exposed to fire from below. The
nominal flexural resistance is constant throughout the
span because the strands are parallel to the axis of
the slab.
M
n
= A
p
f
pr
(d
p
a/2)
M
n
= nominal moment resistance
A
p
f
pr
nominal resistance
d
p
= distance from the extreme compression
fibre to the centroid of the prestressed
reinforcement
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block
= A
p
f
pr
/ (
1
c
f b), where
c
f is the specified
compressive strength of the concrete and b
is the width of the compression face
In lieu of a more accurate determination of f

pr
based
on strain compatibility, the following approximate
value of f
pr
may be used for bonded tendons if f
pe
is
not less than 0.6f
py
and c/d
p
is not greater than 0.5:
f
pr
= f
pu
(1 k
p
c/d
p
)
f
pu
= tensile strength of bonded tendons
k
p
= factor for type of prestressing steel
= 2 (1.04 f
py
/f
pu
)
c = neutral axis depth at nominal resistance
As the material strengths diminish with elevated
temperatures, the retained nominal flexural
resistance becomes:
M
n
= A
p
f
pr
(d
p
a
/2)
f
pr
= f
pu
(1 k
p
c
/d
p
)
a
=
p pr 1 c
A f /( f b)

To solve problems involving the above equations, it is
necessary to use data on the strength-temperature
relationships for steel and concrete, and information
on temperature distributions within concrete elements
during fire exposures. Fig. 6.3.7 shows strengths of
certain steels at elevated temperatures, and Fig.
6.3.8 shows similar data for various types of
concrete.
in which signifies the effects of elevated
temperature. Note that A
p
and d
p
are not affected, but
f
pr
is reduced. Similarly a
is reduced, but the

concrete strength at the top of the slab, f
c
, is
generally not reduced significantly because of its
lower temperature. If, however, the compressive zone
of the concrete is heated above 450
C, should also
be reduced to calculate a
c
f
.
Data on temperature distribution in concrete slabs
during fire tests are shown in Fig. 6.3.9. Similar data
for concrete beams and joists are more complex
because beams are heated from the sides as well as
from beneath. Fig. 6.3.10 shows temperature data for
normal density concrete joists and beams at 2 h
exposure. Note that the temperatures are given for
points along the vertical centreline of rectangular
beams or of elements with tapered sides.
Flexural failure can be assumed to occur when M
n
is
reduced to M. The material resistance factors,
p
and
c
are not applied because a factor of safety is
included in the required ratings. From this expression,
it can be seen that the fire endurance depends on the
applied loading and on the strength-temperature
characteristics of the reinforcement.
In turn, the duration of the fire before the critical steel
temperature is reached depends on the protection of
the reinforcement.
Fig. 6.3.7 Temperature-strength relationships for various steels


Fig. 6.3.8 Compressive strength of concrete at high temperatures

Fig. 6.3.9 Temperatures at u mm from hot face of concrete slabs during fire tests

Fig. 6.3.10 Temperature along vertical centre lines of stemmed units at 2h of exposure
*
*From: FIP/CEB Report on Methods of Assessment of the Fire Resistance of Structural Members.
Example 6.6 Capacity of a hollow core slab
exposed to fire
Given:
A 203 mm deep hollow core slab with a simply-
supported unrestrained span of 8.5 m.
Concrete:
= 35 MPa
c
f
1
= 0.80
1
= 0.88
Normal density, Type N
7 13 mm 1860 MPa low-relaxation strands
k
p
= 0.28
A
p
= (7)(99) = 693 mm
2
h = 203 mm
u = 45 mm
d
p
= 158 mm
b = 1220 mm
w
d
= 2.6 kN/m
2
= 8.5 m l
Problem:
Determine the maximum superimposed load that can
be supported after 2 h exposure to a standard fire.
Solution:
1. From Fig. 6.3.9, estimate strand temperature at 2
h for carbonate aggregate concrete with:
u = 45 mm:
s
= 400C
2. From Fig. 6.3.7, determine:
f
pu
= (0.54)(1860) = 1005 MPa
3. Determine M
n
and w
l
:
c
/d
p
=
p pu
1 c 1 p p p pu
A f
f bd k A f
+

=
+
( )( )
( . )( )( . )( )( ) ( . )( )( )
693 1005
0 8 35 0 88 1220 158 0 28 693 1005

= 0.141
f
pr
= (1005)[1 (0.28)(0.141)] = 965 MPa
a
= (693)(965)/[(0.8)(35)(1220)] = 20 mm
M
n
= (693)(965)(158 20/2)/10
6
= 99.1 kN-m
w = (8)(99.1)/[(8.5)
2
(1.2*)] = 9.1 kN/m
2
*assumed load factor on total specified load = 1.2
w = w w
l d
= 9.1 2.6 = 6.5 kN/m
2
Example 6.7 Increasing fire endurance of a
double tee by adding reinforcement
Given:
A 2400 400 double tee floor with 50 mm composite
topping and a simply-supported unrestrained span of
9 m.

Concrete:
(precast) = 35 MPa
c
f
1
= 0.80
1
= 0.88
(topping) = 20 MPa
c
f
1
= 0.82
1
= 0.92
6 13 mm 1860 MPa low-relaxation strands
k
p
= 0.28
A
p
= (6)(99) = 594 mm
2
w
d
= 3.3 kN/m
2
w
l
= 1.9 kN/m
2
u = 133 mm
d
p
= 317 mm
Problem:
Determine the amount of additional non-prestressed
reinforcement required to provide a 2 h structural fire
endurance.
Solution:
w = (2.4)(1.9 + 3.3) = 12.5 kN/m
1. Estimate strand temperature at 2 h from Fig.
6.3.10. At centroid of strand:
b
w
= 100 + (133/350)(55) = 121 mm
Avg.
s
= 545C
2. Estimate f
pu
from Fig. 6.3.7:
f
pu
= (0.24)(1860) = 445 MPa
3. Calculate M
n
and compare with M:
Assume N.A. is in the topping.
p
c (594)(445)
d (0.82)(20)(0.92)(2400)(317) (0.28)(594)(445)
=
+
= 0.023
f
pr
= (445) [1 (0.28)(0.023)]
= 442 MPa
a
= (594)(442)/[(0.82)(20)(2400)] = 7 mm
OK, N.A. is in the topping.
M
n
= (594)(442)(317 7/2)/10
6
= 82.4 kN-m
M = (12.5)(9)
2
/8 = 127 kN-m > M
n
4. Try adding one 25M Grade 400 MPa reinforcing
bar in each stem at u = 181 mm.
5. Estimate temperature and strength of the
reinforcing bars:
b
w
= 128 mm

s
= 495C (Fig. 6.3.10)
f
y
= (0.70)(400) = 280 MPa (Fig. 6.3.7)
A
s
= (2)(500) = 1000 mm
2
6. Calculate M
n
:
Adjusted a
=
+ ( )( ) ( )( )
( . )( )( )
594 442 1000 280
0 82 20 2400
= 14 mm
M
n
= [(594)(442)(317 14/2)
+ (1000)(280)(269 14/2)]/10
6
= 155 kN-m > 127 OK
Continuous elements
Continuous elements undergo changes in stresses
when subjected to fire. These stresses result from
temperature gradients within the structural elements,
or changes in strength of the materials at high
temperatures, or both.
Figure 6.3.11 shows a two-span continuous beam
whose underside is exposed to a fire test. The bottom
of the beam becomes hotter than the top and tends to
expand more than the top. This differential
temperature effect causes the ends of the beam to
tend to lift from their supports thereby increasing the
reaction at the interior support. This action results in a
redistribution of moments, i.e., the negative moment
at the interior support increases while the positive
moments decrease.
During a fire, the negative moment reinforcement
(Fig. 6.3.11) remains cooler than the positive moment
reinforcement because it is better protected from the
fire. In addition, the redistribution that occurs is
sufficient to cause yielding of the negative moment
reinforcement. A relatively large increase in negative
moment can be accommodated throughout the test.
The resulting decrease in positive moment means
that the positive moment reinforcement can be
heated to a higher temperature before failure will
occur. The fire endurance of a continuous concrete
beam is significantly longer than that of a simply
supported beam having the same cover and the
same applied loads.
Fig. 6.3.11 Moment diagram for two-span
continuous beam

It is possible to design the reinforcement in a
continuous beam or slab for a particular fire
endurance period. From Fig. 6.3.11 the beam can be
expected to collapse when the positive moment
capacity, , is reduced to the value of the
maximum redistributed positive moment at a distance
x
M
n
+
1
from the outer support.
Figure 6.3.12 shows a uniformly loaded beam or slab
continuous (or fixed) at one support and simply
supported at the other. Also shown is the
redistributed applied moment diagram at failure.
Fig. 6.3.12 Uniformly loaded element continuous
at one support

It can be shown that at the point of maximum positive
moment, x
1
:
x
1
=
n
M
2 w
l
l

At x = x
2
, M
x
= 0 and x
2
= 2 x
1
:
x
o
=
n
2M
w
l

= M
n
2
2 n
2
2M w
w
2
w
+
l
l
l

In most cases, redistribution of moment occurs early
during a fire and the negative moment reinforcement
will yield before the negative moment capacity has
been reduced by the effects of fire. The length of x
o
is
increased, i.e., the inflection point moves toward the
simple support. If the inflection point moves beyond
the cut off points of the negative moment
reinforcement, sudden failure may result.
Figure 6.3.13 shows a symmetrical beam or slab in
which the end moments are equal:
= M
n
2
n
w / 8 M
+
l

2
2
wx
8
=
n
M
+

x
2
=
n
8M
w
+

x
o
=
2
1
( x
2
l )
=
n
8M 1
2 2 w
+
l

To determine the maximum value of x
o
, the value of w
should be the minimum service load anticipated, and
(wl
2
/8 M ) should be substituted for M in the
equation:
n
n
+
x
o
=
n
8M 1
2 2 w
+
l

For a given fire endurance period, the value of M
n

can be calculated by the procedures given in the
section on simply-supported elements. The value of
can be calculated using the two preceding
equations:
+
M
n
= M
n
2
2 n
2
2M w
w
2
w
+
l
l
l

or
= M
n
2
n
w
M
8
+
l


The necessary lengths of the negative moment
reinforcement can be determined from:
x
o
=
n
2M
w
l

or
x
o
=
n
8M 1
2 2 w
+
l

Use of these equations is illustrated in the following
example.
The amount of moment redistribution that can occur
is dependent on the amount of negative moment
reinforcement. Tests have demonstrated that the
negative moment reinforcement will yield, so the
negative moment capacity is reached early during a
fire test, regardless of the applied loading. The
designer must ensure that a secondary type of failure
will not occur. To avoid a compression failure in the
negative moment region, the amount of negative
moment reinforcement should be such that A23.3,
Clause 18.8, Limits for Minimum Factored Flexural
Resistance, is satisfied before and after reductions in
f
y
, b, d and f
c
are taken into account. The negative
moment reinforcement must be long enough to
accommodate the complete redistributed moment
envelope and change in the inflection points. The
worst condition occurs when the applied loading is
smallest, such as dead load plus partial or no live
load. It is recommended that at least 20% of the
maximum negative moment reinforcement extend
throughout the span.
Example 6.8 Design of a continuous hollow core
floor system for a 3 h fire endurance
Given:
1220 305 hollow core floor with 50 mm topping and
a continuous span of 7.5 m.
Concrete:
(precast) = 35 MPa
c
f
1
= 0.80
1
= 0.88
(topping) = 20 MPa
c
f
1
= 0.82
1
= 0.92
10 9 mm 1860 MPa stress-relieved strands
k
p
= 0.28
A
p
= (10)(55) = 550 mm
2
w
d
= 8.4 kN/m
2
w
l
= 7.2 kN/m
2
u = 45 mm
d
p
= 310 mm
*assumed load factor on total specified load = 1.2
Fig. 6.3.13 Symmetrical uniformly loaded element
continuous at both supports
Problem:
Calculate the
reinforcem
required amount of negative moment
ent to provide a 3 h fire endurance.
Calculate val

= 18 mm
10 18/2)/10
6
7.2)(7.5)
Solution:
From Fig. 6.3.9: = 480C
s
From Fig. 6.3.7: f = 0.36 f = 670 MPa
pu pu
ues: f = 658 MPa, a
pr
M = (550)(658)(3
n
+
= 108.9 kN
M = (1.2*)(8.4 +
2
/ 8 = 131.6 kN-m
ReqdM

= 131.6 108.9 = 22.7 kN-m/unit
n
me d a
Assu

/2
ithin compressive zone will be about

750C,
= 310 mm and f
y
A
s
= (22.7)(10
= 400 MPa
6
)/[(400)(310)] = 183 mm
2
/unit
Neglect concrete above 750C in negative moment
region, i.e. from Fig. 6.3.9, neglect bottom 13 mm.
Concrete w
730 to so use f
c
= 28 MPa,
1
= 0.81 (see
Fig. 6.3.8).
Check M
n
ise above
rcing strength
Fig. 6.3.7.
in both
out plus WWF with an area of 123
directions over the supports.
Ov r su
(220)(400)(330 13 3/2)/10
6
= 28 kN-m
, assuming that the temperature of the
negative moment reinforcement does not r
90C. If greater than 90C, the reinfo
should be reduced according to
*Use 20% A
s
throughout span.
Try WWF with an area of 59.8 mm
2
/m
directions through
mm
2
/m in both
e pports:
= (1.2*)(59.8 + 123.0) = 220 mm A
s
2
/m
= (220)(400)/[(0.81)(28)(1220)] = 3 mm a

M
n
=
Notes: 330 mm is the depth to the WWF
reinforcement from the bottom most fibre. 13 mm is
the depth of the concrete above 750
o
C (neglected).
3/2 is half the depth of the stress block.
With dead load + 50% live load; w = 12 kN/m
2
,
M = 101 kN-m/unit and M
r
= 28 kN-m/unit (calculated at
room temperature).
= 101 28 = 73 kN-m/unit M
min
+
max x
o
=
7.5 8(73)
0.5
2 1.2 * (
12)

= 0.57 m = 570 mm
Use the lighter WWF throughout plus the heavier
fabric for a distance of 900 mm in both directions from
the support. The WWF must extend into walls that
must be designed for the moment induced at the top.
Elements restrained against thermal expansion
If a fire occurs beneath an interior portion of a large
reinforced concrete slab, the heated portion will tend
to expand and push against the surrounding part of
the slab. The unheated part of the slab exerts
compressive forces on the heated portion. The
compressive force, or thrust, acts near the bottom of
the slab when the fire first occurs but, as the fire
progresses, the line of action of the thrust rises as the
mechanical properties of the heated concrete
change. This thrust is generally great enough to
increase the fire endurance significantly.
The effects of restraint to thermal expansion can be
characterized as shown in Fig. 6.3.14. The thermal
thrust acts in a manner similar to an external
prestressing force, which increases the positive
moment capacity.
The increase in bending moment capacity is similar to
the effect of added reinforcement located along the
line of action of the thrust. It can be assumed that the
added reinforcement has a yield strength (force)
equal to the thrust. It is possible to determine the
magnitude and location of the required thrust to
provide a given fire endurance.
The above explanation is greatly simplified as
restraint is complex, and likened to the behaviour of a
flexural element subjected to an axial force.
Interaction diagrams similar to those for columns can
be constructed for a given cross-section at a particular
stage of a fire, e.g., 2 h of a standard fire exposure.
The guidelines in ULC S101 for determining
conditions of restraint are useful for preliminary
design purposes. Interior bays of multi-bay floors or
roofs can be considered to be restrained. With
restrained members, fire endurance is governed by
heat transmission rather than by structural
considerations.
Rational design method
An alternative method of calculating fire resistance is
to treat the restrained precast element as
unrestrained with respect to its endurance to fire. The
time the element is subject to fire is then multiplied by
1/2. For example, an axially restrained precast
concrete element subjected to a 3 hr fire, would be
designed as an unrestrained element subjected to a
fire time of 1.5 hr. The rationale for this method is the
ASTM E119 criteria for deriving unrestrained member
ratings from restrained fire tests.
Example 6.9 Design of a beam restrained
against thermal expansion

Given:
300RB600 as shown restrained against thermal
expansion
Span = 10 m
Dead Load = 17 kN/m
Live Load = 15 kN/m
This beam is part of a precast concrete frame, well
connected to meet lateral load and structural integrity
requirements. Consider the beam to be restrained for
fire endurance determination.
Concrete Properties:

c
f = 35 MPa Type N concrete - 2400 kg/m
3
Steel Properties:
f
pu
= 1860 MPa
E
p
= 190,000 MPa
f
y

= 400 MPa
Problem:
Determine the necessary reinforcement for a four (4)
hour fire rating.
Use 8 - 13mm low relaxation strands as shown
above.
Solution:
Since the member is restrained, use rational design
procedures for an unrestrained member at 1/2 the
required 4 hour fire resistance time = 2 hr fire rating.

M
s
=
2
(15 17)(10)
8
+
= 400 kN-m
E
c
=
1.5
c
2400
(3300 f 6900) 28,164 MPa
2300

+ =

A
ps
= (8 strands)(99 mm
2
/strand) = 792 mm
2
y
s
=
(5)(50 mm) (3)(100 mm)
69 mm
8
+
=
d = 600 mm 69 mm = 531 mm
Minimum concrete cover is the least distance to the
centre of the strand less half the strand diameter.
u = 50 12/2 = 44 mm
From Fig. 6.3.9 for Type N concrete, strand
temperature will be 390C
From Figure 6.3.7:
f
pu
= (0.56)(1860 MPa) = 1041 MPa
Determine M
n

p
c
d
=
pu
1 c 1 p p ps pu
A f
a f bd k A f

+

(792)(1041)
0.198
(0.80)(35)(0.88)(300)(531) (0.28)(792)(1041
=
+
=

f
pr
= 1041[1-(0.28)(0.198)] = 983 MPa
a

=
(792)(983)
93 mm
(0.80)(35)(300)
=
M
n
= (792)(983)(53193/2)
= 377 kN-m < 400 kN-m
Additional reinforcement is needed to carry the
specified loads.
Try 2 15M bars at 150 mm from the bottom of the
beam.
Estimate the temperature and strength of the
reinforcing bars:
u = 44 mm (same cover as prestressing
strands)
From Fig. 6.3.9:

s
= 390C
From Fig. 6.3.7:
f
y
= (0.79)(400 MPa) = 316 MPa
A
s
= (2)200 = 400 mm
2
Calculate the new M
n
adjusted
(792)(983) (400)(316)
a
(0.80)(35)(300)
+
=
M
n
= (792)(983)(531-108/2)
+ (316)(300)(450-108/2) = 409 kN-m OK
Adding the 2 15M bars to the beam will achieve the
required 4 hr fire rating.
Shear resistance
Many fire tests have been conducted on simply
supported reinforced and prestressed concrete
elements and elements restrained against thermal
expansion. Shear failures did not occur in any of
these tests.
When beams that are continuous over one support
(e.g., as shown in Figure 6.3.11) are exposed to fire,
both the moment and the shear at the interior support
increase. This redistribution of moment and shear
results in a severe stress condition. Of the several fire
tests of reinforced concrete beams where this
condition was simulated, shear failure occurred in
only one beam. [42] The shear reinforcement in that
test was inadequate, even for service load conditions
without fire as judged by the shear requirements of
A23.3. It appears from available test data that
members that are designed for shear strength in
accordance with A23.3 will perform satisfactorily in
fire situations, i.e. failure will not occur prematurely
due to a shear failure.
Protection of connections
Many types of connections in precast concrete
construction are not vulnerable to the effects of fire,
and consequently, require no special treatment. For
example, connections such as the bearing between
precast concrete panels and concrete beams or
footings that support them do not generally require
special fire protection.
If panels rest on elastomeric pads or other combustible
materials, protection of the pads is not generally
needed because deterioration of the pads will not
cause collapse. Connections that can be weakened by
fire and thereby jeopardize a structure's load carrying
capacity should be protected to the same degree as
that required for the supported member. For example,
an exposed steel bracket supporting a panel or
spandrel beam will be weakened by fire and may fail,
causing the panel or beam to collapse. Such brackets
should be fire protected.
The amount of protection depends on:
1. the stress-strength ratio in the steel at the time
of the fire, and
2. the intensity and duration of the fire.
108 mm =
The thickness of protection materials required is
greater as the stress level and fire severity increase.
Fig. 6.3.14 Axially restrained beam during fire
exposure
6.3.8 CPCI Manual, Fire Resistance Ratings
for Prestressed and Precast Concrete
The CPCI manual, Fire Resistance Ratings for
Prestressed and Precast Concrete [45] gives
information on a number of additional topics
including:
1. cover thickness requirements for prestressed
concrete slabs
2. anchor protection for post-tensioned tendons
3. cover and width requirements for prestressed
concrete beams and joists
4. thickness requirements for precast concrete
column covers
In many instances, the CPCI manual contains more
extensive data and discussion than comparable
information in Chap. 2 of the Supplement to the
National Building Code of Canada. The manual
discusses alternative methods of achieving fire-
resistance ratings such as providing added moment
capacity in lieu of increasing the cover thickness. The
manual gives more conservative values of cover
thickness for beams and joists than Chap. 2 of the
Supplement to the NBCC.
6.4 VIBRATION IN CONCRETE
STRUCTURES
6.4.1 Introduction
Aerobics, dancing and other rhythmic human
activities are sources of annoying vibration in
buildings.
The two main factors behind these problems are
resonance (which occurs when a natural frequency of
the floor structure is equal to or close to a forcing
frequency of the rhythmic activity), and the presence
of other occupancies in the building, such as offices
or residences, where people are sensitive to the
vibrations generated in the building by others. Sects.
6.4.2 to 6.4.4, based on [46] and [47], contain design
recommendations to avoid these problems.
These recommendations are based on the following
basic resonance model [47] for a floor panel:
A rhythmic activity generates a repeated force
on the floor, at a step frequency of
approximately 2.5 Hz. For some activities such
as dancing, the repeated force is nearly
sinusoidal with time. For other activities such as
high-impact aerobics, the repeated force is not
sinusoidal, but is a combination of sinusoidal
forces, one at the step frequency, the others at
twice and, for aerobics, three times the step
frequency. The repeated force from a person
walking across a floor is a combination of
sinusoidal forces of the first four multiples
(harmonics) of the step frequency,
approximately 2 Hz.
Figure 6.4.1 shows peak acceleration of a floor
panel as a function of forcing frequency due to a
continuous sinusoidal force applied to the floor.
The floor panel is assumed to have only one
mode of natural (free) vibration its fundamental
mode. The primary feature of the response in
Fig. 6.4.1 is resonance: when the forcing
frequency matches the natural frequency, the
vibration builds up to a large magnitude,
controlled only by damping in the floor system.
The peak acceleration at resonance shown in
Fig. 6.4.1 is given by a formula similar to
Newtons second law (force = mass x
acceleration):
sinusoidal force
peak acceleration Eq. (1)
mass 2
=

= model damping ratio
The curve shown in Fig. 6.4.1 provides the basis for
the vibration criteria used in this section. It must be
emphasized that the calculations presented are very
approximate. The actual natural frequency of a floor
can be estimated to a reasonable degree of
accuracy, but the calculations are based on damping
and on human response, both of which are subject to
much variation. When in doubt about the acceptability
of a proposed floor system, the best way to decide is
to compare it to existing similar systems that are
known to be acceptable or unacceptable, using the
same method of analysis. See [48] for a general
discussion on floor vibration for precast concrete.

Fig. 6.4.1 Resonance model ( = damping ratio)
Sometimes annoying floor vibration is generated by
mechanical equipment. This can usually be corrected
by isolating the equipment as discussed in Sect.
6.4.5.
Design recommendations for lateral building vibration
due to wind are given in reference [50].
6.4.2 Vibration Limits
Vibration is generally expressed in terms of peak
acceleration as a fraction of the acceleration due to
gravity, a/g, where g = 9.81 m/s
2
. In an office
environment, annoyance occurs when vibration
exceeds approximately 0.5%g. In an active
environment such as a lively concert in a stadium,
people will accept much greater vibrations, up to
approximately 18%g. Active participants of rhythmic
activities will accept more than 18%g. Vibration limits
are recommended for design in Fig. 6.4.2 for different
occupancies. [46] These limits apply for vibration
frequencies between 2 and 10 Hz, the range of
natural frequency for most precast floor structures,
also the range of greatest human sensitivity, hence
the range for most annoying vibrations due to human
activities.
Fig. 6.4.2 Recommended acceleration limits for
vibration [46]
Occupancies Affected
by the Vibration
Acceleration Limit
%g
Office and Residential 0.4 to 0.7
Dining and Weightlifting 1.5 to 2.5
Rhythmic Activity Area
Office or residential building 4.0 to 7.0
Stadium or arena 10 to 18
6.4.3 Natural Frequency
For vibration, the fundamental natural frequency of
the floor structure, f
n
, is the most important property.
A simplified formula for estimating f
n
is given by [46]:
f
n
18
=
Eq. (2)
is the maximum deflection (in mm) of the floor
structure under the weight supported.
For simply-supported slabs (e.g., hollow core or
double tee slabs) on rigid supports, is obtained
from the simply-supported beam deflection formula. If
the slabs are supported on simply supported girders,
the deflection of the girder under the weight it
supports should be added to obtain the total
deflection, i.e. =
j
+
g
.
In a tall building the shortening of the supporting
columns under the weight they support should also
be added to obtain . [46] An example of resonant
vertical vibration during aerobics due to axial spring
action of columns is given in [49]. Thus the
fundamental natural frequency of the floor structure,
f
n
, is affected by the total deflection of the structure,
not just the deflection of the slab itself.
The deflection, , for a uniformly-loaded simple span
floor panel is determined from:
4
5w
384EI
=
l
Eq. (3)
E = 1.2E
c

for concrete. The factor 1.2 takes into
account the rate-of-loading effect for dynamic
vibration as compared to static deflection. [47] Eq. (3)
does not apply to two-way flat slabs or two-way beam
and slab construction.
Floors with natural frequencies lower than 3 Hertz are
generally not recommended because people may
more readily synchronize their actions at lower
frequencies, such as "rogue" jumping. [47] If the
natural frequency is less than 3 Hz, a special
evaluation should be carried out, considering the
planned uses of the floor area.
6.4.4 Design for Walking Vibration
Floor vibration due to walking is rarely a problem for
concrete construction.
The following design criterion [47] is used for walking
vibrations of long-span floors with natural frequency
less than 9 Hz is based on the resonance model, Eq.
(1):

p
0
a
a
g g
Eq. (4a)
a
p
= peak acceleration due to walking, m/s
2
a
0
= acceleration limit, m/s
2
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s
2
)
Where a
p
/s is calculated on the resonance model (Eq. 1):

p
a
g
=
n
0.35f
0
P e
W
Eq. (4b)
= the harmonic walking force at or near f
n
0.35f
0
P e
n
,
kN
P
0
= a constant force representing the walker,
kN
f
n
= natural frequency of the floor structure, H
2
W = wBL = effective weight of the floor, where w
is the weight per m
2
of a floor panel, L m
long and B m wide. For hollow core slabs it
is recommended to take B equal to L. For
double tees, it is recommended to vary B
from 0.8L for 450 mm topped double tees
and 0.6L for 800 mm topped double tees.
For continuous spans, W may be increased
50%. [47] At an unstiffened edge of a floor,
the width B used for estimating the floor
weight should be halved. [47]
Compute a
p
/g and compare to the limit in Fig. 6.4.3
Recommended values of P
0
and for several
occupancies and the respective a
0
/g acceleration
limits are given in Fig. 6.4.3.
Procedures for calculating W and f
n
for two-way floor
systems are given in Reference [47]. Below is an
example of calculating peak acceleration for a one-
way hollow core slab on stiff supports. See [47] for
more detail.
Fig. 6.4.3 Recommended values of parameters
in Eq. (4)

Constant
Force
P
0
, kN
Damping
Ratio

Acceleration
Limit
a
0
/g
Offices,
residences,
churches
0.29 0.02 to 0.05* 0.5%
Shopping
malls
0.29 0.02 1.5%
Footbridges
Indoor
Outdoor
0.41
0.41
0.01**
0.01
1.5%
5.0%
* 0.02 for floors with few nonstructural components and
furnishings, as can occur in electronic or paperless offices,
open work areas or churches; 0.03 for floors with
nonstructural components and furnishings, but with only small
demountable partitions; 0.05 for full-height partitions between
floors.
** 0.02 for drywall ceiling well-attached to a footbridge deck
Example 6.10 Hollow core floor walking
vibration
Determine if a 200 mm simply supported hollow core
floor system satisfies the vibration criterion given in
Eq. (4) due to walking. The floor supports a
residential occupancy with full-height partitions.
Concrete Floor Properties:
Unit width 1.22 m; Span variable L m
Concrete unit mass 2400 kg/m
3
c
f =

35 MPa
Elastic Modulus:
E = 1.2E
c
E

=
1.5
2400
1.2 (3300 35 6900)
2300

+

= 33,800 MPa
= 33.810
6
kN/m
2
Moment of inertia:
Untopped I = 693 10
6
mm
4
= 693 10
-6
m
4
Weight of slab:
Untopped = 2.7 kN/m
2
Floor panel properties
Supported weight:
w
j
= 1.22[2.7+0.2(flrg, etc.) + 0.3(live)]
= 3.90 kN/m

Deflection (Eq. 3):
j
(in mm) =
4 4
6 6
(5)(3.90)(L )(1000) L
461
(384)(33.8 10 )(693 10 )
=

6.4.5 Design for Vibration Due to Rhythmic
Activities
Resonance vibration due to rhythmic activities is
often unacceptable. It is usually necessary to avoid
resonance by ensuring that the natural frequency, f
n
,
is greater than the forcing frequency, if
step
. The
following criterion [46]

is based on the curve in Figure
6.4.1 above resonance:
Natural frequency (Eq. 2):
f
n
=
4 2
18 L 461 386/ L =
Panel width: B = L
Panel weight: W
j
= wBL = [3.9/1.22]L
2
= 3.2L
2
n
f
i p
step
o t
w
K
if 1
a / g w
+
Eq.

(5)
Damping ratio: = 0.05 (Fig. 6.4.3); W = 0.16L
2
Acceleration (Eq. 4):
n n
0.35f 0.35f 0.35f
p
2 2
a
0.29e 0.29e 1.81e
g W
0.16L L

= = =

a
o
/g = acceleration limit (see Fig. 6.4.2).
w
t
= total dead weight supported by the floor
structure expressed as a UDL.
Figure 6.4.4 shows the peak walking acceleration, a
p
,
for simply-supported residential floors on stiff
supports as a function of span length. These
calculations were also carried out for an open plan
office with low partitions, where the damping ratio can
be reduced in Fig. 6.4.3 from 0.05 to 0.03. Topping is
usually applied for an office floor; with the effective
moment of inertia increased from 69310
-6
m
4
to
127610
-6
m
4
and the weight of hollow core increased
from 2.7 kPa to 3.9 kPa, The calculated acceleration
for the topped office floor is approximately the same
as for the untopped residential floor. Both floors are
satisfactory for walking for spans up to the maximum
recommended (10 m). If the office floor were
untopped, however, Fig. 6.4.4 indicates
unsatisfactory walking vibration for spans above
7.5 m.
w
p
= weight of participants as an equivalent UDL
over the floor span. This can be estimated
from the UDL of the participants over the
area occupied by the participants as
recommended in Fig. 6.4.5.
if
step
= forcing frequency of the i
th
harmonic as
recommended in Fig. 6.4.5. For aerobics,
three harmonics need to be considered
because of its repeated impactive
character. For lively concert, sports events
or dancing, the second harmonic in Fig.
6.4.5 takes into account the impactive
character of foot stamping.

i
= dynamic coefficient for the i
th
harmonic of
the step or jumping frequency, as
recommended in Fig. 6.4.5.
If the hollow core floor system is supported on steel
beams, the natural frequency of the floor system is
decreased, and the system must be re-evaluated.
See [47], Example 5.2.2.
K = 1.7 for dancing, 1.7 for lively concert or
sports event, 2.0 for aerobics.
To prevent resonance vibration, Eq. (5) is applied to
the highest harmonic. However, if the dynamic
loading for the highest harmonic,
i
w
p
, is sufficiently
small compared to the mass weight, w
t
, then
resonance may be acceptable, in which case the
above equation is applied to the second highest
harmonic in Fig. 6.4.5. The peak acceleration due to
harmonic resonance, based on Eq. (1), is obtained
from [47]:
Continuity of hollow core over supports will reduce
vibration by providing increased mass and, if adjacent
spans are unequal, increased natural frequency of
the floor system. Procedures for estimating these
effects are contained in [47].
See [47], Example 5.2.1, for the design of a precast
double tee mall footbridge with low damping (0.01 in
Fig. 6.4.3) for walking vibration.
a
p
/g =
i p
t
w
1.3
2 w

Eq. (6)
For rhythmic activities, can be taken as 0.04 to 0.06
for design purposes. The more people on the floor
the greater the damping ratio.
Fig.6.4.4 Walking vibration - 200 mm hollow core on stiff supports

Fig 6.4.5 Recommended dynamic loading for rhythmic events [46]
Activity
Forcing
Frequency
f (Hz)
UDL of Participants on
Occupied Area
wp (kPa)
Dynamic
Coefficient
i
Dancing

first harmonic 1.5 to 2.7 0.6 (2.5 m
2
per couple) 0.50
second harmonic 3.0 to 5.0 0.6 (2.5 m
2
per couple) 0.05
Lively Concert/Sports Event

2
per person) 0.25
2
per person) 0.05
Aerobics

2
per person) 1.50
2
per person) 0.60
third harmonic 6.0 to 8.25 0.2 (3.5 m
2
per person) 0.10
6.4.6 Stadium Seating
Precast, prestressed concrete seating slabs, as
shown in Example 6.4.2, are often used in stadiums
and arenas and are usually manufactured in units
that are one, two or three seats wide. Connections
are provided between the upper and lower units to
prevent differential deflection of the adjacent units.
These seating slabs are subjected to rhythmic
excitation, as a crowd responds in unison to a cheer
or song. The response of the seating slabs is different
from that of an ordinary flat floor. The seating slabs
have a three-dimensional nature, and vibrate and
deflect about their weakest principal axis, as shown in
the example. Furthermore, the bays in stadiums are
often of non-uniform width. This causes each seating
slab to have a different span and thus, a different
natural frequency that helps to prevent resonance.
Fifty-six different seating slabs made by PCI
members have been examined. All are known to
have satisfactory performance in service. This exam-
ination produced the following recommendations:
1. The slabs should be sufficiently interconnected,
with a minimum of three connections per bay, to
prevent differential deflection between adjacent
units. If people sit on one slab, with their feet

resting on another slab below, they are much
more sensitive to differential deflections of the two
units.
2. For bays of uniform width with an angle in plan,
, less than 5 degrees (see Fig. 6.4.6), the
minimum natural frequency requirement for the
first harmonic should be satisfied. For bays of
non-uniform width with an angle in plan, , of 5
degrees or more, the minimum frequency
requirement may be reduced 25 percent.
Consult with local CPCI members for specific
recommendations for stadium seating slabs.
Fig. 6.4.6 Uniform and non-uniform width bays
in a stadium
Example 6.11 Stadium seats on stiff supports
lively concert/sports event
The precast stadium seating shown above is
proposed, where it is assumed that the risers are on
stiff supports. The weight of the seating, including
non-structural components, is 5 kPa on a horizontal
projection. Determine the maximum acceptable span
for vibration acceptability during a lively concert or
sports event using an acceleration limit of 10 to
18%g, see Fig. 6.4.2.
For such an event, Fig. 6.4.5 recommends a UDL of
1.5 kPa for the weight of participants and two
harmonic loads with forcing frequencies up to 2.7 Hz
for the first harmonic and up to 5 Hz for the second
harmonic. Because the seating vibrates in a direction
normal to the weak axis, these forces are multiplied
by cos22.
First, apply Eq. (6) to see if second harmonic
resonance is acceptable:
a/g =
o
1.3 (0.05)(1.5)cos22
12%g
(2)(0.06) 5 1.5

=

+

which is marginally acceptable. For a stadium,
second harmonic resonance is much more likely to
be annoying during a lively concert because of the
duration of a song. For most stadia, lively concerts
are rare, and a 12%g vibration limit is expected to be
acceptable. To limit accelerations in such stadia to
15%g, Eq. (5) is applied for if
step
= 2.7 Hz for the first
harmonic in Fig. 6.4.5:
f
n
0
1.7 (0.25x1.5)cos22
2.7 1 3.5Hz
0.15 5 1.5

+ =

+

The natural frequency for the precast seating is
determined from Eq. (3) using the principal moment
of inertia in the most flexible direction (slope of 22
0
),
which is found by application of [51] to be
3350 10
-6
m
4
- see Example A2 in [47]. Application
of Eq. (3) results in:
=
4 4
6 6
5 (6.5)(1.6)(L )(1000) L
384 836
(33.8 10 )(3350 10 )
(L in m, in mm)

=

Eq. (7)
E = 1.2E
c
where E
c
= 33.810
6
kN/m
4
from Example 6.10. For a
minimum natural frequency of 3.5 Hz that
corresponds to a of 26.5 mm from Eq. (2),
application of the above formula results in a
maximum span of 12.2 m.
For stadia where lively concerts often occur, the
owner may wish to limit the acceleration to 10%g ,
and Eq. (5) is applied for if
step
= 5 Hz for the second
harmonic in Fig. 6.4.3:
f
n

0
1.7 (0.05 1.5)cos22
5.0 1 5.4Hz
0.10 5 1.5

+ =

+

For a minimum natural frequency of 5.5 Hz,
application of Eq. (2) results in a of 10.7 mm, and
from Eq. (7), the maximum span of 12.2 m is reduced
to 9.7 m.
These calculations are based on the assumption that
the risers are on stiff supports. For precast risers on
flexible supports, the properties of the structure
(natural frequency and mass) are altered, primarily in
a reduction of natural frequency. To investigate this, a
dynamic analysis of the supporting structure is
recommended, see [47].
6.4.7 Vibration Isolation for Mechanical
Equipment
Vibrations produced by equipment and unbalanced
operating or starting forces can usually be isolated
from the structure by mounting the equipment on a
heavy concrete slab placed on resilient supports. This
type of slab, called an inertia block, provides a low
centre of gravity to compensate for dynamic forces
such as those generated by large fans.
For equipment with less unbalanced weight, a
housekeeping slab is sometimes used below the
resilient mounts to provide a rigid support for the
mounts and to keep them above the floor so they are
easier to clean and inspect. This slab may also be
mounted on pads of precompressed glass fibre or
neoprene.
The natural frequency of the total mass on resilient
mounts must be well below the forcing frequency
generated by the equipment. The required weight of
an inertia block depends on the total weight of the
machine and the unbalanced force. For a long-stroke
compressor, five to seven times its weight might be
needed. For high pressure fans, one to five times the
fan weight is usually sufficient.
A floor supporting resiliently mounted equipment
must be stiffer than the isolation system. If the static
deflection of the floor approaches the static deflection
of the mounts, the floor becomes part of the vibrating
system, and little vibration isolation is achieved. In
general, the floor deflection should be limited to about
15% of the deflection of the mounts.
Simplified theory shows that for 90% vibration
isolation, the equipment plus blocking mass
supported on resilient mounts should have a natural
frequency of about one-third the forcing frequency of
the equipment.
The natural frequency of this system, can be
calculated by [52]:
f
om

m
15.8
=
Eq. (7)

m
= static deflection of the mounts due to the
weight supported (mm)
The minimum required static deflection of the mounts
can be determined as follows:

m
=
2
47.4
f
Eq. (8)

f1
= 0.15
m
Eq. (9)
f = forcing frequency of the equipment (Hz)

fl
= static deflection of the floor system at the
location of the equipment caused by the
weight of the equipment (including inertia
block), (mm).
Example 6.12 Vibration Isolation
A piece of mechanical equipment has a forcing
frequency of 15 Hz. Determine the approximate
minimum deflection of the mounts due to the weight
supported and the maximum deflection of the floor
structure due to the equipment.
The minimum static deflection of the mounts due to
the weight supported is determined as follows:

m

2
47.4
10 mm
15

= =

The maximum deflection of the floor structure under
the weight of isolated equipment is determined as
follows:

fl
(0.15)(10) 1.5 mm = =
6.5 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN AND
CONSTRUCTION
6.5.1 Terms and Definitions
Admixtures Those ingredients in concrete other
than hydraulic cement, water, and aggregates that
are added to the mixture immediately before or during
mixing.
Anthropogenic Effects or processes that are
derived from human activities, as opposed to natural
effects or processes that occur in the environment
without human influences.
Blast-furnace cement Mixture comprised of
hydraulic cement and higher percentages of blast-
furnace slag.
Durability The ability of a structure or a structural
element to maintain adequate performance for a
given time under expected actions and environmental
influences, including air, water, land, natural
resources, flora, fauna, humans and their
interrelations. [65]
Eco-toxicity Adverse effects on plants and
animals, populations, or communities.
Entrain Trap and retain; gas bubbles in liquid or
solid or air in concrete.
Environmental aspect Element of an
organizations activities, products and services that
can interact with the environment.

Environmental burden An adverse environmental
impact.
Environmental conditions Chemical, biological or
physical influences on a structure that may
deteriorate the materials constituting the structure
that may affect its reliability in an unfavorable way.
Environmental declaration A presentation of
environmentally relevant product information.
Environmental impact Any change to the natural
environment, whether adverse or beneficial, wholly or
partially resulting from an organizations activities,
products or services.
Eutrophication A process by which a water body
becomes rich in dissolved nutrients.
Fly ash Finely divided residue resulting from the
combustion of ground or powdered coal that is
transported from the firebox through the boiler by flue
gases. Fly ash is a by-product of coal-fired electric
generating plants.
Functional unit The quantified performance of a
product system for use as a reference.
Heat capacity Also called thermal capacity, is the
ability of matter to store heat. It is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of one gram of a
material one degree Celsius.
High performance concrete (HPC) Concrete
made with appropriate materials (superplasticizer,
retarder, fly ash, blast furnace slag and silica fume)
combined according to a selected mix design and
properly mixed, transported, placed, consolidated,
and cured to give excellent performance in some
properties of concrete, such as high compressive
strength, high density, low permeability, long-term
mechanical properties, early age strength, toughness,
volume stability, or service life in severe
environments.
Hydraulic cement Hydraulic cement is the most
common type of cement in general use, as it is a
basic ingredient of concrete and mortar. It consists of
a mixture of oxides of calcium, silicon and aluminum.
Hydraulic cement and similar materials are made by
heating limestone (as source of calcium) with clay or
sand (as source of silicon) and grinding the product.
The resulting powder, when mixed with water, will
become a hydrated solid over time.
Integral cost The sum of environmental burden
and economic cost.
Life cycle Consecutive and interlinked stages of a
product system, from raw material acquisition or
generation of natural resources to final disposal.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) A compilation and
evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential
environmental impacts of a product system
throughout its life cycle.
Life cycle cost (LCC) All costs associated with the
products life cycle. These include all costs involved
in acquisition (research & development, design,
production & construction, and phase-in), operation,
support and disposal of the product.
Life cycle inventory analysis (LCI) The phase of
life cycle assessment involving the compilation and
quantification of inputs and outputs for a given
product system throughout its life cycle.
Live load All the loads in a building not part of the
structure: furniture, people, snow, wind.
Off-gassing Also known as outgassing, is the
emission of chemicals from building materials,
furniture, textiles, bedding or other products in a
home.
Pozzolan cement A fine powdered material that is
added to non-hydraulic lime mortars to accelerate the
set. The material possesses little or no cementitious
value, but in a finely divided form it will react with
calcium hydroxide (lime putty) in the presence of
moisture to provide a chemical set.
Precast element A concrete unit cast and cured in
a place other than the final location in a structure.
Note: The precast elements described in this section
are assumed to be manufactured in a permanent
production facility in accordance with A23.4, as
opposed to units cast at a building site.
Raw material A primary or secondary material
used to produce a product.
Recycling The collection or processing of waste
from a system, that results in a useful application of a
product either in the same system or in a different
system.
Recycling is the reuse of materials that would
otherwise be considered waste. Recycled materials
can be derived from pre-consumer waste (materials
used in manufacturing) or post-consumer waste
(materials discarded by the consumer).
Sandwich panels Insulated precast sandwich wall
panels consist of two reinforced or prestressed
concrete wythes with a continuous layer of rigid
insulation sandwiched between.
Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) A concrete
mixture that can be placed purely by means of its
own weight with little or no vibration.
Supplementary cementing materials (SCM) Fly
ash, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, silica
fume, and natural pozzolans, such as calcined shale,
calcined clay or metakaolin, are materials that, when
used in conjunction with hydraulic or blended cement,
contribute to the properties of the hardened concrete
through hydraulic or pozzolanic activity or both.
These materials are generally categorized as
supplementary cementing materials (SCMs) or
mineral admixtures. Supplementary cementing
materials are added to concrete as part of the total
cementing system. They may be used in addition to
or as a partial replacement of hydraulic cement or
blended cement in concrete, depending on the
properties of the materials and the desired effect on
concrete. Types of supplementary cementing
materials are given in A23.1, Table 8.
Setting time The time required for a specimen of
concrete, mortar or cement paste, prepared and
tested under standardized conditions, to attain a
specified degree of rigidity.
Slag A by-product of smelting ore to purify metals.
Slags can be considered to be a mixture of metal
oxides. Slag can contain metal sulphides and metal
atoms in the elemental form. Slags are generally
used as a waste removal mechanism in metal
smelting, however they can also serve other
purposes such as assisting in smelt temperature
control and to minimise re-oxidation of the final
bullion product before casting.
Slag cement A supplementary cementitious
material often included in contemporary concrete
mixes. Slag cement is a hydraulic cement.
Surplus material Material left over at the end of a
production process.
Sustainable development Development that
meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.
The three pillars of sustainability are:
1. environmental quality
2. social equity and cultural issues
3. economic constraints
Thermal inertia A measure of the response of a
material to temperature changes within a substance.
Triple bottom line An expanded spectrum of
values and criteria for measuring organizational (and
societal) success economic, environmental and
social. In practical terms, triple bottom line accounting
usually means expanding the traditional company
reporting framework to take into account not just
financial outcomes but also environmental and social
performance.
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) Organic
chemical compounds that have high enough vapour
pressures under normal conditions to significantly
vaporize and enter the atmosphere. VOCs are an
important outdoor air pollutant.
Waste Unwanted or undesired material left over
after the completion of a process.
6.5.2 Introduction
Sustainable design applies good design practices
and good business principles in addition to preserving
the natural environment. Sustainable development is
defined as development that meets the needs of
people living today without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs.
Sustainable development requires a long-term vision
of industrial progress, preserving the foundations
upon which quality of life depends: respect for basic
human needs and local and global ecosystems. [60]
The First International Conference on Sustainable
Construction in 1994 defined sustainable construction
as: The creation and responsible maintenance of a
healthy built environment, based on ecological
principles, and by means of an efficient use of
resources. In keeping with this definition, architects,
engineers, owners, contractors and developers have
a responsibility to design and select materials and
systems that will provide a durable foundation for
sustainable communities. The production and use of
concrete in all its forms is central because concrete is
second only to water as the most consumed
substance on earth, with nearly three tons used
annually for each person on the planet.
Like all manufactured products, the production and
use of concrete building systems imposes
environmental burdens. However, concrete offers a
dramatic range of colours, finishes and unlimited
design possibilities difficult to match with other
materials. Concrete structures can provide superior
environmental and energy performance from a life
cycle perspective. Precast concrete offers a
competitive building solution based on first cost, long-
term economic benefits, energy efficiency, lower
maintenance and overall operating costs as well as
opportunities for future reuse should the occupancy
of a building change.
The Canadian cement and concrete industrys
environmental record is continuously improving. The
industry has achieved the following:

30% reduction per tonne of cement in the
consumption of coal, natural gas and
petroleum coke since the 1970s
11% energy efficiency improvement between
1990 and 2001 [59]
8% decrease in direct emissions of CO
2
per
tonne of concrete product between 1990 and
2000, with a further 2% decrease projected
by 2010 [60]
6.5.3 Green Building Rating Systems
When we consider the current and future use of
precast concrete, it is useful to look at the green
building rating and assessment systems used to
evaluate and reward buildings for their environmental
performance. There are several systems in use in
North America and in the world that promote the
construction of better buildings better for the
environment, the owner and for the occupant. These
systems allow many variables in a project to be
quantified and assessed objectively.
In North America, BREEAM Green Leaf, the web-
enabled Green Globes system, and LEED are the
principal rating systems used for assessing buildings
where precast concrete is most likely to play an
important role.
BREEAM Green Leaf is an environmental
assessment protocol that was developed in response
to a need for a less expensive method that could be
partially conducted in-house. The method originated
in Canada and was developed by ECD Energy,
Environment Canada and Terra Choice. It combined
a Canadian adaptation of the UK BREEAM (Building
Research Establishment Environmental Assessment
Method) set of environmental issues with the Green
Leaf Eco-Rating procedure. [58]
Green Globes, part of the BREEAM/Green Leaf suite
of environmental assessment tools for buildings, is an
online building and management audit tool that helps
property owners and managers to measure the
environmental performance of their buildings against
best practices in areas such as energy, water,
hazardous materials, waste management and indoor
environment. Using a confidential questionnaire, it
generates an online report.
LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design), developed by the United States Green
Building Council (USGBC), is being adopted as a
green building design and rating tool by both the
architectural and engineering communities, with the
LEED
TM
Canada adaptation provided through the
Canadian Green Building Council (CaGBC). Buildings
are certified by the CaGBC based on a total point
score, following an independent review and audit of
selected documents submitted by a design team.
With four possible levels of certification (Certified,
Silver, Gold and Platinum), LEED is flexible enough
to accommodate a wide range of green building
strategies that best fit the constraints and goals of
particular projects.
All of these systems assess and reward performance
with regard to design and construction management,
site selection, material selection and use, operational
energy use, water use, and indoor environmental
quality. Within these broad categories there are
specific criteria and requirements, from building reuse
and waste management to new building
commissioning.
Precast concrete can be used in combination with a
wide variety of other building materials to contribute
to the achievement of a desired level of certification in
any of the systems. In LEED, for example, precast
concrete solutions can contribute to the achievement
of points through Optimize Energy Performance,
Building Reuse, Construction Waste Management,
Recycled Content, Local/Regional Materials and
Innovation in Design leading toward a desired level
of certification. The energy, material selection,
construction waste management, and indoor
environmental quality criteria are the most critical.
Each is examined in subsequent sections.
6.5.4 Life Cycle Cost and Assessment
Doing the right thing, the right way, at the right time,
usually results in the lowest Life Cycle Cost (LCC).
Generally, design (D) accounts for around 2%,
construction (C) around 23%, and operation and
maintenance (O&M) around 75% of the total life-cycle
costs of a building. Making the right investment up
front will minimize O&M. Saving 10% on C can cause
O&M to escalate.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a standardized
method for examining a broad range of environmental
impacts associated with a process or a product over
its complete life cycle. When applied to buildings,
LCA includes the following:
resource extraction
manufacturing and transportation of materials
and pre-fabricated components
on-site construction
building operations, including energy
consumption and maintenance, and
end-of-life reuse, recycling or disposal
Only the LCA of a building can provide estimates of
the full range of environmental burdens such as
embodied energy use and related fossil fuel
depletion, other resource use, greenhouse gas
emissions, and toxic releases to air, water and land.
An inclusive LCA of a building is a complex task best
handled with computer modelling tools. In Canada
and the U.S., the Athena Institutes ATHENA
TM

Environmental Impact Estimator [66] is available to
perform a full life cycle analysis at the whole building
level.
6.5.5 Energy Use
There are two sides to energy use:
1. the embodied energy (an LCA term discussed in
more detail below) associated with the
manufacturing, transportation, use and ultimate
disposal of all the materials in a building, and
2. the energy used to heat, cool, light and generally
operate a building.
Embodied energy represents the total energy used in
making a product, including cement production,
energy used to extract and process aggregates,
transportation energy, and energy used in a precast
plant. Energy is required for machinery, concrete
curing and for heating the plant.
It is possible to utilize manufacturing energy very
efficiently as production of precast concrete elements
takes place mainly in enclosed factories. For
example, the heat used for accelerating the strength
development of concrete can also be used in heating
the plant. When producing massive elements, the
exothermal reaction (hydration) of the cement may
also reduce heating requirements. The energy
consumption in precast plants during the winter is
typically about 40% higher than the annual average.
The energy consumption of the manufacturing
process depends on the type of production.
Equipment, like cranes, transport equipment for
aggregates and cement, bending equipment for
reinforcement, vibrators etc., can, due to their
repetitive operations, be reduced to what is
absolutely necessary to perform the task. The energy
required to produce concrete can be improved by
rationalizing energy consumption in plant production.
Supplementary Cementing Materials (SCM) can
significantly reduce the embodied energy of precast
concrete products by substituting waste materials for
relatively high energy hydraulic cement. SCMs are
mostly by-products of other industrial processes; their
judicious use in concrete production is desirable both
for environmental and energy conservation as well as
for the technical benefits they can provide. SCMs are
added to concrete as part of the total cementitious
system, either as an addition or partial replacement of
hydraulic cement. The colour and uniformity of SCMs
must be investigated for architectural precast
concrete applications.
When properly used, the SCMs can enhance the
following properties of concrete:
generally improve the workability and
finishing of fresh concrete
reduce bleeding and segregation of fresh
concrete
lower the heat of hydration, beneficial in
mass pours
improve the pumpability of fresh concrete
generally improve the long term strength gain
reduce permeability and absorption
(especially silica fume)
reduce alkali-aggregate reactivity
The effect of replacing cement with supplementary
cementitious materials on the embodied energy of
concrete is appreciable. For example, a 1%
replacement of cement with fly ash results in an
approximately 0.7% reduction in energy consumption
per unit of concrete.
Silica Fume
Silica fume is a waste product recovered from the
reduction of high-purity quartz with coal in electric
furnaces in the production of silicon and ferrosilicon
alloys. Silica fume improves the quality, strength and
durability of concrete by making the concrete much
less permeable and more resistant to corrosion of the
steel reinforcement.
Fly Ash
Fly ash is a pozzolan waste product collected from
coal-fired power plants. Fly ash contains some heavy
metal (normally more than silica fume), so the heavy
metal content of the concrete will increase.
Replacement of cement with moderate quantities of
fly ash can refine the pore structure of the concrete,
making it more resistant to chloride penetration. Not
all fly ash is suitable for use in concrete. Fly ash shall
conform to the requirements of CSA A3000 and shall
be specified in accordance with Tables 7 and 8 in
CSA A23.1.

Normally 10% to 20% of the cement can be replaced
with fly ash to reduce the environmental burden of the
concrete. Substitution with fly ash at levels exceeding
25% is considered to be a high volume SCM
application. Appropriate testing to ensure the desired
performance should be carried out. The substitution
of cement with fly ash can increase setting times and
decrease early age strength. This may be an
economic factor in precast concrete manufacturing if
casting cannot be maintained on a daily cycle.
Although fly ash offers environmental advantages, it
also improves the performance and quality of
concrete. Fly ash affects the plastic properties of
concrete by improving workability, reducing water
demand, reducing segregation and bleeding, and
lowering heat of hydration. Fly ash increases long-
term strength, reduces permeability, reduces
corrosion of reinforcing steel, increases sulphate
resistance, and reduces alkali-aggregate reaction.
Concrete containing fly ash, when substituted for
cement, reaches its maximum strength more slowly
than concrete made with only hydraulic cement.
Blast Furnace Slag
Production of blast furnace slag consumes about
of the energy required to produce cement.
Substitution of slag at levels exceeding 35% for
hydraulic cement in precast concrete is considered a
high volume SCM application, and its suitability for
intended use must be prequalified. The addition of
slag cement usually results in reduced need for
water, faster setting time, improved pumpability and
finishability, higher 28-day strength, lower
permeability, resistance to sulfate attack and alkali-
silica reactivity (ASR), and lighter color. Blast-furnace
slag shall conform to the requirements of CSA A3000
and shall be specified in accordance with Tables 7
and 8 in CSA A23.1.
One of the important lessons from LCA is that
decisions should not be based on either embodied or
operational energy use in isolation. The key is to
optimize total energy use over the full life cycle,
recognizing that a higher embodied energy may pay
dividends in the form of lower maintenance and
operating energy. Athena Institute studies show that,
over the lifetime of a building, operating energy is the
more significant of the two. The embodied energy of
the materials may represent only 3% to 13% of total
energy use over a 75 to 80 year building life.
Thermal Mass
From an operating energy perspective, the thermal
inertia of heavy materials is well known, both in warm
and cold climates. Figure 6.5.1 shows the
comparative thermal inertia of various building
materials.
The heat capacity of concrete is about
2,400 KJ/m
3
/K. With an average concrete volume of
30 m
3
for an apartment, energy in the order of 70 MJ
will be stored in the concrete frame for each degree
the temperature is raised or lowered. This energy can
be released to contribute to heating or cooling the
space when the temperature changes. To get an idea
about how much energy this is, it can be compared to
the total energy consumption required to heat an
apartment in a modern building: on an annual basis,
this is a maximum of 150 kW/m
2
(45 GJ for an
apartment of 80 m
2
). The daily energy consumption in
the cold season is less than 250 MJ. [62]
Several systems have been developed to use thermal
mass in precast structures, see Fig. 6.5.2. Air is
circulated in the voids of hollow core floor and roof
slabs. This system reduces the size of the required
mechanical system and creates energy savings both
for heating in the winter as well as cooling in the
summer. For heating, energy savings in the order of
35% can be achieved with this system. A reduction in
cooling power consumption can be about 40%. [62]
The underside of concrete floor and roof slabs should
be exposed to get the full benefits of thermal mass.
Doing away with a suspended ceiling can reduce the
overall building height and can result in 5% to 7%
savings in construction costs. Using the thermal mass
of concrete is extremely important from an
environmental point of view as it provides a long-term
economic gain for a building owner through reduced
life cycle costs.
The mass of concrete also provides excellent
acoustic insulating properties for air-borne sound and
makes concrete ideal for external walls in buildings
facing roads with heavy traffic, as insulation between
different areas in a building and as a noise barrier
beside railroads and roads.
Fig. 6.5.1 Thermal inertia of various materials
[62]
Fig. 6.5.2 Precast hollow core air supply system
that uses thermal inertia of concrete
6.5.6 Material Selection
Material selection and resource use is one of the key
areas assessed in all rating systems. The choice of
materials and systems within a material category can
have dramatic effect in terms of the environmental
burdens captured in a full life cycle assessment.
Material selection impacts a number of more specific
concerns, such as design efficiency and related
material use, recycled content, recyclability, and the
potential for reuse. All these considerations are either
directly or indirectly taken into account in green
building assessment and rating systems. While the
systems do not yet deal explicitly, or well, with
building durability issues, it is obvious that material
selection can also be a key aspect of ensuring a
building service life that exceeds the desired or
planned service life. This is especially true for
materials that will be exposed to the elements or
subjected to wear and tear from occupants.
LCA comparison of precast versus cast-in-place
systems floors and roofs are significant in terms of
the environmental burden during the production of the
load bearing components of a structure. Optimization
of floor and roof components can significantly reduce
the environmental impact of the overall structure
construction. Figure 6.5.3 shows that a precast
concrete hollow core slab system can offer clear
embodied energy advantages relative to a cast-in-
place floor slab.
Distances from a precast plant and a ready-mix plant
to the building site are assumed to be the same. The
higher energy consumption for the cast-in-place slab
is due to the larger volume of concrete needed per
square metre of floor.

Fig. 6.5.3 Energy consumption required to
produce concrete floors [62]
Item
Hollow core
slab
(MJ/m
2
)
Cast-in-place
slab
(MJ/m
2
)
Cement 186 389
Steel 45 60
Other raw materials 15 23
Manufacturing process 128 32
Transportation 28 42
Total 401 560
In Fig. 6.5.4, the comparison is broadened to cover a
number of physical characteristics and a range of
environmental effects. The precast concrete hollow
core floor slab is less environmentally intensive than
its cast-in-place counterpart, with the exception of
greenhouse gas emissions where the precast system
has slightly higher impacts.
CEM I, II, and II are European cement designations.
CEM I (hydraulic cement) and CEM II (hydraulic
composite) cements, used for the hollow core slabs,
and CEM III (Blast-furnace cement), used for the
cast-in-place floor, can have an impact on the results
in the above table. The sensitivity analysis carried out
shows that when using other data and other
assumptions, the environmental profile remains
intact, and the hollow core floor scores even more
favourably in many cases. A floor of hollow core slabs
consumes 40% less concrete and 50% less steel
compared to a cast-in-place reinforced slab. This
amounts to savings of 14.4 t of concrete and 275 kg
of steel for an average apartment unit.
These results reflect the efficiency of material use in
a precast system with advanced production
processes using high strength concrete and
prestressing steel. Precast structures use less
material to achieve the same load bearing capacity
compared with cast-in-place structures. Smaller
precast cross sections result in less dead load to
carry. CSA A23.3 allows the use of a higher concrete
resistance factor for certified plant manufactured
precast concrete elements. The choice of one precast
load bearing system over another does not have a
major impact on the environmental burden created by
the construction.
Prestressing done by pretensioning prestressing
strands in the forms at a precast plant is highly
efficient, reducing the amount of embedded steel and
improving structural performance.

Example 6.13 Comparing a prestressed and
non-prestressed reinforced concrete beam
A beam spanning 7.0 m is required to carry a dead
load of 30 kN/m and a live load of 25 kN/m. A cross
section of 300x600 mm is chosen with top
reinforcement of 2-20M bars. The main reinforcement
required for the reinforced beam is 4-30M bars to
carry the load, while a prestressed beam needs 8-13
mm strands. The reduction in shear reinforcement in
the prestressed beam is neglected. The
reinforcement required is 2800 mm
2
for the reinforced
beam compared with 792 mm
2
for the prestressed
beam a reduction in the area of the main
reinforcement of about 70%.
Summary:
Precasting allows optimized concrete mix
designs. Mixes are usually designed to reach
25-30 MPa in 12-16 hours for precasting a
new element each day.
Prestressing can significantly reduce the
amount of steel used.
Post-tensioned concrete can be employed at
a precast plant and is often used at the site to
join elements as moment connections, shear
walls and for stabilizing elevator and stair
shafts in tall buildings.
Fig. 6.5.4 Comparison of different floor types
from a study in the Netherlands where
an extensive investigation compared a
precast hollow core floor with a cast-
in-place floor [62].

Hollow core
slab (per m
2
)
Cast-in-place
slab (per m
2
)
Concrete (kg) 263.7 423.0
Reinforcement (kg) 3.2 6.1
Total mass (kg) 266.9 429.1

Eutrophication
(kg P0
4
-3
eq.)
0.0356 0.0410
Exhaustion (10
-12
) 0.0468 0.0707
Ecotoxicity (l0
3
m
3
) 2.78 5.81
Greenhouse effect
(kg CO
2
eq.)
55.2 53.4
Acidification (kg SO
2
eq.) 0.252 0.306
Summer smog
(kg C
2
H
4
eq.)
0.0297 0.0460
Human toxicity (kg) 0.318 0.411

Use of primary energy
(MJ)
461.0 643.0
Solid waste (kg) 36.3 58.8
Note: eq. = equivalents
Service Life
The durability, or service life, of a building element is
a function of the material and the environment.
Precast prestressed concrete will provide reliable
long-term performance in extremely harsh conditions
that can destroy lesser materials. Precast is resistant
to deterioration from weather extremes, chemical
attack, fire, accidental damage and the determined
efforts of vandals. [63]
The production of precast concrete elements under
controlled plant conditions allows for accurate control;
e.g. tolerances and concrete quality. The concrete
used in precast components is usually denser,
stronger and is generally of better quality than
concrete cast at the jobsite. Many codes do not
reflect the positive effect of high quality concrete or
include requirements for smaller rebar cover or
increased life expectancy for higher grades of
concrete used in precast structures.
The most common deterioration of concrete
structures is the corrosion of the steel reinforcement.
In precast production the concrete cover to the
reinforcement is better controlled. Protection of
reinforcing steel from corrosion can be obtained by
proper embedment in concrete. A protective iron
oxide film forms on the bar as a result of the high
alkalinity of the cement paste. This protection is
usually lost by leaching and carbonation. Concrete
with sufficiently low permeability and adequate cover
will protect the reinforcement. Hairline and structural
cracking may allow oxygen and moisture to reach the
reinforcement, providing conditions where rusting of
the steel and staining of the concrete may occur. [63]
Precast concrete being HPC, manufactured to better
tolerances and prestressed (with its lower usage of
steel), provides better durability in harsh
environments.
Building Reuse
Durability of the original structure is a key
determinant of the potential for building reuse that in
turn has significant environmental implications.
Buildings constructed from robust materials that
withstand the elements and occupant use for a very
long time, are often prime candidates for
refurbishment and continued service. Buildings
constructed from precast concrete fit these criteria. A
precast interior frame of a building can have a life
expectancy of hundreds of years.
Adaptability is a key factor underlying the ultimate
service life of a building. If a structure is designed so
that the interior of the building can be changed
without major demolition, the building itself can have
a long life. Long spans, common in precast
prestressed structures, are one way of assisting the
adaptability of buildings. Increasing the load carrying
capacity of precast floor systems is not expensive
and can extend the useful life for a building by
providing flexibility for future conversion to other
uses. Secondary installations, such as precast
concrete mezzanine floors in industrial buildings, can
easily be installed, or removed, when occupancy
requirements demand changes to a building.
Precast buildings can also be disassembled and
rebuilt at another location, providing yet another
means of extending service life.
At the end of a buildings useful life, 100% of concrete
demolition waste can be recycled. After removal of
the reinforcement, concrete can be crushed to
produce aggregate that is primarily used in pavement
construction, as granular sub-base, lean-concrete
sub-base, and soil-cement aggregate. It has also
been used on a limited scale as replacement
aggregate in new concrete production.
Recycled concrete aggregate has a higher absorption
and lower specific gravity than conventional
aggregate, necessitating a more strict moisture
control in stockpiles. Concrete made with recycled
coarse aggregate and conventional fine aggregate
can obtain adequate compressive strength. The use
of recycled fine aggregate can result in minor
reduction of compressive strength. The drying
shrinkage and creep is up to 100% higher than
concrete with a corresponding amounts of
conventional aggregate. For these reasons, large
scale use of recycled aggregate concrete has not yet
been achieved in Canada.
Indoor Environmental Quality Low Emitting
Materials (VOCs)
The materials used in construction can affect the
quality of a buildings indoor environment. The
primary impact comes from volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) that can be emitted from some
products and produce negative health impacts. VOC
emissions are minimized with the use of precast
concrete because they require no coatings or finishes
in interior applications. If coatings are required,
precast concrete offers the advantage of being
compatible with many low water-based VOC
materials. Exposed concrete floors can utilize low
VOC coatings and eliminate the need for carpeting or
other flooring products.
Mould spores are a significant contributor to indoor
air quality problems. Concrete does not sustain
mould growth.
Sound attenuation is another key element in indoor
environmental quality. Concrete has excellent
acoustic insulation properties. Precast concrete is
well suited for use as a noise barrier for external walls
on buildings close to airports and areas with heavy
traffic. Sound barriers, positioned along the edges of
major roads and highways, can reduce the
transmission of direct sound to residential areas
see Sect. 6.2.
6.5.7 Production of Precast Concrete
Environmental and manufacturing conditions at a
precast plant are easily monitored. The production of
precast concrete elements takes place under
controlled conditions in enclosed factories. This
makes the control of waste, emissions, noise levels,
etc. easy compared with the same processes at a
building site. The raw material consumption is similar
for similar qualities of concrete, regardless of whether
the production takes place in a factory, at a ready-mix
plant or at a building site. The raw material waste in
precast production is very small.
The use of new technologies like self-consolidating
concrete (SCC) can significantly reduce noise and
vibration in the production process. The use of high-
performance concrete (HPC) enables the design and
production of more reliable and more durable
structures with function-optimized shapes. Cost and
material savings in structural material consumption
and natural resources can be realized through
controlled production.
Forms
Forms used in precast planks are normally made of
either steel or plywood. Form use is usually
significantly higher than for cast-in-place construction.
A large number of castings in forms are typical in the
production of precast concrete elements in plants
with a saving of raw materials.
Plywood form use is limited to about 20 to 50
castings depending upon the complexity,
maintenance and shape of the form.
Standardized elements cast in steel forms are one
step towards sustainable production. An unlimited
number of castings can be made by precasting using
steel forms. Standardization of precast products will
save cost. Attempts by the precast industry to
standardize precast cross sections are designed to
save costs and increase market share by getting the
maximum number of casts out of every form.

Form oil
Mineral oil release agents can affect the health of
workers, pollute the air, water and soil, be flammable,
have poor biodegradability and result in hazardous
waste. New form oils have been developed,
containing a mix of marine ester, medical white oil
and vegetable oil. These oils are easily
biodegradable and are practically harmless.
Precasters use approximately 0.5 kg form oil per m
3

of concrete. Mineral oils are still used, but as prices
come down, precasters can change to the new form
oils.
Silicone
Silicone is frequently used to seal joints in forms. No
scientifically based negative ecological findings have
been found regarding the life cycle of silicone
sealants.
Admixtures
Admixtures can be divided into four main groups:
water-reducing, air-entraining, retarders and
accelerators. In addition, there are several other
types of admixtures for special applications. The
purpose of admixtures is to improve concrete quality
both in the fresh and hardened state. The use of
admixtures often has a beneficial effect on the
environment: better durability of concrete, less
consumption of cement, less energy consumption
during casting, etc.
Water-reducing admixtures are normally synthetic
organic compounds; sulphonated naphthalene/
melamine formaldehyde condensates, sulphonic acid
esters, carbohydrate esters etc. The content of water
reducing admixture is typically 0.02% 0.1% by the
weight of concrete. Water-reducing admixtures do not
contribute to emissions.
Air-entraining agents are used to improve the frost
resistance of concrete. These admixtures are
surface-active organic compounds. Their amount in
concrete is very small 0.002% 0.02% by the
weight of concrete.
Retarders and accelerators are used to control the
setting of the cement. Contents are typically less than
0.1% by the weight of concrete.
Admixture quantities in precast concrete are very low,
normally less than 0.1% by weight of concrete. The
quantities of admixtures used are too small to have
any significant environmental impact. Most
admixtures used in prefabrication are non-toxic,
organic compounds.

Reinforcement
The process of preparing mild steel reinforcement
may be the same for a precaster as for a contractor
at a building site, except that precasters will usually
have less waste. This results in better utilization of
the steel and less consumption of natural resources.
Mesh reinforcement in thin members is a very
efficient use of materials. Precast elements may
require some extra reinforcement to resist lifting and
handling stresses. A precast structure may need
some additional reinforcement to facilitate the force
transfer in building connections. This may reduce
some of the advantages gained during production.
Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP)
Infrastructure components that commonly deteriorate
over time, usually by corrosion, can force early
rehabilitation. Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP)
composite materials may be used to reinforce these
sections to allow the infrastructure to achieve its full
lifetime see CSA S806 for design and production
procedures.
Glass, aramid and carbon FRPs are up to 6 times
stronger than steel, one-fifth the weight, noncorrosive
and non-magnetic. Their high strength and light
weight, and the fact that FRPs are now available in
the form of thin sheets, make them an attractive
alternative and economical solution for strengthening
existing concrete bridges and structures. The use of
FRP bars and tendons is considered to be one of the
most promising solutions to overall deterioration
aggravated by corroding steel reinforcements in new
structures and bridges. [63]
Colour pigments
Colour pigments are commonly used to manufacture
coloured concrete. Pigments are normally iron oxides
(e.g. red and brown), chrome oxides (green) or cobalt
oxides (blue). Pigment content varies normally
between 2% and 4% of the cement by weight. Most
pigments are insoluble and non-toxic.
Sandblasting, retarders and acid etching
Sandblasting is commonly used to create a coarse
texture on the surface of concrete panels. The sand
can be collected and reused as road base. Retarders
are applied to the forms to slow down the hydration
process of the concrete at the surface and allow
washing of the concrete afterwards. This is a
common method used to create facades with
exposed aggregate surfaces. Acid etching is also
used in faade production, mainly to wash a panel
surface to give a coarse texture. Wash water
containing acid residue is neutralized before disposal.
Other materials
In precast concrete production, special materials are
occasionally needed such as epoxy, lacquer, varnish
and paint. Although some of these materials are
slightly hazardous, they are normally used in very
small amounts and their effects can be controlled
during prefabrication. Effective ventilation can be
provided in areas where these materials are used
Waste is easily collected and disposed of in an
environmentally sound manner.
Quality assurance
The production of precast concrete elements, using
repetitious operations under controlled climatic
conditions, allows for accurate quality control (e.g:
tolerances and concrete quality). This facilitates
better use of materials and less material
consumption. The controllability of the production
process allows for strict tolerances and the optimal
use of materials.
CSA A23.3 allows a reduced material factor
c
for
concrete in precast concrete members that are
certified in accordance with A23.4 in recognition of
the good quality control and accurate placement of
forms and reinforcement. The measures required to
obtain accurate results and to check the results are
part of the manufacturing process.
Pollution
Most sources of pollution can be identified and
controlled when precasting takes place in a plant.
Pollution handlers include exhaust fans at welding
sites, with the air passing through filters; and closed
systems for the transport of cement, aggregates and
fresh concrete.
Concrete production can create pollution mainly in
the form of dust and noise. The fabrication of hollow
core slabs requires sawing the hardened concrete,
producing dust and noise levels that can exceed 85
dB. Saw blades can be cooled with water that can be
filtered and reused. Saws can be encased in noise
absorbing containers.
Solid waste from precast plants is very low, about
2.5% of the mass of concrete used in production.
About 95% of this waste can be further beneficially
reused through crushing and recycling of hardened
concrete, leaving approximately 3 kg/m of actual
waste. [60]
The workplace environment
Enclosed precast plants make it easier to control the
manufacturing environment and conditions. The
environment for workers is comparatively clean,
normally not very noisy or dusty, free of toxic fumes,
and generally provide comfortable temperatures and
humidity. The most obvious advantage for the
workers is their protection from adverse weather
conditions.
Nearly, but not all, precast plants are enclosed
factories. Open-air production facilities are typically
located away from populated areas to provide a noise
and dust pollution buffer zone.
Production waste
Surplus materials are generated during the
production of precast elements. Much surplus
material is recyclable, and consists mainly of:
hardened concrete with or without
reinforcement
steel reinforcement and pieces of structural
steel
plywood and other wooden materials
fresh concrete (from production and washing
of equipment)
slurry from the sawing of concrete
insulating materials (mineral wool and
polystyrene)
oil etc. from machinery
paper and other packaging materials
The amount of surplus material varies between
factories and different types of production. Studies in
the Scandinavian countries [62] have shown that the
magnitude is typically about 100 kg of surplus
material per m
3
of concrete produced. About 40% of
the surplus material is fresh and hardened concrete
and about 45% is wastewater from washing
equipment and sawing slurry generated during hollow
core slab production.
It is possible to collect and sort different types of
surplus materials in precast plants. Excess materials
that can be recycled and reused include steel, wood,
insulating materials, oil, paper and other packaging
materials. Wood can be sorted out, cut and used as
industrial firewood, or used for other construction
purposes.
Fresh concrete
Most excess fresh concrete comes from the washing
of equipment, cut-outs, leftover in the buckets etc.
The sand and gravel can be separated from fresh
concrete and reused in the production of new
concrete. The cement slurry left after the removal of
the sand and gravel can be left in basins for

evaporation. Concrete leftovers from production are
often left to harden. [60]
Hardened concrete
Surplus concrete can be crushed into fragments that
can either be used as road base, fill material or
occasionally as aggregates in new concrete. The
advantage for the precaster is the known quality of
the material being crushed so it can be used with full
confidence as recycled aggregate.
Recycling surplus hardened concrete costs about the
same as for new crushed natural aggregates.
Recycled aggregates can be used in reinforced and
prestressed concrete. The amount of recycled
aggregate is about 5% of the total amount of the
aggregate in some precast plants. Tests have been
made with 100% recycled crushed hollow core slab
concrete in hollow core production with no
detrimental effects on the new hollow core slabs.
Removal and recycling of any embedded steel is
easily carried out during the crushing operation.
6.5.8 Transportation and Erection
In precast construction, the rigging of scaffolding,
formwork, storage areas etc. is either not necessary
or done only once. Scaffolding is generally not
required for precast structures. Cranes are used to lift
precast components into their place in a structure.
Transportation
When a building uses precast elements, large parts
of the building can be brought to the site with each
transport. Larger trucks consume less fuel per ton
transported. Materials for formwork, scaffolding etc.
are not required at the site and do not need to be
transported. Less fuel is required to transport precast
concrete structures since they are lighter than the
equivalent amount of on site cast-in-place concrete.
This represents a significant reduction in the number
of truck movements and reduced consumption of
fossil fuels. The amount of energy consumed during
the transport of precast elements is about
0.00114 MJ/kg/km. This represents 5% to 10% of the
total energy consumption during manufacturing of
precast concrete elements.
Construction time
Precast construction leads to shorter time spent
building the main parts of a structure. Components
are manufactured in a precast plant at the same time
as the foundations are being constructed at the site.
Precast units are normally large pieces, so greater
parts of a building are completed with each activity
compared to cast-in-place construction (formwork,
scaffolding, reinforcement, concrete, etc.). Precast
erection is fast and efficient, generally carried out
using mobile cranes.
Total precast bridge structures (abutments,
wingwalls, girders and decks and traffic barriers) can
dramatically speed up construction and reduce
inconvenience and detours for motorists.
Manpower
A normal erection team will consist of two or three
erection workers and a crane operator. These few
people can erect a whole frame and the floors and
roof together with the walls of a building often before
any other trades are engaged at the site.
The following are typical per working day erection
times:
Erection of hollow core floor slabs 300 m
2
Grouting of floor joints 500 m
2
Erection of columns 8 pieces
Erection of beams 15 pieces
Erection of double tee slabs 20 pieces
Erection of walls 7 pieces
Stair and elevator shafts 2 floors
For commercial buildings (offices, shopping centers,
schools etc.) about 100 m
2
of a building can be
erected each day, including the erection of all
components and all necessary connections. The
corresponding figure for the erection of apartment
buildings is about 80 m
2
per day. The difference is
generally due to smaller pieces and stricter tolerance
requirements.
Waste
There is little waste to dispose of at a building site
when the structure is precast. This was documented
in a major investigation carried out in Sweden in 1996
where about 400 apartments were to be built. [62]
Ten similar buildings were selected, each containing
11 apartment buildings; five were precast and five
were cast-in-place. Records were kept of the
consumption of energy and materials, productivity,
construction time, working environment, sick leaves,
accidents, quality control, installations, waste
generation and cost. The final result was the amount
of waste at the building site was 35% less for the
precast buildings compared with the cast-in-place
buildings.
Fig. 6.5.3 Waste generated at a building site
over time [62]
In 2001, close attention was paid to the waste
generation at a major project in Oslo, Norway. [62]
The buildings contain about 150,000 m
2
of floor
space. The structure was constructed using steel
frames with precast hollow core floor and roof slabs.
The delivery and erection of the steel frame and the
slabs were combined in the precast contract. The
surplus material generated at the site during the
erection of these components was only about 1 kg
per m
2
of hollow core slab. The surplus material
consisted mainly of wood, concrete and reinforcing
steel from the grouting of the joints at the site. All
surplus material, except some epoxy resin, was
recycled, and was not considered as waste.
Inconvenience to the public
Precast components can be brought to the site just-
in-time by truck with a considerable reduction in traffic
and less obstruction for the public. No staging areas
are required. The precast units are lifted directly from
the trucks and placed in the structure without any
stockpiling on the jobsite.
6.5.9 Summary
The use of precast, prestressed concrete building
elements can contribute directly to the triple bottom
line. Precast systems help minimize cost and
environmental impacts, while providing comfortable,
safe buildings.
Economic benefits:
Concrete is made using local materials
aggregates, sand and cement.
Low transportation costs precast concrete
is produced locally. Structures weigh less
than those built using cast-in-place concrete.
Precast is a cost-effective and competitive
building material.
Precast is a low maintenance building
system.
Lower operating costs the thermal mass
characteristics of concrete help to moderate
heating and cooling peaks and lower HVAC
equipment requirements.
The reflectance of precast surfaces can lower
interior lighting costs
The reflectance of precast surfaces reduce
the heat island effect, lowering cooling costs.
Precast concrete is durable buildings last
longer, and are resistant to wear and tear,
severe weather, rot, insects and fire.
Environmental and social benefits:
Excellent indoor air quality precast contains
no VOCs to contribute to sick building
syndrome.
Safety precast offers superior fire, wind,
vibration, and seismic resistance.
The thermal mass of precast concrete
contributes to operating energy efficiency and
reduced heating & cooling costs.
Longer lasting concrete structures reduce
energy needs for maintenance and
reconstruction.
Made-to-order precast concrete means less
on-site construction waste and improved
quality control.
Precast needs no additional interior or
exterior finishes.
Precast can reduce transportation energy
use and emissions.
Precast concrete sandwich wall panels the
desired R-value can be obtained by
specifying the appropriate type and thickness
of incorporated insulation.
Light reflectance light coloured precast
walls reduce interior lighting requirements,
while lighter coloured exterior walls help
reduce the heat island effect in large
metropolitan areas. Urban areas have a
higher concentration of structures and
surfaces that absorb heat and tend to
experience higher temperatures than their
rural neighbours. Buildings that are lighter in
color reflect more light (high albedo
surfaces). This helps minimize the heat

island effect that reduces the energy needed
for cooling, and lowers ozone levels. [64]
The lighting system should parallel the stems of
double tees to achieve uniform lighting free from
distracting shadows. A reflective paint and properly
spaced high-output fluorescent lamps installed in
continuous strips can achieve a high level of
illumination at a minimum cost. Lighting coffers can
be enclosed with diffuser panels fastened to the
bottom of the tee stems to provide a flush ceiling, see
Fig. 6.6.1.
6.6 MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND
OTHER SUB-SYSTEMS
COORDINATION
6.6.1 Introduction
Structural precast concrete is used in a variety of
buildings. Precasts integration with lighting,
mechanical, plumbing, and other services is
important. Environmental demands are substantially
increasing the ratio of mechanical and electrical
system costs to total building costs.
6.6.3 Electrified Floors
Computers, communication systems, and other
monitoring systems require adequate and flexible
means of supplying power and cable networks. When
cast-in-place toppings are placed on prestressed floor
elements, conduits and floor outlets can be buried
within the topping. Shallow depth electrical systems
require as little as a 35 mm topping. Tests on slabs
with buried ductwork have shown that structural
strength is generally not impaired by these voids.
Voids in hollow core slabs can be used as electrical
raceways.
This section shows some methods that can
economically satisfy mechanical and electrical
requirements, and describes standard methods of
providing for the installation of other sub-systems.
6.6.2 Lighting and Power Distribution
Designers can take advantage of the finished
appearance, fire resistance, thermal mass and
reflective qualities of precast, prestressed concrete
by leaving the columns, beams, and ceiling structure
exposed for many applications.
The high load-carrying capacity of prestressed
concrete elements makes it possible to locate heavy
transformers near the areas of consumption at little or
no additional expenses. Distribution feeds can be run
between the legs of double tee slabs.
Fig. 6.6.1 Metal panels attached to the bottoms of precast tee stems create ducts, and lighting diffuser
panels provide a flush ceiling.

Fig. 6.6.2 Radiant heat tubing on precast floor prior to pouring concrete topping slab.
6.6.4 Underfloor Radiant Heat
Underfloor radiant heat uses the floor to heat the
building above by raising the floor temperature until
the heating output of the floor matches the amount of
heat that the building is losing. Radiant heating
systems use a boiler or hot water heater to heat
water (or an antifreeze solution) which is circulated
through in-floor tubing.
Precast floor slabs are ideal for use with radiant
heating. A topping slab containing radiant heating
tubes is cast over hollow core or double tee floor
slabs, see Fig. 6.6.2.
6.6.5 Ductwork
The space between double tee stems and the voids
in hollow core slabs may be used for distribution
ducts for heating, air-conditioning and exhaust
systems. The underside of double tee slabs provided
by the bottom of the flange and the sides of the stems
form a duct. The bottom of the duct can be completed
by attaching a metal panel to the tee stems (see Fig.
6.6.1). Field installed connections generally offer the
best economy and ensure exact placement. Inserts
should only be cast-in when they can be located at
the design stage, well in advance of casting the
precast elements.
Hollow core slabs have round, oval or rectangular
voids that can act as ducts or raceways for
mechanical and electrical systems. Openings, core-
drilled from above or below in the field, provide for
access and distribution. The voids in the slabs can be
aligned at bearing supports and connected to provide
continuity of the system. The enclosed space can be
used as a plenum chamber with uniform pressure
throughout its length. Diffusers can be installed in
floors or ceilings to distribute the air. Branch runs,
where required, can be standard ducts installed along
beams or walls.
When ceilings are necessary, proper selection of
precast components can result in shallow ceiling
spaces as shown in Fig. 6.6.3. This figure also
illustrates the flexibility of space arrangements
possible with long span prestressed concrete
elements.
Branch ducts of moderate size can be
accommodated by providing block-outs in the stems
of tees or beams. Such block-outs should be modular
and repeated in size and location to handle all
conditions demanded by mechanical, electrical,
and/or plumbing runs. While this may lead to slightly
larger openings in some cases, the end result will
usually be more economical. Sufficient tolerance
should be allowed in sizing openings to provide for
the field assembly of ducts.
Prestressed concrete box girders have been used to
serve a triple function as heating and air conditioning
distribution ducts, conduit for utility lines and
structural supporting elements for roof deck units.
Conditioned air can be distributed within the void area
of the girders and introduced into the building work
areas through modular openings cast in the sides and
bottoms of the box girders. The system is balanced
by plugging selected openings.
Vertical supply and return air trunks can be carried in
either the building core or the exterior walls, with
small ducts branching out into the ceiling space. In
some cases, exterior wall cavities have been
replaced with three or four sided precast boxes
stacked to provide vertical runs for mechanical and
electrical systems. These stacked boxes can also be
used as columns or lateral bracing elements for the
structure.

6.6.6 Openings Through Floor and Roof
Units
Large openings are usually provided using block-outs
in the forms during precast manufacturing; smaller
ones (up to about 200 mm) are usually field cut.
Openings in the flanges of stemmed elements should
be limited to the flat portion of a double tee flange.
Angle headers are often used for framing large
openings in hollow core floor and roof systems, see
Fig. 6.6.4.
6.6.7 Other Sub-Systems
Suspended ceilings, crane rails, mechanical and
electrical equipment and other sub-systems can be
accommodated with standard manufactured
hardware items and embedded plates as shown in
Fig. 6.6.5.
Window or door assemblies, when properly
protected, can be cast into panels at the plant.
Aluminum frames should be properly coated so that
the aluminum will not react with the concrete. Glazing
and doors can be installed prior to or after panels are
delivered to the job site. Repetition is a key to
economy when manufacturing precast concrete wall
assemblies. Windows and doors should be located at
identical locations in panels whenever possible.
Sandwich wall panels can provide the thermal
resistance values required for modern energy
efficient buildings, (see Sect. 6.1). Sandwich panels
are normally cast on flat beds. Where exposed, the
inside surface of the panel can be given a troweled
finish at the precast plant.

Fig. 6.6.3 Where ceilings are required, ducts, piping and lighting fixtures can be accommodated within a
shallow depth.
Fig. 6.6.4 Large openings in floors and roof slabs made during manufacturing. Small openings are field
drilled. Some common types of openings are shown.
6.6.8 Total Precast Buildings
Many complete buildings have been built using
precast and prestressed concrete components. This
construction can lead to more prefabrication of the
building sub-systems, such as basic plumbing
assemblies or electrical/mechanical assemblies plus
lighting, for installation within the structure.
Electrical conduits and boxes can be cast in the
precast wall panels for housing systems. This
process requires coordination with the electrical
contractor. Savings on job-site labour and time are
possible. The metal or plastic conduit can be prebent
to the desired shape, connected to the electrical
boxes and delivered to the casting bed. Cable TV and
telephone conduits can also be cast in using the
same procedure.
To reduce on-site labour, prefabricated bathroom
units or combination bathroom/kitchen modules have
been developed (see Fig. 6.6.6). Such units include
bathroom fixtures, kitchen cabinets and sinks, as well
as wall, ceiling, and floor surfaces.
Bathroom/kitchen modules can be assembled prior to
delivery to the job site. The module can be built on a
structural slab element. Units are stacked with one
module directly above the one below in multi-storey
construction. Block-outs for chases are provided in
the precast floors. Connections are made from one
unit to the next to provide a vertical plumbing stack.
Prefabricated wet-wall plumbing systems (see Fig.
6.6.7) incorporate preassembled piping systems.
These units require block-outs in the precast flooring
units and are arranged to mate with connecting
modules. Best economy results when bathrooms are
backed up to each other, with a common vertical run
to service both bathrooms.
Some core modules not only feature bath and kitchen
components, but also HVAC components, all
packaged in one unit. These modules can be easily
accommodated in precast structural systems by
placing them directly on the precast slabs and
shimming and grouting as required.
Fig. 6.6.5 Methods of attaching suspended ceilings, crane rails and other sub-systems.

Fig. 6.6.6 Kitchen/bathroom modules can be preassembled on precast prestressed slabs ready for
installation into systems buildings.

Fig. 6.6.7 Prefabricated wet-wall plumbing systems incorporate preassembled piping.

6.7 REFERENCES
Building Envelope
[1] National Energy Code for Buildings - 1997,
Codes / National Research Council of Canada
[2] National Energy Code for Houses - 1997,
Codes / National Research Council of Canada
[3] 2005 ASHRAE Handbook - Fundamentals - SI
Edition, American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
[4] Hutcheon, N.B. and Handegord, G.O., Building
Science for a Cold Climate, Wiley, 1983
[5] Moisture Control in Buildings, G. R. Treschel,
Editor
[6] Canadian Building Digests, National Research
Council of Canada, Ottawa
[7] Energy Conservation Design Resources
Handbook, The Royal Architectural Institute of
Canada
[8] Architectural Details for Insulated Buildings,
Ronald Brand, Van Nostrand Reinhold (1990)
[9] Architectural Precast Concrete Walls Best
Practice Guide, Canada Mortgage and Housing
Corporation, 2002 (revised 2005)
Acoustics
[10] ASTM E90 - Laboratory measurement of airborne
sound transmission loss of building partitions,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916
Race St., Philadelphia, PA, USA, 19103
[11] ASTM E336 - Standard Test Method for
Measurement of Airborne Sound Insulation in
Buildings, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1916 Race St., Philadelphia, PA,
USA, 19103
[12] ASTM E413 - Determination of sound
transmission class, American Society for Testing
and Materials, 1916 Race St., Philadelphia, PA,
USA, 19103
[13] ASTM C522 Standard Test Method for
Airflow Resistance of Acoustical Materials.
American Society for Testing and Materials,
1916 Race St., Philadelphia, PA, USA, 19103
[14] ASTM E492 - Laboratory measurement of
impact sound transmissions through floor-ceiling
assemblies using the tapping machine,
[15] ASTM E1007, Standard Test Method for Field
Measurement of Tapping Machine Impact
Sound Transmission through Floor-ceiling
Assemblies and Associated Support Structures,
[16] ASTM E989, Classification for Determination of
Impact Insulation Class (IIC), American Society
for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race St.,
Philadelphia, PA, USA, 19103
[17] ASTM C423, Standard Test Method for Sound
Absorption and Sound Absorption Coefficient by
the Reverberation Room Method, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race
St., Philadelphia, PA, USA, 19103
[18] The US Federal Highway Administration issues
a free prediction program called STAMINA
[19] The Wall Journal, PO Box 1217, Lehigh Acres,
FL 33970-1217, T: (813) 369-0178
[20] Field Sound Transmission Loss Measurements,
A.C.C. Warnock, Building Research Note 232,
National Research Council, Canada
[21] Measurements of the Sound Transmission Loss
of Windows, J.D. Quirt, Building Research Note
172, National Research Council, Canada
[22] Sound Transmission Loss of Masonry Walls:
Tests on 90, 140, 190, 240 and 290 mm
Concrete Block Walls With Various Surface
Finishes, A.C.C. Warnock and D.W. Monk.
Building Research Note 217, National Research
Council, Canada
Twelve-inch Lightweight Concrete Blocks With
Various Surface Finishes, T.D. Northwood and
D.W. Monk, Building Research Note 90,
National Research Council, Canada
Twelve-inch Lightweight Concrete Blocks
Comparison of Latex and Plaster Sealers, T.D.
Northwood and D.W. Monk, Building Research
Note 93, National Research Council, Canada
[25] Sound Transmission Loss Measurements
Through 190 mm and 140 mm Blocks with
Added Gypsum board and Through Cavity Block
Walls, A.C.C. Warnock, NRCC Internal Report
586, 1990
[26] Noise Control in Buildings, A Practical Guide for
Architects and Engineers, Cyril M. Harris, ed.,
McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1994

[27] Handbook of Acoustical Measurements and
Noise Control, Third Edition, Cyril M. Harris, ed.,
McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1991
[28] NIOSH Compendium of materials for noise
control, R.A. Hedeen, DHEW Publication No.
80-116. US Department of Health, Education
and Welfare, 4676 Columbia Parkway,
Cincinnati, Ohio 45226
[29] Catalog of STC and IIC Ratings for Wall and
Floor/ceiling Assemblies, R.B. Dupree, Office of
Noise control, California Department of Health
Services, Berkeley, California 94704
[30] Northwood, T.D., Dickens, H.B. and Hansen,
A.T., Noise Control in Residential Buildings,
NRC 9162, National Research Council of
Canada 1967
[31] 2000 ASHRAE Handbook HVAC Systems
and Equipment, American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
Atlanta, GA, 2000
[32] Berendt, R. D., Winzer G. E., and Burroughs, C.
B., A Guide to Airborne, Impact and Structure-
Borne Noise Control in Multi-family Dwellings,
prepared for Federal Housing Administration,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
DC, 1975
[33] Sabine, H. J, Lacher, M. B., Flynn, D. R., and
Quindry, T.L, Acoustical and Thermal
Performance of Exterior Residential Walls,
Doors and Windows, National Bureau of
Standards, U.S. Government Printing Office,
[34] IITRI, Compendium of Materials for Noise
Control, U.S. Department of Heath, Education
and Welfare, U.S. Government Printing Office,
[35] Harris, C. M., Handbook of Acoustical
Measurements and Noise Control, Acoustical
Society of America, Melville, NY, 1997
[36] Litvin, A., and Belliston, H. W., Sound
Transmission Loss Through Concrete and
Concrete Masonry Walls, Journal of the
American Concrete Institute, V. 75, No. 12,
December 1978
[37] Acoustical Properties of Precast Concrete, PCI
JOURNAL, V. 23, No. 2, March-April 1978
[38] Highway Traffic Noise Analysis and Abatement
Policy and Guidance, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
Office of Environment and Planning, Noise and
Air Quality Branch, Washington, D.C., June
1995
Fire Resistance
[39] ULC Standard CAN/ULC-S101-04 Standard
Methods of Fire Endurance Tests of Building
Construction and Materials, Underwriters
Laboratories of Canada, Toronto, ON, 2004.
[40] Design for Fire Resistance of Precast,
Prestressed Concrete, Second Edition, MNL-
124-89, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
[41] Abrams, M. S., Gustaferro, A. H., and Salse, E.
A. B., Fire Tests of Concrete Joist floors and
Roofs, RD Bulletin 006B, Portland Cement
Association, Skokie, IL.
[42] Fire Endurance of Continuous Reinforced
Concrete Beams, RD Bulletin 072B, Portland
Cement Association, Skokie, IL
[43] Lie, T.T., Contribution of Insulation in Cavity
Walls to Propagation of Fire, Fire Study No. 29,
Division of Building Research, National
Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario
[44] Gustaferro, A.H. and Abrams, M.S., Fire Tests
of Joints Between Precast Wall Panels: Effect of
Various Joint Treatments, PCI JOURNAL, Vol.
20, No. 5, Sept-Oct 1975, pp. 44-64
[45] Fire Resistance Ratings for Prestressed and
Precast Concrete, Canadian Prestressed
Concrete Institute, February 1978
Vibrations
[46] Commentary D on Part 4 of the National
Building Code of Canada: Deflection and
Vibration Criteria for Serviceability and Fatigue
Limit States. Supplement to the National
Building Code of Canada 2005. National
Research Council Canada, Ottawa
[47] Allen, D.E., Onysko, D.M. and Murray, T.M. ATC
Design Guide 1: Minimizing Floor Vibration,
Applied Technology Council, Redwood City,
California, 1999
[48] Mast, R.F., Vibration of Precast Prestressed
Concrete Floors, PCI JOURNAL, 46(6), Nov-
Dec 2001, pp. 76-86
[49] Allen, D.E., Building Vibrations from Human
Activities, Concrete International, 12(6), June
1990, p. 66-73
[50] Commentary I on Part 4 of the National Building
Code of Canada: Wind Load. Supplement to the
National Building Code of Canada 2005.
National Research Council Canada, Ottawa
[51] Timoshenko, S.P. and Gere, J.M. Mechanics of
Materials (see Appendix A, p. 485 - 497). Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, 1972
[52] Harris, C.M. and Crede, C.E. Shock and
Vibration Handbook, Second Edition, McGraw-
Hill, New York, NY, 1976
[53] Allen, D.E. and Murray, T.M., Design Criterion
for Floor Vibration Due to Walking, AISC
Engineering Journal, Fourth Quarter (December)
1993, p. 117-129
[54] International Standard ISO 2631-2:1989,
Evaluation of Human Exposure to Whole-Body
Vibration - Part 2: Continuous and Shock-
Induced Vibrations in Buildings, International
Organization for Standardization, Geneva,
Switzerland
[55] Bachmann, H., Vibration Problems in Structures,
Birkhauser-Verlag, Basel - Boston - Berlin. 1995
[56] Vibrations of Concrete Structures, Special
Publication SP-60, American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, MI, 1979
[57] International Standard ISO 10137:1992, Basis
for Design of Structures - Serviceability of
Buildings Against Vibration, International
Organization for Standardization, Geneva,
Switzerland
Sustainable Design and Construction
[58] The Cement Sustainability Initiative Our
Agenda for Action, World Business Council for
Sustainable Development, July 2002
[59] Canadian Cement Industry Fact Sheet, Portland
Cement Association, 2003
[60] Guide to Sustainable Design with Concrete,
Cement Association of Canada
[61] The BREEAM Green Leaf Environmental
Assessment Protocol for Multi-residential
Buildings, Technical Series 2001-119, Canada
Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC)
[62] Environmental issues in prefabrication, state-of-
art report, bulletin 21, fdration internationale
du bton (fib), January 2003
[63] Infrastructure Construction Technical Guide,
Canadian Precast/ Prestressed Concrete
Institute
[64] Slag Cement and the Environment, Slag
Cement in Concrete No. 22, Slag Cement
Association, 2003
[65] CSA S478-95(R2000) Guidelines on Durability
in Buildings, Canadian Standards Association
[66] ATHENA
TM
Environmental Impact Estimator,
Athena Sustainable Materials Institute:
http://www.athenaSMI.ca
[67] Green Building Part II: Precast Concrete LEED
Certification, AWARD Magazine, Canada Wide
Magazines and Communications Ltd., February
2005

CHAPTER 7
PRODUCT INFORMATION AND CAPABILITY

7.0 NOTATION...................................................................................................................... 7-2
7.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 7-3
7.2 EXPLANATION OF LOAD TABLES................................................................................ 7-3
7.2.1 Safe Superimposed Load................................................................................... 7-3
7.2.2 Limiting Criteria................................................................................................... 7-3
7.2.3 Estimated Camber.............................................................................................. 7-4
7.2.4 Concrete Strength and Density.......................................................................... 7-4
7.2.5 Prestressing Strand............................................................................................ 7-5
7.2.6 Prestress Losses................................................................................................ 7-5
7.2.7 Strand Placement............................................................................................... 7-5
7.2.8 Columns and Load Bearing Wall Panels............................................................ 7-5
7.2.9 Piles.................................................................................................................... 7-6
7.3 STEMMED DECK ELEMENTS
Double Tee Load Tables ................................................................................................. 7-7
Pretopped Double Tee Load Tables ............................................................................. 7-18
Single Tee Load Tables................................................................................................. 7-21
7.4 FLAT DECK ELEMENTS
Hollow Core Load Tables .............................................................................................. 7-22
Solid Flat Slab Load Tables........................................................................................... 7-24
7.5 BEAM ELEMENTS
Rectangular Beam Load Tables.................................................................................... 7-27
Inverted Tee Beam Load Tables................................................................................... 7-28
L-Shaped Beam Load Tables........................................................................................ 7-30
Bridge Girder Load Tables ............................................................................................ 7-32
Box Section Beam Load Tables.................................................................................... 7-34
7.6 COLUMNS AND LOAD BEARING WALL PANELS
Precast Prestressed Columns....................................................................................... 7-35
Precast Reinforced Columns......................................................................................... 7-37
Double Tee Wall Panels................................................................................................ 7-39
Hollow Core Wall Panels............................................................................................... 7-40
Precast Prestressed Solid Wall Panels......................................................................... 7-41
Precast Reinforced Solid Wall Panels........................................................................... 7-42
7.7 PILES
Bearing Piles.................................................................................................................. 7-43
Sheet Piles..................................................................................................................... 7-44
PRODUCT INFORMATION AND CAPABILITY
7.0 NOTATION
A
g
= gross area of section
A
p
A
s
= area of non-prestressed reinforcement
b = overall width of element
e
c
centroid of the section at the centre of the
span
e
e
centroid of the section at the end of the
span
= specified compressive strength of concrete
c
f
= compressive strength of concrete at time
of initial prestress
ci
f
f
cp
= average compressive stress in concrete at
centroid due to effective prestress force
only
f
pr
= stress in prestressed reinforcement at
factored flexural resistance
f
pu
= specified tensile strength of prestressed
reinforcement
f
pe
= effective stress in prestressed
reinforcement after losses
f
y
= specified yield strength of non-prestressed
reinforcement
h = overall depth
I

= moment of inertia
l = span
M
r
= factored flexural resistance
M
rb
= factored flexural resistance under
balanced conditions
M
ro
= factored flexural resistance with zero axial
load
m = mass of element
P
r
= factored axial load resistance
P
rb
= factored axial load resistance under
balanced conditions
P
ro
= factored axial load resistance with zero
eccentricity
S
b
= section modulus with respect to the bottom
fibre of section
S
t
= section modulus with respect to the top
fibre of section
s = strand spacing
t = thickness
V
c
= factored shear resistance of concrete
V
f
= factored shear force
V
r
V/S = volume-surface ratio
w = weight expressed in force units
y
b
= distance from bottom fibre to centroid of
section
y
t
= distance from top fibre to centroid of
section
z = a quantity limiting distribution of flexural
reinforcement
= factor to account for low density concrete
= A
s
/bd = reinforcement ratio for non-
c
= resistance factor for concrete
p
= resistance factor for prestressed
reinforcement
s
= resistance factor for non-prestressed
reinforcement
1
compression block to the specified
concrete strength.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
This part of the Manual is devoted to technical data
on the shapes that are standard in the precast
prestressed concrete industry today. The use of this
part of the Manual as guide for selection of a
particular shape, together with information on design
aids and techniques provided in other parts of this
Manual, should enable the designer to quickly and
expeditiously complete a design.
The load tables on the following pages show
dimensions, gross section properties and engineering
capabilities of the shapes most commonly used
throughout the industry. These shapes include double
and single tees, hollow core slabs, beams, girders,
columns, piles and wall panels. The dimensions of
the shapes shown in the tables may vary among
manufacturers. Adjustment for these minor variations
can be made by the designer. Hollow core slabs of
different thicknesses, core sizes and shapes are
available in the market under various trade names.
Load tables on pages 7-22 and 7-23 are developed
for non-proprietary hollow core sections of
thicknesses most commonly used in the industry.
Designers making use of these load tables should
contact the manufacturers in the geographic area
of the proposed structure to determine
availability and exact dimensions of products
shown here. Manufacturers will usually have their
own load tables for sections which are not
included on the following pages.
7.2 EXPLANATION OF LOAD TABLES
Load tables for stemmed deck elements, flat deck
elements and beams show the safe superimposed
load, estimated camber at the time of erection and
the estimated long-time camber after the element has
essentially stabilized. For the deck elements, the
upper table gives the information for the element with
no topping. For single and double tees, the lower
table is for the same element with 75 mm of normal
density concrete topping acting compositely with the
precast section. For hollow core and solid flat slabs
the topping is 50 mm. Values in the table assume a
uniform topping thickness for the full span length, and
assume the element to be unshored at the time the
topping is placed. Safe loads and cambers shown in
the tables are based on the dimensions and section
properties shown on the page. For the calculation of
concrete stresses and crack width criteria, the section
properties have been transformed to account for the
effects of the prestressed reinforcement. For
elements with different dimensions or section
properties, the safe loads and cambers will vary.
For beams, a single table is used for several sizes of
elements. The values shown are based on sections
containing the maximum practical number of
prestressing strands, but in some cases, more
strands could be used.
7.2.1 Safe Superimposed Load
The values for safe (unfactored) superimposed load
are based on the capacity of the element as
governed by the limitations tabulated below:
Type of
element
Factored
flexural
resistance
Factored
shear
resistance
Flexural
stresses
Crack
widths
Flat deck
elements
X X X
Stemmed
deck
elements
X X X
Beams X X X
A portion of the safe load shown is assumed to be
dead load for the purpose of applying load factors
and determining time-dependent cambers and
deflections. For untopped deck elements, 0.5 kN/m
2

of the capacity shown is assumed as superimposed
dead load, typical for roof elements. For topped deck
elements, 0.7 kN/m
2
of the capacity shown is
assumed as superimposed dead load, typical for floor
elements. The capacity shown is in addition of the
dead load of the topping. For beams, 50 percent of
the capacity shown is assumed as dead load,
normally conservative for beams which support
concrete decks.
Example 7.1 For an untopped 2400 700 double
tee with an 8-D strand pattern (page 79) and a 16 m
span, the capacity shown is 4.8 kN/m
2
.
7.2.2 Limiting Criteria
The criteria used to determine the safe superimposed
load and the strand placement are based on
requirements of the Code. For design procedures,
see Chap. 3 of this Manual. A summary of the code
provisions used in the development of these load
tables is as follows. The load combination shown
below is the one believed to give the highest factored
load in most cases. In high snow or wind regions, this
would need to be rechecked, based on A23.3-04:
Factored Flexural Resistance
Load factors: 1.25 for dead load
1.50 for live load
Resistance factors:
Precast concrete,
c
= 0.70
Prestressing tendons,
p
= 0.9
Reinforcing bars,
s
= 0.85
Calculation of moments assumes simple spans with
roller supports. If the strands are fully developed (see
Sect. 3.4.9), the critical moment is assumed to be at
midspan in elements with straight strands; for
elements with tendons depressed at midspan, the
critical section is found at either 0.4l or 0.5 l.
(Note: The actual critical point can be determined by
analysis, but will seldom vary significantly from 0.4 l.)
Flexural resistance is calculated using strain
compatibility as discussed in Chap. 3.
Flexural Stresses at Transfer
The following limitations are placed on flexural
stresses immediately after transfer of prestress,
before long time losses; it is assumed that strands
are initially tensioned to 0.75 f
pu
or less:
Compression: 0.6
ci
f
End tension: 0.5 f
ci

Midspan tension: 0.25 f
ci

These stresses are calculated at 50 strand diameters
from the end of the element (the theoretical point of
full transfer) and at midspan.
Release tension is not used as limiting criterion for
beams. Supplemental top reinforcement must be
provided, and designed as described in Sect. 3.4.9 of
this Manual.
Stresses due to Specified Loads, after all Losses
Compression due to sustained loads: 0.45
c
f
Compression due to total load: 0.60
c
f
Tension: 0.5 f
c

The critical point for service load moment is assumed
at midspan for elements with straight strands; for
critical section is found at either 0.4 l or 0.5 l.
Crack Widths of Partially Prestressed Elements,
After All Losses
Sect. 3.4.8 describes the design procedures for
calculating the crack widths of partially prestressed
elements. For interior exposure, the Code allows a
maximum value for the crack control parameter, z, to
be 30,000 N/mm. The capacity of partially
prestressed elements is limited such that this crack
width is not exceeded. The critical section is assumed
at midspan for elements with straight strands; for
critical section is found at either 0.4l or 0.5l.
If it is a requirement that the allowable crack width
parameter be restricted to less than 30,000 N/mm, a
marginal increase in the final prestress force may be
required if the full superimposed load capacity in the
tables is to be achieved.
Factored Shear Resistance
For flat deck elements, the capacity may be limited by
the factored shear resistance. In this case, the safe
superimposed load is that which will yield a factored
shear force V
f
of no more than V
r
, as permitted by the
Code for slabs without shear reinforcement. See
Chapter 3 for the design procedures.
For stemmed deck elements and beams, the factored
shear resistance may exceed V
r
by providing shear
reinforcement, designed as described in Chapter 3.
For many deck elements, however, minimum or no
reinforcement may be required.
Span/depth Ratios
Flat deck elements show no values beyond a
span/depth ratio of 50 for untopped elements and 40
for topped elements. These are the suggested
maximums for roof and floor elements respectively,
unless a detailed analysis is made.
7.2.3 Estimated Camber
The estimated cambers shown are calculated to the
nearest 5 mm using the multipliers shown in Sect.
3.5.3 of this Manual. These values are estimates and
should not be used as absolute values. Non-
structural components attached to elements which
could be affected by camber variations, such as
partitions of folding doors, should be placed with
adequate allowance for camber variation. Calculation
of topping quantities should also recognize that the
values can vary.
7.2.4 Concrete Strength and Density
Twenty-eight day cylinder strength for concrete in the
prestressed units is assumed to be 35 or 40 MPa,
unless noted otherwise. Tables for units with
composite topping are based on the topping concrete
being normal density concrete with a cylinder
strength of 25 MPa. For stemmed and flat deck
elements, the concrete strength at time of strand
tension release is 25 MPa unless the value falls
below the heavy line shown in the load table,
indicating that a cylinder strength greater than 25
MPa is required. For beams, the concrete strength at
transfer is 30 MPa. No values are shown when the
required release strength exceeds 30 MPa. The
designer should recognize that it is sometimes
difficult to obtain a release strength higher than 25
MPa on a one-day casting cycle. In such cases, the
cost of production will be increased and the designer
should consult with prospective producers when
required release strengths are above 25 MPa.
Many prestressing plants prefer to use higher
strength concretes, resulting in somewhat higher
allowable loads or greater spans than indicated in the
load tables contained herein.
In this Chapter, all tables apply to normal density
concrete only, with the density assumed as
2400 kg/m
3
.
7.2.5 Prestressing Strand
Prestressing strands used in the load tables are 13
mm diameter low relaxation strands with a specified
tensile strength of 1860 MPa, unless otherwise noted.
Quantity, size and profile of strands are shown in the
load tables under the column headed Strand
Pattern. In the double tee load tables, for example,
8-S indicates 8-13 mm diameter 1860 MPa strands
(4 per double tee stem) and the S indicates that the
strands are straight. 8-D indicates 8-13 mm
diameter 1860 MPa strands depressed at one point in
the midspan of the double tee.
For the flat deck elements (Pages 722 to 726) the
manufacturer is allowed some flexibility in choice of
strand size and tensile strength. Manufacturers
should be contacted for details of strand utilization.
Note: For development length see Chap. 3.
7.2.6 Prestress Losses
Losses assumed in computing the required concrete
strength at time of strand release are 8%. Total
losses averaged 18% for normal density concrete.
For long span, heavily prestressed products, losses
may be somewhat higher than these assumed
values, and, for shorter spans with less prestressing,
they may be lower. However, these values will
usually be adequate for element selection. Additional
information on losses is given in Chapter 3 of this
Manual.
7.2.7 Strand Placement
For stemmed deck elements and beams, the
eccentricities of strands at the ends and midspan are
shown in the load tables. Strands have been placed
so that the stress at 50 strand diameters from the end
(theoretical transfer point) will not exceed those
specified above, with a concrete strength at release
of 25 MPa for stemmed elements and 30 MPa for
beams. For stemmed deck elements, values below
the heavy line indicate a required release strength
between 25 MPa and 30 MPa.
For flat deck elements the load table values are
based on strand centred 45 mm (40 mm for solid
slabs) from the bottom of the slab. Strand placement
can vary from as low as 25 mm to as high as 55 mm
from the bottom, which will change the capacity and
camber values shown. The higher strand placements
give improved fire resistance ratings (see Chap. 5 of
this Manual for more information on fire resistance).
The lower strand placement may require higher
release strengths, or top tension reinforcement at the
ends. The designer should contact the local
supplier of flat deck elements for available and
recommended strand placement locations.
7.2.8 Columns and Load Bearing Wall
Panels
Interaction curves for selected precast prestressed
columns, precast reinforced columns and various
types of commonly used wall panels are provided on
Pages 735 to 742.
These interaction curves are for factored loads and
moments and the appropriate load factors must be
applied to the service loads and moments before
entering the charts. Also, the curves are for short
elements. Moment magnifiers caused by slenderness
effects must be calculated and applied to the design
moments before using the curves for final element
selection (see Chap. 3).
The column curves are terminated at a value of 0.8
P
ro
, the maximum allowable load for tied columns
under the Code. Most of the wall panel curves show
the lower portion of the curve only (flexure
controlling). Actual design loads will rarely exceed the
values shown.
The curves for double tee wall panels are shown for
bending in directions causing either tension or
compression in the stem.
Partial development of strands has been assumed for
prestressed columns and full development for
prestressed wall panels. Lateral ties have been
assumed for prestressed columns and double tee
wall panels and no ties assumed for hollow core and
solid wall panels. For double tee and hollow core wall
panels, the effects of strands above the neutral axis
have been neglected for the calculation of the flexural
resistance under zero axial load.
The curves for hollow core wall panels are based on
a generic section as shown. They can be used with
small error for all sections commonly marketed for
wall panel use.
7.2.9 Piles
The factored resistances of prestressed concrete
bearing piles, based on the structural capacity of the
pile alone are shown on Page 743. The ability of the
soil to carry these loads must be evaluated by a
geotechnical engineer. Values for concrete strengths
up to 55 MPa are shown. Available strengths should
be checked with local manufacturers. The design of
prestressed concrete piles is discussed in Chapter 3
of this Manual.
Section properties and allowable service load
bending moments for prestressed concrete sheet pile
units are shown on Page 744. These units are
available in some areas for use in earth retaining
structures.

Strand Pattern Designation

No. of 13 mm strands
S = straight D = depressed

2 S

Superimposed loads shown include
superimposed dead loads of 0.5 kN/m
2
for
untopped elements and 0.7 kN/m
2
for topped
elements. Remainder is liveload. Long-time
cambers include superimposed dead load but
do not include live load.

Key
10.5 Superimposed (service) load, kN/m
2

10 Estimated camber at erection, mm
10 Estimated long-time camber, mm
DOUBLE TEE
2400 x 300
Normal Density Concrete
Section Properties
Untopped Topped

A = 191,250 mm
2

I = 1,350 10
6
mm
4
2,600 10
6
mm
4
y
b
= 220 mm 272 mm
y
t
= 80 mm 103 mm
S
b
= 6,130 10
3
mm
3
9,530 10
3
mm
3
S
t
= 16,880 10
3
mm
3
25,150 10
3
mm
3
m= 194 kg/m
2
374 kg/m
2

w = 1.9 kN/m
2
3.7 kN/m
2

V/S = 33 mm

Table of superimposed service load (kN/m
2
) and cambers (mm) No Topping
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
9.6 5.6 3.4 2.0
0 10 10 10 2S
170
170
0 10 10 10
11.2 7.3 5.0 3.4 2.4
10 10 20 20 20 4S
145
145
10 20 20 20 20
7.9 5.4 3.8 2.7 1.9
10 10 10 10 10 6S
86
86
10 20 20 10 0
5.9 4.4 3.3 2.5 1.8
30 30 40 30 30 6D
86
157
40 40 30 30 10
2.6 2.0
50 40 8D
57
150
40 20
2
) and cambers (mm) 75 mm Normal Density Topping
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
11.4 6.3 3.4 1.7
0 5 10 10 2S
170
170
0 5 0 0
8.6 5.5 3.5 2.1
10 20 20 20 4S
145
145
10 10 10 0
6.9 4.2 1.8
10 10 10 6S
86
86
10 10 0
6.9 4.9 3.0 1.6
30 30 40 30 6D
86
157
30 20 20 0
1.5
50 8D
57
150
0
(1) e
e
and e
c
are the maximum eccentricities at end and midspan that will not violate the permissible concrete stresses at transfer.
Notes: Values below heavy solid line require transfer strengths higher than 25 MPa.
Values to right of dashed line indicate that element is partially prestressed.



4 S

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

DOUBLE TEE
2400 x 500
Section Properties
Untopped Topped

A = 239,000 mm
2

I = 5,390 10
6
mm
4
8,480 10
6
mm
4

y
b
= 357 mm 427 mm
y
t
= 143 mm 148 mm
S
b
= 15,100 10
3
mm
3
19,900 10
3
mm
3

S
t
= 37,600 10
3
mm
3
57,300 10
3
mm
3

m= 234 kg/m
2
419 kg/m
2

w = 2.3 kN/m
2
4.1 kN/m
2

V/S = 36 mm
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
10.5 7.7 5.6 4.2 3.1 2.3 1.7
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 4S
282
282
10 15 15 20 10 10 10
14.1 10.3 7.7 5.9 4.5 3.5 2.7 2.0
10 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 6S
240
240
20 20 20 20 30 20 20 20
8.9 6.8 5.3 4.2 3.3 2.6 2.0
20 30 30 30 30 30 30 6D
240
294
30 30 30 30 30 30 20
5.3 4.3 3.4 2.8 2.2 1.8
40 40 40 40 40 40 8D
169
287
50 50 50 40 40 20
2.7 2.2 1.8
60 60 50 10D
117
281
60 50 30
1.8
70 12D
98
275
50
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
7.7 5.5 3.8 2.3
10 10 10 10 4S
282
282
10 10 10 10
8.1 5.7 3.9 2.5
20 20 20 20 6S
240
240
20 20 20 10
7.0 5.1 3.6 2.4
30 30 30 30 6D
240
294
30 30 20 20
5.1 3.8 2.7 1.8
40 40 40 40 8D
169
287
40 40 30 20
1.8
60 10D
117
281
30
(1) e
e
and e
c


6 D

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

DOUBLE TEE
2400 x 700
Section Properties
Untopped Topped

A = 279,250 mm
2

I = 12,600 10
6
mm
4
18,600 10
6
mm
4
y
b
= 492 mm 578 mm
y
t
= 208 mm 197 mm
S
b
= 25,500 10
3
mm
3
32,100 10
3
mm
3
S
t
= 60,400 10
3
mm
3
94,400 10
3
mm
3
m= 275 kg/m
2
459 kg/m
2

w = 2.7 kN/m
2
4.5 kN/m
2

V/S = 38 mm
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
9.1 7.3 5.9 4.8 3.9 3.1 2.5 2.0
20 20 20 30 30 30 20 20 6D
392
429
20 30 30 30 30 20 20 10
8.4 6.9 5.7 4.8 4.0 3.3 2.8 2.3 1.9
30 30 40 40 40 40 30 30 20 8D
292
422
40 40 40 40 40 30 30 20 0
6.2 5.2 4.4 3.8 3.2 2.7 2.3 1.9
50 50 50 50 50 40 40 30 10D
222
416
60 60 50 50 40 30 20 0
4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.1 1.8
60 60 60 50 40 30 12D
166
410
60 50 40 30 10 20
3.1 2.7 2.3 2.0
70 60 60 40 14D
134
403
50 40 20 10
2.2 1.9
70 60 16D
110
397
20 10
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
8.6 6.7 5.1 3.9 2.9 2.1
20 20 20 30 30 30 6D
392
429
20 20 20 20 20 10
7.8 6.3 5.0 4.0 3.1 2.4 1.8
30 30 40 40 40 40 30 8D
292
422
30 30 30 30 20 10 0
5.5 4.5 3.7 2.9 2.3
50 50 50 50 50 10D
222
416
40 40 30 20 10
3.1 2.4 1.8
60 60 60 12D
166
410
30 20 0
1.8
70 14D
134
403
0
(1) e
e
and e
c


1 2 D

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

DOUBLE TEE
2400 x 900
Section Properties
Untopped Topped

A = 396,000 mm
2

I = 30,500 10
6
mm
4
44,100 10
6
mm
4
y
b
= 587 mm 684 mm
y
t
= 313 mm 291 mm
S
b
= 25,500 10
3
mm
3
64,500 10
3
mm
3
S
t
= 97,600 10
3
mm
3
151,500 10
3
mm
3
m= 398 kg/m
2
576 kg/m
2

w = 3.9 kN/m
2
5.65 kN/m
2

V/S = 49 mm
2
Span (m)
e
e
(1)
Strand
Pattern e
c

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
10.3 8.8 7.5 6.4 5.5 4.7 4.0 3.4 2.8 2.4 1.9
35 35 35 35 35 35 30 30 20 15 5 12D
403
505
40 40 40 40 35 30 25 20 10 10 30
10.5 9.0 7.8 6.8 5.8 5.0 4.3 3.7 3.2 2.7 2.3 1.9
40 40 45 45 45 40 40 35 30 20 15 0 14D
322
498
50 50 50 45 45 40 30 20 10 15 25 50
10.3 9.0 7.8 6.9 6.0 5.2 4.5 3.9 3.4 2.9 2.5 2.1
55 50 50 60 60 55 45 40 35 30 10 0 16D
268
492
55 55 55 60 60 45 35 20 10 0 30 50
10.3 9.0 7.9 6.9 6.0 5.3 4.6 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.6 2.2
55 55 55 650 60 55 50 45 35 25 15 0 18D
225
486
60 55 55 60 60 45 35 30 10 15 30 60
6.7 5.9 5.2 4.6 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.6 2.3
65 60 60 55 50 40 30 15 0 20D
192
479
55 50 50 45 30 5 10 30 60
5.6 5.0 4.4 3.9 3.4 3.0 2.6 2.2
70 65 60 60 45 40 15 5 22D
164
473
55 55 50 30 0 10 40 70
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
10.0 8.2 6.9 5.7 4.7 3.9 3.1 2.4
35 35 35 35 35 35 30 30 12D
403
505
40 35 30 25 30 20 10 0
10.2 8.6 7.2 6.0 5.0 4.1 3.4 2.8 2.2
40 40 45 45 45 40 40 35 30 14D
322
498
40 40 40 40 30 20 10 0 20
7.4 6.2 5.6 4.4 3.6 3.0 2.3
50 50 50 50 45 40 35 16D
268
492
25 20 10 0 15 35 55
7.3 6.2 5.3 4.5 3.6 2.8 2.2
55 55 55 55 50 45 40 18D
225
486
50 45 35 20 10 10 30
5.8 4.9 4.1 3.3 2.7 2.1
65 65 60 55 50 45 20D
192
479
45 40 30 10 10 30
3.8 3.1 2.5 2.0
60 60 50 45 22D
164
473
30 10 15 40
(1) e
e
and e
c


6 S

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

DOUBLE TEE
3000 x 300
Section Properties
Untopped Topped

A
g
= 233,625 mm
2

I = 1,628 10
6
mm
4
3,139 10
6
mm
4
y
b
= 222 mm 274 mm
y
t
= 78 mm 102 mm
S
b
= 7,335 10
3
mm
3
11,443 10
3
mm
3
S
t
= 20,876 10
3
mm
3
30,883 10
3
mm
3
m= 194 kg/m
2
377 kg/m
2

w = 1.9 kN/m
2
3.7 kN/m
2

V/S = 33 mm
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
7.4 4.2 2.4
0 0 0 2S
172
172
0 0 0
8.6 5.5 3.7 2.4
10 10 10 10 4S
147
147
10 10 10 10
10.7 6.9 4.7 3.2 2.3
10 10 10 10 10 6S
105
105
10 10 10 10 10
9.4 6.5 4.6 3.3 2.4
20 20 20 30 30 6D
105
159
20 30 30 30 20
8.2 5.7 4.0 2.8 2.0
10 10 20 20 10 8S
84
84
20 20 20 10 0
4.2 3.1 2.3
30 40 40 8D
72
152
40 40 30
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
8.6 4.4 2.2
0 0 0 2S
172
172
0 0 0
10.5 6.4 3.9 2.3
10 10 10 10 4S
147
147
10 10 10 10
8.9 5.7 3.6
10 10 10 6S
105
105
10 10 10
11.5 7.6 5.1 3.4
20 20 20 30 6D
105
159
20 20 20 10
7.4 4.4 2.0
10 20 20 8S
84
84
10 10 0
4.9 3.0
30 40 8D
72
152
30 20
(1) e
e
and e
c


6 D

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

DOUBLE TEE
3000 x 500
Section Properties
Untopped Topped

A
g
= 291,725 mm
2

I = 6,589 10
6
mm
4
10,433 10
6
mm
4
y
b
= 358 mm 429 mm
y
t
= 142 mm 147 mm
S
b
= 18,404 10
3
mm
3
24,296 10
3
mm
3
S
t
= 46,400 10
3
mm
3
71,210 10
3
mm
3
m= 235 kg/m
2
418 kg/m
2

w = 2.3 kN/m
2
4.1 kN/m
2

V/S = 37 mm
2
Span (m) Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
8.1 5.7 4.2 3.0 2.1
10 10 10 10 10 4S
283
283
10 10 10 10 10
8.8 6.6 5.0 3.8 2.9 2.2
10 10 20 20 20 20 6S
258
258
20 20 20 20 20 10
7.8 6.0 4.6 3.6 2.8 2.2
20 20 20 20 20 20 8S
208
208
20 20 20 20 20 10
10.2 7.9 6.2 4.9 3.9 3.1 2.5 2.0
20 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 8D
208
288
30 30 30 30 30 30 20 10
8.4 6.4 5.0 3.9 3.1 2.4
20 20 20 20 20 10 10S
158
158
20 20 20 20 10 10
6.2 5.0 4.0 3.3 2.7 2.2
40 40 40 40 40 40 10D
158
282
50 50 40 40 30 20
3.7 3.0 2.5 2.1
50 50 50 50 12D
124
276
60 50 40 20
2
Span (m) Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
8.3 5.6 3.6 2.2
10 10 10 10 4S
283
283
10 10 10 10
9.2 6.6 4.7 3.3 2.2
10 10 20 20 20 6S
258
258
10 10 10 10 10
8.3 6.1 4.5 3.2 2.3
20 20 20 20 20 8S
208
208
20 20 10 10 10
10.5 7.9 6.0 4.5 3.3 2.4
30 30 30 30 30 30 8D
208
288
30 30 30 30 20 10
9.3 6.9 5.1 3.8 2.3
20 20 20 20 20 10S
158
158
20 10 10 10 10
6.1 4.7 3.7 2.8
40 40 40 40 10D
158
282
40 30 30 20
3.5 2.5
50 50 12D
124
276
30 20
(1) e
e
and e
c


6 D

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

DOUBLE TEE
3000 x 700
Section Properties
Untopped Topped

A
g
= 341,825 mm
2

I = 15,649 10
6
mm
4
23,182 10
6
mm
4
y
b
= 492 mm 581 mm
y
t
= 208 mm 195 mm
S
b
= 31,806 10
3
mm
3
39,937 10
3
mm
3
S
t
= 75,233 10
3
mm
3
118,596 10
3
mm
3
m= 275 kg/m
2
460 kg/m
2

w = 2.7 kN/m
2
4.5 kN/m
2

V/S = 40 mm
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
8.6 6.9 5.5 4.5 3.6 2.9 2.3 1.9
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
367
367
8S
20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10
9.4 7.6 6.1 5.0 4.1 3.3 2.7 2.2
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10S
292
292
20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10
8.3 6.8 5.7 4.7 3.9 3.3 2.7 2.2
30 30 40 40 40 40 30 30 10D
292
416
40 40 40 40 40 30 20 10
8.3 6.9 5.8 4.9 4.1 3.5 2.9 2.5 2.1
40 40 50 50 50 50 40 40 30 12D
233
410
50 50 50 50 50 40 30 20 10
4.6 3.9 3.3 2.8 2.4 2.0
60 60 50 50 50 40 14D
184
403
60 60 50 40 30 10
3.1 2.7 2.3 2.0
70 60 60 50
154
397
16D
60 50 30 10
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
8.5 6.5 5.0 3.7 2.8 2.0
20 20 20 20 20 20 8S
367
367
20 20 20 20 10 10
9.6 7.5 5.8 4.5 3.5 2.6
20 20 20 20 20 20 10S
292
292
20 20 20 20 20 10
7.8 6.3 5.0 4.0 3.1 2.4
30 30 40 40 40 40 10D
292
416
30 30 30 30 20 10
7.8 6.4 5.2 4.2 3.4 2.7 2.1
40 40 50 50 50 50 40 12D
233
410
40 40 40 30 30 20 0
4.3 2.5 2.7 2.0
60 60 50 50
184
14D
403
40 30 20 0
2.6 1.9
70 60 16D
154
397
20 0
(1) e
e
and e
c


6 D

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

DOUBLE TEE
3000 x 900
Section Properties
Untopped Topped

A
g
= 383,925 mm
2

I = 28,785 10
6
mm
4
41,258 10
6
mm
4
y
b
= 627 mm 731 mm
y
t
= 273 mm 244 mm
S
b
= 45,909 10
3
mm
3
56,468 10
3
mm
3
S
t
= 105,440 10
3
mm
3
168,226 10
3
mm
3
m= 305 kg/m
2
490 kg/m
2

w = 3.0 kN/m
2
4.8 kN/m
2

V/S = 41 mm
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
7.0 5.8 4.9 4.1 3.4 2.9 2.4 1.9
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 12S
351
351
30 30 20 20 20 10 0 10
8.3 7.1 6.1 5.2 4.5 3.8 3.3 2.8 2.4 2.0
40 40 50 40 40 40 40 40 30 30 12D
351
545
50 50 50 50 40 40 30 20 10 0
7.2 6.2 5.3 4.6 4.0 3.4 3.0 2.6 2.2 1.9
50 50 50 50 50 50 40 40 30 20 14D
284
538
60 60 60 50 50 40 30 20 0 10
4.3 3.8 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.1
60 60 60 50 50 40 16D
233
532
60 60 50 40 20 10
3.1 2.7 2.4 2.1
70 60 60 50 18D
199
526
60 50 30 10
2.6 2.3 2.0
70 70 60 20D
172
519
50 60 10
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
6.5 5.2 4.2 3.3 2.6 1.9
20 20 20 20 20 20 12S
351
351
20 20 10 10 0 10
7.6 6.3 5.3 4.3 3.6 2.9 2.3
40 40 40 40 40 40 40 12D
351
545
40 40 40 30 30 20 10
6.4 5.4 4.5 3.8 3.1 2.5 2.0
50 50 50 50 50 50 40 14D
284
538
50 40 40 30 20 10 0
3.9 3.3 2.6 2.1
60 60 60 50 16D
233
532
40 30 20 0
2.5 2.0
70 60 18D
199
526
20 0
(1) e
e
and e
c



6 D

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

DOUBLE TEE
3660 x 350
Section Properties
Untopped Topped

A
g
= 287,100 mm
2

I = 2,534 10
6
mm
4
4,471 10
6
mm
4
y
b
= 268 mm 731 mm
y
t
= 82 mm 104 mm
S
b
= 9,445 10
3
mm
3
13,928 10
3
mm
3
S
t
= 30,900 10
3
mm
3
42,990 10
3
mm
3
m= 188 kg/m
2
340 kg/m
2

w = 1.9 kN/m
2
3.7 kN/m
2

V/S = 34 mm
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
15.6 9.4 6.1 4.1 2.7
10 10 10 10 10 4D
193
211
10 10 10 10 10
18.5 11.3 7.4 5.0 3.5 2.5
10 10 10 10 20 20 6S
151
151
10 10 10 10 10 10
6.6 4.7 3.4 2.5
20 20 20 20 6D
151
205
20 20 20 20
4.6 3.5 2.6
30 30 30 8D
105
198
30 30 30
2.6
50 10D
88
192
40
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
18.4 10.7 6.6 4.0 2.4
10 10 10 10 10 4D
193
211
10 10 10 10 10
23.4 13.9 8.8 5.7 3.7 2.1
10 10 10 10 20 20 6S
151
151
10 10 10 10 10 0
7.2 4.9 3.2 2.1
20 20 20 20 6D
151
205
20 20 20 10
4.9 3.4 2.0
30 30 30 8D
105
198
30 20 10
1.7
50 10D
88
192
10
(1) e
e
and e
c



6 D

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

DOUBLE TEE
3660 x 550
Section Properties
Untopped Topped

A
g
= 340,250 mm
2

I = 8,682 10
6
mm
4
13,079 10
6
mm
4

y
b
= 411 mm 482 mm
y
t
= 139 mm 143 mm
S
b
= 21,130 10
3
mm
3
27,137 10
3
mm
3

S
t
= 62,468 10
3
mm
3
91,469 10
3
mm
3

m= 222 kg/m
2
375 kg/m
2

w = 2.2 kN/m
2
4.0 kN/m
2

V/S=34 mm
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
15.7 11.1 8.1 6.0 4.5 3.5 2.6 2.0
10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 6S
311
311
10 10 10 10 20 20 10 10
12.2 8.9 6.7 5.1 3.9 3.0 2.3
10 10 20 20 20 20 20 6D
311
348
10 20 20 20 20 20 10
9.3 7.2 5.6 4.5 3.5 2.8 2.2
20 20 30 30 30 30 30 8D
261
341
30 30 30 30 30 20 20
5.7 4.6 3.7 3.0 2.4
40 40 40 40 40 10D
191
335
40 40 40 30 20
3.7 3.1
50 50 12D
152
329
50 40
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
17.1 11.7 8.2 5.8 4.1 2.8
10 10 10 10 20 20 6S
311
311
10 10 10 10 10 10
12.8 9.0 6.4 4.6 3.2 2.1
10 10 20 20 20 20 6D
311
348
10 10 20 20 10 10
9.4 7.0 5.2 3.9 2.8
20 20 30 30 30 8D
261
341
20 30 30 20 20
5.3 4.1 3.1 2.3
40 40 40 40 10D
191
335
50 30 30 20
3.2 2.4
50 50 12D
152
329
30 20
(1) e
e
and e
c



6 D

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

DOUBLE TEE
3660 x 750
Section Properties
Untopped Topped

A
g
= 385,510 mm
2

I = 19,150 10
6
mm
4
27,350 10
6
mm
4
y
b
= 551 mm 640 mm
y
t
= 199 mm 185 mm
S
b
= 34,760 10
3
mm
3
42,730 10
3
mm
3
S
t
= 96,250 10
3
mm
3
147,840 10
3
mm
3
m= 253 kg/m
2
405 kg/m
2

w = 2.5 kN/m
2
4.3 kN/m
2

V/S = 39 mm
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
10.7 8.5 6.9 5.6 4.5 3.7 3.0 2.4
20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 8D
426
481
20 20 30 30 30 30 20 20
8.8 7.2 6.0 5.0 4.1 3.4 2.9 2.4
30 30 30 30 40 40 30 30 10D
331
475
30 30 40 40 30 30 30 20
6.1 5.1 4.3 3.6 3.0 2.5
40 40 40 40 40 40 12D
267
469
50 50 40 40 30 20
4.3 3.7 3.1 2.7 2.3
50 50 50 50 50 14D
215
462
50 50 40 30 20
3.2 2.7
60 60 16D
182
456
50 40
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
10.4 8.0 6.2 4.7 3.6 2.7
20 20 20 20 30 30 8D
426
481
20 20 20 20 20 20
8.3 6.6 5.3 4.1 3.2 2.5
30 30 30 30 30 30 10D
331
475
30 30 30 30 20 20
5.4 4.3 3.5 2.7 2.1
40 40 40 40 40 12D
267
469
40 40 30 20 10
3.5 2.9 2.3
50 50 50 14D
215
462
40 30 20
2.2
60 16D
182
456
20
(1) e
e
and e
c



8 D

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

PRETOPPED DOUBLE TEE
3660 x 400

Section Properties

A
g
= 470,100 mm
2

I = 3,857 10
6
mm
4

y
b
= 309 mm
y
t
= 91 mm
S
b
= 12,485 10
3
mm
3

S
t
= 42,396 10
3
mm
3

m= 308 kg/m
2

w = 3.0 kN/m
2

V/S = 55 mm
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
10.4 6.5 4.1 2.6
10 10 10 10 4D
234
252
10 10 10 10
14.3 9.2 6.1 4.1 2.7
10 10 10 10 10 6S
209
209
10 10 10 10 10
7.2 4.9 3.4 2.3
10 10 10 10 6D
209
246
20 20 10 10
5.1 3.7 2.6
20 20 20 8D
184
239
20 20 20
5.0 3.7 2.7
30 30 30 10D
159
233
30 30 20
4.2 3.2
40 40 12D
134
227
40 40
(1) e
e
and e
c



8 D

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

3660 x 600

Section Properties

A
g
= 532,250 mm
2

I = 11,930 10
6
mm
4

y
b
= 468 mm
y
t
= 132 mm
S
b
= 25,490 10
3
mm
3

S
t
= 90,380 10
3
mm
3

m= 345 kg/m
2

w = 3.4 kN/m
2

V/S = 56 mm
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
ee(1)
ec
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
16.8 11.6 8.2 5.9 4.3 3.1 2.1
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 6S
368
368
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
18.2 12.7 9.1 6.6 4.8 3.5 2.5
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 6D
368
405
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
9.5 7.2 5.5 4.2 3.1 2.3
20 20 20 20 20 20 8D
343
398
20 20 20 20 20 10
7.3 5.7 4.5 3.5 2.7
30 30 30 30 30 10D
318
392
30 30 30 30 20
7.2 5.7 4.6 3.6 2.9
30 40 40 40 30 12D
267
386
40 40 40 40 30
4.4 3.6
40 40 14D
225
379
50 40
(1) e
e
and e
c



8 D

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

3660 x 800

Section Properties

A
g
= 568,500 mm
2

I = 25,420 10
6
mm
4

y
b
= 632 mm
y
t
= 177 mm
S
b
= 40,800 10
3
mm
3

S
t
= 143,600 10
3
mm
3

m= 375 kg/m
2

w = 3.7 kN/m
2

V/S = 57 mm
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
13.9 10.7 8.3 6.5 5.1 4.0 3.1 2.4
10 10 10 20 20 20 20 10 8D
498
553
10 20 20 20 20 20 20 10
11.0 8.8 7.0 5.7 4.6 3.6 2.9
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10D
473
547
20 30 30 30 30 30 20
8.9 7.3 6.0 4.9 4.0 3.2 2.6
30 30 30 30 30 30 30 12D
431
541
40 40 40 40 30 30 20
7.2 6.0 5.0 4.1 3.4 2.8 2.2
40 40 40 40 40 30 30 14D
358
534
50 50 40 40 40 30 20
4.9 4.1 3.4 2.8 2.8
50 50 50 40 40 16D
310
528
50 50 40 30 30
4.0 3.4 2.8
60 50 50 18D
273
522
60 50 40
(1) e
e
and e
c



1 4 D

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

SINGLE TEE
3000 x 1200
Section Properties
Untopped Topped

A
g
= 492,000 mm
2

I = 66,300 10
6
mm
4
84,330 10
6
mm
4
y
b
= 882 mm 984 mm
y
t
= 318 mm 291 mm
S
b
= 75,200 10
3
mm
3
85,668 10
3
mm
3
S
t
= 208,000 10
3
mm
3
290,237 10
3
mm
3
m= 398 kg/m
2
578 kg/m
2

w = 3.9 kN/m
2
5.7 kN/m
2

V/S = 60 mm
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
8.8 7.7 6.7 5.8 5.1 4.4 3.8 3.3 2.8 2.4 2.0 1.7
35 35 40 40 40 35 35 35 30 25 20 10 14D
510
793
40 45 40 40 35 35 30 25 15 5 5 20
10.5 9.1 8.0 7.0 6.1 5.3 4.6 4.1 3.6 3.1 2.7 2.3 1.9 1.6
40 40 40 45 45 45 45 45 40 35 30 25 20 10 16D
425
787
50 50 50 50 50 50 45 40 35 25 15 0 15 35
8.1 7.1 6.3 5.5 4.8 4.2 3.7 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.1 1.8
50 50 55 55 50 50 45 45 40 30 25 15 18D
359
781
60 60 55 55 50 45 40 30 15 0 15 35
5.6 5.0 4.4 3.9 3.4 3.0 2.6 2.2 1.9
60 55 55 50 50 45 35 30 20 20D
312
774
60 55 50 40 30 20 5 15 35
5.0 4.4 3.9 3.4 3.0 2.6 2.2 1.9
65 65 60 55 50 40 30 20 22D
272
768
60 55 45 35 20 5 15 40
3.8 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.2 1.9
65 60 55 45 35 25 24D
240
762
50 35 20 0 20 40
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
8.2 6.9 5.9 5.0 4.2 3.5 2.8 2.2 1.7
35 35 40 40 40 35 35 30 30 14D
510
793
25 20 20 15 10 5 5 15 30
9.7 8.3 7.1 6.1 5.3 4.5 3.7 3.1 2.5 1.9
40 40 40 45 45 45 45 45 40 35 16D
425
787
35 30 25 25 20 15 5 5 15 30
7.3 6.3 5.5 4.7 3.9 3.2 2.5 1.9
50 50 55 55 50 50 50 45 18D
359
781
35 30 25 15 5 5 20 35
5.5 4.6 3.8 3.2 2.5 1.9
60 60 55 55 50 50 20D
312
774
25 15 5 5 20 40
5.4 4.5 3.7 3.1 2.5 1.9
65 65 65 65 60 60 22D
272
768
25 15 5 10 25 45
4.3 3.6 3.0 2.4 1.8
75 70 70 65 60 24D
240
262
15 0 15 30 50
(1) e
e
and e
c


3 S

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

HOLLOW CORE
1220 x 203
Section Properties
Untopped Topped

A
g
= 138,700 mm
2

I = 693 10
6
mm
4
1,276 10
6
mm
4
y
b
= 101.5 mm 134 mm
y
t
= 101.5 mm 119 mm
S
b
= 6,800 10
3
mm
3
9,250 10
3
mm
3
S
t
= 6,800 10
3
mm
3
10,745 10
3
mm
3
m

= 276 kg/m
2
393 kg/m
2

w = 2.7 kN/m
2
3.9 kN/m
2

V/S = 48 mm
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0
13.4 10.5 8.3 6.6 5.3 4.3 3.4. 2.8 2.8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 3S 57
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10
11.4 9.2 7.5 6.2 5.1 4.2 3.5 2.8 2.3
10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 4S 57
10 10 10 0 0 0 10 10 20
11.4 9.4 7.7 6.4 5.3 4.4 3.7 3.0 2.5
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 5S 57
10 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 20
13.3 10.9 9.1 7.6 6.4 5.4 4.5 3.8 3.2
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 6S 57
10 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 10
12.3 10.3 8.7 7.4 6.3 5.3 4.5 3.8
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 7S 57
20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10

2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0
13.1 10.3 8.1 6.5 5.0 3.7 2.6
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3S 57
0 0 0 0 0 10 10
14.1 11.2 8.9 6.9 5.4 4.2 3.1 2.2
10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 4S 57
10 10 0 0 0 10 10 20
13.8 11.1 8.9 7.1 5.6 4.4 3.4 2.6
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 5S 57
10 10 10 10 0 0 10 20
13.2 10.7 8.7 7.1 5.7 4.6 3.6 2.8
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 6S 57
10 10 10 10 10 0 10 20
12.5 10.3 8.5 6.9 5.7 4.6 3.7
20 20 20 20 20 20 10 7S 57
20 20 20 10 10 0 0



5 S

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

HOLLOW CORE
1220 x 305
Section Properties
Untopped Topped

A
g
= 184,000 mm
2

I = 2177 10
6
mm
4
3,390 10
6
mm
4
y
b
= 152.5 mm 189 mm
y
t
= 152.5 mm 165 mm
S
b
= 14,275 10
3
mm
3
17,900 10
3
mm
3
S
t
= 14,275 10
3
mm
3
20,470 10
3
mm
3
m= 363 kg/m
2
482 kg/m
2

w = 3.55 kN/m
2
4.7 kN/m
2

V/S = 60 mm
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5
12.1 10.3 8.7 7.4 6.4 5.4 4.6 3.9 3.3 2.8 2.4
10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 10 5S 108
10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 10 20 20
12.5 10.7 9.2 8.0 6.9 5.9 5.1 4.4 3.8 3.2 2.7 2.2
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 10 6S 108
10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 20 20 30
12.6 10.9 9.4 8.2 7.1 6.1 5.3 4.6 4.0 3.4 2.9 2.4
20 20 20 20 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 7S 108
20 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 0 10 20 20
12.3 10.7 9.3 8.1 7.1 6.2 5.4 4.7 4.1 3.6 3.1 2.6
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 0 8S 108
20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10 0 10 20 30
11.4 10.0 8.8 7.7 6.8 6.0 5.3 4.6 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.6
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10 0 0 9S 108
30 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 0 10 20 30
11.9 10.5 9.2 8.1 7.1 6.3 5.6 4.9 4.3 3.8 3.3 2.9 2.5
30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 11S 108
30 40 40 30 30 30 30 20 10 10 0 20 30
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
e
e
(1)

e
c

7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5
11.4 9.6 8.1 6.9 5.7 4.6 3.7 2.9 2.2
10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 5S 108
10 10 0 0 0 10 10 20 20
12.1 10.2 9.6 7.2 6.0 4.9 4.0 3.2 2.5
10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 6S 108
10 10 10 10 0 0 10 10 20
12.0 10.2 8.7 7.3 6.2 5.2 4.3 3.5 2.8 2.2
20 20 20 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 7S 108
20 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 20 30
11.8 10.1 8.6 7.4 6.3 5.3 4.5 3.7 3.0 2.4
20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 8S 108
20 20 20 20 10 10 0 10 20 30
11.8 10.3 8.9 7.8 6.8 5.9 5.1 4.3 3.6 3.0 2.5
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10 0 9S 108
20 20 20 20 20 10 10 0 10 20 30
12.8 11.2 9.8 8.5 7.5 6.5 5.7 4.9 4.3 3.7 3.2 2.7
30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 20 20 10 10 11S 108
30 30 30 30 30 20 20 10 0 10 20 30



3 S

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

SOLID FLAT SLAB
1220 x 100
Section Properties
Untopped Topped

A
g
= 122,000 mm
2

I = 101.7 10
6
mm
4
316.0 10
6
mm
4
y
b
= 50 mm 72.3 mm
y
t
= 50 mm 77.7 mm
S
b
= 2033 10
3
mm
3
4375 10
3
mm
3
S
t
= 2033 10
3
mm
3
4069 10
3
mm
3
m= 240 kg/m
2
362 kg/m
2

w = 2.35 kN/m
2
3.55 kN/m
2

V/S = 46 mm
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
8.5 5.8 4.2 3.0 2.1
0 0 0 0 10 3S
0 0 0 10 10
10.4 7.3 5.5 3.9 2.8
0 0 0 0 0 4S
0 0 0 0 10
12.1 8.6 6.2 4.5 3.3
0 0 0 0 0 5S
0 0 0 0 10
13.3 9.0 6.6 4.9 3.6
0 0 0 0 0 6S
0 0 0 0 0
9.3 7.0 5.2 3.9
0 0 10 10 7S
10 10 0 0
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
11.8 8.6 6.3
0 0 10 3S
0 10 10
11.4 8.5
0 0 4S
0 10
10.1 7.7
0 0 5S
10 10
11.3 8.8
0 0 6S
0 10
12.1 9.8
0 0 7S
0 10



3 S

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

SOLID FLAT SLAB
1220 x 150
Section Properties
Untopped Topped

A
g
= 183,000 mm
2

I = 343.1 10
6
mm
4
756.0 10
6
mm
4

y
b
= 75 mm 97.0 mm
y
t
= 75 mm 103.0 mm
S
b
= 4575 10
3
mm
3
7796 10
3
mm
3

S
t
= 4575 10
3
mm
3
7339 10
3
mm
3

m= 360 kg/m
2
482 kg/m
2

w = 3.53 kN/m
2
4.73 kN/m
2

V/S = 67 mm
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5
12.8 9.5 7.3 5.4 4.0 2.9 2.0
0 0 0 0 0 0 10 3S
0 0 0 0 0 10 10
12.8 10.0 7.7 5.8 4.5 3.4 2.4
0 0 0 0 0 0 10 4S
0 0 0 0 0 10 10
12.4 9.4 7.4 5.7 4.5 3.5 2.6
10 10 10 10 0 0 0 5S
10 10 10 0 0 10 20
11.1 8.5 6.9 5.4 4.2 3.4
10 10 10 10 10 0 6S
10 10 10 0 0 10
9.7 7.7 6.2 4.9 3.9
10 10 10 10 10 7S
10 10 10 10 0
2
Span (m)
Strand Pattern
4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
14.3 10.8 8.2 6.2 4.5 3.2
0 0 0 0 0 10 3S
0 0 0 10 10 20
11.6 8.9 6.9 5.4 4.0
0 0 0 0 10 4S
0 0 10 10 20
11.2 8.7 7.0 5.5
10 0 0 0 5S
0 0 10 20
13.4 10.7 8.4 6.8 5.5
10 10 10 0 0 6S
10 0 0 10 20
12.2 10.0 7.9 6.4 5.2
10 10 10 0 0 7S
10 0 0 10 20



3 S

2
for
2
for topped

Key
2

SOLID FLAT SLAB
1220 x 200

Section Properties
Untopped Topped

A
g
= 244,000 mm
2

I = 813.3 10
6
mm
4
1489.0 10
6
mm
4
y
b
= 100 mm 121.8 mm
y
t
= 100 mm 128.2 mm
S
b
= 8133 10
3
mm
3
12,225 10
3
mm
3
S
t
= 8133 10
3
mm
3
11,615 10
3
mm
3
m= 480 kg/m
2
602 kg/m
2

w = 4.71 kN/m
2
5.91 kN/m
2

V/S= 86 mm
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10
12.0 8.9 6.7 5.0 3.7 2.7
0 0 0 0 0 0 3S
0 0 0 0 10 10
12.5 9.8 7.5 6.0 4.6 3.4 2.5
0 0 0 0 0 0 10 4S
0 0 0 0 10 10 20
12.6 9.9 7.9 6.2 4.8 3.9 3.0 2.2
10 10 10 0 0 0 0 10 5S
0 0 0 10 10 10 10 20
12.1 9.8 7.9 6.2 5.0 4.0 3.3 2.5
10 10 10 10 0 0 0 10 6S
10 10 10 0 0 10 10 20
11.3 9.4 7.5 6.2 5.1 4.2 3.3 2.6
10 10 10 10 10 0 0 10 7S
10 10 10 10 0 10 10 20
2
Span (m)
Strand
Pattern
5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 9.5 9.0
11.8 8.9 6.7 5.0 3.7 2.6
0 0 0 0 10 10 3S
0 0 0 10 10 20
12.8 9.9 7.8 6.2 4.6 3.6
0 0 0 0 0 10 4S
0 0 0 10 10 20
13.0 10.4 8.3 6.6 5.3 4.1
10 0 0 0 0 10 5S
0 0 0 10 10 20
12.7 10.3 8.5 6.9 5.6 4.4
10 10 0 0 0 10 6S
10 0 0 10 10 20
12.3 10.3 8.5 6.9 5.6
10 10 10 0 0 7S
10 0 0 10 20


Key
2

RECTANGULAR BEAMS

Section Properties
b
(mm)
h
(mm)
A
g

(mm
2
)
I
(10
6
mm
4
)
y
b

(mm)
S
(10
3
mm
3
)
m
(kg/m)
w
(kN/m)
300 400 120,000 1600 200 8000 288 2.8
300 500 150,000 3120 250 12,500 360 3.5
300 600 180,000 5400 300 18,000 432 4.2
300 700 210,000 8575 350 24,500 504 4.9
300 800 240,000 12,800 400 32,000 576 5.6
300 900 270,000 18,200 450 40,500 648 6.4
400 600 240,000 7200 300 24,000 576 5.6
400 700 280,000 11,400 350 32,700 672 6.6
400 800 320,000 17,100 400 42,700 768 7.5
400 900 360,000 24,300 450 54,000 864 8.5
400 1000 400,000 33,300 500 66,700 960 9.4
2
) and cambers (mm)
Span (m) b
(mm)
h
(mm)
13 mm
strand
e
(mm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
75.0 50.0 32.0 24.0 16.5
10 10 10 20 20 300 400 6 125
10 10 20 20 30
114.0 76.0 48.0 36.0 26.0 19.5
10 10 20 20 20 30 300 500 7 162
10 10 20 30 30 40
108.0 75.0 53.5 40.0 32.0 24.0 19.0
10 10 10 20 20 20 30 300 600 9 189
10 10 20 20 30 30 40
144.0 100.0 71.0 53.0 41.0 32.0 26.0 21.0 17.0
10 10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 300 700 10 225
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 40
125.0 95.0 75.0 58.0 44.0 35.0 29.0 24.0 20.0
10 10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 300 800 12 252
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 40
164.0 120.0 90.0 70.0 65.0 45.0 36.5 30 25 21.0 18.0
10 10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 300 900 13 288
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 40 40
145.0 100.0 70.5 52.0 40.5 32.0 25.5 20.0 16.5
10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 400 600 12 190
10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 40
130.0 95.0 70.0 56.0 42.0 34.0 27.5 22.0 18.5
10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 400 700 13 230
10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 40
98.0 73.0 60.0 49.0 39.0 33.0 27.0 22.0 18.5
10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 40 400 800 16 255
20 20 30 30 30 40 40 40 50
96.0 76.0 62.0 51.0 42.0 35.0 29.0 24.0 21.0
20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 40 400 900 18 287
20 20 30 30 40 40 40 40 50
96.0 76.5 64.0 53.0 44.0 37.0 31.0 27.0
20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 400 1000 20 320
20 30 30 30 40 40 40 40
The above tables have been generated using an initial tension of 0.75 f
pu
resulting in fully prestressed elements with M
r
governing. Higher load
capacities may be achieved by using more strands with a lower initial tension which may result in partially prestressed elements.

Key
2

INVERTED TEE BEAMS
(100 mm LEDGE)

Section Properties
h
(mm)
A
g

(mm
2
)
I
(10
6
mm
4
)
y
b

(mm)
S
b

(10
3
mm
3
)
S
t

(10
3
mm
3
)
m
(kg/m)
w
(kN/m)
500 210,000 4004 221 18,116 14,350 504 4.94
600 260,000 7021 269 26,099 21,210 624 6.12
700 310,000 11,336 318 35,647 29,675 744 7.30
800 360,000 17,200 367 46,866 39,723 864 8.48
900 410,000 24,864 416 59,768 51,371 984 9.65
1000 460,000 34,577 465 74,359 64,630 1104 10.83
1100 510,000 46,590 515 90,465 79,641 1224 12.01
1200 560,000 61,152 564 108,426 96,152 1344 13.18
1300 610,000 78,515 614 127,874 114,453 1464 14.36
1400 660,000 98,927 664 148,987 134,412 1584 15.54
1500 710,000 122,640 713 172,006 155,832 1704 16.72
2
) and cambers (mm)
Span (m) h
(mm)
13 mm
strand
e
(mm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
134.0 84.0 59.0 40.4 30.0 22.4
0 10 10 10 20 20 500 8 151
10 10 10 20 20 30
118.0 80.0 59.0 42.0 32.0 25.0
10 10 10 10 20 20 600 9 184
10 10 10 10 20 20
114.0 82.0 61.0 47.0 37.0 29.0
10 10 10 10 10 20 700 11 218
10 10 10 20 20 20
106.0 81.0 61.0 47.0 38.0 30.0 25.0
10 10 10 20 20 20 20 800 13 247
10 10 20 20 20 30 30
134.0 102.0 77.0 60.0 49.0 40.0 32.0 26.0
10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 900 14 291
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30
132.0 101.0 81.0 64.0 53.0 44.0 36.0 30.0 24.0
10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 30 1000 17 310
10 10 10 10 20 20 30 30 40
134.0 100.0 79.0 65.0 53.0 45.0 37.0 31.0 26.0
10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 1100 18 355
10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30
120.0 97.0 80.0 67.0 56.0 46.0 39.0 33.0
10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 1200 20 389
20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
117.0 96.0 80.0 67.0 56.0 47.0 40.0
10 20 20 20 20 30 30 1300 22 424
20 20 20 20 30 30 40
138.0 110.0 94.0 78.0 66.0 56.0 48.0
20 20 20 20 30 30 30 1400 24 449
20 20 30 30 30 40 40
130.0 108.0 80.0 77.0 66.0 57.0
10 20 20 20 20 20 1500 25 493
20 20 20 30 30 30
pu
r


Key
2

INVERTED TEE BEAMS
(200 mm LEDGE)

Section Properties
h
(mm)
A
g

(mm
2
)
I
(10
6
mm
4
)
y
b

(mm)
S
b

(10
3
mm
3
)
S
t

(10
3
mm
3
)
m
(kg/m)
w
(kN/m)
500 320,000 5817 213 27,308 20,267 768 7.53
600 360,000 9900 250 39,600 28,286 864 8.48
700 400,000 15,693 290 54,155 38,276 960 9.42
800 440,000 23,423 332 70,546 50,045 1056 10.36
900 480,000 33,300 375 88,800 63,429 1152 11.30
1000 520,000 45,541 419 108,690 78,384 1248 12.24
1100 560,000 60,352 464 130,070 94,894 1344 13.18
1200 600,000 77,940 510 152,824 112,957 1440 14.13
1300 640,000 98,508 556 177,173 132,404 1536 15.07
1400 680,000 122,261 603 202,755 153,402 1632 16.01
1500 720,000 149,400 650 229,846 175,765 1728 16.95
2
) and cambers (mm)
Span (m) h
(mm)
13 mm
strand
e
(mm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
150.0 93.0 63.0 43.0 31.0 23.0
0 0 10 10 10 10 500 8 163
0 10 10 10 10 10
134.0 90.0 64.0 46.0 34.0 27.0
0 10 10 10 10 10 600 9 200
10 10 10 10 10 10
134.0 94.0 72.0 54.0 41.0 33.0
10 10 10 10 10 10 700 11 240
10 10 10 10 20 20
134.0 98.0 76.0 60.0 48.0 38.0 31.0
10 10 10 10 10 10 20 800 13 282
10 10 10 20 20 20 20
126.0 97.0 76.0 61.0 50.0 40.0 33.0
10 10 10 10 10 10 20 900 14 325
10 10 10 20 20 20 20
130.0 103.0 83.0 68.0 56.0 46.0 38.0 33.0
10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 1000 17 356
10 10 20 20 20 20 30 30
160.0 129.0 104.0 84.0 70.0 58.0 49.0 41.0 35.0
10 10 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 1100 19 389
10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 20
150.0 122.0 98.0 82.0 70.0 89.0 48.0 41.0
10 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 1200 20 435
10 10 20 20 20 20 20 20
146.0 121.0 101.0 84.0 71.0 60.0 52.0
10 10 10 10 20 20 20 1300 22 476
10 20 20 20 20 20 20
142.0 120.0 100.0 86.0 73.0 63.0
10 10 10 20 20 20 1400 24 513
20 20 20 20 20 20
138.0 118.0 98.0 83.0 73.0
10 10 10 20 20 1500 25 560
20 20 20 20 20
pu
r


Key
2

LSHAPED BEAMS
(100 mm LEDGE)

Section Properties
h
(mm)
A
g

(mm
2
)
I
(10
6
mm
4
)
y
b

(mm)
S
b

(10
3
mm
3
)
S
t

(10
3
mm
3
)
m
(kg/m)
w
(kN/m)
500 180,000 3600 233 15451 13483 432 4.24
600 220,000 6261 282 22201 19687 528 5.18
700 260,000 10,021 331 30273 27156 624 6.12
800 300,000 15,080 390 39684 35905 720 7.06
900 340,000 21,639 429 50441 45943 816 8.00
1000 380,000 29,898 473 62418 57386 912 8.95
1100 420,000 40,057 529 75722 70153 1008 9.89
1200 460,000 52,316 578 90412 84109 1104 10.83
1300 500,000 66,875 628 106488 99516 1200 11.77
1400 540,000 83,933 678 123795 116251 1296 12.71
1500 580,000 103,692 728 142434 134316 1392 13.66
2
) and cambers (mm)
Span (m) h
(mm)
13 mm
strand
e
(mm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
140.0 88.0 60.0 43.0 31.8 24.2 18.8
0 10 10 10 20 20 20 500 8 151
10 10 10 20 20 30 30
122.0 83.4 60.0 44.6 34.2 26.6 21.2 17.0
10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 600 9 187
10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30
172.0 117.6 84.8 63.4 48.8 38.4 30.6 24.8 20.2
10 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 30 700 11 216
10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30
151.0 109.0 82.0 63.0 50.0 40.0 32.4 26.6 22.0 18.2
10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 30 30 800 12 255
10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 40
141.6 106.4 82.4 65.2 52.6 42.8 35.4 29.4 24.6 20.6
10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 30 900 14 282
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 40
134.0 125.0 82.6 66.6 54.6 45.2 37.6 31.6 26.8 22.6 19.2
10 10 10 20 20 20 20 220 30 30 30 1000 16 309
10 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30 40
161.8 125.0 99.2 80.4 66.0 54.6 45.8 38.6 32.8 27.8 23.6
10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 20 30 1100 17 349
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30 30
152.4 121.4 98.4 81.0 67.4 56.5 48.0 40.8 35.0 30.0
10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 20 30 1200 19 380
10 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30
145.6 118.0 97.4 81.6 68.4 58.0 49.6 42.6 36.8
10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 30 1300 21 410
20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30
167.4 136.4 112.4 94.0 79.2 67.4 57.6 49.6 42.8
10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 1400 22 449
10 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
159.4 131.6 110.2 93.2 79.4 68.2 58.8 65.5
10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 1500 24 481
20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
pu
r


Key
2

LSHAPED BEAMS
(200 mm LEDGE)

Section Properties
h
(mm)
A
g

(mm
2
)
I
(10
6
mm
4
)
y
b

(mm)
S
b

(10
3
mm
3
)
S
t

(10
3
mm
3
)
m
(kg/m)
w
(kN/m)
500 260,000 5078 227 22,371 18,601 624 6.12
600 300,000 8730 270 32,333 26,455 720 7.06
700 340,000 13,859 315 43,999 35,999 816 8.00
800 380,000 20,674 361 57,270 47,095 912 8.95
900 420,000 29,378 407 72,183 59,591 1008 9.89
1000 460,000 40,174 454 88,490 73,580 1104 10.83
1100 500,000 53,264 502 106,105 89,071 1200 11.77
1200 540,000 68,850 550 125,182 105,923 1296 12.71
1300 580,000 87,131 598 145,705 124,119 1392 13.66
1400 620,000 108,310 647 167,403 143,838 1488 14.60
1500 660,000 132,586 695 190,771 164,703 1584 15.54
2
) and cambers (mm)
Span (m) h
(mm)
13 mm
strand
e
(mm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
150 96.0 65.0 47.0 34.0 26.0
0 10 10 10 20 20 500 8 151
10 10 10 20 20 20
140.0 95.0 67.0 50.0 38.0 29.5 23.2
10 10 10 10 20 20 20 600 9 187
10 10 10 20 20 20 30
134.0 99.0 72.0 55.0 42.8 34.0 27.4
10 10 10 10 10 20 20 700 11 216
10 10 10 20 20 20 30
174.0 120.0 94.0 70.0 56.6 45.0 37.0 29.0 24.6
10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 800 12 255
10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30
164.0 120 96.0 75.0 61.0 54.0 41.0 34.0 28.0
10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 900 14 282
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
158.0 110.0 97.0 75.0 64.0 54.0 44.0 35.0 31.0
10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 1000 16 309
10 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
144.0 110.0 94.0 75.0 64.0 54.0 44.0 35.0 31.0
10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 1100 17 349
10 10 20 20 30 30 30 30 30
144.0 116.0 90.0 78.0 64.0 56.0 47.0 41.0
10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 1200 19 380
20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
138.0 110.0 94.0 79.0 68.0 57.0 50.0
10 20 20 20 20 20 30 1300 21 410
20 20 20 30 30 30 30
158.0 130.0 109.0 90.0 78.0 67.0 58.0
10 10 20 20 20 20 30 1400 22 449
20 20 20 20 30 30 30
152.0 126.0 108.0 92.0 79.0 68.0
10 20 20 20 20 30 1500 24 481
20 20 20 30 30 30
pu
r

IGIRDERS

Section Properties
Designation
A
g

(mm
2
)
I
(10
6
mm
4
)
y
b

(mm)
S
b

(10
3
mm
3
)
S
t

(10
3
mm
3
)
m
(kg/m)
w
(kN/m)
CPCI 900 218,000 19,300 398 48,600 38,400 523 5.13
CPCI 1200 320,000 53,900 527 102,300 80,000 768 7.53
CPCI 1400 413,000 102,600 635 161,400 134,200 991 9.72
CPCI 1600 499,000 174,700 793 220,200 216,600 1024 11.80

Key
2


Superimposed loads shown include 50% dead
load and 50% liveload. 5.0 MPa top tension
has been allowed, therefore additional top
reinforcement is required.

2
) and cambers (mm)
Span (m)
Designation
13 mm
strand
e
e
(1)(2)

e
c

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

102.8 80.2 64.1 52.1 43.0 36.0 30.4 25.8 22.1 19.1 16.5 14.3
10 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 40 40 40 40 CPCI 900 12
306
328
20 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 50 60 60
138.1 112.9 93.8 78.9 67.0 57.5 49.7 43.2 37.8 33.2 29.3 25.9
20 20 20 20 30 30 30 40 40 40 50 50 CPCI 1200 20
412
443
20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 50 60 60 70
132.5 120.3 110.0 95.8 83.2 72.6 63.8 56.4 50.0 44.5
20 20 20 30 30 30 40 40 40 50 CPCI 1400 26
496
554
20 30 30 40 40 50 50 50 60 60
136.4 124.5 114.3 105.6 98.0 91.4 84.3 75.0 67.0
20 20 20 30 30 30 40 40 40 CPCI 1600 30
607
703
20 30 30 40 40 40 50 50 50
Notes: Values below heavy line controlled by V
r

Values above heavy line controlled by M
r
. See Limitations on Reinforcement, Sect. 3.3.1.
(1) e
e
and e
c
(2) End eccentricities may be decreased without affecting the load capacitites.
IGIRDERS

Section Properties
Designation
A
g

(mm
2
)
I
(10
6
mm
4
)
y
b

(mm)
S
b

(10
3
mm
3
)
S
t

(10
3
mm
3
)
m
(kg/m)
w
(kN/m)
CPCI 1900 544,000 268,400 840 285,500 279,500 1308 12.83
CPCI 2300 604,000 431,800 1135 380,300 370,800 1453 14.25
NU 2800 731,110 768,289 1288 596,497 508,128 1753 17.20

Key
2



2
) and cambers (mm)
Span (m)
Designation
13 mm
strand
e
e
(1)(2)

e
c

20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60

90.8 80.3 41.9 29.9 21.8 15.9 11.6
30 40 50 60 60 50 30 CPCI 1900 30D
838
850
40 60 70 70 70 60 30
150.1 100.2 70.1 50.6 37.2 27.6 20.6 15.2 11.0
30 40 50 60 60 60 60 40 20 CPCI 2300 36D
882
1035
40 50 60 70 80 80 60 40 0
154.6 122.5 87.8 64.5 48.5 37.1 28.6 22.2 17.2 13.2 10.0
30 40 50 60 70 70 70 70 60 50 20 NU 2800 56D
701
1172
40 50 60 80 90 90 90 90 70 50 10
r

r
(1) e
e
and e
c
(2) End eccentricities may be decreased without affecting the load capacitites.
BOX SECTION BEAMS

Section Properties
h
(mm)
A
g

(mm
2
)
I
(10
6
mm
4
)
y
b

(mm)
S
b

(10
3
mm
3
)
S
t

(10
3
mm
3
)
m
(kg/m)
w
(kN/m)
600 340,000 16,533 300 55,111 55,111 816 8.00
800 390,000 34,100 400 85,250 85,250 936 9.18
1000 440,000 59,467 500 118,933 118,933 1056 10.36
1200 490,000 93,633 600 156,056 156,056 1176 11.54
1400 540,000 137,600 700 196,571 196,571 1296 12.71

Key
2



2
) and cambers (mm)
Span (m)
h
(mm)
13 m
m
strand
e
e

e
c

(mm)
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42
38.9 25.3 17.1 11.8 8.2 5.6
20 20 20 20 20 10 600 12S
250
250
20 30 30 30 20 0
39.2 28.5 21.2 16.0 12.1 9.1 6.8 4.9
30 40 40 40 40 40 20 10 800 18S
350
350
40 50 50 50 50 40 20 10
36.7 28.4 22.2 17.5 13.8 11.0 8.6 6.7 5.1
40 50 50 50 50 40 30 20 10 1000 24D
324
445
60 60 70 60 60 50 30 0 30
33.2 26.7 21.5 17.5 14.2 11.5 9.3 7.4 5.8
50 60 60 60 50 50 40 20 0 1200 30D
305
536
70 70 70 70 70 50 30 10 30
30.0 24.6 20.3 16.8 13.9 11.4 9.3 7.6 6.0
60 70 70 60 60 50 40 20 0 1400 36D
291
630
80 80 80 80 70 50 30 0 30
r

r
(1) e
e
and e
c
PRECAST PRESTRESSED COLUMNS
Fig. 7.6.1 Interaction curves for precast prestressed concrete columns

Criteria
1. Minimum prestress =1.5 MPa
2. All strand assumed 13 mm diameter,
f
pu
=1860 MPa
3. Curves shown for partial development of
strand near end of element, where f
pr
f
pe
.
4. When points of maximum stress are far from
end of element and strands can fully develop,
the section resistance will be greater than
shown.
5. Horizontal portion of curve is the maximum for
tied columns =0.80 P
ro

PRECAST PRESTRESSED COLUMNS
Fig 7.6.1 Interaction curves for precast prestressed concrete columns (cont.)

PRECAST REINFORCED COLUMNS
Fig 7.6.2 Interaction curves for precast reinforced concrete columns
Criteria
1. Concrete =40 MPa
c
f
2. Reinforcement f
y
=400 MPa
3. Curves shown for full development of reinforcent.
4. Horizontal portion of curve is the maximum for tied
columns =0.80 P
ro

PRECAST REINFORCED COLUMNS
Fig 7.6.2 Interaction curves for precast reinforced concrete columns

DOUBLE TEE WALL PANELS
Fig. 7.6.3 Partial interaction curve for prestressed double tee wall panels

Interaction curve data
Tension in stem Compression in stem
h
(mm)
No. of
strands
b
(mm)
P
ro
P
rb
M
rb
M
ro
P
rb
M
rb
M
ro

325 4 130 4959 3600 234 105 1120 154 63
425 4 120 5590 3830 362 135 1430 262 91
525 6 110 6020 3740 498 57 1580 385 200
625 6 100 6540 3810 638 229 1900 520 255

1. = 40 MPa normal density
c
f
2. Strand = 13 mm f
pu
= 1860 MPa
3. Curves shown for full development of strand.
Load assumed at centroid of concrete section.

HOLLOW CORE WALL PANELS
Fig. 7.6.4 Partial interaction curve for precast hollow core wall panels

c
f
2. f
pu
= 1860 MPa
3. Curves shown for full development of strand.

Interaction curve data h
(mm) P
ro
P
rb
M
rb
M
ro

203 2790 1160 107 46
305 3480 1500 212 73
PRECAST PRESTRESSED SOLID WALL PANELS
Fig. 7.6.5 Partial interaction curve for prestressed solid wall panels

c
f
2. Strand = 13 mm f
pu
= 1860 MPa
3. Curves shown for full development of strand. Load
assumed at centroid of concrete section.

Interaction curve data t
(mm)
h
(mm) P
ro
P
rb
M
rb
M
ro

100 680 1989 878 25 8
150 450 2983 1290 57 23
200 340 3978 1750 102 39
250 270 4972 2220 160 60

PRECAST REINFORCED SOLID WALL PANELS
Fig. 7.6.6 Partial interaction curve for precast reinforced concrete wall panels

Interaction curve data
c
f
c
f = 35 MPa = 40 MPa
t
(mm)
P
ro
P
rb
M
rb
M
ro
P
ro
P
rb
M
rb
M
ro

100 1850 880 22.6 2.0 2092 1035 25 2
150 2780 1370 51.0 4.5 3139 1550 57 5
200 3700 1770 94.9 7.8 4180 1970 106 8
250 4630 2160 149.8 10.6 5231 2510 168 11

c
f
2. Strand = 13 mm f
pu
= 1860 MPa
3. Curves shown for full
development of strand. Load
assumed at centroid of concrete
section.

PILES
Fig. 7.7.1 Section properties and resistance of prestressed concrete piles

Factored resistance
(2)(3)

(kN)
Section Properties
(1)

c
f (MPa) Size
(mm)
Core
diameter
(mm)
Area
(mm
2
)
Mass
(kg/m)
Moment of
inertia
(10
6
mm
4
)
Section
modulus
(10
3
mm
3)

Radius of
Perimeter
gyration
(mm)
(m)
35 40 45 50 55
Square piles
250 Solid 63 000 151 326 2 610 72 1.00 860 999 1134 1266 1396
300 Solid 90 000 216 675 4 500 87 1.20 1229 1426 1620 1809 1994
350 Solid 123 000 295 1 250 7 140 101 1.40 1680 1949 2213 2472 2725
400 Solid 160 000 384 2 130 10 700 116 1.60 2185 2536 2879 3215 3544
450 Solid 203 000 487 3 420 15 200 130 1.80 2773 3217 3653 4049 4497
500 Solid 250 000 500 5 210 20 800 144 2.00 3415 3962 4499 5024 5538
500 275 191 000 458 4 930 19 700 161 2.00 2609 3027 3437 3838 4231
600 Solid 360 000 864 10 800 36 000 173 2.40 4917 5706 6478 7234 7974
600 300 289 000 694 10 400 34 700 190 2.40 3947 4580 5201 5808 6402
600 350 264 000 634 10 100 33 700 196 2.40 3606 4184 4751 5305 5848
600 375 250 000 600 9 830 32 800 198 2.40 3415 3962 4499 5024 5538
Octagonal piles
250 Solid 52 000 125 215 1 720 64 0.77 710 824 936 1045 1152
300 Solid 75 000 180 446 2 970 77 0.92 1024 1189 1350 1507 1661
350 Solid 101 000 242 825 4 710 90 1.07 1379 1601 1818 2030 2237
400 Solid 133 000 319 1 410 7 050 103 1.22 1817 2108 2393 2673 2946
450 Solid 168 000 403 2 260 10 000 116 1.38 2295 2663 3023 3376 3721
500 Solid 207 000 497 3 440 13 800 129 1.53 2827 3281 3725 4160 4585
500 275 148 000 355 3 160 12 600 146 1.53 2021 2346 2663 2974 3278
550 Solid 251 000 602 5 030 18 300 142 1.68 3428 3978 4517 5044 5560
550 325 168 000 403 4 480 16 300 163 1.68 2295 2663 3023 3376 3721
600 Solid 298 000 715 7 130 23 800 154 1.84 4070 4723 5363 5989 6601
600 375 188 000 451 6 160 20 500 181 1.84 2568 2980 3383 3778 4164
Round piles
900 650 304 000 730 23 400 52 000 277 2.83 4152 4818 5471 6109 6734
1 200 950 422 000 1 010 61 800 103 000 383 3.77 5764 6688 7594 8480 9348
1 350 1 100 481 000 1 150 91 200 135 000 435 4.24 6570 7624 8656 9666 10655
Hexagonal piles
300 Solid 78 000 187 486 3 240 79 0.90 1065 1236 1404 1567 1728
350 Solid 106 000 254 900 5 140 92 1.05 1475 1712 1943 2170 2392
400 Solid 139 000 334 1 540 7 700 106 1.20 1898 2203 2501 2793 3079
(1) Form dimensions may vary with producers, with corresponding variations in section properties.
(2) Maximum factored axial load resistance, P
rmax
= 0.85 [
1

c
f
c
(A
g
A
p
) f
pr
A
p
]; f
pe
= 1120 MPa; f
cp
= 5.0 MPa.
(3) Resistance based on short column structural capacity only (see Sect. 7.2.9) with a maximum concrete strain of 0.002.
(4) Wire spiral varies with pile size.
(5) Strand pattern may be circular or square.
SHEET PILES
Fig. 7.7.2 Section properties and allowable moments of prestressed sheet piles

Section properties per metre of width
Maximum allowable service
load movement
(2)
(kN-m/m)
Thickness t
(mm) Area
(mm
2
)
Mass
(1)

(kg/m)
Moment of
inertia
(10
5
mm
3
)
Section
modulus
(10
3
mm
3
)
c
f = 35 MPa
c
f = 40 MPa
150
(3)
150,000 360 28 374 26 29
200
(3)
200,000 480 67 670 46 53
250 250,000 600 130 1040 72 53
300 300,000 720 225 1500 105 120
400 400,000 960 533 3670 187 214
450 450,000 1080 760 3380 236 270
500 500,000 1200 1040 4160 292 334
600 600,000 1440 1800 6000 420 480

(1) Nomal density concrete.
(2) Based on zero tension and maximum 0.4 compression.
c
f
(3) Strand can be placed in a single layer in thin sections. Where site conditions require it, strand may be placed eccentrically.

CHAPTER 8
GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION

8.1 DESIGN INFORMATION................................................................................................. 8-2
8.1.1 Dead loads of floors, ceilings, roofs, and walls .................................................. 8-2
8.1.2 Recommended minimum floor or roof live loads................................................ 8-4
8.1.3 Beam design equations and diagrams............................................................... 8-6
8.1.4 Moments, shears, and deflections in beams with overhangs........................... 8-25
8.1.5 Torsion diagrams, reactions, and rotations ...................................................... 8-26
8.1.6 Camber (deflection) and rotation coefficients for
prestress force and loads ................................................................................. 8-27
8.1.7 Moments in beams with fixed ends .................................................................. 8-29
8.1.8 Moving load placement for maximum moment and shear ............................... 8-30
8.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES ............................................................................................ 8-31
8.2.1 Properties of prestressing strands.................................................................... 8-31
8.2.2 Properties of post-tensioning bars.................................................................... 8-31
8.2.3 Typical stress strain curve, 7-wire low relaxation prestressing strand............. 8-32
8.2.4 Typical multi-strand post-tensioning anchorage details ................................... 8-33
8.2.5 Typical unbonded monostrand system details ................................................. 8-34
8.2.6 Reinforcing bar data ......................................................................................... 8-35
8.2.7 Detailing and estimating dimensions for standard end
hooks for deformed reinforcing bars................................................................. 8-35
8.2.8 Compression lap splices................................................................................... 8-36
8.2.9 Tension development lengths, using standard hooks for deformed bars. ....... 8-36
8.2.10 Development lengths for heavier confined deformed
reinforcing bars for normal density concrete .................................................... 8-37
8.2.11 Development lengths for heavier confined deformed
wire for normal density concrete. ..................................................................... 8-38
8.2.12 Standard styles of welded wire fabric............................................................... 8-39
8.2.13 Sectional areas of welded wire fabric............................................................... 8-40
8.2.14 Wire sizes in customary and metric units......................................................... 8-41
8.3 SECTION PROPERTIES................................................................................................. 8-42
8.3.1 Properties of geometric sections...................................................................... 8-42
8.3.2 Plastic section moduli and shape factors ......................................................... 8-47
8.4 METRIC UNITS................................................................................................................ 8-48
8.4.1 SI base units..................................................................................................... 8-48
8.4.2 Conversion factors............................................................................................ 8-49
8.1 DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.1 Dead loads of floors, ceilings, roofs, and walls
Floorings Load (kN/m)
Normal density concrete topping per 10 mm of thickness 0.24
Semi-low density (1900 kg/m) concrete topping, per 10 mm 0.19
Low density (1900 kg/m) concrete topping, per 10 mm 0.15
22 mm hardwood floor on sleepers clipped to concrete without fill 0.24
40 mm terrazzo floor finish directly on slab 0.95
40 mm terrazzo floor finish on 25 mm mortar bed 1.49
25 mm terrazzo finish on 50 mm concrete bed 1.79
20 mm ceramic or quarry tile on 12 mm mortar bed 0.80
20 mm ceramic or quarry tile on 25 mm mortar bed 1.06
8 mm linoleum or asphalt tile directly on concrete 0.06
8 mm linoleum or asphalt tile on 25 mm mortar bed 0.59
20 mm mastic floor 0.45
Hardwood flooring, 22 mm thick 0.19
Subflooring (soft wood), 10 mm thick 0.13
Asphaltic concrete, 40 mm thick 0.90
Ceilings
12.7 mm gypsum board 0.10
15.9 mm gypsum board 0.12
20 mm plaster directly on concrete 0.26
20 mm plaster on metal lath furring 0.40
Suspended Ceilings 0.10
Acoustical tile 0.05
Acoustical tile on wood furring strips 0.15
Roofs
Five-ply felt and gravel (or slag) 0.31
Three-ply felt and gravel (or slag) 0.27
Five-ply composition roof, no gravel 0.20
Three-ply felt composition roof, no gravel 0.15
Asphalt strip shingles 0.15
Rigid insulation, per 100 mm (glass fiber) 0.07
Gypsum, per 10 mm of thickness 0.08
Insulating concrete, per 10 mm of thickness 0.06
DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.1 Dead loads of floors, ceilings, roofs, and walls (cont.)
Walls
Unplastered
(kN/m
2
)
One side
plastered
(kN/m
2
)
Both sides
plastered
(kN/m
2
)
100 mm brick wall 1.86 2.10 2.33
200 mm brick wall 3.77 4.00 4.24
300 mm brick wall 5.59 5.83 6.06
100 mm hollow normal density concrete block 1.37 1.61 1.84
100 mm hollow low density block or tile 1.08 1.31 1.55
100 mm brick 100 mm hollow normal density block backing 3.24 3.47 3.71
100 mm brick 100 mm hollow low density block or tile backing 2.94 3.18 3.41
Windows, glass, frame and sash 0.38
100 mm stone 2.59
Steel or wood studs, lath, 20 mm plaster 0.86
Steel or wood studs, lath, 15.9 mm gypsum board each side 0.28
Steel or wood studs, 2 layers 12.7 mm gypsum board each side 0.44
DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.2 Specified Uniformly Distributed Live Loads on an Area of Floor or Roof
Uniformly Distributed Loads Uniformly Distributed Loads
Use of Area of Floor or Roof
Minimum
Specified
Load (kPa)
Use of Area of Floor or Roof
Minimum
Specified
Load (kPa)
Assembly Areas

a) Except for those areas listed under b)

Corridors, lobbies and aisles
and c), assembly areas with or without

Other than those listed below 4.8
fixed seats including

Arenas

Not more than 1200 mm in width and all
Auditoria

upper floor corridors of residential areas
Churches

only of apartments, hotels and motels
(3)

Dance floors

(that cannot be used for the assembly of
Dining areas
(1)

of people as a viewing area)
(2)

Foyers and entrance halls

Grandstands, reviewing stands and 4.8

bleachers

Equipment areas and service rooms
Gymnasia

including
Museums

Generator rooms
Promenades

Mechanical equipment exclusive of
Rinks

elevators
Stadia

Machine rooms 3.6
(4)

Stages

Pump rooms
Theatres

Transformer vaults
Other areas with similar uses

Ventilating or air-conditioning equipment

b) Assembly areas with fixed seats that

have backs over at least 80% of the

Exits and fire escapes 4.8
assembly area for the following uses:

Churches 2.4

Factories 6.0
(4)
Courtrooms

Lecture halls

Footbridges 4.8
Theatres

Garages for
c) Classrooms with or without fixed seats 2.4

Passenger cars 2.4

Light trucks and unloaded buses 6.0
Attics

Loaded buses and trucks and all 12.0
Accessible by stairway in residential 1.4

other trucking spaces
occupancies only

Kitchens (other than residential) 4.8
Having limited accessibility so there is no 0.5

storage of equipment or material
(2)

Libraries

Stack rooms 7.2
Balconies

Reading and study rooms 2.9
Exterior 4.8

Office areas (not including record storage
Interior and mezzanines that could be

and computer rooms) located in
used for the assembly of people as a 4.8

Basement and first storey 4.8
viewing area
(2)

Floors above first storey 2.4

Interior and mezzanines other than
(3)

above

DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.2 Specified Uniformly Distributed Live Loads on an Area of Floor or Roof (Cont.)
Uniformly Distributed Loads
Specified Concentrated Live loads
on an Area of Floor or Roof

Use of area of floor or roof
Minimum
Specified
Load (kPa)
Area of floor or roof
Minimum
Specified
Load (kN)
Operating rooms and laboratories 3.6 Roof surfaces 1.3

Patients bedrooms 1.9 Floors and classrooms 4.5

Recreation areas that cannot be used for Floors and offices, manufacturing 9.0
assembly purposes including buildings, hospital wards and
Billard rooms 3.6 stages
Bowling alleys
Pool rooms Floors and areas used by passenger 11
cars
Residential areas (within the scope of
NBCC Aricle 1.3.3.2. of Division A) Floors and areas used by vehicles
Sleeping and living quarters in not exceeding 3600 kg gross 18
apartments, hotels, motels, boarding 1.9 weight
schools and colleges
Floors and areas used by vehicles
Residential areas (within the scope of exceeding 3600 kg but not 36
NBCC Article 1.3.3. of Division A) exceeding 9000 kg gross weight
Bedrooms 1.4
Other areas 1.9 Floors and areas used by vehicles
Stairs within dwelling units 1.9 exceeding 9000 kg gross weight
(7)
54

Retail and wholesale areas 4.8 Driveways and sidewalks over area
ways and basements
(7)
54
Roofs 1.0
(5)

Sidewalks and driveways over areaways 12.0
and basements

Storage areas 4.8
(4)

Toilet areas 2.4

Underground slabs with earth cover
(6)

Warehouses 4.8
(4)
Notes:
(1) Loads for Dining Areas
The minimum specified live load listed in Table 4.1.5.3. for dining areas may be
reduced to 2.4 kPa for areas in buildings that are being converted to dining areas,
provided that the floor area does not exceed 100 m
2
and the dining area will not be
used for other assembly purposes, including dancing.
(2) Considerations for live Loads
Attics Limited Accessibility - Attic live loading is not required when the ceiling below
the attic consists of removable panels that permit access to the ceiling space without
loading the ceiling supporting members. Attic live loading is not required in any area
of the attic where the least dimension of the attic space is less than 500 mm. Floor
Areas That Could Be Used As Viewing Areas - Some interior balconies, mezzanines,
corridors, lobbies and aisles that are not intended to be used by an assembly of
people as viewing areas are sometimes used as such; consequently, they are subject
to loadings much higher than those for the occupancies they serve.

(3) Loads for Occupancy Served
The following shall be designed to carry not less than the specified load required for
the occupancy they serve, provided they cannot be used by an assembly of people
as a viewing area: a) corridors, lobbies and aisles not more than 1,200 mm wide, b)
all corridors above the first storey of residential areas of apartments, hotels and
motels, and c) interior balconies and mezzanines.
(4) Floor Loads Dues to Intended Use
Equipment areas and service rooms, factories, storage areas and warehouses shall
be designed for the live loads due to their intended use but not for less than the
specified loads listed above.
(5) Specified Load Due to Rain or to Snow and Associated Rain
The specified load on a roof or any other building surface subject to snow and
associated rain shall be the snow load specified in Article 4.1.6.2., or the rain load
specified in Article 4.1.6.4., whichever produces the more critical effect.
(6) Loads on Exterior Areas
1) Exterior areas accessible to vehicular traffic shall be designed for their intended
use, including the weight of firefighting equipment, but not for less than the snow
and rain loads prescribed in Subsection 4.1.6.
2) Except as provided in Sentences (3) and (4), roofs shall be designed for either the
uniform live loads specified in Table 4.1.5.3., the concentrated live loads listed in
Table 4.1.5.10., or the snow and rain loads prescribed in Subsection 4.1.6.,
whichever produces the most critical effects in the members concerned.
3) Exterior areas accessible to pedestrian traffic, but not vehicular traffic, shall be
designed for their intended use, but not for less than the greater of
a) the live load prescribed for assembly areas in Table 4.1.5.3., or
b) the snow and rain loads prescribed in Subsection 4.1.6.
4) Roof parking decks shall be designed for either the uniformly distributed live loads
specified in Table 4.1.5.3., the concentrated live loads listed in Table 4.1.5.10., or
the roof snow load, whichever produces the most critical effect in the members
concerned.
(7) Loads Due to Concentrations
Special study is required to determine concentrated loads for the design of floors and
areas used by vehicles exceeding 9,000 kg gross weight, and of driveways and
sidewalks over areaways and basements. Where appropriate the designer should
refer to CAN/CSA-S6, Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code.
Source: National Building Code of Canada 2005
DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.3 Beam design equations and diagrams
(1) SIMPLE BEAM UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD

R = V........................................................ =
w
2
l

V
x
............................................................. = w x
2

l

M
max
(at center) ........................................ =
2
w
8
l

M
x
............................................................. =
wx
( x
2
) l
max
(at center) ......................................... =
4
5w
384El
l

X
............................................................. =
3 2
wx
( 2 x x
24El
+ l l
3
)

(2) SIMPLE BEAM CONCENTRATED LOAD AT CENTER

R = V........................................................ =
P
2

M
max
(at point of load)............................... =
P
4
l

M
x
(when x
2
<
l
) ...................................... =
Px
2

max
(at point of load) ............................... =
3
P
48El
l

x
(when x
2
<
l
) ....................................... =
2 2
Px
(3 4x )
48El
l

(3) SIMPLE BEAM CONCENTRATED LOAD AT ANY POINT

R
1
= V
1
(max when a < b)......................... =
Pb
l

R
2
= V
2
(max when a > b)......................... =
Pa
l

M
max
(at point of load)............................... =
Pab
l

M
x
(when x < a) ........................................ =
Pbx
l

max

a(a 2b)
at x when a b
3

+
= >

........ =
Pab(a 2b) 3a(a 2b)
27El
+ +
l

a
(at point of load)................................... =
2 2
Pa b
3Ell

x
(when x < a)......................................... =
2 2 2
Pbx
( b x
6El
l
l
)

DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.3 Beam design equations and diagrams (cont.)
(4) SIMPLE BEAM TWO EQUAL CONCENTRATED LOADS SYMMETRICALLY PLACED

R = V........................................................ = P
M
max
(between loads) ............................... = Pa
M
x
(when x < a) ........................................ = Px
max
(when) .............................................. =
2 2
Pa
(3 4a )
24El
l
x
(when x < a) ......................................... =
2 2
Px
(3 a 3a x )
6El
l
x
[when x > a and < ( )].................... = a l
2 2
Pa
(3 x 3x a )
6El
l

(5) SIMPLE BEAM TWO UNEQUAL CONCENTRATED LOADS ASYMMETRICALLY PLACED

R
1
= V
1
..................................................... =
1 2
P ( a) P b + l
l

R
2
= V
2
..................................................... =
1 2
P a P ( b) + l
l

V
x
[when x > a and < ( )] ................... = R b l
1
P
1
M
1
(max when R
1
< P
1
) ............................ = R
1
a
M
2
(max when R
2
< P
2
) ............................ = R
2
b
M
x
(when x < a) ........................................ = R
1
x
M
x
[when x > a and < ( )]................... = R b l
1
x P
1
(x a)
(6) SIMPLE BEAM UNIFORM LOAD PARTIALLY DISTRIBUTED

R
1
= V
1
(max when a < c) ......................... =
wb
(2c b)
2
+
l

R
2
= V
2
(max when a > c) ......................... =
wb
(2a b)
2
+
l

V
x
[when x > a and < (a + b)].................... = R
1
w(x a)
M
max

1
R
at x a
w
= +
................................ =
1
1
R
R a
2w

+

M
x
(when x < a) ........................................ = R
1
x
M
x
[when x > a and < (a + b)] ................... =
2
1
w
R x (x a)
2

M
x
[when x > (a + b)] ................................ =
2
R ( x) l

DESIGN INFORMATION
(7) SIMPLE BEAM LOAD INCREASING UNIFORMLY TO ONE END (W IS TOTAL LOAD)

W.............................................................. =
w
2
l

R
1
= V
1
..................................................... =
W
3

R
2
= V
2
(max) ........................................... =
2W
3

V
x
............................................................. =
2
2
W Wx
3

l

M
max
at x 0.5774
3

= =

l
l ..................... =
2W
0.1283W
9 3
=
l
l
M
x
............................................................. =
2 2
2
Wx
( x
3
l
l
)
max

8
at x 1 0.5193
15

= =

l l ........... =
3
W
0.01304
El
l

x
.............................................................. =
4 2 2
2
Wx
(3x 10 x 7 )
180El
+ l l
l
4

(8) SIMPLE BEAM LOAD INCREASING UNIFORMLY TO CENTER (W IS TOTAL LOAD)

W.............................................................. =
w
2
l

R = V........................................................ =
W
2

V
x
when x
2
<
...................................... =
2 2
2
W
( 4x
2
l
l
)
M
max
(at centre) ........................................ =
W
6
l

M
x
when x
2
..................................... =
<

l
2
2
1 2x
Wx
2
3

l

max
(at centre) ......................................... =
3
W
60El
l

x
when x
2
...................................... =
<

l
2 2
Wx
(5 4x )
480El
l
l
2

DESIGN INFORMATION
(9) BEAM SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS MOMENT APPLIED AT ONE END

R1 = R2 = V.......................................................... =
o
M
l

M
max
(at R
1
) ............................................................ = M
o
M
x
= M
o
R
1
x......................................................... =
o
x
M 1

max
(when ).......................................... = x 0.422 = l
2
o
M
0.0642
El
l

x
............................................................................ =
3
2 o
M x
3x 2 x
6El

l
l

1
(at R
1
)................................................................. =
o
M
3El
l

2
(at R
2
)................................................................. =
o
M
6El
l

(10) BEAM SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS MOMENT APPLIED AT ANY POINT
R
1
= V (when a > b)................................................ =
o
M
l

R
2
(when a > b) ...................................................... =
o
M
l

M
max()
(at x = a) ..................................................... =
o
M a
l

M
max(+)
(at x = a) ..................................................... =
o
a
M 1

l

M
x
(when x < a) ...................................................... =
o
M x
l

M
x
(when x > a) ...................................................... =
o
x
M 1

x
(when x < a)....................................................... =
( )
2 2 2 o
M x
3b x
6El
l
l

x
(when x > a)....................................................... =
2 2 o
M ( x)
(3a 2 x x )
6El
+
l
l
l

max

2 2
3b
at x if a 0.4226
3

= >

l
l ................... =
3
2 2 2
o
M 3b
3El 3

l
l

max

2 2
3a
at x if a 0.5774
3

= >

l
l l ............. =
3
2 2 2
o
M 3a
3El 3

l
l

C
L
M (at centre)...................................................... =
o
M
2

C
L
(at centre) ...................................................... =
2 2 o
M
( 4b
16El
l )
max
(when a = b =
2
l
, af x =
3
0.28867
6
= l l )..... =
2
o
M
124.71El
l

C
L
(at centre) ...................................................... =
o
M
12El
l

DESIGN INFORMATION
(11) BEAM SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS
MOMENTS APPLIED AT EACH END

R
1
= R
2
= V.........................=
2 1
M M
l

M
x
.........................................=
2 1
x
(M M ) M +
1
l

x
..........................................=
1 2
x( x)
[M (2 x) M ( x)]
+ +
l
l l
6Ell

x
1
.........................................=
2 2 2
1 1 1 2 1 2
1 2
6M 36M 12(M M ) (2M M )
6(M M )
+
l l l

1
(at end).............................=
1 2
(2M M ) +
l
6El

2
(at end).............................=
1 2
(M 2M ) +
l
6El

If M
1
and M
2
are of opposite signs, the above formulas hold;
just use actual sign of moment.

Point of contraflexure is =
l
1
2 1
M
where x
M M

DESIGN INFORMATION
(12) BEAM OVERHANGING ONE SUPPORT UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD

R
1
= V
1
........................................................ =
2 2
w
( a
2
l
l
)
R
2
= V
2
+ V
3
................................................. =
2
w
( a)
2
+ l
l

V
2
................................................................ = wa
V
3
................................................................ =
2 2
w
( a
2
+ l
l
)
V
x
(between supports) ................................. = R
1
wx
1
x
V (for overhang) ....................................... = w(a x
1
)
M
1

2
2
a
at x 1
2

=

l
l
................................. =
2 2
2
w
( a) ( a)
8
+ l l
l

M
2
(at R
2
) .................................................... =
2
wa
2

M
x
(between supports) ................................ =
2 2
wx
( a x
2
l l
l
)
1
x
M (for overhang)...................................... =
2
1
w
(a x )
2

x
(between supports) ................................. =
4 2 2 3 2 2 2 2
wx
( 2 x x 2a 2a x
24El
+ + l l l l
l
)
1
x
(for overhang)....................................... =
2 3 2 2 3 1
1 1
wx
(4a 6a x 4ax x )
24El
+ + l l
1

(13) BEAM OVERHANGING ONE SUPPORT UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD ON OVERHANG

R
1
= V
1
.........................................................=
2
wa
2l

R
2
= V
1
+ V
2
..................................................=
wa
(2 a)
2
+ l
l

V
2
.................................................................= wa
1
x
V (for overhang) ........................................= w(a x
1
)
M
max
(at R
2
) ..................................................=
2
wa
2

M
x
(between supports) .................................=
2
wa x
2l

1
x
M (for overhang) .......................................=
2
1
w
(a x )
2

max
(between supports at x =
3
l
) .............=
2 2 2 2
wa wa
0.03208
El 18 3El
=
l l

max
(for overhang at x
1
= a).........................=
3
wa
(4 3a)
24El
+ l
x
(between supports) ..................................=
2
2 2
wa x
( x
12El
l
l
)
1
x
(for overhang)........................................=
2 2 2 1
1 1
wx
(4a 6a x 4ax x )
24El
+ + l
3
1

DESIGN INFORMATION
(14) BEAM OVERHANGING ONE SUPPORT UNIFORMLY D

ISTRIBUTED LOAD BETWEEN SUPPORTS
= V............................................................= R
w
2
l

V
x
.................................................................= w x
2

l

M
max
(at center) ............................................=
2
w
8
l

M
x
.................................................................=
wx
( x
2
) l
max
(at center) .............................................=
4
5w
384El
l

x
..................................................................=
3 2
wx
( 2 x x
24El
+ l l
3
)
...............................................................=
1
x

3
1
w x
24El
l

(15) BEAM OVERHANGING ONE SUPPORT CONCENTRATED LOAD AT ANY POINT BETWEEN

1
= V
1
(max when a < b).............................=
SUPPORTS

Pb
l
R
R
2
= V
2
(max when a > b).............................=
Pa
l

M
max
(at point of load)...................................=
Pab
l

M
x
(when x < a) ............................................=
Pbx
l

max

a(a 2b)
at x when a b
3

+
= >

...........=
Pab(a 2b) 3a(a 2b)
27El
+ +
l

a
(at point of load).......................................=
2 2
Pa b
3Ell

x
(when x < a).............................................=
2 2 2
Pbx
( b x
6El
l
l
)
x
(when x > a).............................................=
2 2
Pa( x)
(2 x x a )
6El

l
l
l

...............................................................=
1
Pabx
( a
6El
) + l
l

1
x

DESIGN INFORMATION
(16) BEAM OVERHANGING ONE SUPPORT CONCENTRATED LOAD AT END OF OVERHANG
R
1
= V
1
........................................................ =
Pa
l

R
2
= V
1
+ V
2
................................................. =
P
( a) + l
l

V
2
................................................................ = P
M
max
(at R
2
) ................................................. = Pa
M
x
(between supports) ................................ =
Pax
l

1
x
M (for overhang) ...................................... = P(a x
1
)
max
between supports x
3

=

l
................ =
2 2
Pa Pa
0.06415
El 9 3El
=
l l

max
(for overhang at x
1
= a)........................ =
2
Pa
( a)
3El
+ l
x
(between supports) ................................. =
2 2
Pax
( x
6El
l
l
)
1
x
(for overhang)........................................ =
2 1
1 1
Px
(2a 3ax x )
6El
+ l

(17) CANTILEVER BEAM UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD

R = V............................................................= wl
V
x
.................................................................= wx
M
max
(at fixed end)........................................=
2
w
2
l

M
x
.................................................................=
2
wx
2

max
(at free end) ..........................................=
4
w
8El
l

x
..................................................................=
4 3 4
w
(x 4 x 3 )
24El
+ l l

(18) CANTILEVER BEAM CONCENTRATED LOAD AT FREE END

R = V............................................................= P
M
max
(at fixed end)........................................= Pl
M
x
.................................................................= Px
max
(at free end) ..........................................=
3
P
3El
l

x
..................................................................=
3 2 3
P
(2 3 x x )
6El
+ l l

DESIGN INFORMATION
(19) CANTILEVER BEAM CONCENTRATED LOAD AT ANY POINT

R = V...................................... = P
M
max
(at fixed end).................. = Pb
M
x
(when x > a) ...................... = P(x a)
max
(at free end) .................... =
2
Pb
(3 b)
6El
l
a
(at point of load)................. =
3
Pb
3El

x
(when x < a) ....................... =
2
Pb
(3 3x b)
6El
l
x
(when x > a) ....................... =
2
P( x)
(3b x)
6El
+
l
l

(20) CANTILEVER BEAM LOAD INCREASING UNIFORMLY TO FIXED END

W............................................ =
w
2
l

R = V...................................... = W
V
x
........................................... =
2
2
x
W
l

M
max
(at fixed end).................. =
W
3
l

M
x
........................................... =
3
2
Wx
3l

max
(at free end).................... =
3
W
15El
l

x
............................................ =
5 4 5
2
W
(x 5 x 4 )
60El
+ l l
l

(21) CANTILEVER BEAM UNIFORM LOAD PARTIALLY DISTRIBUTED AT FREE END

R = V...................................... = wb
M
max
(at support) .................... = wbe
M
x
(when x < b) ...................... =
2
wx
2

M
x
(when x > b) ...................... =
wb
(b 2x)
2

max
(at free end).................... =
3 2
wb
(8e 24e b )
48El
l
3

x
(when x < b)....................... =
3 2 3 4
w
[8be 24be ( x) 2b x b 2x ]
48El
+ l
4

x
(when x > b)....................... =
3 2
wb
[8e 24e ( x) (2x b) ]
48El
l
3

(at free end)......................... =
2 2
wb
(b 12e )
24El
+

DESIGN INFORMATION
(22) CANTILEVER BEAM VARYING LOAD INCREASING UNIFORMLY FROM SUPPORT TO FREE
END

W..................................................=
w
2
l

R = V............................................= W
V
x
.................................................=
2
2Wx x
2

l
l

M
max
(at support) ..........................=
2W
3
l

M
x
.................................................=
2
2
Wx
(x 3 )
3
l
l

max
(at free end) ..........................=
3
11W
60El
l

x
..................................................=
4 4
2
W
[ (15x 11 ) x (5 x)]
60El
l l l
l

(at free end)...............................=
2
W
4El
l

(23) CANTILEVER BEAM MOMENT APPLIED AT FREE END

R = V............................................= 0
M
x
.................................................=
o
M
max
(at free end) ..........................=
2
o
M
2El
l

x
..................................................=
2 o
M
( x)
2El
l
(at free end)...............................=
o
M
El
l

DESIGN INFORMATION
(24) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END, SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT THE OTHER END UNIFORMLY
DISTRIBUTED LOAD

R
1
= V
1
......................................................=
3w
8
l

R
2
= V
2
(max) ............................................=
5w
8
l

V
x
..............................................................= R
1
wx
M
max
...........................................................=
2
w
8
l

M
1
(at x =
3
8
l )...........................................=
2
9
w
128
l
M
x
..............................................................=
2
1
wx
R x
2

max
(at x = (1 33) 0.4215 )
16
+ =
l
l ...........=
4
w
185El
l

x
...............................................................=
3 2
wx
( 3 x 2x
48El
+ l l
3
)

(25) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END, SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT THE OTHER END CONCENTRATED LOAD
AT CENTER

R
1
= V
1
...................................................... =
5P
16

R
2
= V
2
(max) ............................................ =
11P
16

M
max
(at fixed end)..................................... =
3P
16
l

M
1
(at point of load) ................................... =
5P
32
l

M
x
(when x <
2
l
) ....................................... =
5Px
16

M
x
(when x >
2
l
) ....................................... =
11x
P
2 16

max
(at x =
1
0.4472
5
= l )...................... = l
3 3
P P
0.009317
El 48El 5
=
l l

x
(at point of load).................................... =
3
7P
768El
l

x
(when x <
2
l
) ......................................... =
2 2 x
P
(3 5x )
96El
l
x
(when x >
2
l
) ........................................ =
2
P
(x ) (11x 2 )
96El
l l

DESIGN INFORMATION
(26) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END, SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT THE OTHER END CONCENTRATED LOAD
AT ANY POINT
R
1
= V
1
........................................................... =
2
3
Pb
(a 2 )
2
+ l
l

R
2
= V
2
........................................................... =
2 2
3
Pa
(3 a )
2
l
l

M
1
(at point of load) ........................................ =
1
R a
M
2
(at fixed end) ............................................. =
2
Pab
(a )
2
+ l
l

M
x
(when x < a) .............................................. =
1
R x
M
x
(when x > a) ............................................. =
1
R x P(x a)
max
(when a < 0.414, at x =
2 2
2 2
a
3 a
+
l
l
l
)...... =
2 2 3
2 2 2
Pa( a )
3El(3 a )
l
l

max
(when a > 0.414, at x =
a
2 a +
l
l
) ....... =
2
Pab a
6EI 2 a + l

a
(at point of load)......................................... =
2 3
3
Pa b
(3 a)
12EI
+ l
l

x
(when x < a) ............................................... =
2
2 2
3
Pb x
(3a 2 x ax )
12EI
l l
l
2

x
(when x > a) ............................................... =
2 2 2 2
2
Pa
( x) (3 x a x 2a
12EI
l l
l
) l
(27) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END, SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT THE OTHER END UNIFORM LOAD
PARTIALLY DISTRIBUTED OVER SPAN
R
1
= V
1
.............................................=
2 3 2
3
wb
(12e 4e b d)
8
+ l
l

R
2
= V
2
.............................................= wb R
1
M
max()
...............................................=
2 3 2
2
wb
(12e 4e b d 8e )
8
+ l l
l
2

M
1
.....................................................=
1
1
R
R a
2w

+

M
x
(when x < a) ................................= R
1
x
M
x
[when x > a and x < (a + b)] ........=
2
1
w
R x (x a)
2

M
x
(when x > (a + b) and x < )......= R l
1
x wb(x d)
x
(when x < a) .................................=
2 2 2 2
1
x
[4R (x 3 ) wb(b 12e )]
24El
+ + l
x
[when x > a and x < (a + b)] .........=
2 2 2 2 4
1
1
[4R x(x 3 ) wbx(b 12e ) w(x a) ]
24El
+ + l
x
(when x > (a + b) and x < c)........=
2 3
MAX 2
1
[3M ( x) R ( x) ]
6El
+ l l
DESIGN INFORMATION
(28) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END, SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT THE OTHER END MOMENT APPLIED AT
THE FLEXIBLE END

R
1
= R
2
= V..............................................=
o
3M
2l

M
1
..............................................................=
o
M
M
2
..............................................................=
o
Q/ SM
M
x
..............................................................=
o
M
(2 3x)
2
l
l

max
(at x =
3
l
) ..........................................=
2
o
M
27El
l

x
...............................................................=
2 o
M x
( x)
4El
l
l

(at supported end) ..................................=
o
M
4El
l

(29) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS

R = V....................................................... =
w
2
l

V
x
............................................................ = w x
2

l

M
max
(at ends) ......................................... =
2
w
12
l

M
1
(at centre) .......................................... =
2
w
24
l

M
x
............................................................ =
2 2
w
(6 x 6x )
12
l l
max
(at centre) ........................................ =
4
w
384El
l

x
............................................................. =
2
2
wx
( x)
24El
l

DESIGN INFORMATION
(30) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS CONCENTRATED LOAD AT CENTRE

R = V........................................................... =
P
2

M
max
(at center and ends)............................ =
P
8
l

M
x
when x
2
<
........................................ =
P
(4x )
8
l
max
(at center) ............................................ =
3
P
192El
l

x
when x
2
<
......................................... =
2
Px
(3 4x)
48El
l

(31) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS CONCENTRATED LOAD AT ANY POINT

R
1
= V
1
(max when a < b)............................ =
2
3
Pb
(3a b) +
l

R
2
= V
2
(max when a > b)............................ =
2
3
Pa
(a 3b) +
l

M
1
(max when a < b) ................................... =
2
2
Pab
l

M
2
(max when a > b) ................................... =
2
2
Pa b
l

M
a
(at point of load) ..................................... =
2 2
3
2Pa b
l

M
x
(when x < a) ........................................... =
2
1
2
Pab
R x
l

max
(when a > b, at x =
2a
3a b +
l
) .................. =
3 2
2
2Pa b
3El(3a b) +

a
(at point of load)...................................... =
3 3
3
Pa b
3Ell

x
(when x < a) ............................................ =
2 2
3
Pb x
(3a 3ax bx)
6El
l
l

DESIGN INFORMATION
(32) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS UNIFORM LOAD PARTIALLY DISTRIBUTED OVER SPAN
R
1
= V
1
........................................ =
2 2
3
wb
[4e ( 2d) b (c a)]
4
+ l
l

R
2
= V
2
........................................ =
1
wb R
M
1
................................................ =
2 2
2
wb
{b [ 3(c a)] 24e d}
24
+ l
l

M
2
................................................ = wbe + M
1
R l
1
M
max(+)

1
R
at x a
w
= +
................ =
1
1 1
R
M R a
2w

+ +

M
x
(when x < a) ........................... = M
1
+ R
1
x
M
x
[when x > a and x < (a + b)] ... =
2
1 1
w
M R x (x a)
2
+
x
(when x < a) ............................ =
2 3
1 1
1
(3M x R x )
6El
+
x
[when x > a and x < (a + b)] .... =
2 3
1 1
1
[12M x 4R x w(x a) ]
24El
+
4

(33) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS MOMENT APPLIED AT ANY POINT
R
1
= V.......................................... =
o
3
6M ab
l

R
2
................................................ =
o
3
6M ab
l

M
1
................................................ =
o
2
M b
( 3a) l
l

M
2
................................................ =
o
2
M a
(2 3a) l
l

M
x
(when x < a) ........................... =
o
2
M 6abx
b( 3a)

+

l
l
l

M
x
(when x > a) ........................... =
o
2
M a 6bx
6b 2 3a

+

l
l
l

M
max()
(at x = a on left side) ........ = M
max(+)
M
o
M
max(+)
(at x = a on right side) ...... =
2
o
3 2
6a b b
M ( 3a)

+

l
l l
1
x
(when x < a) ............................ =
2
o
2
M bx 2ax
3a
2El

+

l
l
l

x
(when x > a) ............................ =
2
o
2
M a( x) 2bx
3a 2 2b
2El

+

l
l
l
l

C
L
M (at centre)........................... =
o
2
M
[3ab b( 3a)] + l
l

C
L
(at centre) ........................... =
o
M b
( 2a)
8El
l
max
(when a = 0.2324l )............ = l
2
o
0.01615M
El
l

DESIGN-INFORMATION
(34) SIMPLE BEAM UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD AND VARIABLE END MOMENTS

R
1
= V
1
................................... =
2 1
M M w
2

+
l
l

R
2
= V
2
................................... =
1 2
M M w
2

l
l

V
x
........................................... =
1 2
M M
w x
2

+

l
l

M
3

1 2
M M
at x
2 w

= +

l
l
........ =
2 2
1 2 1 2
2
M M (M M ) w
8 2
2w
+
+
l
l

M
x
........................................... =
2 1
1
M M wx
( x) x M
2

+

l
l

b (to locate inflection points)... =
2
2
1 2 1 2
M M M M
4 w w
+
+

l
l

x
............................................ =
3 2 3 1 2 1 1 2
4M 4M 12M 8M 4M wx
x 2 x x
24El w w w w w

+ + +

l l
l l
l l

(35) BEAM CONCENTRATED LOAD AT CENTRE AND VARIABLE END MOMENTS

R
1
= V
1
......................... =
1 2
M M P
2

+
l

R
2
= V
2
......................... =
1 2
M M P
2

l

M
3
(at centre) .............. =
1 2
M M P
4 2
+
l

M
x when x
2

<

l
.......... =
1 2
1
M M P
x M
2

+

l

M
x when x
2

>

l
......... =
1 2
1
(M M )x P
( x) M
2

+ l
l

x when x
2

<

l
.......... = [ ]
2 2
1 2
Px 8( x)
3 4x M (2 x) M ( x)
48EI P

+ +

l
l l
l
l
DESIGN INFORMATION
(36) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT OF SUPPORTS

V = R
1
= R
2
.......................................=
2 1
3
3El
( )
l

M
max
..................................................=
2 1
2
3El
( )
l

M
x
.....................................................=
max
x
M 1

x
......................................................=
2 3
2 1
1
x x
3
2

+

l l

(37) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END ROTATION OF SUPPORT
1
2
3El
l
V = R = R .................................. =
1 2
1
3El
l
M
max
............................................... =
max
x
M 1

l
M .................................................. =
x
1
5.196

l
............................................... =
max
2 3
1
2
3x x
x
2
2

+

l
l
................................................... =
x

38) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS DIFFERENTIAL
SETTLEMENT OF SUPPORTS

2 1
3
12El
( )
l
V = R = R .................................. =
1 2
2 1
2
6El
( )
l
= M ....................................... = M
1 2
2 1
2
6El 2x
( ) 1

l
l
M .................................................. =
x
2 3
1 2 1
x x
( ) 3 2

+

l l
................................................... =
x

DESIGN INFORMATION
(39) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS ROTATION OF SUPPORT

V = R
1
= R
2
..............................................=
2
2
6El
l

M
1
..............................................................=
2
2El
l

M
2
..............................................................=
2
4El
l

M
x
..............................................................=
2
2El 3x
1

l l

max
(at x =
2
3
l ) ........................................=
2
4
27
l
x
...............................................................=
2 3
2
x x

l
l l

(40) TWO SPANS, CONTINUOUS BEAM CONCENTRATED LOAD AT CENTRE OF ONE SPAN ONLY

13
P
32
R = V ........................................................ =
1 1
11
P
16
R =V + V .................................................. =
2 2 3
3
P
32
= V ........................................................ = R
3 3
19
P
32
V ................................................................ =
2
13
P
64
l M
max
(at point of load).................................. =
3
P
32
l M (at R ) .................................................... =
2 2

(41) TWO SPANS, CONTINUOUS BEAM CONCENTRATED LOAD AT ANY POINT OF ONE
SPAN ONLY
R
1
= V
1
........................................................ =
2
3
Pb
[4 a( a)]
4
+ l l
l

R
2
= V
2
+ V
3
................................................. =
2
3
Pa
[2 b( a)]
2
+ + l l
l

R
3
= V
3
........................................................ =
3
Pab
( a
4
+ l
l
)
V
2
................................................................ =
2
3
Pa
[4 b( a)]
4
+ l l
l

M
max
(at point of load).................................. =
2
3
Pab
[4 a( a)]
4
+ l l
l

M
2
(at R
2
) .................................................... =
2
Pab
( a)
4
+ l
l

DESIGN
Beam design equations and diagrams (cont.)
INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.3
(42) TWO SPAN, CONTINUOUS BEAM UNIFORM LOAD OVE

R
1
= V
1
........................................................ =
R ONE SPAN ONLY

7
w
16
l
R
2
= V
2
+ V
3
................................................. =
5
w
8
l
R
3
= V
3
........................................................ =
1
w
16
l
V
2
................................................................ =
9
w
16
l
M
max

7
at x
16
= l .........

............................. =
2
49
w
512
l
M
1
(at R
2
) .................................................... =
2
w
16
l

M
x
(when x < .......................................... =
wx
(7 8x)
16
l l )

DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.4 Moments, shears, and deflections in beams with overhangs
VERTICAL
SHEAR
MOMENT M
AND MAXIMUM
BENDING MOMENT
DEFLECTION y, MAXIMUM DEFLECTION,
AND END SLOPE
LOADING AND SUPPORT
REACTIONS
AND
BENDING

EQUAL OVERHANGS,

W
2

2
W
(c x)
2

l

UNIFORM LOAD

R
B
= R B
C
=

= (A to B) V
W(c x)
l

= (B to C) V
1 x c
W
2

l

(C to D) V =
W(c d + x)
l

(A to B)M =
(B to C)M =
2
W
[(c x(d x)]
2

l

= M
2
Wc
2
l
at B and C
M =
2
2
W d
c
2 4

l

d
at x
2
= if d > 2c, M = 0
at x =
2
2
d d
c
2 4

if c = 0.207 , at x = 0 = d

M =
l

W
46.62
l

and M =
W
46.62
l

ar x =
d
2

x is considered positive on
both sides of the origin.

(A to B) y =
2 2
Wx
[6c (d x) x (4c x) d ]
24El
+
l

3

(B to C) y =
2 2
Wx(d x)
[x(d x) d 6c ]
24El
+
l

y =
2 3
Wc
[3c (c 2d) d ]
24El
+
l
at A and D
y =
2
2 2
Wd d
(5d 24c )at x
384El 2
=
l

if 2c < d < 2.449c, the maximum deflection
between supports is:
y =
2
2 2 2 2
W d
(6c d ) at x 3 c
96El 2 4

=

l

d
=
2 3 3
W
(6c d 4c d ) at A
24El
+
l

=
2 3 3
W
(6c d 4c d ) at D
24El
+
l

R =
(A to B) M =
UNEQUAL OVERHANGS,
UNIFORM LOAD

2
W
(c x)
2

l

B
W
(c d e)
2d
+

RC =
W
(d e c)
2d
+
(A to B) V =
W
(c x)
l

(B to C) V =
B
W
R (c +
l
x)

(C to D) V =
W
(d e x) +
l
(B to C) M =
2
B
W
(c x) R x
2
+
l

(C to D) M =
2
W
(e d x)
2
+
l

M =
2
Wc
2
l
at B
M =
2
We
2
l
at C
M between supports
=
max

2 2
1
W
(c x )
2

l
at x = x
1
=
2 2 2
c d e
2d
+
M = 0
at x =
if x
1
> c,
2 2
1 1
x x c

x is considered positive on
both sides of the origin.

(A to B) y =
Wx
24El
l
2 2 2 2 3
[2d(e 2c ) 6c x x (4c x) d ] + +
(B to C) y =
Wx(d x)
24El
l

2 2 2 2 2
2
x(d x) d 2(c e ) [e x c (d x)]
d

+ + +

(C to D) y =
2 2 2
W(x d)
[2d(c 2e ) 6e (x d)
24El
+ +
l

2 3
(x d) (4e d x) d ] +
y =
2 2 3 3
Wc
[2d(e 2c ) 3c d ]
24El
+ +
l
at A
y =
2 2 3
We
[2d(c 2e ) 3e d ]
24El
+ +
l
3
at D

This case is too complicated to obtain a general
expression for critical deflections between the
supports.
=
3 2 3 2
W
(4c 4c d d 2de )
24El
+ +
l
at A
=
2 2 3
W
(2c d 4de d 4e )
24El
+ +
l
3
at D

DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.5 Torsion diagrams, reactions, and rotations

(1)
T
T
GJ
l
At support: T = T =

(2)
=
2
T
T
2GJ
l
At support: T = tl

(3)
a:
1
a
T b
T =
l

1
=
1
T
T ab
GJ l

When a = b =
2
l

b:
1
b
T a
T =
l

1
=
T
T
4GJ
l

(4)

a:
1 2
a
T (b c) T c
T
+ +
=
l

1
=
a
T
T a
GJ

=
c
T
T c
GJ
b:
2 1
b
T c T a
T

=
l

2

T
When a = b = c = T/8
= T = T/2
c:
1 2
1 2
c
T a T (a b)
T
+ +
=
l
and
1 2
= =
T
T
6GJ
l

(5)

a:
1 2
a
3
(b c d) T d
T
+ + +
=
l

2
=
T d) T (c + +

b a
T
T b T a
GJ
+

b:
1 2 3
b
T a T (c d) T d
T
+ + +
=
l

1
=
a
T
T a
GJ

c:
1 2 3
c
T
T a T a b) T d + +
=
l

3

(
=
d
T
T d
GJ

d:
1 2 3
d
T
T a T b) T (a b c) (a + + +
l
=

(6)
T
support
=
tl

2
=
2
T
t
J
l

C
L
8G
Note: G = Shear modulus
J = Torsion constant
DESIGN INFORMATION
s for prestress force and loads
(1)
CAMBER END ROTATION
Fig. 8.1.6 Camber (deflection) and rotation coefficient
PRESTRESS PATTERN
EQUIVA-
LENT
MOMENT
OR LOAD
EQUIVALENT

LOADING

(1)
2
M
16El
l

M
3El
l

M
6El
l

M = Pe

(2)

M = Pe
2
M
16El
l

M
6El
l

M
3El
l

(3)

M = Pe
2
M
8El
l

M
2El
l

M
2El
l

(4)

4Pe
N

=
l
3
N
48El
l

2
N
16El
l

2
N
16El
l

(5)

Pe
N
b

=
l

2 3
b(3 4b )N l

24El
2
b( l 1 b)N
2El
2
b(1 b)N
2El
l

(6)

2
8Pe
w

=
l
4
5w
384El
l

3
w
2
3
w
24El
l

4El

l
Note: 1. The tabulated values apply to the effects of prestressing. y adjusting the directional notation, they may also be used for the effects
of loads.
2. In cases where P is not applied at the c.g., total cambers will be the sum of the effects of pattern (3) plus those of (4), (5) or (6).
B

DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.6 Camber (deflection) and rotation coefficients for prestress force and loads
(1)
(cont.)
CAMBER D EN ROTATION
PRESTRESS LE
PATTERN
EQUIVA-
NT
MOMENT
OR LOAD
VALE
DING

EQUI
LOA
NT

(7)

w =
2
8Pe
l

4
5w
768El
l

3
9w
384El
l

3
7w
384El
l

(8)

w =
2
8Pe
l

4
5w
768El
l

3
7w
384El
l

3
9w
384El
l

(9)

w =
2
4Pe
(0.5 b)
l

w =
1
w
(0.5 b)
b

2
5 b
(3 2b )
8 2

4
w
48El
l

3
(1 b)(1 2b)w
24El
l

3
(1 b)(1 2b)w
24El

l
w =
(10)
2
4Pe
(0.5 b)
l

w =
1
w
(0.5 b)
b

2
5 b
(3 2b )
16 4

2
9
b(2 b)
8

2
7
b(2 b)
8

+

4
w
48El
l

3
w
48El
l
3
w
48El
l

(11)

w =
2
4Pe
(0.5 b)
l

w =
1
w
(0.5 b)
b

2
5 b
(3 2b )
16 4

4
w
48El
l

2
7
b(2 b)
8

3
w
48El
l

2
9
b(2 b)
8

+

3
w
48El
l

Determination of camber along length of member
ed on ca bas mber at midspan:
2
Camber at midspan = y
c
y
x
=
c c
2
x
2
y y
2

l
l

Note: 1. The tabulated values apply to the effects of prestressing. By adjusting the directional notation, they may also be used for the effects
of loads.
2. Consider the effects of end eccoutricities when computing camber.
DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.7 Moments in beams with fixed ends
LOADING MOMENT AT A MOMENT AT CENTRE B MOMENT AT
(1)

P
8
l

P
8
l

P
8
l

2
P a(1 a) l
2
P a (1 a) l (2)

2P
9
l

P
9
l

2P
9
l

(3)

5P
16
l

3P
16
l

5P
16
l

(4)

W
12
l

W
24
l

W
12
l

(5)

2
W (1 2a 2a )
12
+ l

2
W (1 2a 2a )
24
+ l

2
W (1 2a 2a )
12
+ l

(6)

2
W a
6
l

2
W (3a 2a )
12
l

2
W (3a 2a )
12
l

(7)

2
W a(6 8a 3a )
12
+ l
2
W a (4 3a)
12
l

(8)
(9)

5W
48
l

3W
48
l

5W
48
l

W W
(10)

10

l
15

l
W = Total load on the beam.
DESIGN INFORMATION
Fig. 8.1.8 Moving load placement for maximum moment and shear

(1) SIMPLE BEAM ONE CONCENTRATED MOVING LOAD

R
1 max
= V
1 max
(at x = 0) ............................................ = P
M
ax
(at point of load, when x =

m

2
l
) ........................ =
P
4
l

(2) SIMPLE BEAM TWO EQUAL CONCENTRATED MOVING LOADS
R
1 max
= V
1 max
(at x = 0) ............................................. =
a
P 2

l

when a < (2 2) l ................................................... = 586l
M
max
= under load 1, at x =
0.

1 a
2 2

l ........................ =
2
P a
2 2

l
l

n a > whe (2 2) l .......................................... =

M
max
= with one load at centre of span ..................... =
0.586l

P
4
l

AL C (3) SIMPLE BEAM TWO UNEQU ONCENTRATED MOVING LOADS

R
1 max
= V
1 max
(at x = 0) ............................................. =
1 2
a
P P

+
l
l

2
1 2
x
(P P ) +
l

2
1 2
P a 1
x
2 P P

=

+

l M
max
under P
1
, at ........................ =

M
ax
may occur with larger load at centre
of span and other load off span ................................ =
m

1
P
4
l

8.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES PRESTRESSING STEEL
rea - mm
in.)
Weight - kg/1000 m
(lbs/1000ft)
Fig. 8.2.1 Properties of prestressing strands
Strand Diameter - mm
(inches)
Minimum Strength - kN
(pounds)
Nominal A
(sq.
7-WIRE 1720 MPa (250 ksi) STRAND FOR PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
9.53 (3/8") 89.0 (20,000) 51.6 (0.080) 405 (272)
11.11 (7/16") 120.1 (27,000) 69.6 (0.108) 548 (367)
12.7 (1/2") 160.1 (36,000) 92.9 (0.144) 730 (490)
15.2 (0.600") 24 2 (54,000) 0. 139.3 (0.216) 1099 (737)
7-WIRE 1860 MPa (270 ksi) GRADE STRAND FOR PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
7.94 (5/16") 71.2 (16,000) 38.0 (0.059) 298 (200)
9.53 (3/8") 102.3 (23,000) 54.8 (0.085) 432 (290)
11.1 (7/16") 137.9 (31,100) 74.1 (0.115) 582 (390)
12.7 (1/2") 183.7 (41,300) 98.7 (0.153) 775 (520)
12.7 (1/2"Special) 200.2 (45,100) 107.7 (0.167) 819 (550)
14.2 6") 230.0 (51,800) 8 (9/1 123. (0.192) 970 (651)
15.2 (0.600") 260.7 (58,600) 0 (0. 140. 217) 1104 (740)

Fig. 8.2.2 Properties of post-tensioning bars

26mm 32mm
(1 in)
36mm
(1
3
/
8
in)
46mm
(1 in)
65mm
(2 in)
THREAD BAR SIZE
(1 in)
Ultimate Load (1030 MPa) kN 567 834 1054 1779 3471
Yield Load (0.8 f
pu
A 667 843 1423 2777
ps
) kN 454
Steel Area mm 551 804 1018 1689 3358
Max, Bar Diameter mm 31 37 41.4 51 70
Nominal Linear Mass kg/m 4.48 6.53 8.27 13.7 27.3
Anchor Plate Sizes mm 127x127x32 152x178x38 178x178x44 230x230x57 305x356x64
102x165x32 127x203x38 127x241x44 --- ---
Nut Extension mm 48 64 70 74 127
Min. Bar Protrusion mm 92 98 122 98 149
Cou ler L h mm 159 p engt 171 219 171 273
Coupler Diameter mm 51 60 67 79 114
Bar Duct O.D. mm 47 51 55 70 88
Bar Duct I.D. 43 mm 48 51 67 84
Coupler Duct O.D. mm 70 76 87 101 138
Coupler Duct I.D. mm 67 72 83 95 134
Pocket Former Depth mm 178 203 219 N/A N/A
Pocket Former Max
mm 130 16
Diameter
5 165 N/A N/A
Note: Typical sizes, properties and dimensions of post-tensioning bars: confirm with bar supplier.
MATERIA
w relaxation prestressing strand
L PROPERTIES PRESTRESSING STEEL
Fig. 8.2.3 Typical stress strain curve, 7-wire lo

Note: Approximate strain at rupture is 05 to 0.0 0. 7
For lo with f
pu
= ppro ulat

w-relaxation strand 1860 MPa (270ksi), an a p orm riate f ion is:

( )
+

+

0.
10
pf
975
0.025
1

=

ps pf
f 29 10
0.
270 ksi
3
10
118
( )

= +

+

3
0.1
10
pf
75
200 10 0.025
1 1 8
1860 MPa
0.9
ps
f
pf
0

1
W ed strands w = 1860 MPa (270ksi), an appropriate form on is:

hile for stress-reliev ith fpu ulati
( )

( )

=

3
ps pf
f 29 10 0 +

+

7

0.16
6
97
.03
1 121
270 ksi
0.
= +

pf
3
0.167
6
pf
97
200 10 0.03
1 121
1860 MPa

0.
ps
f
pf

Note: The coefficients of the above equations have been chosen so that the curves pass through the minimum specified yield strengths at
a strain of 1%. The stress-strain response of actual strands will typically look like the curves above.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES POST TENSIONING
Fig. 8.2.4 Typical multi-strand post-tensioning anchorage details
Type
No. of
Strands
Strand
Diameter
(mm)
A
(mm)
B
(mm)
C
(mm)
D
(mm)
E
(mm)
F
(mm)
L
(mm)
G
I.D./O.D.
(mm)
Spiral
Diameter
(mm)
No. of
Turns
1 7 13 230 - - - - - 1200 - - -
12 13 300 - - - - - 1200 - - -
19 13 380 - - - - - 1200 - - -
31 13 460 - - - - - 1500 - - -
4 15 160 - - - - - 1200 - - -
7 15 200 - - - - - 1200
12 15 300 - - - - - 1200 - - -
19 15 390 - - - - - 1500 - - -
22 15 400 - - - - - 1500 - - -
27 15 450 - - - - - 1800 - - -
31 15 450 - - - - - 1800 - - -
2 12 13 25 50 150 250 250 210 - 70/75 10 5
19 13 30 63 185 300 250 290 - 85/90 10 5
22 13 40 75 230 375 250 315 - 90/95 15 5
31 13 45 75 230 375 250 315 - 105/110 15 7
2 4 15 20 50 11 200 150 175 - 55/60 10 5 5
7 15 25 50 150 250 300 210 - 65/70 10 5
12 15 30 63 185 330 450 290 - 85/90 10 5
19 15 45 75 230 420 600 315 - 105/110 15 7
22 15 45 100 230 420 600 375 - 115/120 15 7
31 15 64 100 292 500 700 375 - 130/135 15 8
3 7 13 122 51 120 139 260 200 - 55/60 10 7
12 13 158 57 140 210 266 250 - 70/75 15 7
19 13 190 60 245 266 320 - 85/90 15 7 185
3 4 15 122 51 120 139 266 200 - 55/60 10 7
7 15 158 57 140 210 306 250 - 65/70 10 7
12 15 190 63 162 245 356 280 - 75/80 15 7
19 15 280 70 216 336 458 388 - 105/110 15 7
Note: Generic drawings of multi-strand anchors. Contact post-tensioning supplier for specific dimensions.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES POST TENSIONING
Fig. 8.2.5 Typical unbonded monostrand system details
Typ No. o
nd
S d
m

) (mm)
C
(mm
D
(mm)
E e f tran Dia A B F
Stra s (m ) (mm ) (mm) (mm)
CPS Encapsul 1 .7 .6 6 50. 51 2 - 57 ated 12 131 2.7 8 3 57
CPS Encapsulat 1 .2 .2 8 50.8 54 2 - 57 ed 15 153 1.3 3 64
Zero Void Encapsulated 1 .7 .6 6 50.8 100 28 12 131 2.7 60
Note Generic d of monostrand an . Co t p ns su for fic di nsion : rawing chor ntac ost-te ioning pplier speci me s.
M
Metric Reinforcing Bars
ATERIAL PROPERTIES REINFORCING BARS
Fig 8.2.6 Reinforcing bar data
Nominal Dimensions
(2)
Bar Size
Designation
(1)
Nominal Linear Mass
(kg/m)
Diameter (mm) Area (mm
2
) Perimeter (mm)
10M 0.785 11.3 100 35.5
15M 1.570 16.0 200 50.1
20M 2.355 19.5 300 61.3
25M 3.925 25.2 500 79.2
30M 5.495 29.9 700 93.9
35M 7.850 35.7 1000 112.2
45M 11.775 43.7 1500 137.3
55M 19.625 56.4 2500 177.2
(1)

Bar numbers are based upon the rounded nominal diameter of the bars.
(2) The nominal dimensions of a deformed bar are equivalent to those of a plain round bar having the same linear mass as the deformed
bar.

Fig. 8.2.7 Detailing and estimating dimensions
(1)
(mm) for standard end hooks
(2)
for deformed reinforcing
bars
Steel Grade
(4)
300 R 400 R or 500 R 400 W or 500 W
180 Hook 90 Hook 180 Hook
(4)
90 Hook 180Hook
(4)
90 Hook
Nominal
Size
D J G
(3)
A or G D J G
(3)
A or G D J G
(3)
A or G
10M 60 83 131 177 70 93 141 182 60 83 131 177
15M 90 122 169 252 100 132 180 257 90 122 169 252
20M 120 159 218 314 100 139 196 304
25M 150 200 276 403 150 200 276 403
30M 250 310 404 513 200 260 351 488
35M 300 371 484 614 250 321 431 589
45M 450 537 682 793 400 487 628 768
55M 600 713 900 1033 550 663 847 1008

(1) The dimensions provided use the minimum bend diameters (D) permitted in Annex A, Table 16 in A23.3.
(2) Standard hooks are defined in Clause 6.6.2.2 of A23.1
(3) Add the additional hook dimension G to the detailing dimension to estimate the total bar length:
For 180 hooks: G = (4d
b
> 60 mm) + (D + d
b
) / 2 D / 2 d
b
For 90 and 135 hooks: G A = 12d
b
+ D / 2 + d
b
(4)

Special fabrication is required for bends exceeding 90 for 45M and 55M bars for steel grades 400 R or 500 R.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES REINFORCING BARS
Fig. 8.2.8 Compression lap splices
Bar Size Bar Grade Within Ties
(3)
Within Spirals
(4)
Standard Lap
10M 400 300 300 300
15M 400 440 370 330
20M 400 590 490 440
25M 400 730 610 550
30M 400 880 730 660
35M 400 1030 850 770
10M 500 430 360 320
15M 500 640 530 480
20M 500 850 710 640
25M 500 1070 890 800
30M 500 1280 1060 960
35M 500 1490 1240 1120
(1) Calculated according to CSA Standard A23.3, Clause 12.14 and 12.16. The minimum length of compression lap splice shall not be less
than 0.073 f
y
d
b
nor (0.133 f
y
24) d
b
for f
y
greater than 400 MPa, nor 300 mm.
(3) In compre embers where ties have an effective area A
v
0.0015 h , 0.83 times the standard lap length may be used, but not less
than 300 mm.
( irals of spiral tied c 0.75 times the standard lap 0 mm may be used.
(2) When bars of different sizes are to be lap spliced in compression, the splice length shall be the larger of the compression development
length of the larger bar or the splice length of the smaller bar. 45M and 55M bars may be lap spliced to 35M and smaller bars.
ssion m
s
4) Within sp olumns, but not less than 30

Fig. 8 Tension develo n ths,
dh
(
sin an hook r deformed bars w
y
= 400 MPa
[C .5
dh
(2)
= m [CI. 12.5.3]), but not less than
b
or 150 mm, whichever is gre
* The values tabulated below give the basic hoo ve en th
hb
), a in CI .2].
( Nominal Deformed Reinforcin r Siz
1)
, u g st dard s fo ith f .2.9 pme t leng
I. 12 .1].
* x (factors fro 8 d ater
hb
k de lopm t leng (mm ccord g to [ .12.5
c
f e MPa) g Ba
10M 15M 20M 2 0M 35M 5M 3 45M 50M
20 252 357 437 564 668 798 977 1262
25 226 319 391 505 597 714 874 1128
30 206 291 357 461 545 651 798 1030
35 191 270 330 426 505 603 739 954
40 178 252 309 399 472 564 691 892
45 168 238 291 376 445 532 651 841
50 160 226 276 357 422 505 618 798
55 152 215 264 340 403 481 589 761
60 146 206 262 326 385 461 564 728
64 141 199 244 315 373 446 546 705
Note: Special fabrication is required for bends greater than 90 for 45M and 55M bars for steel grades 400 R and 500 R [Annex A, Table 16].
n of the hood and the straight length to the critical erection. (1) The development length includes the out to out dimensio
(2) The hooks must satisfy the dimensions for standard hooks shown in Fig. 8.2.7
MATERIAL PROPERTIES REINFORCING BARS
Fig. 8.2.10 Development lengths (mm) based on Table 12.1 in A23.3
(1)
for heavier confined
(2)
deformed
forcing ba 400 MPa l density
Mod ion Factors Includ
(MPa)
10M 5M 20M 25 30M 35M 55M
rein rs
(5) (3) (4)
with f
y
= , for norma concrete .
c
f
ificat ed 1 M 45M
20 322 3 644 100 1207 1409 2214 48 6 1811
25 288 2 576 900 1080 1260 1980 43 1620
k
1
= 1.0 m bars) 30 263 4 526 82 986 1150 1807 (botto 39 2 1479
35 243 5 487 761 913 1065 1673 36 1369
k
2
= 1.0 (uncoated bars) 40 228 2 455 71 854 996 1565 34 2 1281
45 215 2 429 67 805 939 1476 32 1 1207
k
3
= 1.0 (normal density concrete 50 204 5 407 63 764 891 1400
(4)
) 30 6 1146
55 194 1 388 60 728 849 1335 29 7 1092
60 186 9 372 5 697 813 1278 27 81 1046
64 180 0 360 5 675 788 1238 27 63 1013
20 483 724 966 1509 1811 2113 2717 3321
25 432 648 864 1350 1620 1890 2430 2970
k = 1.0 (bottom bars) 30 394 592 789 1232 1479 1725 2218 2711
1
2510 35 365 548 730 1141 1369 1597 2054
k = 1.5 (epoxy coated bars) 40 342 512 683 1067 1281 1494 1921 2348
2
45 322 483 644 1006 1207 1409 1811 2214
k = 1.0 (normal density concrete
3
6 1718 2100
(4)
) 50 305 458 611 955 1146 133
55 291 437 583 910 1092 1274 1638 2002
60 279 418 558 871 1046 1220 1569 1917
64 270 405 540 844 1013 1181 1519 1856
20 419 628 837 1308 1570 1831 2355 2878
25 374 562 749 1170 1404 1638 2106 2574
k 1.3 (top bars) 30 342 513 684 1068 1282 1495 = 1923 2350
1
35 316 475 633 989 1187 1384 1780 2175
k
2
= coated bars) 40 0 1295 1665 2035 1.0 (un 296 444 592 925 111
4 46 122 0 1919 5 279 419 558 872 10 1 157
k
3
= 1 l concre 265 7 827 993 1 1489 1820 .0 (norma density te
(4)
) 50 39 529 158
252 9 505 789 947 1 1420 5 55 37 104 173
242 3 483 755 906 1 1359 2 60 36 057 166
234 1 468 731 878 1 1316 9 64 35 024 160
547 1 10 1711 2053 2 3079 3763 20 82 95 395
490 4 979 1530 1836 2 2754 3366 25 73 185
447 0 894 1397 1676 1 2514 3073 30 67 994
k
1
1.7 (top on and e 414 1 8 1293 552 1 2328 5 k = locati poxy 35 62 28 1 847 284
2
coat ars) 40 387 1 774 1210 1451 1 2177 2661 ed b 58 727
365 7 730 1140 1368 1 2053 2509 45 54 628
k
3
ormal d y concre 346 9 692 1082 1298 1 1947 2380 = 1.0 (n ensit te
(4)
) 50 51 545
55 330 495 660 1032 1238 1473 1857 2269
60 316 474 632 988 1185 1410 1778 2173
64 306 459 612 956 1148 1366 1721 2104
Note: Calculations are based on the nominal bar diameter.
(1) Clear cover and clear spacing of bars must be at least 1.0 d
b
and 1.4 d
b
, respectively.
(2) for lighter confinement, Other cases in Table 12.1 in A23.3, multiply s by 1.33. To qualify for heavier
confinement, must have either: member containing minimum stirrups or ties within or slabs, walls, shells or folded plates having
clear spacing between bars being developed not less than 2d
b
.
(3) for f
y
400 MPa, multiply development length by f
y
/ 400.
(4) Multiply table values by : k
3
=1.3 for structural low density concrete k
3
= 1.2 for structural semi-low density concrete.
(5) The appropriate bar size factor k
4
has been applied. For concrete strengths > 64 MPa, use development length for 64 MPa.
(6) After application of all modification factors, the development length must not be less than 300 mm.
the above table value
d
, l
MATERIAL PROPERTIES DEFORMED WIRE
Fig. 8.2.11 Development lengths (mm) based on Table 12.1 in A23.3
(1)
for heavier confined
(2)
deformed
wire
(5)
with f
y
= 400 MPa
(3)
, for normal density concrete
(4)
.
Modification Factors Included
c
f (MPa) .1 3.3 18 D2 MD M MD9.1 MD11 MD1 MD .7 M 5.8 34.9 D47.6
20 110 121 133 157 185 215 251
25 98 108 119 41 165 1 1 92 224
k
1
= 1.0 (bottom bars) 30 8 28 15 1 89 99 10 1 1 75 205
35 83 92 100 19 140 1 1 62 189
k
2
= 1.0 (uncoated bars) 11 13 1 40 78 86 94 1 0 52 177
45 73 81 88 105 123 143 167
k
3
= 1.0 (normal density concrete
(4)
) 99 117 1 50 69 77 84 36 159
55 66 73 80 95 111 129 151
60 63 70 77 91 107 124 145
64 61 68 74 88 103 120 140
20 164 182 199 36 277 3 2 22 376
25 147 162 178 11 248 2 2 88 336
k
1
= 1.0 (bottom bars) 30 2 92 22 2 134 148 16 1 6 63 307
35 124 137 150 78 209 2 1 43 284
k
2
= 1.5 (epoxy coated bars) 40 1 67 196 2 116 128 14 1 28 266
45 110 121 133 57 185 2 1 15 251
k
3
(4)
) 6 49 175 2 50 104 115 12 1 04 238
55 99 109 120 42 167 1 1 94 227
60 95 105 115 36 160 1 1 86 217
64 92 102 111 32 155 1 1 80 210
20 142 157 172 04 240 2 2 79 326
25 127 141 154 83 215 2 1 50 291
k
1
= 1.3 (top bars) 1 67 196 2 30 116 128 14 1 28 266
35 108 119 130 54 181 2 1 11 246
k
2
= 1.0 (uncoated bars) 2 44 17 1 40 101 111 12 1 0 97 230
45 95 105 115 36 160 1 1 86 217
k
3
(4)
) 9 29 152 1 50 90 100 10 1 76 206
55 86 95 104 23 145 1 1 68 197
60 82 91 99 118 139 161 188
64 80 88 96 114 134 156 182
20 186 206 225 67 314 3 2 65 426
25 167 184 201 39 281 3 2 26 381
30 152 168 184 18 256 2 2 98 348
k
1
k
2
= 1.7 (top location and epoxy 0 02 237 2 35 141 156 17 2 76 322
coated bars) 40 9 89 222 2 132 146 15 1 58 301
45 124 137 150 78 209 2 1 43 284
k = 1.0
3
(normal density concrete
(4)
) 50 118 130 142 69 198 2 1 31 270
6 61 189 2 55 112 124 13 1 20 257
0 54 181 2 60 108 119 13 1 11 246
6 49 175 2 64 104 115 12 1 04 238
Note: Calculations are based on the nominal bar diamete
) Clear cover and clear spacing of bars must be at least and
b
, respectively.
) for lighter confinement, Other cases in Tabl in mul e above table values by qu he nfi
or ties within or slabs, walls, shells or folded plates having clear spacing
(4)
te strengths > 64 MPa, use development length for 64 MPa.
r.
(1 1.0 d
b
1.4 d
(2 e 12.1 A23.3, tiply th 1.33. To alify for avier co nement,
must have either: member containing minimum stirrups
d
, l
between bars being developed not less than 2d .
b
(3) for f
y
400 MPa, multiply development length by f
y
/ 400.
Multiply table values by : k
3
=1.3 for structural low density concrete k
3
= 1.2 for structural semi-low density concrete.
ncre (5) The appropriate bar size factor k
4
has been applied. For co
(6) After application of all modification factors, the development length must not be less than 300 mm.
MA C

mete c re

-Sectional
t
Equivalent

Equivalent
p
t
TERIAL PROPERTIES WELDED WIRE FABRI
Fig. 8.2.12 Standard styles of welded wire fabric
Wire Wire Cross-
Mass Cross
a
per Un
Area
it A
per Me
rea
re Width
Imperia
Styles
l Im
S
erial
yles
Dia r Se tional A
Metric Designation
mm in.
Lon
mm
2
ransv
mm
2 / m
2 g.
2
sv.
2 e No Numbers
g. T . Lon Tran
kg Gaug . W
mm mm
152152 MW9.1MW9.1 3.40 0.134 9.1 9.1 04 .8 0/10 6W1 1.4 1. 59 59.8 66 1 6 .4/W
15 1 3.76 0.148 11.1 11.1 26 .0 /9 6W1 1.7 2 152 MW11.1 MW11. 1. 73 73.0 66 9 6 .7/W
152152 MW13.3MW13.3 4.12 0.162 13.3 13.3 50 .5 /8 6W2 2.1 1. 87 87.5 66 8 6 .1/W
15 0.192 18.7 18.7 11 .0 /6 6W2 2.9 2152 MW18.7MW18.7 4.88 2. 123 123.0 66 6 6 .9/W
152152 MW25.8MW25.8 5 74 . 0.226 25.8 25.8 91 .0 1 /4 6W4/W4 2. 170 70.0 6 6 4 6
152152 MW34.9MW34.9 6.67 0.262 34.9 34.9 95 .0 2 /2 6W5 5.4 3. 230 30.0 66 2 6 .4/W
152152 MW47.6MW47.6 7.79 0.306 47.6 47.6 38 .0 3 /0 6W7 7.4 5. 313 13.0 66 0 6 .4/W
102x102 MW9.1MW9.1 3.40 0.134 9. 9.1 52 .2 0/10 4W1 1.4 1 1. 89 89.2 44 1 4 .4/W
102x102 MW11.1MW11.1 3.76 0.148 1. 11.1 83 .0 /9 4W1 1.7 1 1. 109 109.0 44 9 4 .7/W
102x102 MW13.3MW13.3 4.12 0.162 13. 13.3 18 .0 /8 4W2 2.1 3 2. 130 130.0 44 8 4 .1/W
102x102 MW18.7MW18.7 4.88 0.192 18. 18.7 07 .0 /6 4W2 2.9 7 3. 183 183.0 44 6 4 .9/W
102x102 MW25.8MW25.8 5.74 0.226 25. 25.8 23 .0 /4 4W4/W4 8 4. 253 253.0 44 4 4
51 0.080 3. 3.2 03 .8 4/14 N/ 51 MW3.2MW3.2 2.03 2 1. 62 62.8 22 1 A
5151 MW5.6MW5.6 2 69 . 0.106 5. 5.6 80 .0 2/12 N/ 6 1. 110 110.0 2 2 1 A
5151 MW9.1MW9.1 3.40 0.134 9.1 9.1 94 .0 0/10 2W1 1.4 2. 178 178.0 2 2 1 2 .4/W
MATERIAL PROPERTIES WELDED WIRE FABRIC
Fig. 8.2.13 Sectional areas of welded wire fabric
2
As (mm / m
ntre Spa
)
Ce to Centre cing (mm)
Wire Size
S
Number
ed
No
M
(k
254
Nom. m.
Diam.
(mm)
ass
g/m)
mooth Deform
51 76 102 152 203 305
MW 129.0 MD 129.0 5 12.83 1.01 2540 1693 1270 847 635 08 423
MW 116.0 MD 116.0 2 0. 2 1 1 .17 911 286 524 1143 762 572 457 381
MW 103.0 MD 103.0 11 0. 20 1 .46 809 32 355 1016 677 508 406 339
MW 90.3 MD 90.3 10 0. 17 1 .72 708 78 185 889 593 445 356 296
MW 77.4 MD 77.4 9 0. 15 1 .93 607 24 016 762 508 381 305 254
MW 71.0 MD 71.0 9 0. 13 .50 556 97 931 699 466 349 279 233
MW 67.9 9 0. 13 .30 531 34 889 667 445 332 267 222
MW 64.5 MD 64.5 9 0. 12 .07 506 70 847 635 423 318 254 212
MW 61.3 8. 0. 120 84 481 7 804 603 402 301 241 201
MW 58.1 MD 58.1 8 0.9 11 .59 36 43 762 572 381 286 229 191
MW 54.9 8 0. 10 .36 430 80 720 540 360 269 216 180
MW 51.6 MD 51.6 8 0. 10 .10 405 16 677 508 339 254 203 169
MW 48.4 7 0. 9 .85 379 53 635 476 318 237 191 159
MW 45.2 MD 45.2 7 0. 8 .60 354 89 593 445 296 222 178 148
MW 42.1 7 0.3 8 165 8 .32 29 26 550 413 275 205 13
MW 38.7 MD 38.7 7 0.3 7 152 7 .01 04 62 508 381 254 191 12
MW 35.5 6 0.2 6 .73 78 99 466 349 233 174 140 116
MW 32.3 MD 32.3 6.40 0.253 635 423 318 212 159 127 106
MW 28.9 6.07 0.228 572 381 286 191 142 114 95.3
MW 25.8 MD 25.8 5.74 0.202 508 339 254 169 127 102 84.7
MW 22.6 5.36 0.177 445 296 222 148 110 88.9 74.1
MW 19.2 4.95 0.152 381 254 191 127 95.3 76.2 63.5
MW 18.7 4.88 0.147 368 245 184 123 91.0 74.1 61.4
MW 16.0 4.52 0.126 317 212 159 106 78.3 63.5 52.9
MW 13.5 4.11 0.106 267 178 133 88.9 65.6 52.9 44.5
MW 12.9 4.06 0.101 254 169 127 84.7 63.5 50.8 42.3
MW 9.7 3.51 0.076 191 127 95.3 63.5 48.7 38.1 31.8
MW 9.0 3.40 0.071 178 119 88.9 59.3 44.5 36.0 29.6
Note:
(1) Wire sizes other than those listed above including larger sizes may be produced provided the quantity required is sufficient to justify
manufacture.
(2) Smooth Wires (ASTM A185) and deformed wires (ASTM A497) are available in a variety of steel grades (fy= 448 MPa to 552 MPa).
Check grades and availibility with suppliers

MATERIAL PROPERTIES WIRE
Fig. 8.2.14 Wire sizes in customary and metric units
W UMBE CUSTOMA ITS U.S. UNITS C UNITS EQUIV. &D SIZE N R RY UN METRI
Smooth Deform
ina
e
A
Nominal
W ht
e
Diam
W o ed
Nom
Diamet
l
Ga
Nominal
rea Wir ge Area M r MD
r eig eter
(in.) mb (mm)
2
) Size (sq.in.) (lb./ft) Nu er (mm
W 20 505 0.200 12. MW 20 D 0. 0.680 8 129.0 129.0
490 0.1 /0 12. MW 0. 89 0.643 7 4 121.9 121.9
W D18 479 0.180 12. MW 18 0. 0.612 2 116.1 116.1
462 0.1 /0 11. MW 0. 68 0.511 6 7 108.4 108.4
W D16 451 0.160 11. MW 16 0. 0.544 5 103.2 103.2
0.431 0.1 0 10. MW 46 0.495 5/ 9 94.2 94.2
W14 D14 422 0.1 10. MW 0. 40 0.476 7 90.3 90.3
0.394 0.1 0 10. MW 22 0.414 4/ 0 78.7 78.7
W12 D12 391 0.1 9. MW 0. 20 0.408 9 77.4 77.4
W11 D11 374 0.1 9. MW 0. 10 0.374 5 71.0 71.0
W 0.366 0.1 9. MW 10.5 05 0.357 3 67.9 67.9
363 0.1 0 9. MW 0. 03 0.351 3/ 2 66.5 66.5
W10 D10 0.357 0.1 9. MW 00 0.340 1 64.5 64.5
W 348 0.0 8. MW 9.5 0. 95 0.323 8 61.3 61.3
W9 D9 0.338 0.0 8. MW 90 0.306 6 58.1 58.1
331 0.0 0 8. MW 0. 86 0.292 2/ 4 55.5 55.5
W 0.329 0.0 8. MW5 8.5 85 0.289 4 54.9 4.9
W8 D8 319 0.0 8. MW5 0. 80 0.272 1 51.6 1.6
W 0.309 0.0 7. W4 7.5 75 0.255 8 48.4 M 8.4
0.307 0.0 0 7. W4 74 0.251 1/ 8 47.6 M 7.6
W7 D7 0.299 0.7 7. W4 07 0.238 6 45.2 M 5.2
W 0.288 0.0 7. W4 6.5 65 0.221 3 42.1 M 2.1
0.283 0.0 7.2 W4 63 0.214 1 40.6 M 0.6
W6 D6 0.276 0.0 7.0 W3 60 0.204 38.7 M 8.7
W 0.265 0.0 6.7 W3 5.5 55 0.187 35.5 M 5.5
0.263 0.0 6.7 W3 54 0.184 2 34.9 M 4.9
W5 D5 0.252 0.050 0.170 6.4 32.3 MW32.3
0.244 0.047 0.158 3 6.2 30.3 MW30.3
W4.5 0.239 0.045 0.153 6.1 28.9 MW28.9
W4 0.040 0.136 4 5.7 25.8 MW25.8 D4 0.226
W3.5 0.211 0.035 0.119 5.4 22.6 MW22.6
0.207 0.034 0.114 5 5.3 22.0 MW22.0
W3 0.195 0.030 0.102 5.0 19.2 MW19.2
W2.9 0.192 0.029 0.098 6 4.9 18.7 MW18.7
W2.5 0.178 0.025 0.085 7 4.5 16.0 MW16.0
W2.1 0.162 0.021 0.707 8 4.1 13.3 MW13.3
W2 0.160 0.020 0.068 4.1 12.9 MW12.9
0.148 0.017 0.059 9 3.8 11.1 MW11.1
W1.5 0.138 0.015 0.051 3.5 9.7 MW9.7
W1.4 0.134 0.014 0.049 10 3.4 9.1 MW9.1

8.3 SECTION PROPERTIES
Fig. 8.3.1 Properties of geometric sections

SQUARE
Axis of Mom ents Through
Center

A = d
2
c =
d
2

I =
4
d
12

S =
3
d
6

r =
d
0.288675d
12
=

RECTANGLE
Axis o D f Moments on iagonal

A = bd
c =
2
d
2
bd
b +

I =
3 3
2
d )
2
6(b +
b d

S =
2
b d
2
2
6 d +
2
b

r =
2
6(b
2
d
d ) +

b

SQ UARE
Axis of Mo ents on Base m

A d =
2
c = d
I =
4
d
3

S =
3
d
3

r =
d
0.577350d
3
=

RECTANGLE
Axis of Moments Any Line
Through er of Gra nt Ce vity

A = bd
c =
bsina dcos
2
+ a

I =
2
d(b
2
b sin a )
12
+
2 2
d cos a
S =
2 2
b sin a )
sina
+
+
2 2
d(b d cos a
6(b dcosa)
r =
2
b si
2
n a d
12
+
2 2
cos a

SQ E UAR
Axis of Moments on Diagonal

A = d
2
c =
d
0.707107d
2
=
I =
4
d
12

S =
3
3
d
0.117851d
2
=
6
r =
d
0.288675d
12
=

HOLLOW RECTANGLE
Axis of Moments Through
Center

A = b d
1
d b
1
c =
d
2

I =
3
d b
3
1 1
b d

12
S =
3

3
1 1
b d

d b
6d
r =
3
bd
3
1 1
b d
A

12

REC NGLE TA
Axis of Mo ents Through m
Center

A = bd
c =
d
2

I =
3
bd
12

S =
2
bd
6

r =
d
0.288675d
12
=

EQUA ANGLE L RECT S
Axis of Moments Through
Center of Gravity

A = b(d d
1
)
c =
d
2

I =
3
(d
3
1
b d )

12
S =
3
(d
3
1
b d )

6d
r =
3

3
1
1
d
12 d )

d
(d
SECTION PROPERTIES
Fig. 8.3.1 Properties of geometric sections (cont.)

RECTANGLE
Axis of n Base Moments o

A = bd
c =
d
2

I =
3
bd
3

S =
2
bd
3

r =
d
0.577350d
3
=
UNEQUAL RECTANGLES
Axis of ugh Moments Thro
Center of Gravity

A t = bt + b
1 1
+
1 1
2 1 1 1
bt b t (d t )
A

2
2
c =

3 3
2 2 1 1
1 1 1
b t bt
bty b t y
12
+ + + I =
12
=
1
1
I I
S S =
c c

I
A
r =

TRIANGLE
Axis of Mom hrough

TRAPEZOID
Axis of Mom gh

1
d(b b )
2
+
A =
bd ents T
ter of Grav
ents Throu
nter of Gravity
A =
Cen ity Ce

2

1
1
d(2b +
c =
b )
(b b ) +

I
3
c =
2d
3

I =

3 2 2
1 1
1
d (b 4bb b )
36(b b )
+ +
+
=

3
bd
36

2 2 2
1 1
1
d (b 4bb b )
12(2b b )
+ +
+
S =

2
bd
24
S =
d
2 2
2(b 4bb b )
1 1
b )
1
+ + r = d
18
r =
6(b +

TRIANGLE

Axis of Mo hrough
Circle Center

4
2 2 3 1
1
y R
8 2
+
PARTIAL CIRCLE
ments T Axis of Moments on Base

A =
bd
2

c = d
I =
3
bd
12

S =
2
bd
12

r =
d
6

Note: Angles in Radians.
I = (R y )

+

2
2 2 2 1 1
1 1
y
R y R sin
4 R

=
R
y

2
2 2
1 1
R
y R y A
2

R
2 1 1
y
R sin
c
2 2 3/ 2
1
2(R y )
3A
=
180sin t
cos R
2

SEGMENT OF A HOLLOW
CIRCLE
( ) A =
t
2R t
180
c =

( )
3
2
360sin t
sin cos R t
180 2

+

I =

x
( )
3
sin cos R t
180

I
y
=

180sin t
R
2

Note: Angles in degrees. y =
SECTION PROPERTIES

CIRCLE
A
Center

xis of Moments Through
A =
2
d
=
2
R
c =
4

d
R
2
=
I =
4 4
d R
64 4
=
S =
3 3
d R
32 4
=
r =
d R
4 2
=

PARABOLA
4
ab
3
A =

2
a
5
m =
3
16
a b
175
I =
1

3
4
ab
15
I
2
=

3
32
a b
105
I
3
=

LE
Axis of Moments Through Center

HA
2
ab
3
A = HOLLOW CIRC LF PARABOLOA

2 2
1
(d d )
4

2
a
5

A =
m =
d
2

3
b
8

c =
n =

4 4
1
(d d )
64

3
8
a b
175

I =
I
1
=
4 4
1
(d d )
32d

3
19
ab
480
I
2
= S =

3
16
a b
105

2 2
1
d d
4

I
3
=
r =

3
2
ab
15
I
4
=

PARABOLIC FILLET
IN RIGHT ANGLE

= a
t
2 2

b =
t
2

A =
2
1
t
6

m = n =
4
t
5

I
1
= I
2
=
4
11
t
2100

COMPLEMENT OF HALF

1
ab
3
A = PARABOLA
7
a
10
m =

3
b
4
n =
3
37
a b
2100
= I
1

3
1
ab
80
I
2
=
SECTION PROPERTIES

ELLIPTI ENT
(1)

(1)
H SE

ALF ELLIP C COMPLEM
ab 1
4

A =

a
6 1
4

m =

1
ab
2
A =

b
6 1
4

4a
3
n = m =

3
8
a b
8 9

I =
1

3
1 1
a b
3 16
36 1
4

3
1
ab
8
I
1
= I
2
=

3
1
a b
8
I =
3

3
1 1
ab
3 16
36 1
4

= I
2

QUARTER ELLIPSE
(1)

A =
1
ab
4

m =
4a
3

n =
4b

3
I
1
=
3
4
a b

16 9

I
2
=
3
ab

4
16 9

I
3
=
3
1
a b
16

I
4
=
3
1
ab
16

REGULAR POLYGON

n = number of sides
180
n
o
=
2 2
1
2 R R a =
a
2sin
R =
a
2tan
R
1
=
2
1
na cot
4
A =
2 2
1
1
nR sin2 nR tan
2
= =
I
1
= I
2
=
2 2
A(6R a )
24

2 2
1
A(12R a )
48
+
=
r
1
= r
2
=
2 2
6R a
24

2
1
12R a
48
+
=
(1) To obtain properties of half circles, quarter circle and circular complement, substitute a = b = R.
SECTION PROPERTIES
BEAMS AND CHANNELS

I
3
=
2 2
x y
I sin I cos +

2 2
x y
I cos I sin + I
4
=

x y
y x
M sin cos
I I

+

f
b
=

Where M is bending moment due to force F.
tan2
y x
2K
I I
=
ANGLE
ty axis of moments though center of gravi

2
b ct
2(b c)
+
+

Note: Z-Z is Axis of Minimum I
A = t(b + c) x = y =
2
d at
2(b c)
+
+

K = out X-X & Y-Y prod ct of inertia ab u
=
abcdt
4( c)

b +

3 3 3
1
[t(d y) by a(y t) ]
3
+ I
x
=

3 3 3
1
[t(b x) dx c(x t) ]
3
+ I
y
=

2 2
x y
I sin I cos Ksin2 + + I
z
=
I
w
= 2
2 2
x y
I cos I sin Ksin +

K is negative when heel of angle, with resp t to center of ec
gravity, is in first or third quadrant, positive when in second
or fourth quadrant.

SECTION PROPERTIES
Fig. 8.3.2 Plastic section moduli and shape factors
SECTION PLASTIC MODULUS, Z
3
, mm
3
SHAPE FACTOR

2
bh
1.5
4

x-x axis
2
w
bt(h t) (h 2t)
4
+

1.12 (approx.)

y-y axis
2 2
b t (h 2t)w
2 4
+

1.55 (approx.)

2
w(h 2t)
bt(h t)
4
1.12 (appr + ox.)

3
h
6
1.70
3

3
3
h 2t
1 1
h 6

th
2
for t << h
4
3
2t
1 1
h

2t
1 1
16 h

1.27 for t << h

2
2
bh 2w 2t
1 1 1
4 b h

1.12 (approx.) for thin walls

2
bh
12
2
Note: For other shapes, refer to the CISC Steel Design Handbook for Z
s
values.
8.4 METRIC UNITS
Fig. 8.4.1 SI base units
Qu Preferre antity d Units Description Base Units
Area mm Square Millimetre
Coefficient of thermal expansion 1/DegC Reciprical of Degree Celcius
Density, mass kg/m Kilogram per Cubic Metre
Electric current A Ampere
Energy, work, quantity of hea J Joule 1 J = Nm t
Force N Ne 1 N = kg-m/s wt on
Force per unit length N/m Newton per Me
1 kg/m x 9.
= (9.81 kg)(m)/(s)(1)/m
= 9.81 N/m
81 m/s
tre
Frequency Hz Hert 1 Hz = 1/s z
Heat Capacity J/K Joule per Kelvin (m)(kg)/(s)(K)
Length mm Millimetre 1000 mm = 1 m
m Metre 1 km = 1000 m
km Kilometre
m Micrometre 1m = 1x10
-6
m
Luminus intensity cd Candela
Mass kg Kilogram 1000 kg = 1 tonne
t Tonne
Modulus of Elasticity MPa Mega Pascal 1 MPa = 1 N/mm
2
Modulus, section mm
3
Cubic Millimetre
Moment of inertia mm
4
Millimeter to Fourth Power
Moment of force Nm Newton Metre (m)(kg)/s
Plane angle deg 1 = (/180)rad
minute 1' = (/10,800)rad
Power W Watt 1 W = 1 J/s = (m)(kg)/s
Pressure Pa Pascal 1 Pa = 1 N/m
Specific volume m
3
/kg Cubic Metre per Kilogram
Stress MPa 1 MPa = 1 N/mm Mega Pascal
Temperature C Degree Celsius
Thermal conductivity W/mC Watt per Metre Celsius (m)(kg)/(s)(C)
Thermodynamic temperature K Kelvin 0C = 273.15 Kelvin
Time S Second
Min Minute 1 min = 60 s
H Hour 1 h = 3600 s
Torque kN-m Kilonewton Metre
Volume m
3
Cubic Meter
mm
3
Cubic Millimetre

CONVERSION FACTORS
ctors
Imperi Imp
Fig. 8.4.2 Conversion fa
Item SI - al erial - SI
Acceleration
1 m / s = 0.3048 m/s = 3.2808 ft/s 1f t/s
1 ha = 2 = 0.4046856 ha .471 acres 1 acre
Area
1 m = t = 0.09290304 m 10.764 ft 1 f

1 mm 0
-3
in 1 in = 645.16 mm = 1.55 x 1

1 km = mi
2
589988 km 1 mi = 2. 0.3861

1 m = 274 m 1.20 yd 1 yd = 0.8361

Capacity
1 mL = 35.2x10
-3
oz 1 L oz = 28.413062 m
(Canadian Legal Units)
1 L = 0.220 gal 1 gal = 4.546090 L
1 L = 1. 8261 L 76 pt 1 pt = 0.56

1 L = 0.880 qt 1 qt = 1.136522 L

Mass
1 kg / m m = 0.672 lb/ft 1 lb/ft = 1.48816 kg/
Density,
1 kg / m /yd m = 2.016 lb 1 lb/ft = 0.496055 kg/

1 g / m
-3
oz/ft 1 oz/ft = 305.152 g/m = 3.227x10

1 kg / m t kg/m = 0.205 lb/f 1 lb/ft = 4.88243

1 kg / m 0

lb/in 1 lb/in = 703.069 kg/m
-3
= 1.42x1

1 kg / m 0
-3
lb/ft kg/m 1 lb/ft = 16.01846 = 62.4x1

1 Mg / m b/in lb/in = 27.67990 Mg/m = 0.0361 l 1

1 kN = kN 0.225 kip 1 kip = 4.448222
Force
1 m = 3. ft = 0.3048 m = 304.8 mm 28 ft 1
Length
1 mm = in = 25.4 mm 0.0394 in 1

1 km = 09344 km 0.622 mile 1 mile = 1.6

1 m = 1. yd 09 1 yd = 0.9144 m

1 kg = 2 lb kg .20 1 lb = 0.45359237
Mass
1 Mg = n = 2200lb 474 Mg 1.10 to 1 ton (2000 lb) = 0.90718

Unit Area
1 kg/m /ft 43 kg/m = 0.205 lb 1 lb/ft = 4.882
Mass per
ngth
1 kg/m lb/ft = 1.48816 kg/m = 0.672 lb/ft 1
Mass per unit le
Moment of Inertia

oment of area
1 mm
4
in
4
= 416231.4 mm
4
= 2.4x10
a) Second M
- 6
in 1
4
1 mm
3
4 mm
-3
b) Section Modulus
= 0.06x10 in 1 in
3
= 16387.06
1 MPa ksi a = 0.145 1 ksi = 6.894757 MP
Pressure or Stress
1 Pa = f psf = 47.88026 Pa 0.0209 ps 1

1 kPa = si 57 kPa 0.145 p 1 psi = 6.8947

orque or Moment of Force
1 kN-m 8 k-ft 818 kN-m = 0.73 1 k-ft = 1.355
T
Volume
1 mm in = 16387.064 mm
-3
in 1 = 0.061x10
1 dm = ft = 28.31685 dm 0.0353 ft 1

1 m = = 0.764555 m 1.308 yd 1 yd

1 L = 0.2199 gal (Can) 1 gal (Can) = 4.54609 L

1 m
3
= 219.9 gal (Can)

CPCI Design Manual 4 Index1
INDEX

Absorption............................................... 5-24 to 5-26
Acceptable noise criteria ........................... 6-19, 6-20
Aggregate ..................................1-24, 5-2, 5-13, 5-19
Air / Vapour barrier ...................................... 5-3, 5-13
Air barrier ...............................................................6-5
Air entrainment ....................................................1-26
Air leakage.............................................................6-5
Air space........................................... 5-12, 5-14, 5-20
Airborne sound ....................................................6-15
Aircraft cable........................................................3-98
Aluminum foil .......................................................5-13
Analysis .....................................5-5, 5-10, 5-13, 5-21
Anchor rods .........................................................4-56
Anchorage elements......................... 4-25, 4-56, 4-59
Anchorage, Anchors ....................... 5-3, 5-13 to 5-17,
....................................................... 5-21 to 5-25, 5-27
Angles..................................................................4-52
Architectural aesthetics ...............5-2, 5-4, 5-17, 5-21
Architectural panel ...............................................2-72
Backup............................5-20, 5-21, 5-23, 5-25, 5-28
Balanced design - Fire............................... 6-31, 6-32
Base plates..........................................................4-54
Base shear ..........................................................2-63
Beam design............................................. 8-6 to 8-30
Beam ledges .......................................................4-23
Beam load tables.................................... 7-27 to 7-34
Bearing ..................................................................4-7
Bearing pads..........................................................4-7
Bilinear behavior ..................................................3-58
Bolts - Coil ...........................................................4-61
Bolts - High-strength............................................4-60
Bolts - Standard...................................................4-60
Bolts cast-in - see anchor rods...................................
Bond lifting loops .................................................3-98
Bond, Bond breakers..................... 5-13, 5-20 to 5-24
Bowing..................................2-15 to 2-16, 5-4 to 5-7,
.................................................5-13, 5-14, 5-17, 5-20
Brackets - Concrete ............................................4-14
Brackets - Steel ...................................................4-45
Brick............................................... 5-19, 5-23 to 5-27
Brick liners ...........................................................5-23
Bronze .................................................................5-24
Buckling .................................................. 3-79 to 3-94
Building envelope ............................... 5-4, 5-17, 5-19
Building science............................................. 5-2, 5-3
Camber ................................................... 3-57 to 3-64
Camber multipliers...............................................3-61
Camber load tables................................................7-4
Cantilevers.......................................... 3-108, 5-7, 5-8
Capacity design ...................................................2-60
Carbon content ...................................................4-57
Carbon equivalent................................................4-57
Cast-in bolts - see anchor rods...................................
Caulking, Caulked...................................... 5-17, 5-23
Cement ............................................................... 1-24
Cement grout .............................................. 4-7, 4-59
Cementitious materials ....................................... 5-14
Centre of rigidity...................................... 2-44 to 2-46
Ceramic veneers............................... 5-19, 5-23, 5-24
Checklist ............................................................... 5-2
Chloroprene pads ................................................ 4-7
Cladding, Cladding elements................ 5-2, 5-5, 5-12
Clay, Clay products................................. 5-23 to 5-27
Cleavage............................................................. 5-21
Closed joints ....................................................... 2-85
Coefficients of expansion ................................... 2-14
Coefficients of friction ........................................... 4-9
Colour .................. 5-2, 5-17, 5-19 to 5-21, 5-25, 5-28
Column bases .................................................... 4-54
Column covers...................................... 5-8, 5-9, 5-19
Column design........................................ 3-79 to 3-94
Columns - Eccentrically loaded .............. 2-32 to 2-34
Columns - Fixed base ............................ 2-20 to 2-25
Columns - Interaction curves.................. 7-35 to 7-38
Columns - Precast prestressed ................. 7-35, 7-36
Columns - Precast reinforced .................... 7-37, 7-38
Complex units - Shapes...................... 5-2, 5-20, 5-28
Composite, Non-composite ............ 5-2, 5-12 to 5-14,
................................................................... 5-17, 5-23
Compression elements - Design............. 3-79 to 3-94
Compression elements - Resistance factors ..... 3-79
Compression elements - Wall panels ................. 3-89
Compressive strength of concrete............. 1-24, 1-26
Computer modeling ............................................ 2-26
Concrete exposure classes ................................ 1-25
Concrete materials.............................................. 1-24
Concrete mix design...................................... 5-2, 5-3
Concrete strengths - Load tables.......................... 7-4
Condensation........................................................ 6-5
Confinement reinforcement ....................... 4-13, 4-55
Connections - Fire............................................... 6-41
Construction techniques ....................................... 4-6
Contraction................................................... 5-5, 5-14
Conversion factors.............................................. 8-49
Copper ................................................................ 5-24
Corbels................................................................ 4-14
Corners ........................................................ 5-7, 5-17
Corners - Movement .......................................... 2-15
Cornices................................................................ 5-2
Corrosion protection ............................................. 4-6
Coupled shear walls ............................... 2-47 to 2-48
Couplers.............................................................. 2-88
Cover requirements ............................................ 1-31
Crack width ......................................................... 3-26
Cracks, Cracking, Crack control ..5-5, 5-7, 5-13, 5-17
Creep ......................................5-4 to 5-7, 5-10, 5-11,
.......................................................... 5-17, 5-20, 5-27
Creep loss............................................... 3-33 to 3-44
Index2 CPCI Design Manual 4
Creep strains ................................... 2-7 to 2-14, 3-41
Critical buckling load............................................3-84
Curing ...................................1-24, 2-9, 5-3, 5-5, 5-13
Dapped end .........................................................4-18
Dead loads ................................................. 8-2 to 8-3
Deflection................................2-46, 2-65, 3-67, 2-70,
....................................................... 3-57 to 3-64, 8-25
Deformation, Deflection.............5-2, 5-4 to 5-7, 5-10,
................................................................... 5-11, 5-13
Deformed bar anchors.........................................4-46
Deformed wire data .............................................8-38
Design temperature.............................................2-11
Development length................................ 3-52 to 3-57
Dew point.............................................................6-13
Diaphragm design..............2-17 to 2-20, 2-82 to 2-84
Differential movement..............2-71 to 2-72, 5-5, 5-7,
.............................. 5-12, 5-13, 5-15, 5-17, 5-21, 6-12
Double tee - Load tables .......................... 7-7 to 7-20
Double tee - Wall panels .....................................7-39
Dovetail slots .......................................................5-24
Dowels .................................................................4-59
Draft .....................................................................3-95
Drift ................................................ 2-65, 2-70 to 2-71
Dry pack...............................................................4-63
Ductile, Ductility .................................. 4-6, 5-15, 5-28
Durability............................................... 4-6, 5-4, 5-20
Dynamic analysis procedures................. 2-62 to 2-63
Dynamic stresses ................................. 3-95 to 3-105
Earthquake analysis ............................... 2-60 to 2-84
Eccentrically loaded anchors............ 4-28, 4-34, 4-39
Eccentricity, Eccentric loading....5-6, 5-7, 5-10, 5-11,
................................................................... 5-13, 5-23
Eccentricity, minimum..........................................3-87
Economy, Economical .......................... 5-4, 5-8, 5-20
Edge distance......................................................4-26
Effective flange width ................................ 2-45, 2-51
Effective length ....................................... 2-34 to 2-35
Effective moment of inertia..................................3-59
Elastic shortening ........................................ 3-31, 5-9
Elastomeric pads ...................................................4-7
Embedded steel shapes ......................................4-46
End point criteria - Fire ........................................6-27
Environmental changes .......................................5-17
Epoxy...................................................................4-60
Equivalent static force procedure ........................2-63
Equivalent volume change ..................... 2-26 to 2-32
Erection................ 3-105, 4-7, 5-2 to 5-6, 5-9 to 5-11,
.................................................5-14, 5-19, 5-20, 5-28
Expanded metal...................................................5-14
Expansion...... 5-5, 5-14, 5-20, 5-21, 5-23, 5-25, 5-27
Expansion joints.......................................... 2-7 to 2-9
Fabric bearings pads ..................................... 4-7, 4-8
Facade, Facades.................................. 5-2, 5-9, 5-28
Face mixes ............................................................5-2
Fillet welds...........................................................4-57
Finish ...................................5-2, 5-8, 5-9, 5-11, 5-13,
..............................................5-19 to 5-21, 5-24, 5-28
Fire endurance.................................................... 6-27
Fire protection ...................................................... 4-6
Fire resistance ............................................. 4-6, 6-27
Fire tests .................................................... 6-26, 6-29
Flare bevel groove welds.................................... 4-57
Flat wall panels .......................................... 7-41, 7-42
Flexural design aids................................ 3-13 to 3-24
Flexural element design.......................... 3-10 to 3-31
Flexural element design - Openings................. 3-107
Footing-soil interaction............................ 2-20 to 2-25
Form suction ....................................................... 3-95
Formwork.............................................................. 5-3
Freeze thaw........................................................ 5-23
Freeze thaw and chemical resistance ................ 1-28
Friction .................................................................. 4-9
Function .............................................. 5-2, 5-14, 5-12
Fundamental lateral period................................. 2-63
Galvanized steel ................................................. 1-33
Geometric section properties.................. 8-42 to 8-46
Gergely - Lutz equation ...................................... 3-26
Glass fibre (alkali resistant) .................................. 5-2
Glazed........................................................ 5-23, 5-24
Granite .................................................... 5-20 to 5-22
Gravity loads........................ 5-5, 5-6, 5-9, 5-10, 5-25
Green building rating systems ............................ 6-51
Grout, Mortar, and Drypack ................................ 1-28
Grouted tubes ..................................................... 4-59
Grouting segmental................................. 2-84 to 2-85
Handling................................................ 3-95 to 3-105
Hanger - Cazaly hanger...................................... 4-49
Hanger - Loov hanger......................................... 4-50
Hanger - Reinforcement ..................................... 4-20
Hardboard............................................................. 4-9
Hauling................................................ 3-100 to 3-105
Haunches - Concrete ......................................... 4-14
Haunches - Steel ................................................ 4-46
Headed studs...................................................... 4-25
Heat sink ............................................................ 4-57
High Performance Concrete (HPC) .................... 1-24
Highway noise barriers ....................................... 6-24
Hollow-core - Load tables.......................... 7-22, 7-23
Hollow-core - Section properties................ 7-22, 7-23
Hollow-core - Wall panels................................... 7-40
Horizontal shear...................................... 3-69 to 3-73
Humidity annual average.................................... 2-10
Hydration............................................................. 5-13
I-girder load tables .................................. 7-32 to 7-34
Impact factors ..................................................... 3-95
Impact Insulation Class (IIC)................... 6-18 to 6-20
Importance factors ........................... 2-63, 2-68, 3-10
Insulation, Insulated.................5-8, 5-9, 5-12 to 5-14,
.................... 5-16, 5-17, 5-20, 5-21, 5-23, 5-25, 5-27,
Interaction - Sandwich panels............. 3-109 to 3-112
Interaction curves.................................... 3-83 to 3-94
Interaction, Shear wall-frame.............................. 2-43
Inverted tee load table ............................... 7-28, 7-29
Joint design........................................................... 6-6
Joints .................. 5-3, 5-4, 5-7, 5-9, 5-10, 5-17, 5-21,
....................................................... 5-23 to 5-25, 5-28
Joints - Connections ............................................4-61
Joints - Horizontal ................................................4-62
Joints - Vertical ....................................................4-61
Joints - Earthquake........................ 2-65, 2-71 to 2-72
Joints - Expansion ...................................... 2-7 to 2-8
Joints - Fire................................................ 6-31, 6-32
Joints - Locations........................................ 2-7 to 2-8
Joints - Segmental .................................. 2-84 to 2-87
Lateral buckling................................... 3-100 to 3-104
Lateral deflection ....................2-46, 2-65, 2-67, 2-70
Lateral load connections........................... 2-45, 2-49,
....................................................... 2-66 to 2-67, 2-69
Lateral loads ..................2-7, 2-46, 2-59, 2-62 to 2-63
Lateral period.......................................................2-63
Lateral stability.................................... 3-100 to 3-104
Ledger beams......................................................4-23
Ledges.................................................................4-23
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)..............................6-51
Life Cycle Cost (LCC) ..........................................6-51
Lifting inserts..........................................................4-7
Lifting devices......................................................3-98
Limestone ...................................... 5-14, 5-20 to 5-22
Limit states design...............................................3-10
Live loads.................................................... 8-4 to 8-5
Load bearing...................................... 5-2, 5-5 to 5-13
Load bearing walls - Connections .......................4-61
Load distribution ................................. 3-113 to 3-115
Load factors................................................. 3-10, 4-7
Load multipliers....................................................3-95
Location of connections............................. 2-69, 2-71
Loss of prestress .................................... 3-31 to 3-45
Losses load tables.................................................7-5
Low relaxation strand...........................................1-29
Low-permeability concrete...................................1-25
L-shaped beam load table......................... 7-30, 7-31
Maintenance ..........................................................5-4
Manufacturing........................................................4-6
Marble..................................................... 5-20 to 5-22
Masonry...................................5-12, 5-15, 5-24, 5-25
Mass law..............................................................6-15
Mechanical connections ......................................4-60
Mitred corners.............................................. 5-9, 5-17
Mockups ........................................... 5-19, 5-20, 5-28
Modeling ..............................................................2-26
Modulus of elasticity ......................... 1-27, 5-20, 5-25
Modulus of rupture..................................... 1-26, 5-20
Moisture.................................................................6-4
Moisture barrier....................................................5-21
Moment connections............................................4-59
Moment of inertia sandwich panels ...................3-109
Moment-resisting frames ...2-20 to 2-43, 2-36 to 2-42
Mullions.......................................................... 5-8, 5-9
Neoprene bearing pads .........................................4-7
Nodal zones.........................................................4-13
Non-insulated.........................................................5-2
Non-load bearing .............. 5-2, 5-5 to 5-7, 5-10, 5-11
Non-load bearing walls - Connections................ 4-61
Non-structural components................................. 2-66
Open joints.......................................................... 2-84
Openings........................................................... 3-107
Partial fixity.............................................. 2-20 to 2-25
Partial prestressing................................. 3-44 to 3-52
Partial shear cones ............................................. 4-25
Patching..................................................... 5-19, 5-28
P-delta analysis ...................................... 2-35 to 2-36
Permeability, Permeance.................................... 5-23
Pervious/Impervious ........................................... 5-12
Piles ........................................................ 3-91 to 3-94
Piles - Load tables ..................................... 7-43, 7-44
Plain concrete bearing........................................ 4-10
Plastic bearing strip............................................... 4-9
Plastic section modulii ........................................ 8-47
Poissons ratio............................................ 1-27, 5-25
Porous........................................................ 5-14, 5-20
Post-tensioned bar.............................................. 4-62
Post-tensioning ................................................... 1-37
Post-tensioning - Design..................... 3-113 to 3-141
Post-tensioning anchor data................... 8-33 to 8-34
Post-tensioning bar data..................................... 8-31
Post-tensioning - Segmental...................... 2-87, 2-88
Precast openings ....................................... 6-63, 6-64
Preliminary analysis ............................................. 2-6
Prestress loss ......................................... 3-32 to 3-44
Prestress transfer................................................ 3-52
Prestress, Prestressed ...... 5-3, 5-7, 5-13, 5-14, 5-23
Prestressing - Strand data...................... 8-31 to 8-32
Prestressing - Load tables.................................... 7-5
Product information and capability........................ 7-1
Production...................................4-6, 5-2 to 5-5, 5-11
Properties......................... 5-3, 5-13, 5-20, 5-21, 5-24
Quality control ....................................................... 5-3
Quirk mitre ............................................................ 5-9
Rain penetration.................................................... 6-4
Rainscreen.......................................................... 5-20
Rational design for fire........................................ 6-40
Rectangular beam load table.............................. 7-27
Reinforced concrete bearing............................... 4-12
Reinforcement................... 1-29, 5-3, 5-7, 5-10, 5-13,
.................................................5-14, 5-16, 5-20, 5-24
Reinforcement ratio ............................................ 5-10
Reinforcing bar design data.................... 8-35 to 8-37
Reinforcing bar welding ...................................... 4-57
Relative humidity................................................. 6-14
Relaxation........................................................... 3-31
Release stresses ................................................ 3-28
Repetition....................................................... 5-2, 5-4
Resistance factors .............................................. 3-11
Restrained elements - Fire ........................ 6-28, 6-40
Restrained volume change.................... 2-25 to 2-32,
..................................................2-36 to 2-42, 4-6, 4-7
Restraint....................................5-5 to 5-7, 5-14, 5-17
Reveals............................................... 5-2, 5-17, 5-19
Index4 CPCI Design Manual 4
Rib, Ribs ............................................. 5-2, 5-13, 5-14
Ribbed .......................................5-9, 5-10, 5-14, 5-15
Ribbed Panels - Design considerations . 3-90 to 3-91
Ribbed Panels - Handling..................... 3-97 to 3-100
Rift........................................................................5-21
RSI-value.................................................. 6-8 to 6-12
Samples......................................... 5-19 to 5-21, 5-23
Sandblast.............................................................5-19
Sandwich panels.............................. 5-12, 5-13, 5-17,
.......................................................... 5-23, 5-25, 5-27
Sandwich panels - Design.................. 3-108 to 3-112
Sandwich panels - Seismic Considerations ........2-72
Sealing, Sealants.............................. 5-10, 5-11, 5-23
Second degree parabola .....................................2-17
Second order analysis ............................ 2-34 to 2-36
Segmental construction................. 1-38, 2-84 to 2-88
Seismic ..................... 5-5, 5-6, 5-10, 5-16, 5-25, 5-28
Seismic analysis ..................................... 2-60 to 2-84
Self-Consolidating Concrete (SCC).....................1-24
Service limit state.................................... 3-26 to 3-57
Shape factors............................................... 4-8, 8-47
Shape, Shaped....................5-2, 5-8, 5-9, 5-11, 5-15,
.................................................5-21, 5-23, 5-24, 5-28
Shear capacity.....................................................5-14
Shear connectors.................................... 5-14 to 5-17
Shear design........................................... 3-64 to 3-79
Shear horizontal...................................... 3-69 to 3-73
Shear lag ....................................... 2-59 to 2-60, 2-70
Shear resistance - Fire ........................................6-41
Shear strength of concrete ........................ 1-27, 3-64
Shear transfer ..........................5-12, 5-13, 5-16, 5-17
Shear transfer between elements........... 2-18 to 2-19
Shear wall buildings................................ 2-43 to 2-60
Shear walls .......................2-43 to 2-60, 2-76 to 2-82,
................................................................... 5-10, 5-12
Shear-friction .......................................................4-10
Sheet piles...........................................................7-44
Shrinkage....................................5-5, 5-6, 5-11, 5-15,
.................................................5-17, 5-20, 5-23, 5-27
Shrinkage and creep............................................1-27
Shrinkage strains...................................... 2-9 to 2-14
SI units.................................................................8-48
Sidesway .............................................................3-86
Sill ........................................................................5-19
Single tee load tables ..........................................7-21
Slenderness effects ...........2-35 to 2-40, 3-84 to 3-89
Soffit.....................................................................5-19
Soil modulus ........................................................2-21
Solid concrete rib....................................... 5-13, 5-14
Sound control.......................................................6-23
Sound leaks.........................................................6-23
Sound Transmission Class (STC) ............ 6-16, 6-17,
................................................................ 6-20 to 6-23
Span-depth ratios ............................... 2-6, 3-115, 7-4
Spandrels.......................................... 5-6 to 5-7, 5-11,
................................................................... 5-12, 5-19
Spandrels - Prestressed design ............. 3-74 to 3-79
Stability .............................................. 3-100 to 3-104,
............................................... 5-2, 5-5, 5-8, 5-9, 5-15
Stainless steel................ 1-34, 4-25, 5-14, 5-21, 5-24
Standardization...................... 2-6, 4-7, 5-2, 5-4, 5-11
Static friction ......................................................... 4-9
Steel haunches ................................................... 4-46
Steel sleeves.............................................. 4-60, 4-65
Stiffener............................................................... 4-52
Stone, Cut stone ..................................... 5-19 to 5-23
Storage ............................................................. 3-104
Strain compatibility.................................. 3-24 to 3-26
Strand development................................ 3-52 to 3-57
Strand lifting loops .................................. 3-98 to 3-99
Stress relieved strand......................................... 1-29
Stripping........................................5-3, 5-5, 5-6, 5-11,
.......................................................... 5-13, 5-16, 5-17
Stripping forces..................................... 3-95 to 3-100
Structural integrity.......................................... 5-2, 5-4
Structural integrity - Fire ..................................... 6-33
Structural irregularities........................................ 2-68
Structural separation........................................... 2-65
Strut and tie......................................................... 4-13
Studs................................................................... 4-25
Suction....................................................... 5-16, 5-24
Supplementary cementing materials ......... 1-24, 6-52
Sustainable development ................................... 6-50
Teflon pads ........................................................... 4-9
Temperature change map .................................. 2-11
Temperature changes........................... 5-5, 5-6, 5-20
Temperature effects............................................ 1-27
Temperature gradient .................................. 5-6, 5-17
Temperature index..................................... 6-13, 6-14
Tensile strength of concrete ............................... 1-26
Terra cotta...................................... 5-19, 5-23 to 5-25
Testing .....................................5-16, 5-20, 5-21, 5-24
Texture............................. 5-2, 5-17, 5-19, 5-21, 5-28
TFE pads .............................................................. 4-9
Thermal bridge, bridging.............................. 5-14, 6-8
Thermal characteristics.............................. 5-13, 5-17
Thermal gradient........................................ 6-12, 6-13
Thermal inertia...................................................... 6-7
Thermal mass ..................................... 6-7, 6-53, 6-54
Thermal resistance ................................... 6-9 to 6-12
Thermal - Bowing ................................... 2-15 to 2-17
Threaded rods..................................................... 4-61
Ties ................................................ 5-12 to 5-17, 5-24
Tolerances ...................... 4-6, 5-4 to 5-6, 5-9 to 5-11,
.......................................................... 5-19, 5-21, 5-23
Torsion design ........................................ 3-73 to 3-79
Torsion, Torsional forces .................... 5-6, 5-11, 5-17
Torsional effects.................................................. 2-64
Total precast concrete structures ................ 1-2, 6-64
Transportation................................. 3-105, 5-2 to 5-4,
..................................................................... 5-8, 5-14
Truss................................ 5-9, 5-10, 5-14, 5-21, 5-24
Tube structure................................ 2-59 to 2-60, 2-70
Twisting, Rotation ............................... 5-7, 5-11, 5-14
Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) 1-23, 1-34
Unbonded tendons ............................................3-116
Unbraced frames ...............2-20 to 2-32, 2-36 to 2-43
Unrestrained elements - Fire......... 6-28, 6-33 to 6-37
Vapour diffusion.....................................................6-5
Veneer, Veneer facing....................... 5-12, 5-19 5-27
Vertical joint connections.....................................4-61
Vibration isolation ................................................6-48
Vibrations................................................ 6-42 to 6-48
Volume change........................1-27, 2-9 to 2-14, 4-6,
.....................................................5-5, 5-6, 5-11, 5-19
Volume change strains ........................................2-12
Volume-surface ratio..............................................7-2
Wall panels - Load bearing................................3-109
Walls - Fire resistance of connections...................4-6
Walls - Floor to wall connections............ 4-63 to 4-65
Walls - Joints .......................................................4-61
Walls - Vertical joints ...........................................4-61
Walls - Wall to foundation connections................4-64
Walls - Deflection....................................... 2-46, 2-65
Warpage ............................................. 3-104 to 3-105
Welded headed studs - Back edge..................... 4-40
Welded headed studs - Corners......................... 4-37
Welded headed studs - Front edge .................... 4-34
Welded headed studs
Interaction of tension and shear ......................... 4-40
Welded headed studs - In-the-field..................... 4-40
Welded headed studs - Shear ............................ 4-34
Welded headed studs - Side edge...................... 4-38
Welded headed studs - Tension......................... 4-25
Welded wire fabric .................................. 8-39 to 8-40
Welding - Plates.................................................. 4-57
Welding-Reinforcing bars ................................... 4-57
Wind........................................................ 2-36 to 2-43
Window walls ...................................................... 6-30
Window washing................................................... 5-8
Wire data............................................................. 8-18
Wythes.................................................... 5-12 to 5-17
Yarding.............................................................. 3-104

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 METHODS AND MATERIALS

212 CPCI Design Manual 4

4. Ratio of fine to total aggregates = 0.50

, where can be considered as the effective shear friction coefficient.

proportion to their relative stiffness. Recent and

The value of will be near the lower end of the

Shortening due to temperature change will be

(or from Fig. 2.6.8)

= superscript used to identify terms used in

+ 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0 3.0 + 21.0

= time at infinity (days)

) = ultimate shrinkage of deck

,1) = 1.81 (see Example 3-9)

,43) = 1.45 (see Example 3-9)

= tension force in longitudinal reinforcement

P = the pitch of the thread

= the angle between the shear friction

= horizontal deformation of bearing pad

= strain in tension reinforcement

= angle of assumed crack plane or angle of

= angle of gusset plate

= angle between strut and tie

Although the addition of the 15M U-bars will raise the

for metric rod

for imperial rod

= area of reinforcement in negative moment

= positive and negative nominal flexural

In lieu of a more accurate determination of f

is reduced, but the

ithin compressive zone will be about

1.12 (appr + ox.)

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