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Trng cao ng Phng ng Mn: a cht cng trnh
GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 1

TRNG CAO NG PHNG NG QUNG NAM
KHOA K THUT

BI GING
A CHT CNG TRNH

Nm 2011

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M U
NHNG NT I CNG V MN HC

1. A CHT HC V NI DUNG NGHIN CU CA N
1.1. nh ngha:
a cht hc xut x t thut ng Geologes (Hy Lp) Ge: Tri t. Logos: li
ni, hc thuyt. Geology (Anh) Geologie (Php) reoou (Nga). L mn hc v tri t
a cht hc bao gm cc kin thc ca ngnh khoa hc v tri t, trong c nhng
ngnh nh a l, a vt l, a ho, a mo... Hin nay, ngi ta hiu a cht hc
theo ngha hp l mn hc khoa hc nghin cu v tri t, ng ra l nghin cu thch
quyn (quyn ) bao gm c phn v v phn trn ca lp manti (Manti: c ngi cn
gi l lp ci, l lp trung gian gia nhn v v tri t).
1.2. i tng v nhim v ca a cht cng trnh:
i vi cc lnh vc a cht cng trnh, a cht thu vn v cc ngnh c lin
quan th a cht hc ng gp nhng hiu bit cn thit cho cng tc xy dng, thit k.
Qui hoch kinh t, th, bo v mi trng sng, phng chng thin tai (nh ng t,
ni la, l lt, st l, nhim mn...) cho n c khai thc u th tim nng v du lch...
a cht hc cn cung cp nhng c liu khch quan gp phn thc y cc
ngnh khoa hc pht trin, k c v mt trit hc duy vt bin chng v i sng vn
minh tinh thn, ng gp cho s pht trin v mt nhn thc lun v phng php
lun. a cht hc bt ngun t mt mn khoa hc phc v cho nhu cu sn xut trong
thi k tin t bn ch ngha, dn dn hnh thnh rt nhiu chuyn ngnh i su gii
quyt cc nhim v trn. C th bao gm cc mn khoa hc sau:
1. Cc mn khoa hc nghin cu thnh phn vt cht ca v tri t nh: tinh th
hc, khong vt hc, thch hc...
2. Nghin cu v lch s pht trin a cht v Tri t nh c sinh vt hc, a
s, a tng hc, c a l, k t...
3. Nghin cu chuyn ng ca v nh a cht cu to, a kin to, a mo,
tn kin to...
4. Nghin cu s hnh thnh, phn b ca khong sn, cch tm kim thm d
chng, bao gm cc mn hc nh khong sng hc, a cht du, a cht m than, tm
kim thm d cc khong, a ho, a vt l, kinh t a cht, khoan thm d...
5. Nghin cu s phn b v vn ng ca nc di t nh a cht thu
vn, ng lc nc di t...
6. Nghin cu cc iu kin a cht cc cng trnh xy dng nh cc mn a
cht mi trng, a chn, a cht du lch...
T nhng nhim v, ni dung khi qut nu trn c th rt ra c ngha khoa
hc v ngha thc tin ca a cht hc v a cht a cng.
1.3. Mi lin quan ca a cht hc vi vi cc ngnh khoa hc t nhin:
Vt cht trong Tri t v qu trnh hot pht trin ca cc hin tng a cht
xy ra trong nhng iu kin vt l, ho hc, sinh hc v cc iu kin t nhin khc
v cng phc tp, v th a cht hc c lin quan mt thit vi nhiu ngnh khoa hc:
vt l, ho hc ton hc, sinh vt hc, c hc ... a cht hc s dng cc thnh qu
nghin cu s dng cc phng php nghin cu ca cc ngnh khoa hc ni trn. T
ny sinh cc mn khoa hc c tnh lin kt m mc ch l nhm gii quyt cc
nhim v ca a cht hc. l: a vt l: a ho, sinh a ho, a cht phng x,
ton a cht, a c hc, a cht m phng ...
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1.4. Xu hng pht trin v i su ca a cht hc:
Cng nh cc ngnh khoa hc khc, nh nhng cng c, thit b hin i a cht
hc hng s nghin cu vo c th gii vt cht ca Tri t trong phm vi v m cng
nh vi m. Mt khc a cht hc cn hng vo qu kh lu di trc khi c du vt
ca s sng ny sinh. i vo nhng vn c th, a cht hc c xu hng.
- Tm hiu dn vo su trong v n nhn Tri t. su trc tip m con ngi
vi n c vi nhng l khoan su trn 10 km M v Lin X.
- Tm hiu mi lin h ca Tri t nh l mt thin th v tr, vi cc hnh tinh
trong h mt tri v xa hn l trong v tr.
- Nghin cu cc hnh tinh gn Tri t nh nghin cu Mt trng, sao Ho, sao
Kim...qua m hiu c s pht sinh ca Tri t. Nhng s liu v kin thc nng
cung cp cho s hon thin mn a cht v tr hc.

2. CC PHNG PHP NGHIN CU A CHT HC
2.1. a cht hc: l mt mn hc khoa hc t nhin. Ging nh cc ngnh khoa
hc t nhin khc, a cht hc s dng phng php nghin cu theo logic khoa hc t
nhin nh theo trnh t i t quan st n phn tch x l s liu, tin n quy np tng
hp xut cc gi thuyt, nh lut.
Tun theo phng php lun ca duy vt bin chng, ngha l i t thc tin n
l lun ri p dng vo thc tin theo mt trnh t tin trin dn ca nhn thc lun.
2.2. Tuy nhin, i tng nghin cu ca a cht hc c nhng c th
ring khc vi cc ngnh khoa hc khc l:
a. i tng nghin cu ca mn hc ch yu l v Tri t. l i tng yu
cu phi nghin cu ti thc a, ngoi tri ch khng phi ch c trong phng.
b. i tng li chim mt khng gian v cng su rng, vt xa kh nng
trc tip quan st nghin cu ca con ngi. (L khoan siu su mi t 12 km xuyn
vo lng t). i tng nghin cu c qui m hng trm hng nghn ki-l-mt,
nhng cng c ci ch su vi mt, vi cen - ti - mt n micron.
c. Thi gian din bin cc qu trnh a cht rt di, tri qua hng vn, hng triu
nm nhng cng c hin tng ch xy ra trong mt vi gi, vi pht, vi giy nh cc
hin tng ng t, ni la...
d. Qu trnh a cht pht sinh v pht trin li rt phc tp, chu nhiu yu t chi
phi tc ng. V d nhng qu trnh a cht xy ra su c th chu nhit tng cao
ti 400
0
60000
0
C, p sut n 3 - 106 atm khc xa vi iu kin trn mt.
V nhng l trn, cc phng php nghin cu ca a cht hc cn c nhng
im ring bit. Mn hc cn s dng:
- Phng php nghin cu ngoi thc a bao gm kho st, thu thp mu, phn
tch t kt qu c c d on nhng kho st, pht hin mi. Cc quan st trc tip
ngoi thc a v sau c nhiu phng tin my mc thay th v nng cao hiu qu
nghin cu nh my mc a - vt l, cc cng trnh khoan...c bit cc phng tin
vin thm (my bay, v tinh, con tu v tr) m rng tm mt, ni di tm tay cho
con ngi. Ngy nay nghin cu a cht nht l trong o v bn a cht khng th
thiu c cng tc phn tch nh vin thm. M.N.Petruxevich (1961) nhn xt rng
s xut hin nh vin thm vi knh lp th l mt bc ngot lch s nghin cu
cu trc v Tri t, n c ngha to ln nh s xut hin knh hin vi phn cc th
k trc tm hiu thnh phn vt cht vi m.
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- Phng php nghin cu trong phng c ch vi nhng hng sau: Cc
phng php phn tch mu ngy cng c ci tin vi phng hng nng cao hiu
qu v tc phn tch, ng thi i su vo cu trc bn trong ca vt cht.
S dng phng php tng hp thc nghim (v d trong vic to ra cc khong
vt tng hp, cc nhn to...) song song vi x l, phn tch s liu.
- Phng php m phng trn c s ca nguyn l tng t m hnh ho
cc qu trnh bin dng, bin ng cu to, s hnh thnh cc khong sng. Trong cng
tc thm d a cht thng s dng m hnh ho ton hc c s tham gia ngy mt
nhiu ca my tnh in t.
Phng php cng c mt hn ch: Hon cnh, iu kin a cht khng phi
trc kia m by gi u hon ton ging nhau hn m c s din bin tin ho nht
nh. V d trc Paleozoi, Tri t c nhiu SiO
2
, nhiu MgO hn by gi. V d
nhng sinh vt lc trc bin nng, by gi tn ti bin su. Do khi suy lun
phi thn trng.
Khi phn tch cc hin tng a cht c xa, trong cc nh nghin cu
xut khi nim v ng bin lun (Uniformitarism) v tai bin lun (Catastrophism). C
ngi cho l qu trnh tin ho ca a cht l qu trnh kch ph, t ngt (tai bin).
Chng ta khng nn cc oan theo mt chiu hng no. Thc tin cho thy Tri t
tn ti c hai dng. Chng hn phi hng ngn nm, triu nm mi c mt b dy trm
tch ng k tc l mi nm ch lng ng y bin mt lp trm tch vi cm thm
ch ch vi mm. Mt khc cng c hot ng ni la, bo t...ch trong mt thi gian rt
ngn ngi ca mt vi ngy, mt vi gi, gy ra nhng thay i ln. Mt hin tng
tai bin xy ra trc y 65 triu nm (t cui Crta n u Oaleogen) dn n dit
chng ca hn 250 loi b st t loi khng long nng 50 tn cho n loi nh c con
mo. Mt s nh khoa hc tn tui tng c gii Nbel cho rng tai bin ny xy ra l
do Tri t va chm vo mt thin th t bn ngoi ti.
- Phng php i snh a cht: S dng nhng ti liu v a cht c
nghin cu hiu bit k ca mt khu vc, mt vng lin h so snh v rt ra kt lun
ng n cho ni mnh ang nghin cu.

3. A CHT HC V S PHT TRIN C S TI NGUYN
KHONG SN, PHT TRIN NN KINH T CA T NC
a cht l c s l lun khoa hc bao gm c l thuyt v thc hnh gip cho
vic pht hin, thm d cc ti nguyn khong sn c ch iu tra v nh gi cc nn
mng cho cc cng trnh xy dng kin trc phng chng cc hin tng a cht gy
tc hi cho cuc sng loi ngi. V th mi quc gia u c c s t chc nghin cu
v a cht cho nc mnh tin hnh cc mt cng tc.
Cung cp cc t liu v tnh cht v n nh cc nn mng phc v cho vic
thit k, chn tuyn ng giao thng, xy dng cu cng, p nc, iu, cng, cc
cng trnh kin trc ...
Cung cp nhng t liu cn thit gip cho vic bo v mi trng c trong
sch, m bo iu kin sng, iu kin v sinh cho nhn dn d bo v phng chng
cc thin tai v a cht cc hin tng a cht c hi.

4. NGUN GC TRI T V S TIN HA CA N
T xa c con ngi v nhiu ngnh khoa hc nh thin vn, a l a
cht, vt l, trit hc quan tm nghin cu gii thch. Nhn thc tri qua nhiu giai on.
Trc th k XVIII vic gii thch thng mang mu sc thn b, duy tn, tn gio. T
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th k XVIII tr i vic gii thch gn vi cc gi thuyt khoa hc. Ngy nay ngi ta
nhn thy s hnh thnh v pht trin ca Tri t c lin quan vi thnh phn vt cht,
cc din bin tin ho ca cc trng a - vt l, cc trng thi a nhit, vi ngun gc
ca cc vng quyn bao quanh Tri t. Mt khc nhiu t liu cho thy s hnh thnh
Tri t chu nh hng rt ln ca cc h thng thin th gn v xa trong v tr, trc
mt quan trng hn c l h Mt tri. Nhng bin i ln v mt a cht, kh hu... trn
Tri t phn nh s tin ho ca cc thin th trong h Mt tri.

5. A CHT CNG TRNH I TNG V NHIM V
5.1. nh ngha: a cht cng trnh nghin cu
t, phn trn ca v tri t, thnh phn, tnh cht c
l ca chng cng nh nhng tc dng tng h vi nc
v cc qu trnh a cht ng lc lin quan n cc hot
ng cng trnh ca con ngi phc v cng tc xy dng
cc cng trnh khc nhau.
a cht cng trnh bao gm: thch lun cng trnh,
a cht ng lc cng trnh, a cht cng trnh chuyn
mn, a cht cng trnh khu vc.
5.2. i tng ca mn a cht cng trnh: l
cc iu kin a cht cng trnh. (L t , nc di t
v tc dng qua li gia chng vi nhau v vi mi trng bn ngoi...)
a mo l hnh dng, kch thc, cao, mc phn ct, ngun gc to thnh,
xu th pht trin...ca a hnh ni xy dng cng trnh.

- Cu to v cu trc a cht: S phn b, thnh phn, tnh cht xy
dng ca t (cng chu lc, n nh, kh nng thm nc,)
v cc bin ng a cht nh: un np, nt n, t gy

- Cc tc dng a cht: Cc hin tng a cht nh: ng t, trt l, cact,
xi ngm
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- a cht thy vn: su mc nc ngm (s thay i mc nc ngm theo
ma), thnh phn ha hc (mc n mn b tng v cc loi vt liu xy dng khc),
tnh cht v quy lut vn ng, s phn b ca nc di t

iu kin vt liu xy dng tnh hnh phn b cc loi vt liu, loi vt liu,
phng php khai thc v vn chun cc loi vt liu...
5.3. a cht cng trnh c nhng nhim v chnh sau:
- Xc nh cc iu kin a cht cng trnh: la chn v tr b tr cng trnh thch
hp, kin ngh cc bin php cng trnh.
- Nu iu kin thi cng, d on cc hin tng a cht xy ra trong khi thi cng
v s dng cng trnh.
- ra cc bin php phng nga v ci to cc iu kin bt li
- Cung cp kh nng cung cp vt liu thin nhin cho cng trnh.
5.4. Phng php nghin cu a cht cng trnh:
- Cc phng php a cht hc
- Cc phng php tnh ton l thuyt
- Cc phng php th nghim m hnh v tng t a cht
- Cc phng php m hnh ha bng cc chng trnh

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CHNG I: KHONG V CC KHONG TO

1. V TRI T V CC HIN TNG DIN RA TRONG
Tri t khng phi l mt khi cu cng yn tnh m khng ngng hot ng
tin ho. S hot ng ca n do cc chuyn ng trong ni b ca Tri t, do chu nh
hng ca cc tc nhn t trong v tr gn nht, mnh nht l t h mt tri gy nn v
c phn nh trn Tri t vi cc c im v hnh thi hc, v cu trc, v s phn
b cc c tnh hnh thi, cu trc v cc tnh cht vt l, ho hc ca Tri t.
1.1. Hnh dng, kch thc, hnh thi b mt ca Tri t:
1.1.1. Hnh dng tri t:
Niu-tn chng minh rng di tc dng ca lc hp dn, Tri t b p theo
phng trc quay v c dng ca elipxoit.
Quan st ca v tinh nhn to cho thy Tri t c dng hnh qu l. So vi dng
elipxoit l tng th cc Bc nh ra 10m, cc Nam lm vo 30m. a hnh b mt Tri
t li lm chnh nhau rt ln
1.1.2. Kch thc Tri t:
Nh trn ni, bn knh ca Tri t khng u nhau. Bn knh xch o a
ln hn cc l 21.384m. Ngoi ra ngi ta cng nhn thy cc bn knh mt phng
xch o cng c s chnh nhau.
Di y l bng cc thng s v kch thc ca Tri t (theo
IUGG,1975).
Bn knh xch o (a): 6378, 140 km Chu vi xch o : 40075, 24 km
Bn knh cc (b): 6356,77km Chu vi kinh tuyn 40008,08 km
Bn knh bnh qun (a
2
b)
1/3
: 6371, 01 km Din tch trn mt: 5, 1007 x 10km

Th tch (V): 1,0832 x 10
12
km
2

Trng khi (M):95,942+0,0006)x10
24
kg
1.1.3. Hnh thi b mt Tri t:
Hnh thi b mt Tri t gm phn ni trn mt nc lc a, chim 29,2%
din tch b mt Tri t v phn chm di nc bin chim 70,8%, t l hai phn
khong 1:2,5. B mt ca Tri t khng bng phng. nh cao nht trn lc a l
Chomulagma cao 8848,13 mt. a hnh i ni, bnh nguyn, bn trng (thp hn mc
nc bin 1000m) chim 20,8% din tch b mt Tri t. cao trung bnh ca lc a
l 875 mt. bin bn trng su di - 4000 n 6000 mt c din tch rt rng chim
30,8%. su trung bnh ca bin l - 3729 mt. H su nht l Mariana, su - 11033
mt.
1.2. Cu to bn trong v c im vt cht to thnh v Tri t:
1.2.1. Cu to vng:
Cc kt qu o c vt l cho thy Tri t c tnh phn thnh cc quyn (vng)
ngha l c s khng ng nht v thnh phn vt cht theo chiu thng ng. Da theo
kt qu nghin cu phi hp cc phng php a - vt l, c bit l phng php a
chn o tc truyn sng dc Vp v tc truyn sng ngang Vs khi i quan vt
cht bn trong Tri t ngi ta chia Tri t ra 3 vng cu to ln l v Tri t, Manti
v nhn Tri t.
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a. V tri t:
V Tri t l phn vt cht rn bc ngoi ca Tri t nm trn mt Mh. V
Tri t l i tng nghin cu chnh ca a cht hc.
Trong phn v Tri t tc truyn sng Vp thay i t 6,5-7,0 n 7,4 km/s,
nhng khi sang phn Manti th Vp tng t ngt n 7,9 - 8, c 8,2 -8,3km/s. Cn tc
Vs trong phn v l 3,7-3,8km/s n manti th t ngt tng ln 4,5 - 4,7 km/s. Nh
vy c mt mt ranh gii phn chia v v manti th hin s thay i t ngt tc
sng. Mt ranh gii ny gi l mt Mohorovixic (ly tn nh a - vt l ngi Nam T.
Mt ny do ng pht hin nm 1909), cn gi l mt Mh hay mt M. V Tri t dy
mng tu ni (tc mt Mh c dng ln sng nng cao hn hoc h thp xung, bnh
qun l 11-12km. y cc i dng v dy 5-10 (12) km, trong cc min ng bng
l 30 - 40 km, vng ni cao l 50 - 75 km (dy nht l ni An v Hymalaya).
Thnh phn hp cht ha hc ch yu: cc hp cht silicat trong granit, bazan.
V Tri t c chia lm 3 lp:
- Trn cng l lp trm tch hin i c b dy thay i t 0,0 n 1,5 km
- Tip theo l lp granittoit
- Cui cng l lp bazan cn gi l v bazan, cu to bi cc mafic nh gabro
v bazan.
b. Manti (mantle):
c phn b t phn di v Tri t (Mt M) 60 n su 2900km. Ti y
li c mt mt ranh gii phn chia manti vi nhn Tri t biu hin s thay i t
ngt tc truyn sng a chn. Vp t 13,64 km/s xung 7,98 km/s, cn Vs nguyn l
7,23 km/s t nhin bin mt.
Thnh phn hp cht ha hc ch yu: cc hp cht silicat vi thnh phn ch
yu l sunfur.
c. Nhn Tri t:
Tnh t su 2900 km n tm Tri t (6370), chia lm 3 lp: nhn ngoi t
su 2900 km n 4980 km, lp chuyn tip 4980 km n 5120 km v nhn trong t
51200 km n 6370 km. C nhit rt cao 4000
0
C, p sut > 1,5 triu atm.
Thnh phn hp cht ha hc ch yu: l cc hp cht sunfur st, niken.
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1.2.2. Cu to ca Tri t:
V c b dy khng ng u, th hin a hnh phc tp t lc a n i
dng. Trng thi vt cht ca v Tri t: gm cc v t th c, chim 1,55%
tng th tch v khong 0,8% tng lng ca Tri t. T trng trung bnh l 2,6 - 2,9
g/cm
3
. B dy ca v khng u. Thnh phn ca v cng bin i.
Cn c cc ti liu a - vt l chia ra 2 kiu v chnh l v lc a, v i dng
v 2 kiu ph l v lc a v v i dng.
Kiu v lc a (continental crrust) c b dy khng u
- vng nn (vng n nh) c b dy 35- 40 km
- Vng cng trnh to ni tr c b dy 55-70km
- Vng ni Hymalaya, An c b dy 70-75Km
Cu trc c 2 phn chnh:
+Lp 1 l lp do trm tch (lp trm tch) to thnh. Vp trung bnh t 3 - 5
km/s. B dy dao ng t 0-5 km ( ng bng lc a) v dy nht t 8-10km ( cc
vng trng ln ca lc a)
+Lp 2 l lp cng gm macma v bin cht chia ra:
Lp 2a: Lp granit - gnai hoc granit bin cht phn b cc khin bin cht,
Vp trung bnh t 5,5 - 6 km/s.
Lp 2b: Lp bazan cn c tn gi l Granulit - bazit v tc Vp ca 2 loi
tng t nhau. Ranh gii gia lp 2a v 2b gi l mt Konrad (mt K), Vp trung bnh l
6,6 - 7,2km/s. B dy ca lp bazan trung bnh l 6,6 - 7,2 km/s. B dy ca lp bazan
trung bnh 15 - 20 km vng nn v 25 - 35 km vng to ni. Mt Konrad khng
phi lc no cng th hin r.
M hnh mi v v lc a do N.I.Pavlenkova nu ra da theo kt qu nghin cu
l khoan siu su Kolxki v cc thng tin a vt l.
Phn chia manti vi phn ca v lc a (mt M) da vo Vp =7,8 - 8,3 km/s.
Trong phn 2 (xem hnh 4.2) chia 3 tng ngn cch bi ranh gii K1 v K2.K1 su
30-32km.
Tng trn: Vp =5,9-6,3 km/s c tnh phn lp v tnh phn d theo cc bloc ring
vi cc thnh phn v thng s a - vt l ring.
Tng trung gian: Vp = 6,4 - 6,5 km/s. c tnh phn lp nm gn nm ngang
mng. Trong c nhng xen lp v tc Vp gim xung cn 6km/s, c cc th d
thng v t trng v i tng cao tnh dn in. N mang c tnh ca mt lp mm,
vt cht trn n c th chuyn dch ngang.
Tng trn v tng trung gian c cc phc tp, c th bao gm bin cht, ni
chung l axit.
Tng di: Vp = 6,8-7,0km/s gm cc bin cht tng granulit, cc bazic
v siu bazic.
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Kiu v i dng: Cu trc v i dng gm 4 lp
1- Lp nc che ph i dng
2- Lp th nht l lp trm tch b ri. Vp = 3 km/s. Dy t vi trm mt n 1
km, t khi dy hn.
3- Lp th hai c Vp = 4 - 4,5 km/s.
Thnh phn l dung nham bazan c xen lp silic v cacbonat dy t 1-15 km
c ni dy 3 km.
4- Lp th ba c Vp = 6,3-6,4km/s (c khi n 7 km/s). Thnh phn l bazic
(gabro) v mt b phn l siu bazic (pyroxenit). Mt s ni grabo b bin cht thnh
amphibolit cha khoan quan ht lp ny.
c trng ca kiu v i dng l khng c lp granitognai. B dy ch t 5-
12km, trung bnh l 6-7 km ( y Thi Bnh Dng).
Kiu v lc a: Loi ny gp nhng cung o (Alent, Kuril...) bao quanh
lc a. Cu trc gn vi kiu v lc a nhng b dy nh, ch 20-30km v c c im
l cc lp cng ho khng r rng. vng dng bao quanh i Ty Dng phn ko di
c lc a xung di nc th b dy rt ngn v lp granitognai cng vt nhn khi i
v pha sn lc a. Kiu v sa i Dng: Cu trc gm ba lp:
1. Lp nc.
2. Lp trm tch dy t 4 - 10 km c ni 15 - 20 km
3. Lp v i Dng dy t 5 - 10km
Vp =6 - 6,4km/s, c c trng:
+Khng c lp granitognai: gp nhng trng nc su bao quanh v trong
bin (v d trng nam Caspi, Bin en, a Trung Hi, Okht v cc bin khc).
1.2.3. Thnh phn vt cht ca v Tri t:
a. Cc nguyn t trong v Tri t:
Trong Tri t cc nguyn t tn ti di dng phn tn khng ng u, lun
lun kt hp, lun lun bin i trong cc khong vt, cc khc nhau.
nm c s lng cc nguyn t trong Tri t ngi ta tin hnh ly mu
t trn mt cho n su t 16 n 20 km v em phn tch.
+Cc nguyn t ca v Tri t ch yu l 8 nguyn t: O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na,
Mg, K, trong O, Si, Al l ch o (ngi ta ni thnh phn v Tri t ch yu l cc
Alumoslicat) chim hn 80% trng lng v, O chim gn 50%.
* Cn li l Ti: 0,52; C =0,46; Mn: 0,12; S: 0,11 v cc nguyn t khc: 0,37%.
+Thnh phn trn cng gn vi thnh phn ca sao Kim, sao Ho.
+So vi thnh phn nguyn t ca Tri t th O vn l ch o tip theo l Fe,
Si, Mg, cn v th nhm Al, Ca, Mg, Na li tng i nhiu.
+Cc nguyn t kim loi c ch (Cu, Bb, zn...) chim t l rt thp (v d theo
thng k ca cc tc gi trn Cu c t 0,0047 - 0,01%; Pb t 0,00016 - 0,0002%; C t
0,023 - 0,35%.
Bng hm lng cc nguyn t ch yu to nn qu t
Cc
nguyn t
Theo Clac
Wnshing
tn 1924
Fesman
1933, 1939
Goldsmith
1937
Vinogradov
1962
Ronov v
larosevxk
i
O 49.52 49.13 46.60 47.00 46.50
Si 25.75 26.00 27.72 29.50 25.70
Al 7.15 7.45 8.13 8.05 7.
6
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 11
Fe 4.70 4.20 5.00 4.65 6.
2
Ca 3.39 3.25 3.63 2.96 5.
7
Na 2.64 2.40 2.83 2.50 1.
8
Mg 1.94 2.35 2.09 1.87 3.
2
K 2.43 2.35 2.59 2.50 1.
3
Thnh phn cc xyt ch yu ca v Tri t - % trng lng

Cc oxyt SiO
2
Al
2
O
3

CaO
FeO
Fe
2
O
3
MgO Na
2
O K
2
O
TiO
2

v lc a
60,2
15,2 5,5 3,8 2,5 3,1 3,0 2,9 0,6
v i Dng
48,8
17,0 11,9 6,6 2,0 7,0 2,7 0,2 1,4
Bnh qun v Tri t 60,3
16,3 5,3 4,2 2,5 3,2 3,7 2,3 0,8

2. KHONG VT V CC KHONG VT TO
2.1. Khong vt:
Khong vt l nhng nguyn t ho hc t nhin hoc hp cht ho hc trong
thin nhin hnh thnh do qu trnh vt l, ho hc nht nh trong v Tri t hoc trn
mt t. (Mt s rt t c th t v tr n: bi v tr, thin thch). n nay bit c
hn 2500 khong vt trong gn 50 khong vt l ph bin tham gia vo qu trnh to
. Khong vt l thnh phn c bn to nn .
i a s khong vt th rn, nh: thch anh, canxit...ch mt s th lng
nh: thu ngn, du m, nc...v mt s th kh nh cacbonic, mtan, cc loi
cacbuahyr...

Mt lot cc khong vt. Hnh nh ly t Cc a cht Hoa K
2.2. V hnh thi v cu trc: Khong vt c cc dng v nh hnh; dng keo
(dng khi c xt) v dng kt tinh (tinh th) .
Khong vt v nh hnh l khong vt th thu tinh, cc phn t vt cht cha
kp sp xp theo mt trt t c tnh quy lut tun hon trong khng gian. V d khi
macma ng ngui t ngt to ra cc khong vt v nh hnh.
Khong vt dng keo l khong vt trng thi keo hoc t cht keo kt tinh li.
Cht keo gm nhng ht keo, c kch thc t 1 - 100m( =1 x 10-6 mm) ha li trong
nc. Chng hoc l do cc phn ng ho hc i vi cc cht trong mi trng ho
tan thnh cht keo hoc do sinh vt lm ho tan cc cht trong mi trng nc. Dung
dch keo thng gp trong thin nhin l keo st, keo caoli, keo silic, keo bn thi, keo
nhm...
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 12
Khong vt kt tinh l khong vt hnh thnh do s kt tinh cc nguyn t ho
hc thnh nhng tinh th v gn kt li vi nhau, (tinh th l vt th do cc phn t nh
in, nguyn t, phn t phn b mt cch c quy lut tun hon trong khng gian). Nt
c trng ca tinh th l c cu trc mng. Cu trc ny c c l do ht v vt cht
sp xp c quy lut trong khng gian theo cc nt mng to thnh mng trong
khng gian. Mi tinh th c mt mng ring. V d mng tinh th ca ht halit
(mui m NaCl) c dng lp phng.
Trong a s cc loi tinh th khong cch gia cc ht (nt mng) l 1 vi Ao
(1A0 =10-8cm) v c 10-7 ht trn 1 mm khng gian.
Ti trung tm nghin cu vt liu ca trng M Paris bi knh hin vi in t
loi mi nht ca H Lan c th nhn thy mt vt kch thc nh n 2A0 (gn bng
kch thc mt nguyn t).
Mn tinh th hc chuyn nghin cu v tinh th (nghin cu quy lut sinh thnh
ca tinh th, tnh i xng v cu trc bn trong ca tinh th, cc tnh cht vt l cng
nh cc hin tng xy ra trong tinh th, mi lin quan gia cu trc vi cc tnh cht
vt l, ho hc v hnh hc ca tinh th). Trong thin nhin, cc khong vt kt tinh
th rn chim i a s. Hiu bit cc tnh cht tinh th cng l cc nhn bit cc
khong vt, cc t c s dng hp l.
2.3. Ngun gc ca khong vt: c sinh thnh trong iu kin:
a. Khong vt ni sinh: hnh thnh c lin quan vi cc qu trnh xy ra trong
v Tri t v phn trn manti - qu trnh macma v bin cht.
b. Khong vt ngoi sinh: hnh thnh phn trn mt Tri t v trn ca v
c lin quan vi cc qu trnh a cht ngoi sinh.
2.4. Tnh cht hnh hc ca khong vt:
- Khong vt v nh hnh khng kt tinh thng c dng cu, dng u, dng
thn, dng chung v...(do chng khng kt tinh).
- Khong vt kt tinh th hin hnh dng tinh th, mt tinh th, s kt hp ca
nhiu tinh th (nh tinh m thch anh).
2.5. Cc tnh cht vt l ca khong vt: l cc tnh cht v quang hc, lc
hc, t tnh, tnh in p... do cu trc tinh th qut nh.
a. Tnh cht quang hc: ca khong vt th hin tnh hp th quang, phn
quang, thu quang ca khong vt.
* trong sut: phn nh s xuyn thu ca nh sng quan khong vt. Phn
ra: trong sut, na trong sut v khng trong sut.
* nh: tnh phn x, khc x, hp th quang i vi nh sng thy c ca
khong vt. Phn ra: nh thu tinh, nh x c (nh m) nh la kim loi, nh kim loi.
* Mu sc: th hin s hp th cc bc sng i vi nh sng thy c ca
khong vt. Nu khong vt hp th u n i vi cc bc sng nh sng th n c
t mu en n mu xm. Nu ch hp th mt s bc sng no y tc l khong vt
c cc mu khc nhau.
Khong vt cha nhiu Fe, Mg thng c mu sm, cn khong vt cha nhiu
Al, Si th mu nht.
* Mu vt vch: Mu ca bt khong vt li trn mt vt vch (vch vo tm
s).
Mu vt vch ca khong vt kim loi khng trong sut thng l c nh, l
mu ca bn thn khong vt. V d: pyrit c mu vng rm nhng mu vt vch li
en.
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 13
b. Tnh cht c hc ca khong vt: bao gm tnh ct khai, mt v
cng...phn nh c tnh ca khong vt sau khi b ngoi lc rn tc dng. N c lin
quan n cu trc tinh th khong vt.
* Tnh d tch (ct khai) ca khong vt: Tnh d tch l kh nng ca tinh th
v cc ht kt tinh (mnh ca tinh th) d b tch ra theo nhng mt phng song song.
Chia tnh d tch ra cc mc khc nhau:
- Rt hon ton: tinh th c kh nng tch theo cc mt tch mt cch d dng,
(nh mca).
- Hon ton: dng ba p nh s v theo cc mt tch tng i phng (nh
calcite, halit).
- Khng hon ton: kh thy mt tch m thng l vt v khng c quy tc,
(nh thch anh), v vy cn gi l tnh khng tch ca khong vt.
Tnh ct khai l s v tch theo mt mt tinh th no y khi b ngoi lc tc
dng. Mt bng nhn l mt ct khai, thng thng l song song vi mt mt tinh th.
Mt v l mt hnh thnh do b ngoi lc tc dng thnh li lm, khng phng.
Nu lc ni ca mng khng u nhau theo cc hng th d thnh vt v.
V d vt v v chai.
* cng: l nng lc chng li lc c hc bn ngoi ca khong vt (khc,
rch ln b mt). Ni chung khong vt c bn knh in t cng nh th cng cng
ln. Phn ra cng tuyt i v cng tng i. o cng tuyt i cn phi
dng my o. Thng l dng bng cng tng i (bng Mohs) vi 10 bc, mi
bc dng mt khong vt thng gp lm vt chun.
Bng Mohs gm c: ( cng ln nht l 10, nh nht l 1).
1. Talc, (Tan) (Mg
3
(Si
4
O
10
)
2. Gypsum (Thch cao), (CaSO
4
2H
2
O)
3. Calcite (Canxit), (CaCO
3
)
4. Fluorite, (Fluorit) (CaF
2
)
5. Apatite, (Apatit) (Ca
5
(PO
4
)
3
(FCl)
6. Feldspar, (Octoclaz) (K(AlSi
3
O
8
)
7. Quartz (Thch anh), (SiO
2
)
8. Topaz, (Topa) (Al
2
(SiO
4
)(OH)
2
9. Corunduomn (Corindon), (Al
2
O
3
)
10. Diamond (Kim cng). (C)
c. Mt s c tnh vt l khc: Cc khong vt c t trng nng nh khc nhau.
Mt s c t tnh (nh manhetit), c tnh in p (i vi mt s thch anh) c loi c
tnh pht sng...Nhng loi ny c th dng mt thng xc nh c.

Tan. Kim cng th.
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 14

Hali. Thch anh.
2.6. Thnh phn ha hc:
Cc khong vt c th phn loi theo thnh phn ha hc. Chng hay c phn
loi theo nhm anion.
Theo thnh phn ha hc, cc khong vt tn ti di cc dng sau:
- Cc nguyn t
- Cc sulfua
- Cc xt v hyroxit
- Cc halua
- Cc nitrat, cacbonat v borat
- Cc sulfat, cromat, molybdat v tungstat
- Cc photphat, asenat v vanadat
- Cc silicat
2.7. Phn loi khong vt:
Phn theo thnh phn ha hc gm 8 nhm:
- Nhm cc nguyn t t nhin: chim 0,1% trng lng v tri t: Vng, bc,
kim cng, graphit, lu hunh...
- Nhm Sunfur chim 0,15% trng lng v tri t: Chancopirit (CuFeS
2
), pirit
(FeS
2
), galinit (PbS
2
)...D b ph hy thng qua phn ng oxy ha c nc tr thnh
khong vt khc.
- Nhm Haloit chim 0,1% trng lng v tri t: Mui m (NaCl), fluorit
(CaF
2
)...d ph hy trong thin nhin.
- Nhm Oxit chim 17% trng lng v tri t c chia thnh 2 lp ph:
Lp ph khng cha nc nh: corindon (Al
2
O
3
), thch anh (SiO
2
), hematit
(Fe
2
O
3
), rutin (TiO
2
)... v lp ph cha nc nh: limonit (Fe
2
O
3
.nH
2
O), opan
(SiO.nH
2
O).
- Nhm cacbonat: chim 1,7% trng lng v tri t khng bn vng trong thin
nhin, d b ha tan, c chia thnh 2 lp ph:
Lp ph khng cha nc nh: canxit (CaCO
3
), azurit (CuCO
3
)... v lp ph cha
nc nh: malachit (CuCO
3
.nH
2
O)...
- Nhm sunfat chim 17% trng lng v tri t, khng bn vng trong thin
nhin, c chia thnh 2 lp ph:
Lp ph khng cha nc nh: barit (BaSO
4
), anhydrit (CaSO
4
)... v lp ph
cha nc nh: thch cao (CaSO
4
.nH
2
O)...
- Nhm pht pht chim 0,1% trng lng v tri t, khng bn vng trong thin
nhin: apatit (Ca
5
(ClF) [PO
4
]
3
...
- Nhm silicat chim 75% trng lng v tri t c vai tr to ch yu, d b
ph hy trong thin nhin thng qua phn ng thy phn to nn khong vt mi bn
vng, c chia thnh 2 lp ph:
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Lp ph khng cha nc nh: biotit (K[MgFe](Si
3
AlO
10
)(OHF)
2
, caolin v lp
ph cha nc nh: tan (3Mg
4
SiO
2
.nH
2
O)...
2.8. Phn bit khong vt v :
Mt khong vt l cht rn kt tinh ngun gc t nhin vi thnh phn ha hc
xc nh, trong khi l t hp ca mt hay nhiu khong vt. Trong c th c c cc
phn cn li ca cc cht hu c cng nh cc dng khong vt. Mt s loi ch yu
bao gm ch mt loi khong vt. V d, vi l mt dng trm tch bao gm gn
nh ton b l khong vt canxit. Cc loi khc c th bao gm nhiu khong vt v
cc loi khong vt c th trong mt loi no c th khc nhau rt nhiu. Mt s
khong vt, nh thch anh, mica hay fenspat l ph bin, trong khi cc khong vt khc
c khi ch tm thy mt vi khu vc nht nh. Phn ln cc loi ca lp v Tri t
c to ra t thch anh, fenspat, mica, clorit, cao lanh, canxit, epidot, olivin, ogit,
hocblen, manhtit, hematit, limonit v mt vi khong vt khc. Trn mt na cc loi
khong vt bit l him n mc chng ch c th tm thy dng mt nhm mu vt,
v nhiu trong s ch c bit ti t 1 hay 2 ht nh.
Cc loi khong vt v c gi tr thng mi c gi chung l cc khong sn.
Cc loi m t cc khong vt c khai thc cho mc ch kinh t c coi l cc
loi qung, trong khi cc loi v khong vt cn li sau khi tch ri khong vt
mong mun ring ra t qung, c gi l thi v qung ui.
2.9. Cc khong vt to :
Khong vt to , c khong 50 khong vt thng gp tham gia thnh to
nh thch anh, fenfat, mica, pyroxen.
Yu t xc nh ch yu trong s hnh thnh cc khong vt trong khi l thnh
phn ha hc ca khi , i vi mt khong vt c th no th n ch c th
hnh thnh khi cc nguyn t cn thit phi c mt trong . Canxit l ph bin nht
trong cc loi vi, do chng ch yu bao gm cacbonat canxi; thch anh trong cc
loi sa thch ( ct) v trong mt s loi phn xut vi t l phn trm ln l silica
(ixt silic).
Cc yu t khc cng c tm quan trng tng ng trong vic quyt nh cc
khong vt to c hnh thnh ngay t u mt cch t nhin hay do pht sinh th
cp l (i) cch thc c hnh thnh t trong dung dch, nc hay gc v (ii) cc
giai on m tri qua c c cc kt cu nh hin ti ca mnh. Hai khi c
th c thnh phn ha hc kh tng ng nhng li c cu thnh t cc kt hp khc
hn nhau ca cc khong vt. Xu hng chung cho cc hp cht ny c hnh thnh l
s n nh theo cc iu kin m khi c sinh ra. Granit c hnh thnh do s
ng c ca macma nng chy nhit cao v p sut ln v cc khong vt thnh
phn ca n cng c hnh thnh trong cc iu kin nh vy. Khi b s m t, axt
cacbonic v cc tc nhn cn khng kh khc tc ng iu kin nhit bnh thng
trn b mt Tri t, mt s khong vt nguyn thy ny, nh thch anh hay mica trng
(muscovit) khng b bin i; trong khi cc khong vt khc b "phong ha" hay phn r
v b thay th bng cc t hp mi. Fenspat chuyn ha thnh cao lanh, muscovit v
thch anh, v nu mica en (biotit) cng c mt th n sinh ra c clorit, apidot, rutil v
cc khong vt hay cc hp cht khc. Cc thay i ny cn km theo s phn hy v
chuyn thnh dng khi t ri rc, mm xp c th c coi nh l t hay ct. Cc vt
liu c hnh thnh nh vy c th b ra tri v trm lng hnh thnh nn sa thch hay
mt. Cu trc ca nguyn thy b thay th bng cu trc mi; thnh phn khong
vt cng bin i r nt; nhng thnh phn ha hc ca c khi c th khng c khc
bit ln. trm tch c th mt ln na li tri qua nhng ln bin thi khc. Nu
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 16
phn xut thm nhp vo th n li c th ti kt tinh hoc nu b nn di p sut
cao cng nhit v chuyn ng, chng hn nh c mt trong kin to cc np on cc
dy ni, th n c th chuyn ha thnh gnai mc d khng khc bit g nhiu trong
thnh phn khong vt nhng c khc bit ng k v cu trc vi granit l trng thi
ban u ca n.
Mt s khong vt to ch yu:
- Lp silicat: chim 75% trng lng v tri t, c mu sc s, sng v c
cng ln: Nhm feldspas, Nhm mica, Nhm piroxen, Nhm anfibon, Nhm olivin,
Nhm talc, Nhm clorit, Nhm khong vt st
- Lp oxit: Opan, Thch anh, Limonit
- Lp cacbonat: Calcite, Dolomit
- Lp halogenua

Tinh th khong vt thch anh Chert Opan

Kaolinit Hydromica Canxit lp y cc khe
nt

Plagioclase (anbit) Peldspar di knh hin vi
Tinh th can xt Trong bazan
Cc khong vt to mcma ch yu: thch anh, felspat, mica v khong
vt
mu.
* Thch anh l SiO
2
dng kt tinh, tinh th hnh lng tr 6 cnh, t khi trong
sut m thng c mu trng v trng sa, cng 7, khi lng ring 2,65 g/cm
3
,
cng cao khong 20.000 kg/cm
2
, chng mi mn tt, n nh i vi axit (tr axit
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 17
fluohidric v fosforic). nhit thng, thch anh khng tc dng vi vi, nhng
trong mi trng hi nc bo ho v nhit 175 - 200
0
C c th sinh ra phn ng
silicat.
* Fenspat: c hai loi
- Ct khai thng gc-octola (K
2
O.Al
2
O
3
.6SiO
2
- felspat kali)
- Ct xin gc - plagiocla (Na
2
O.Al
2
O
3
.6SiO
2
-felspat natri v CaO.Al
2
O
3
.2SiO
2
-
felspat canxi).
- Tnh cht c bn ca felspat: mu bin i t trng, trng xm, vng n hng
v ; khi lng ring: 2,55 - 2,76 g/cm
3
, cng 6 - 6,5, cng chu nn 1200 -
1700 kg/cm
2
. Kh nng chng phong ho ca felspat km, km n nh i vi nc v
c bit l nc c cha CO
2
:
+K
2
O.Al
2
O
3
.6SiO
2
+CO
2
+2H
2
O =K
2
CO
3
+4SiO
2
+Al
2
O
3
.2SiO
2
.2H
2
O
+Al
2
O
3
.2SiO
2
.2H
2
O l caolonit - thnh phn ch yu ca t st.
* Mica: l nhng alumsilicat ngm nc rt phc tp. Ph bin nht l hai loi
biotit v muscovit.
Biotit thng cha oxyt manh v oxyt st.
C mu nu en (mica en). Muscovit K
2
O. Al
2
O
3
.6SiO
2
.2H
2
O th trong sut
(mica trng). Mica c cng 2-3, khi lng ring 2,76 - 3,2 g/cm
3
. Ngoi hai loi trn
cn gp vecmiculit c to thnh do s oxy ho v hydrat ho biotit. Khi nung 900
10.000 C nc s mt i, th tch vecmiculit tng 18 - 25 ln.
Khong vt mu sm ch yu gm c amfibn, piroxen, olivin. Cc khong vt
ny c mu xm (t mu lc n mu en) cng cao, dai v bn, kh gia cng.
Cc khong vt to ch yu ca loi trm tch ni la:
* Nhm oxyt silic:
Cc khong ph bin nht ca nhm ny l opan, chanxedon v thch anh trm
tch.
- Opan (SiO
2
.2H
3
O) l khong v nh hnh, cha 2- 14% nc (i khi n
34%). Khi nung nng, mt phn nc b mt i. Opan thng khng mu hoc mu
trng sa, nhng nu ln tp cht c th c mu vng xanh hoc en, c khi lng
ring 1,9 2,5 g/cm
3
, cng 5 , gin.
- Chalxedon (SiO
2
) l h hng ca thch anh, cu to n tinh dng si. Mu trng,
xm, vng sng, tro, xanh; khi lng ring 2,6 g/cm
3
, cng 6.
Chalxedon c to thnh t s ti kt tinh opan hoc lng ng trc tip t
dung dch cng vi opan v thch anh.
Thch anh trm tch c lng ng trc tip t dung dch v cng c th do ti
kt tinh t opan v chalxendon. Trong cc loi trm tch tn ti c thch anh mcma
v thch anh trm tch.
* Nhm cacbonat:
Cc khong vt ca nhm cacbonat rt ph bin trong cc loi trm tch. Quan
trng nht l cc khong vt canxi, lmit v manhezit.
- Canxi (CaCO
3
) l khong khng mu hoc mu trng, khi c ln tp cht th c
mu xm vng, hng hoc xanh, khi lng ring 2,7 g/cm
3
, cng 3, cng trung
bnh; d tan trong nc v tan mnh trong nc c cha CO
2
; si bt mnh trong axit
clohydric nng 10%.
- lmit [CaMg(CO
3
)
2
] l khong vt c mu hoc trng, khi lng ring
2,8g/cm
3
, cng 3-4, cng ln hn canxit. Khi dng bt v b nung nng cng
si bt trong dung dch axit clohydric nng 10%.
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lmit c dng lm nguyn liu sn xut cht kt dnh manhezi v
lmi; lm vt liu chu la lmi, cng nh cc loi cy xy, dm cho b tng.
- Manzehit: (MgCO
3
) l khong khng mu hoc mu trng, xm, vng hoc nu;
khi lng ring 3,0 g/cm
3
, cng 3,5 - 4,5, c cng kh cao. Khi nung nng th
tan trong c HCl. Manhezit nung nhit 1500 - 1650
0
C s cho loi vt liu chu
nhit cao, cn khi nung nhit 750 - 800
0
C s cho MgO. Khi nho trn manhezit vi
dungdch clorua hoc sunfat axit manh s nhn c cht kt dnh manh. Nhm cc
khong vt st.
Cc khong vt st ng vai tr rt quan trng trong trm tch, chng l thnh
phn chnh ca t st v tp cht trong nhiu loi khc. Alumosilicat ngm nc l
cc khong vt ca nhm ny. Cc khong ph bin nht l kaolimit, montmorilnit v
mica ngm nc.
- Caolinit: Al
4
[Si
4
O
10
] (OH)
8
hay Al
2
O
3
.2SiO
2
.2H
2
O, l khong mu trng, i
khi c mu xm hoc mu xanh; khi lng ring 2,6g/cm
3
, cng 1. Caolinit c
hnh thnh do kt qu phn hu fensat, mica v mt s loi silicat khc. Caolinit l thnh
phn ch yu ca cao lanh v cc loi t st a khong.
- Mica ngm nc c hnh thnh do s phn hu mica v mt s silicat.
Mntmrilnit l khong st c to thnh trong mi trng kim, ti cc vng
bin hoc trn cc lp t b phong ho. N l thnh phn chnh ca t bentonit v
i khi l cht xi mng gn kt trong sa thch. Cc khong ca nhm mntmrilnit
thng thy trong cc loi trm tch.
Cc tp cht st lm cho bn nc ca vi v sa thch gim i.
* Nhm sunfat:
Ph bin nht trong nhm ny l thch cao v anhydrit.
- Thch cao: (CaSO
4
.2H
2
O) l khong mu trng hoc khng mu, i khi ln tp
cht th c mu xanh, vng hoc mu ; tinh th dng bn, i khi dng si, cng 2,
khi lng ring 2,3 g/cm
3
, d ho tan trong nc ( ho tan ln hn canxit 75 ln).
Thch cao c to thnh do trm tch ho hc, do thu ho anhyrit v do nc cha
H
2
SO
4
tc dng vi vi.
- Anhydrit (CaSO
4
) l loi khong trn tch ho hc, kt tinh dng tm dy hoc
lng tr, mu trng, i khi c mu xanh da tri; cng 3 - 3,5, khi lng ring
3g/cm
3
. Anhydrit thng gp trong cc tng hoc cc mnh nh cng vi thch cao
v mui m. Khi tc dng vi nc p lc thp anhydrit chuyn thnh thch cao v
tng th tch 30%.

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CHNG II: THCH HC

l sn phn ca tc dng a cht, l tp hp c quy lut ca mt hoc nhiu
loi khong vt hoc cc vn kt li vi nhau to thnh mt th a cht c lp v l
b phn ch yu cu to nn v tri t.
thng thng l cng nh vi, t ct kt...nhng cng c th mm do
nh st, do mt kim loi khong vt to thnh nh hoa (do canxit tp hp
thnh), do nhiu khong vt kt hp phc tp, v d nh granit (gm thch anh,
penpat, mica).
Qung (ore) gm mt hay nhiu thnh phn c gi tr c tp trung cao ,
c khai thc s dng trong cng nghip (qung vng, st, than, apatit...)
vy quanh (countryrock) l phn khng phi l qung bao cha qung.
Khi khoa hc k thut pht trin c th bin vy quanh thnh qung. V vy c hin
tng khai thc li bi thi ly li qung.
Loi
Khong vt
Magma
Olivin, pyroxen, amphibol, mica, feldspar, feldspathoid, thch anh,
sphen, zircon, zeolit
Bin cht Sillimanit, disten, staurolit, andalusit, topaz, diaspor, cordierit,
chlorit, chloritoid, tourmalin, anthophilit, talc, fosterit, phlogopit,
tremolit, garnet, zoizit, epidot,
Trm tch Calcit, chalcedony, dolomit, glauconit

1. MACMA: (Magmatic rocks)
1.1. Khi nim: macma c to thnh do s ng cng ca nhng khi hp
cht silicat nng chy iu kin nhit v p sut cao trong v hoc trn b mt Tri
t. Nhng khi silicat nng chy c gi l Macma.
Trong macma ngoi SiO
2
ra cn mt s nguyn t khc v thnh phn cht kh d
bay hi nh cc nguyn t nhm hagogen v cc kh CO
2
, S...cn c mi trng thnh
to phn loi.
1.2. Phn loi macma:
1.2.1. Phn loi theo su to thnh:
- xm nhp (intrusive rock) gm xm nhp su (plutonic rock) do macma
ng ngui di su so vi b mt tri t trn 1,5 km to nn v xm nhp nng
(hypabyssal rock) do macma ng ngui to nn (t 0 1,5 km).
xm nhp c cu trc tinh th ln, c chc, cng cao, t ht nc.
xm nhp ch yu s dng trong xy dng l granit, iorit, gabro...
- phun tro (extrusive rock) c thnh to su di 1,5 km cho ti b
mt Tri t, do magma phun ln hoc tro ra mt t qua cc khe nt, ming ni la
sau ng ngui to thnh. Do ngui nhanh trong iu kin nhit v p sut thp,
cc khong vt khng kp kt tinh, hoc ch l kt tinh mt phn nn c kch thc tinh
th b, cha hon chnh, hoc tn ti dng v nh hnh. Mt khc, cc cht kh v hi
nc khng kp thot ra, li nhiu l rng, lm cho nh, c loi ni trn mt nc.
Macma ngui lnh li trn mt t rt nhiu chng loi . l do qu trnh
din bin ca n kh phc tp. Macma ng ngui s phn d ra cc vt cht khc nhau,
mt khc macma khi xuyn ln vy quanh li c tc dng ng ho cc vt cht bn
ngoi to thnh cc mi.
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1.2.2. Phn loi theo thnh phn ha hc: Cn c vo hm lng oxyt silic,
macma cn c chia ra cc loi:
- Macma axit (Si
2
O > 65%) nh granit, liparit (riolit)
- Macma trung tnh (Si
2
O: 65 - 52%) nh diorit, sienit, andezit.
- Macma baz (mafic) (SiO
2
: 52 - 45%) nh gabro, bazan.
- Macma siu baz (mafic) (SiO
2
< 45%). Nh periit, unit
Kt hp vi nghin cu mi trng thnh to kin trc cu to ca , thng
thng phn chia macma da vo hm lng % SiO
2
, Fe, Mg c trong .
1.3. Macma tri qua mt s tc dng sau:
1.3.1. Tc dng phn d: Dung li ca macma xut hin trc khi macma kt tinh
ang cn trng thi lng nn cn trng thi lng nn cn gi l phn d lng. Trong
khi ng ngui, do trng lc, p sut v nhit h thp dn, t macma s phn ly ra 1
loi hay nhiu loi thnh phn trn. Thc t cho thy macma Silicat c Ca, Mg, khi
nhit trn 1500
0
C n c th ho tan t 6% - 7% cc mui sunfua. Khi nhit h
thp xung di 1500
0
C th mui sunfua tch ra khi magma v lng xung y.
Trong cc siu mafic hoc y cc khong sn cng nghip.
1.3.2. Tc dng phn d kt tinh ca macma: Khi nhit h thp dn, cc
thnh phn khong vt s ln lt kt tinh. Mi khong vt c dung im kt tinh ring.
Tc dng phn d kt tinh l s kt tinh theo trnh t ln lt ca khong vt tch ra khi
macma khi nhit h dn. Trc tin l phn d kt tinh khong vt Silicat cha nhiu
Fe, Mg. Quan st thy c cc khong vt sm mu s kt tinh theo th t ln lt t
Olivin n Pyroxen n amphibol n biotit. Cc khong vt nht mu s kt tinh theo
th t ln lt anoctit (Pagioclaz Ca) n andenzin (Plagis laz trung tnh) n anbit
(Plag, Na) n ctola (Fenpat Kali), Thch anh.
S phn d kt tinh cng nh phn d dung li u chu nh hng ca tc ng
trng lc. V vy cc khong vt thuc nhm olivin c t trng ln s lng ng y
cn cc khong vt nh nh fenpat, thch anh s ni trn, do hnh thnh cc loi
macma khc nhau.
Trong khi phn d, sau khi cc khong vt silicat kt tinh xong, mt s thnh
phn cht bc c tng i tng ln. Khi nhit tip tc h thp chng hnh thnh
magma tn d phn b phn trn ca magma hoc 1 b phn nht nh.
1.3.3. Tc dng phn d kh thnh: Trong macma tn d c rt nhiu cht bc
vi c trng l im nng chy thp, thnh phn bc hi nhiu, hot tnh ho hc
mnh do d cng vi cc kim loi trong macma nht l cc nguyn t kim loi him
ho hp thnh khong vt. Khi nhit v p ca macma h xung, cc khong vt ny
tch ra khi macma v ng li trong cc khe nt, cc hc trng ca vy quanh. Qu
trnh ny xy ra sau qu trnh phn d macma nn c gi l qu trnh phn d kh
thnh. N d to ra nhiu khong sn kim loi c gi tr.
1.3.4. Tc dng ng ho hn nhim: vy quanh vi magma c s khc
nhau nhiu v thnh phn ho hc v tnh cht vt l. V th khi magma xm nhp vo
vy quanh s xy ra s trao i gia hai loi. Nhit , p sut cng nh tnh cht
ho hc ca cc thnh phn magma s lm cho phn tip xc ca vy quanh ho tan,
bin i, a thm thnh phn v macma. Qu trnh chnh l tc dng ng ho hn
nhim. (assimilation - contamination). Mc ng ho hn nhim cng mnh khi
nhit macma cng cao, quy m ca th macma cng ln, s khc bit v thnh phn
vt cht ca macma v vy quanh cng ln v nt n ca vy quanh cng
nhiu.

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1.4. Cc loi macma trong xy dng:
1.4.1. macma xm nhp:
- Granit ( hoa cng) l loi axit c nhiu ni, ch yu do thch anh,
fenspat v mt t mica, c khi cn to thnh c amfibon v piroxen. Granit c mu tro
nht, hng nht hoc vng, phn ln c kt tinh ht ln.
Granit rt c chc, khi lng th tch 2600 - 2700 kg/m
3
, cng nn rt ln
(1200 - 2500kg/cm
2
), ht nc nh (di 1%), kh nng chng phong ho rt cao,
chu la km, c mt s loi c mu sc p. granit c s dng rng ri trong xy
dng (p mt ngoi nh v cc cng trnh c bit, nh cng cng, lm nn mng cu,
cng, p...)
- Syenit l loi trung tnh, thnh phn khong vt ch yu l octola, plagiocla,
axit, cc khong vt mu xm (amfibn, pryroxen, biotit), mt t mica, rt t thch anh.
Sienit mu tro hng, c cu trc ton tinh u n, khi lng ring 2,7 - 2,9 g/cm
3
,
khi lng th tch 2400 - 2800 kg/m
3
, cng chu nn 1500 - 2000kg/cm
2
. Sienit
c ng dng kh rng ri trong xy dng.
- Diorit l loi trung tnh, thnh phn ch yu l plagiocla trung tnh (chim
khong ), hocblen, augit, biotit, amfibn v mt t mica v pyroxen. Diorit thng c
mu xm, xm lc c xen cc vt xm v trng; khi lng th tch 2900 - 3300 kg/m
3
,
cng chu nn 2000 - 3500kg/cm
2
. Diorit dai, chng va chm tt, chng phong ho
cao, d nh bng, nn c s dng lm mt ng, tm p.
- Gabro l loi baz, thnh phn gm c plagiocla baz (khong 50%) v cc
khong vt mu xm nh pyroxen, amfibon v olivin. Gabro c mu tro xm hoc t lc
thm n en, p, c th mi nhn, khi lng th tch 2900 - 3300 kg/m
3
, cng
chu nn 2000 - 3500kg/cm
2
. Grab c s dng lm dm, tm lt mt ng
v p trang tr cc cng trnh kin trc.
1.4.2. macma phun tro:
- Diaba c thnh phn tng t gabro, l loi trung tnh, c kt cu ht nh,
ht va xen ln vi kt cu ton tinh. Thnh phn khong vt gm c fenspat, pyroxen,
olivin, mu tro sm hoc lc nht, cng nn 3000 - 4000 kg/cm
2
. iaba rt dai,
kh mi mn, c s dng ch yu lm ri ng v lm nguyn liu c.
- Bazan l loi baz, thnh phn khong vt ging grab. Chng c cu
trc ban tinh hoc cu trc poocfica. bazan l loi nng nht trong cc loi
macma, khi lng th tch 2900 - 3500 kg/cm
3
2

(c loi cng n 8000kg/cm
2
), rt cng, gin, kh nng chng phong ho cao, rt
kh gia cng. bazan l loi ph bin nht trong xy dng, c s dng lt
ng lm ct liu b tng, tm p chng n mn...
- Andesit l loi trung tnh. Thnh phn ca n gm plagiocla trung tnh, cc
khong vt sm mu (ambrifon, pyroxen)v mica; c cu to n tinh v cu to dng
poocfia, c mu tro vng, hng, lc. andesit c kh nng ht nc ln, khi lng
th tch 2200 2700 kg/m
3
, cng chu nn 1200 2400kg/cm
2
, chu c axit nn
c dng lm vt liu chng axit.

2. TRM TCH: (sedimentary rocks)
2.1. Khi nim: trm tch hnh thnh do cc tc dng ngoi lc, phong ha
(ph hy cc c trc (magma, trm tch hoc bin cht), hot ng ca ni la, do
t v tr ri xung, kt qu cc qu trnh ha hc, hot ng ca vi sinh vt...) b lng
ng ti ch hoc b di chuyn ri lng ng li lin kt vng chc vi nhau qua mt
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qu trnh bin i lu di di nhit , p sut khc nhau m hnh thnh mt loi
gi l trm tch.
trm tch c phn ra: vn, vn ni la, st, ho hc v sinh
ho.
- Cc trm tch chim 5 % khi lng cc trong v Tri t ( magma
chim 95%) song l ra 75% din tch trn b mt Tri t (tnh n su 6 km theo
Rukhin) phn ch yu l bin.
- c trng rt ln ca trm tch l:
+Tnh phn lp do ch yu l kt qu ca s phn d (phn d trng lc) trong
qu trnh lng ng. Hnh thnh tng lp phn bit c bi s khc nhau v thnh
phn, ht, mu sc...
+Trn mt lp ca trm tch thng c cu to ring nh khe nt kh, vt
sng vt sinh vt... gi l cu to mt lp.
+ Trong trm tch c th cha di tch sinh vt ho . l c s xc nh
mi tng i. Mt s do khong vt to thnh.
+Kin trc ht v xi mng gn kt (i vi vn)
Hu ht cc cng trnh xy dng u s dng t trm tch lm nn hoc vt
liu xy dng.
2.2. trm tch ni la:
Ngoi cc loi c chc trn, trong magma phn xut cn c bt, tup
phn xut, tro v tup dung nham. Cc loi ny bn cnh vic hnh thnh do kt tinh
nhanh nh phn xut cn lng ng theo quy lut trm tch. Nhiu tc gi Lin X c
xp loi ny sang trm tch.
- Tro ni la: thng dng bt, ging nhau mu xm. Nhng ht ln gi l ct
ni la. bt, l loi thu tinh ni la, rt rng ( rng n 80%) c to thnh khi
dung nham ngui lnh nhanh trong khng kh. bt c kch thc 5 - 30mm, khi
lng th tch 500 kg/m3, ht nc thp v cc l rng ln v kn, h s truyn nhit
nh (0,12 - 0,2 kCal/m.
0
C.h, cng chu nn 20 - 30kg/cm
2
. Ct ni la, bt c
dng lm ct liu cho b tng nh, cn bt th lm vt liu cch nhit v bt mi.
- Tup ni la: l loi rng, c to thnh do qu trnh t ln cht tro ni la.
Loi tup ni la cht nht gi l trat. Tup ni la bt cng nh tro ni la thng
dng lm ph gia hot tnh chu nc cho cht kt dnh v c.
- Tup dung nham: do tro v ct ni la ri vo trong dung nham nng chy sinh
ra. N l loi thu tinh rng c mu hng, tm..., khi lng th tch 750 1400
kg/m
3
2
, h s dn nhit trung bnh l 0,3
kCal/m.
0
C.h. Trong xy dng, tup dung nham c x thnh bloc xy tng, sn
xut dm cho b tng nh.
2.3. Phn loi v c tnh ca mt s trm tch:
2.3.1. Trm tch vn:
- Cui, si (si, sn laterite)
- Ct: Tng ct cha nc di t rt tt, khi c ti trng ct b nn cht nhanh
nhng i ln khng ln. Nn ct khng thch hp vi nhng cng trnh chu ti trng
chn ng.
- t ct pha: c lng ht st t 2-10%, c mt t tnh dnh, khi ct pha c thnh
phn ht bt trn 30% th pht sinh hin tng bn nho khi gp nc.
- t st pha: c lng ht st t 10-30%, c tnh do tng i ln, tnh thm
nc nh, thng lm vt liu p, tnh p co so vi cats tng ln r rt.
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- t st: C tnh do, tnh dnh, trng n v p co ln, ln nn ph thuc vo
thi gian do trn b mt ht st c hp th mt mng nc tng i dy. Trong thc t
coi t st khng thm nc.
- cui, dm: l loi trm tch vn c gn kt m hm lng c ht
ng knh ln hn 2 mm chim trn 50%. Loi trn cch l cui, loi gc cnh l
dm.
- ct (ct kt-sa thch): l loi do ct gn kt li m thnh.
- Bt kt: Tnh ging nh ct kt nhng cng nh hn
- St kt: l do t st thot nc kt cht st li v thng to thnh cc lp
mng.
2.3.2. Trm tch sinh ha:
- vi (CaCO
3
): Thnh phn ch yu l calcite, dolomit v mt s tp cht nh
thch anh, st, pirit...
vi cha dolomit (CaCO
3.
MgCO
3
) trn 50% th gi l dolomit.

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3. BIN CHT: (metamorphic rocks)
3.1. Khi nim: bin cht l do macma hay trm tch di tc dng
ca nhit cao, p lc ln hay do cc phn ng ha hc vi macma...b bin i mnh
lit v thnh phn v tnh cht to thnh.
bin cht do cc trc (macma, trm tch hoc bin cht) trong iu kin
tc dng mi ca nhit , p sut v tc dng ca cc dung dch ho hc lm cho chng
thay i v thnh phn, kin trc, cu to hnh thnh loi mi. bin cht phn
thnh cc loi chnh: bin cht tip xc, bin cht trao i (nhit dch kh
thnh), bin cht ng lc, bin cht khu vc (bin cht nhit ng). Ngi ta cn phn
bit: n khong l hnh thnh ch c mt khong vt, a khong l hnh
thnh vi tp hp nhiu loi khong vt.

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3.2. Nhng c trng ca bin cht:
- Cu to c trng: Th phin, dng phin (b p nh hng) cu to khi
ging macma, cu to bin cht (hnh thnh trong qu trnh bin cht), cu to st
(gi li cu to ca nguyn thy).
- Kin trc c trng: kin trc bin tinh (do khong vt ti kt tinh hnh thnh).
Kin trc st (gi li cc kin trc nguyn thy), kin trc c nt (ht c th v u hay
khng u).
3.3. Phn loi v c tnh mt s bin cht chnh:
- c cu to gneiss(gnai): Loi ny c th do macma hay trm tch
bin cht m thnh. Thng c kt tinh ht th, dng lm nn cng trnh tng i tt.
Thng gp ni Vi (Nam nh), cao nguyn Kon Tum, c Lc, Plycu.
- c cu to phin:
+ Philit: L do st bin cht to nn. Khong vt ch yu c mi ca, clorit,
thch anhtinh th rt nh, khng nhn thy bng mt thng. C mu vng lc, mu
t nu, en xm. Cu to dng t st. Mt phin thng c dng x c do cc dy mica
ph ln. Thng thy (Hi Xun - Thanh Ha, Ty Chang - in Bin).
+ phin: Philit bin cht cao hn th thnh phin. Ph bin nht l phin
mica. c trng ca loi ny l c cu to phin, cng thp d b phn ha v
trt theo mt phin. thng gp nhiu Sng Thao (Ph Th), Tun Gio (in Bin),
Sng M, Sng Hiu, Hng Kh (H Tnh), Nam Trung B.
- c cu to khi:
+ Quaczit: do ct kt thch anhbieens cht to thnh. Cu to kh t st.
Khong vt ph c mica, manhentit, amfibom. Mu xm n en xm, loi rn chc,
kh phn ha, nhng vic khai thc v gia cng kh, v vy t c dng lm vt liu xy
dng. Thng Tun Gio (in Bin), Phangxipng, ng Sn (Thanh Ha), Kon
Tum, Lt
+ hoa: l do vi ti kt tinh to nn. Chng thng phn b vng tip
gip gia vi v granit. Khong vt ch yu c canxit, olomit, ht th, ht va v
nh. hoa thun khit c mu trng, khi c tp cht th c nhiu mu: xm vng, trng
xanh, c lm dng vt liu lm kin trc. Thng gp K Sn (H Nam), Tun Giao
(in Bin), Phanxipng, ng Sn (Thanh Ha), Plycu.

3.2.1. Cc bin cht ng lc: Yu t gy bin cht do ng lc nh hng,
gm cc nh dm kt kin to, kataclazit (ht dm nh t 1 - 2mm) milonit (ht nh
hn 1 n 2mm) blatonmilonit (khng nhn ra khong vt nguyn thu, dng vy)
filonit (ht rt mn i khi vi un np).
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 26
3.2.2. Cc bin cht nhit: Bin cht trong iu kin nhit t 500 n
1200
0
C vi p sut P = 3000 bar. Gm cc nh phin m, sng, hoa,
quaczit. sng cng c th t macma bizic v trung tnh bin thnh.
3.2.3. Cc bin cht trao i: Qu trnh bin cht xy ra thng l do s trao
i thnh phn ca macma granitoit v syenit vi vy quanh. Thuc loi ny gm cc
nh xkacn, greizen, secpentinit. Cn c nhit ngi ta chia ra 3 giai on
bin cht trao i. Giai on macma nhit ln hn 6000C, giai on kh thnh, nhit
t 600 n 375
0
C v giai on nhit dch, nhit nh hn 375
0
C.
3.2.4. Cc bin cht khu vc: (nhit ng) c hnh thnh trong mt khu
vc rng ln di tc dng ca hot ng macma, kin to. Cc gm phin (c th
t st, macma bazic, trung tnh, macn, siu bazic, trm tch boxit), phin kt
tinh (mc bin cht mnh hn c nh hng r, ti kt tinh) gnai (do bin cht
khu vc mnh, cc khong vt chnh l fenpat t hn 40% thch anh c t 30 n 40%,
amphibolit (thnh phn ch yu l hocblen, plagipocla), granulit (bin cht khu vc
cao), eclogit (bin cht khu vc cao nht, to thnh t pyroxen granat). Ngoi ra cn c
hoa, quaczit.
Tc dng bin cht l tc dng lm bin i v thnh phn vt cht, kin trc,
...trong iu kin ni sinh. Thng thng l do s nng cao p sut, nhit v tham gia
thm ca cc cht lng nh nc, CO
2
, nhit dch c cha cc ion Na, K, Ca v c F, B
v S.
Kt qu ca qu trnh pht bin l to ra cc bin cht. nguyn thu ca
cc bin cht c th l trm tch, macma hoc c bin cht hnh thnh
trc . V vy bin cht c xem nh l nhm th ba ln cng vi nhm
macma v nhm trm tch.
Thc cht ca qu trnh bin cht l s hnh thnh cc mi trong iu kin cn
bng a cht mi, khc vi iu kin tn ti ca cha bin cht. Bng thc nghim,
ngi ta cng ta cng to ra nhng khong vt bin cht.
V d mt s khong vt st trn mt (bin sinh) trong iu kin p lc bnh
thng nu nhit tng ln 400
0
C th c th bin thnh mica.

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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 27

CHNG 3: A CHT KIN TRC

1. I CNG V TC DNG KIN TO CA V TRI T
Nhng hot ng ln chm, nng cao, dn p ca v Tri t to ra nhng np
un, t gy, hnh thnh nn nhng cu trc ca n l nhng hot ng kin to.
Dao ng thng ng hay chuyn ng thng trm ca v Tri t thng xy ra
trong mt phm vi rng ln lm thay i v tr ca lc a hay i dng.
Khi mt t nng ln, bin rt ra, lc a c m rng gi l bin li.
Ngc li, khi lc a h thp, nc bin trn vo gi l bin tin.
Chuyn ng ngang hay chuyn ng un np to ni v t gy. iu kin c
bn lm cho un np l tc chuyn ng phi nh v lu di. Trng hp lc kin
to gy ng sut vt qu bn ca , tng s nt n, to thnh khe nt, t gy.

Du vt mc nc bin H Tin

2. CC DNG BIN V CA T
* Th nm ban u ca cc lp trm tch l nm ngang.
* Th nm nghing
AB ng phng
OC ng dc
OC' hng dc
o - gc dc lp
* Xc nh cc yu t th nm ca
lp thng qua 3 h khoan.

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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 28

2.1. Np un: lm tng ban u nm ngang b un cong, nghing o i nhng
khng mt tnh lin tc ca n.
- Np un li: l dng un cong ca cc lp , hng b li ln pha trn. Vng
trung tm ca np un li t c tui gi hn t xung quanh.
- Np un lm: l dng un cong ca cc lp , hng b lm xung pha di.
Vng trung tm ca np un lm t c tui tr hn t xung quanh.

2.2. Bin dng t gy: lm cho tng mt tnh lin tc v hon chnh. mc
bin v thp trong xut hin cc khe nt. Khi cng lc tc dng ln hn th xy
ra s dch chuyn cc phn ca tng vi nhau, to ra t
gy.
- t gy thun (phay thun): l nhng t gy trong
mt t gy dc v pha tt xung. Khi t gy l ranh
gii ca 2 lai t khc nhau, mt t gy hng v
pha t c tui tr hn l t gy thun.
- t gy nghch (phay nghch): l nhng t gy trong
mt t gy dc v pha tri ln. Khi t gy l
ranh gii ca 2 lai t khc nhau, mt t gy hng
v pha t c tui gi hn l t gy nghch.
- t gy ngang (phay ngang): l nhng t gy m cc
t c cng chuyn dch theo phng ngang.

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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 29

Vt nt ng phi

S dch chuyn mng

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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 30

CHNG 4: A CHT LCH S

1. I CNG V A CHT LCH S
a cht lch s l mt mn hc nghin cu v hon cnh v thi gian hnh thnh,
qu trnh tn ti v bin i ca t v Tri t.
a cht lch s c cc nhim v:
- Xc nh trnh t thnh to cc theo thi gian (tui ca )
- Xc nh hon cnh t nhin, nghin cu lch s cc chuyn ng kin to, cc
cu trc, cc qu trnh ca macma...
-Xc lp li cc giai on pht trin ca v Tri t, lch s v qui lut hnh thnh
cc dng kin trc a cht trn v Tri t
Hnh thi mt t ngy nay - a hnh - l sn phm ca cc qu trnh a cht lu
di v phc tp, c nh hng rt ln n hot ng xy dng. Khoa hc nghin cu a
hnh c xt n nguyn nhn hnh thnh v xu th pht trin a hnh gi l a Mo.

2. CC PHNG PHP XC NH TUI T
Tui ca t l khong thi gian t khi t c hnh thnh cho n nay.
2.1. Phng php xc nh tui tuyt i (Phng php ng v phng x):
i vi cc loi c, ngi ta s dng cc nguyn t bn hy di nh nguyn t
Th, U, cn tr l nguyn t c chu k bn hy ngn nh cacbon phng x (C
14
).
Tc ca qu trnh ph hy phng x mi loi nguyn t khng thay i. Chu
k bn hy ca mi nguyn t phng x l thi gian m mt khi lng no ca cht
phng x b ph hy i mt na bin thnh ng v bn vng.
Trong macma thng cha c U v Th, ng thi ch thng thy c nguyn t
lng l 207,2 l hn hp ca hai ng v nn ta thng tnh tui theo cng thc sau:

i vi nhng tr c tui 50.000 nm hay tr hn (trm tch T) thng s
dng nhng nguyn t c chu k bn hy ngn hn, v d nguyn t C
14
.
2.2. Phng php xc nh tui tng i ca t :
L xc nh th t hnh thnh cc lp , tm ra lp thnh to trc, lp
thnh to sau.
*Phng php a tng: da trn quan h th nm ca cc tng xc nh
tui tng i ca chng v cc hin tng a cht khc.

9
208 206
10 4 , 7
38 , 0
x x
Th U
Pb Pb
t
+
+
=
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 31

*Phng php thch hc: xc lp mt tng chun (c nhng tnh cht c bit
v thnh phn, mu sc, b dy) ri so snh vi cc tng khc.

So snh v hp nht a tng cc mt ct theo thnh phn

p dng phng php thch hc a tng lp ct a tng trong vng pht trin
xm nhp v trm tch.
5
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
4 5
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2.3. Nin biu a cht:
Theo nin biu a cht hin ti th lch s pht trin a cht ca v Tri t c
chia ra l 5 i (Era).
Trong mi i li chia ra cc K (Period), trong k chia ra nhiu Th (Epoch). Cc
tp c thnh to tng ng vi cc i, k, th, l cc Gii, H, Thng, c
th hin theo b dy ca tp v c trng v thch hc cng cc tnh cht khc gi l
thang a tng.
Trn bn a cht ngi ta th hin tui t bng mu v k hiu ch Latinh.

3. S LC LCH S PHT TRIN CA V TRI T
Theo Saurin, qu trnh phun tro bazan bt u t cui Plioxen vn tip din u
k T. Hot ng phun tro bazan ph bin rng ri pha nam ng Dng.
ng Nam B, nam Ty nguyn, ng Campuchia bazan ph trn mt din tch rng
ln. Hot ng phun tro bazan kt thc vo Pleixtocene h.
T u T, 2 vng sp vng hnh thnh chu th sng Cu Long - ng Nai
min Nam v sng Hng min Bc. chu th sng Cu Long - ng Nai bin
sp vng da theo b dy trm tch Q gn sng Si Gn khng t hn 200m v c th
t ti 400m. sng Hng bin sp ln t ti 200 - 300m. Trong thnh phn trm
tch Q y c s xen k gia trm tch lc a v trm tch bin.
Trong Holocene trn lnh th ng Dng vn tip tc mnh m hot ng kin
to. C l nhiu t gy vn tip tc hot ng. Bn cnh l nh hng ca hot ng
macma di su th hin s hnh thnh nhiu sui nc nng ri rc nhiu a
phng khp ng Dng.
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4. I MO
4.1. Phn loi a hnh:
Theo ngun gc a hnh c th chia ra a hnh kin to, a hnh xm thc bc
mn, a hnh bi t, m hnh thi bn ngoi thng phn nh trung thnh cu to bn
trong v lch s tn ti ca a hnh .
4.2. Cc nhn t hnh thnh a hnh:
4.2.1. Nhn t kin to: Hnh thnh do s vn ng kin to (ni, i, ng
bng..), phn nh y c im kin trc v cu to a cht di su. Hnh dng a
mo c lin quan cht ch vi cc t gy, cc np un, thnh phn v tnh cht t
phn b khu vc.
Cao nht hin nay l nh Chmlungma di Hymalaya, ti 8882 m, cc khu
vc st xung to nn cc vng bin, i dng, ni su nht hin nay l h Marian
Thi Bnh Dng trn 11 km. VIt Nam hu ht sng ngi u b chi phi bi kin to
a cht c hng ty bc ng nam, hoc ng bc ty nam.
4.2.2. Nhn t t : Ty theo sc sp xp cc tng , tnh hnh xut l, iu
kin kh hucc gnai, gganit b phn hy d hn do phn ha ha hc kt hp vi
phn ha vt l, thng to nn cc ni nh trn, sn thoi. Cn cc pocfirit, riolit
tng i bn vng th to nn cc nh ni hi nhn, sn kh dc.
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 34
vi d b karst ha cho ta cc a hnh karst rt c trng: tai mo, rng ,
phu karst, hang ng, sng ngm trn mt, a hnh karst vi c hnh thi lm
chm, vch thnh dng ng.
4.2.3 . Nhn t kh hu: nh hng a mo hoc trc tip do nhng hin
tng kh tng thy vn hoc gin tip qua thc vt v th nhng.
Ch ma theo ma gy nn xm thc c gii rt mnh. Nhng trn ma u
ma h ri xung mt t b hung nng, nt n, lm pht sinh cc khe rnh xi, nht l
nhng ni mt ht lp ph thc vt.
vng kh hu nng v m, thc vt pht trin, phong ph ha hc chim u th,
axt hu c do r cy tit ra lm tng tc dng ha hc ca nc ma ngm xung t.
Lp v phong ha v vy kh su, c ni ti 70 80 m, kh tm c vt l gc. ni
i khi c dng u u mm mi.
Lp ph thc vt dy c tc dng ngn cn xm thc c gii ca nhn t kh hu.
N lm gim sc va p ca ht ma, hm bt sc gi, gim bc hi v chnh lch nhit
, nc chy trn mt khng gy xi thnh khe rnh. V vy lp ph thc vt dy mt
t kh b bc mn, bo v c hnh thi b mt.
4.3. a mo vi cc cng trnh xy dng:
Ngi ta kho st a cht coi a mo l cc tin c bn phn nh loi t
v cu to a cht di su
Di gc xy dng cng trnh, hnh thi a mo c nghin cu trn hai mt
c bn: Nghin cu cc qu trnh bin i a mo thng l nguyn nhn gy tai ha
cho cc cng trnh xy dng nh trt, l, mng xi Nghin cu a mo qui
hoch xy dng v b tr cc cng trnh, sao cho an ton, kinh t.
Khi xy dng p, thng chn ni c lng su, hp nhm lm cho khi lng
cng trnh l nh nht.
Cn c v tr b tr cc cng trnh kin trc khc nh p trn, cng, nh my thy
in, nn mt ct tuyn p cn c b rng thch hp.
Khi xy dng knh cn ch dc, mc phn ct ca a hnh, v n quyt
nh khi lng o p, s cng trnh ph, hnh thc knh.
a hnh phn ct mnh lm cho tuyn knh, ng giao thng phi ko di do
ln theo ng ng mc a hnh hoc phi b tr cc cng trnh vt nh cu giao
thng, cu mng, xiphng,

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CHNG 5: THNH PHN CU TRC
V MT S TNH CHT C L CA T

1. THNH PHN KT CU CA T
t c cu to bi 3 thnh phn (3 pha): ht rn (pha rn), dung dch hoc
nc (pha lng) v cc cht kh (pha kh).
1.1. Phn ht rn (pha rn):
i vi cng v na cng - thnh phn khong vt v tnh cht cc lin kt
ng vai tr quan trng trong vic xc nh cc tnh cht c l.
i vi t - thnh phn ht, hnh dng, mc cht st,
C C c c t th h n nh h p ph h n n c c u u t tr r c c t t l l c c c c t ti in nh h t th h r ri i n ng g r r , , c c c c m m n nh h v v n n t t t t o o t th h n nh h
p ph ha a r r n n v v t th h h hi i n n t th h n ng g q qu ua a c c c c c c t tr r n ng g k k c ch h t th h c c, , h h n nh h d d n ng g, , c c i i m m b b m m t t h h t t
r r n n v v h h m m l l n ng g c c a a c ch h n ng g. .
K K c ch h t th h c c h h t t ( (t th he eo o t ti i u u c ch hu u n n) )
T Th h n nh h p ph h n n h h t t v v p ph h n n l lo o i i t t ( (t th he eo o t ti i u u c ch hu u n n) )
T Th h n nh h p ph h n n h h t t c c a a t t l l h h m m l l n ng g c c c c n nh h m m h h t t c c l l n n k kh h c c n nh ha au u t tr ro on ng g
t t, , c c b bi i u u d di i n n b b n ng g t t l l p ph h n n t tr r m m s so o v v i i k kh h i i l l n ng g c c a a m m u u t t k kh h t tu uy y t t i i
( (s s y y 1 10 05 5
o o
C C) ) l l y y p ph h n n t t c ch h. .

HAT CAT HAT BUI HAT
Cat to Ca t trung Ca t nho C.that nho Ca t bui Bu i to Bui nho set
ng knh chat (mm) > 10 10 - 5 5 - 2 2 - 1 1- 0.5 0.5-0.25 0.25-0.1 0.1-0.05 0.05-0.01 0.01-0.005 < 0.005
3.0 5.0 11.0 21.0 33.0 14.0 7.0 2.0 4.0
8.0 30.0 7.0 55.0
P
h
a
n

t
r
a
m

c

h
a
t

l
n

h
n
g

k
n
h
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 ng knh cha t mm
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Tha nh phan cha t (%)
HAT SOI SA N TENCAT
MA USO
P
h
a
n

t
r
a
m

c

h
a
t

n
h
o

h
n
g

k
n
h
C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 36

H H s s k kh h n ng g n ng g n nh h t t c c a a m m u u l l : :

H s cp phi:

Khi C
u
< 3 t ng u, C
u
> 5 t rt khng ng u (cp phi tt). t cp
phi tt c C
g
=0,5 2,0. T din tch l t l din tch mt ngoi ca vt liu vi khi
lng hoc th tch ca vt liu .

T din tch:

V V d d : : t t n n u u t tr r n n b ba az za an n ( (T T y y N Ng gu uy y n n) ) 1 12 2, ,6 6 m m
2 2
/ /1 10 00 0g g; ; t t v v n ng g t tr r n n
g gr ra an ni it te e 9 9, ,4 44 4 m m
2 2
/ /1 10 00 0g g. .
M M u u c c t t m m n n l l n n b b t t c c h h s s r r n ng g e e = = 0 0, ,8 85 50 0. . M M u u c c t t t th h c c h h s s r r n ng g e e = =
0 0, ,6 65 50 0. . M M u u b b n n s s t t c c h h s s r r n ng g e e = = 2 2, ,0 05 50 0. . H H s s t th h m m c c a a m m u u t t n n o o l l n n n nh h t t, , n nh h
n nh h t t, , t t i i s sa ao o? ?
G Gi i t tr r O O t t n ng g t th he eo o m m c c p ph h n n t t n n, , t t n ng g c c c c g g c c c c n nh h v v n nh h m m b b m m t t. . G Gi i
t tr r O O t th ha ay y i i t tr ro on ng g p ph h m m v vi i r r n ng g: : t tr ro on ng g c c t t: : O O = = 0 0, ,0 00 01 1 0 0, ,1 1 m m
2 2
/ /g g; ; t tr ro on ng g c c t t p ph ha a v v s s t t
p ph ha a: : O O = =0 0, ,1 1 1 10 0 m m
2 2
/ /g g; ; t tr ro on ng g s s t t: : O O = = 1 10 0 1 10 00 0 m m
2 2
/ /g g; ; t tr ro on ng g t t p ph h n n t t n n c ca ao o ( (s s t t n n n ng g) ): :
O O = = 1 10 00 0 8 80 00 0 m m
2 2
/ /g g. .
1.2. Nc trong l rng ca t (pha lng):
Da vo mi lin kt gia nc vi cc ht t chia ra:
- Nc trong khong vt ca t
- Nc kt hp mt ngoi: c gi li trn b mt ht st do cc tc dng ha
hc, ha l v in phn t.

S biu th s phn cc ca nc
Ty theo mc kt hp mnh yu khc nhau, nc kt hp mt ngoi ht t
chia ra nc ht bm v nc mng mng.
1.2.1. Nc ht bm: T trng ln hn 1. i vi t ct l 0,5%, i vi t st
pha l 5 - 7%v i vi t st l 10 - 20%. Khi t st ch c nc ht bm th t
trng thi cng.
1.2.2. Nc mng mng: Chia ra nc lin kt cht v nc lin kt yu.
- Nc lin kt cht bm tng i cht xung quanh ht t, m tng ng vi
b dy ln nht ca nc ht bm v nc lin kt cht gi l lng cha nc phn t
ln nht ca t. Khi trong t ch c nc lin kt cht th t trng thi na cng.
- Nc lin kt yu l phn bao ngoi ca nc mng mng. Khi trong t c cha
loi nc ny th t trng thi do.
S c mt ca nc kt hp lm cho t c tnh do; n cn c tc dng bt kn
cc l hng gia cc ht t lm cho tnh thm gim i hoc thm ch khng thm.
- Nc t do l nc nm ngoi nh hng ca lc ht v pha ht gm:
10
60
d
d
C
u
=
60 10
2
30
d d
d
C
g
=
m
S
s
= O
C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 37
+ Nc mao dn tn ti trong l rng, khe nt nh ca t (b rng<2mm)
di nh hng ca lc mao dn.
Chiu cao mao dn:
y: e h s rng ca t
d
10
ng knh hu hiu
H s C = 10 40: bin i ty theo thnh phn v hnh dng ht.

+ Nc trng lc: Nc trng lc c kh nng dch chuyn di tc dng ca
trng lc hay do s chnh lch p lc.

1.3. Kh trong l rng ca t (Pha kh):
Kh trong t c th trng thi t do, ht bm hoc bc kn hay ha tan. Kh bc
kn v kh ha tan lm tng tnh n hi, ko di qu trnh c kt, lm gim kh nng
thm ca t.

2. CC TNH CHT VT L

2.1. Khi lng th tch ca t t nhin: l khi lng ca mt n v th
tch t k hiu
tn
, n v: (T/m
3
, g/cm
3
).
tn
=Q
tn
/ V
tn
Trong : Q
tn
: Trng lng t t nhin
V
tn
: Th tch t iu kin t nhin.
Dung trng bo ho
bh
(T/m
3
, G/m
3
) l dung trng t nhin ln nht ca t
c xc nh theo cng thc:
bh
=
h
(1-n)+
n
n
2.2. Khi lng th tch t kh: l khi lng ca mt n v th tch t kh
hon ton k hiu
k
, n v: (T/m
3
, g/cm
3
).
k
=Q
h
/ V
tn

10
ed
C
h
k
=
C
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D

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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 38
Trong : Q
h
: Trng lng ht t .

2.3. Khi lng ring ca ht: l khi lng ca mt n v th tch ch ring
phn ht rn k hiu
h

, n v: (T/m
3
, g/cm
3
).
h
=Q
h
/ V
h

Trong : Q
h
: Trng lng ht t
V
h
: Th tch ht t .
2.4. Khi lng th tch y ni: l khi lng ca mt n v th tch t khi
cn trong nc k hiu
h
, n v: (T/m
3
, g/cm
3
).

Trong : : T trng ca t l t s gia dung trng ht t v dung trng
nc tinh khit 4
o
C

Dung trng y ni cng bng dung trng bo ho (
bh
) tr i dung trng nc t
nhin (
n
1T/m
3
)
dn
=
bh
-
n
=
bh
- 1
2.5. m: l t s gia khi lng nc v khi lng t kh (khi lng phn
ct t), k hiu W, n v tnh %

2.6. bo ha: l t s gia th tch nc trong l rng so vi th tch ton b l
rng, k hiu l S
r
, n v tnh l %.
rng n v h s rng e: ;

2.7. Cc cng thc lin h:
- Khi lng th tch t kh:

- H s rng:

- rng:

- Cc gii hn Atterberg: c im quan trng ca trng thi vt l ca t loi st
l st.
- Gii hn nho (W
ch
) ca t loi st c xc nh (theo TCVN) bng hai
phng php: Casagrande hoc Vaxiliev.
- Gii hn do (W
d
)
Khong m m trong phm vi gii hn ca chng t loi st trng thi do
c gi l ch s do A

=(W
ch
- W
d
).
- st:

( )
A
A
=
1
k
dn
% 100
h
n
Q
Q
W =
% 100 %
V
V
n
r
=
s
r
V
V
e =
W
tn
k
+
=
1
1 =
k
h
e
% 100
1 e
e
n
+
=
A
W W
B
d
=
n h
h
n
h
V
Q

= = A
C
P
D

C
o
l
l
e
g
e
GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 39
3. MT S TNH CHT C HC
Tnh cht c hc ca t bao gm:
Tnh bin dng: Di tc dng ca lc, t c th b bin dng.
Tnh bn (Ct v nn l 2 hnh thc ch yu lm mt bn ca t )
3.1. ng sut v bin dng ca t :
Khi c tc dng ca ngoi lc th bn trong khi xut hin cc lc chng li
ni lc, hnh thnh ng sut trong t .
Lc tc dng vo vt liu v lm thay i kch thc ca vt liu gi l p lc.
ng sut - l lc tc dng ln mt n v din tch.
Bin dng - t s bin i v chiu di, chiu rng hay chiu cao.
ng sut v ng sut hu hiu: ti trng Q tc dng phn b u ln mt tit din
A ca mu t. Ti trng thc s tc dng ln phn ht rn ca mu t l Q.
Theo thc nghim ngi ta v c th ng sut bin dng.

ng sut tng: ;

Trong : Ah: bin dng dc trc; h
o
:chiu cao ban u ca mu (thng mu hnh lng
tr c chiu cao h
o
=2d); d : ng knh mu; A : tit din ngang ca mu ng vi ti
trng ngoi Q.
Cng sc chu nn: Modun bin dng:

ng sut hu hiu:
Q =Q +uA
r

y A
c
din tch tip xc gia cc ht rn v ti trng.
Do din tch tip xc trc tip gia cc ht rn v ti trng rt b, do t s A
r
/A
~ 1.
A
Q
= o % 100
A
=
o
h
h
c
A
Q
q
cr
u
=
c
o
= E
A
Q'
'= o
|
.
|
\
|
+ = |
.
|
\
|
+ =
A
A
u
A
Q
A
A
u
A
Q
A
Q
c r
1
' '
C
P
D

C
o
l
l
e
g
e
GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 40
Nh vy: o =o +u

C 3 loi ng sut: ko (tensional), nn (compressional) v ct (shear).

ng sut o (ng lc trn mt n v din tch) trn mt
tit din c phn ra ng sut php o v ng sut tip t.
Theo phng php tuyn (P
p
) v tip tuyn (P
t
) ca tit din
ny c tnh theo:
P
p
=P.coso ; P
t
=P.sino
Khi ng sut php o v ng sut tip t s bng:

;

;
p sut v nhit cao cng cho php bin dng kt tinh v ni kt tinh thng qua
c ch do nht. Khi bin dng a cht l do s un np ch khng phi do t gy.
Ngun gc ng sut trong lng t:
Trong trm tch nm ngang ng sut thng ng c ly bng trng lng ca
tng lp ring nm trn:
o
v
=(t
1
1
+t
2
2
+... +t
n
n
)
ng sut lch s do xi mn
nh hng ca a hnh
ng sut kin to
3.2. Mun bin dng:
Bin dng thng c nh ngha nh l t s khng th nguyn ca bin thin
chiu di AL i vi chiu di ban u:

Theo Robert Hooke, i vi nhiu vt liu bin dng nh, bin dng c th phc
hi v t l tuyn tnh vi ng sut. nh lut Hooke: o =E.c
Module bin dng tng qut E
o
bng t s gia ng sut vi bin dng tng qut
e
o
(gm bin dng n hi v bin dng d), tc l E
o
=o/ e
o
.
c trng th hai cho tnh n hi ca l h s n hng v, v =c
x
/c
z
. v cn gi
l h s Poisson, tr s v ca cng v na cng t 0,10 n 0,40.
3.3. Mt s tnh cht c hc ca t:
3.3.1. Bin dng ca t:
A
c

o cos
1
A
A =
) 2 cos 1 (
2
1
1
1
o o o + = =
A
P
p
o o t 2 sin
2
1
1
1
= =
A
P
t
1 max
o o =
p
2
1
max
o
t =
L
dL
L
L
=
A
= c
P
n
n
o
P
P
p
P
t
C
P
D

C
o
l
l
e
g
e
GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 41

Tnh p co di tc dng ca ti trng l t trng quan trng nht v tnh bin
dng ca t mm ri. Th tch cc l rng trong t b gim nh do cc ht khong vt
dch chuy tng i vi nhau, do bin dng ca chnh ht cng nh ca nc v kh
cha trong l rng. t bo ho nc th c nn cht do nc thot ra khi l rng, do
vy m ca t s gim dn. Cn t khng bo ho nc th n mt p lc nht
nh, qu trnh nn cht c th xy ra m khng lm thay i m ca n.
H s rng ca t tng ng vi tr s cp ti trng no :
e
i
=e
o
(Ah/h
o
).(1+e
o
)
Trong : Ah: Tr s bin i ca chu cao mu khi chu ti trng
h
o
: Chiu cao ban u ca mu
e
i
, e
o
: H s rng trc v sau khi nn.
3.3.2. Cng chng nn v ko ca t :
- Cng chng nn ca t thng c xc nh bng cch nn n ph
hoi mt mu trong iu kin n hng t do.

Trong : P
nh
: lc nn hng mu (kg); F: Din tch tit din mu (cm
2
)
Thc t trng thi ng sut khi nn l khng ng nht, v th
n
ch cho php
nh gi gn ng kh nng n nh ca nn.
Cng chng nn ca t ph thuc vo nhiu nhn t, trong c ba nhn
t c bn sau: thnh phn khong vt v thnh phn ho hc, kin trc v cu to ca t
, iu kin tin hnh th nghim.
- Cng chng ko ca t c xc nh trong iu kin ko mt trc theo
cng thc:

Cng chng ko l ch tiu cn thit khi xc nh ddoocs cho php ca mi
, tnh ton bin dng hng tm v ng sut cho php trong ng hm p lc, khi
thit k p b tngVic xc nh cng ko ca t cn nhiu vn v nh
hng ca khe nt v s phn b ng sut khng u trong mu th nghim.
3.3.3. Cng chng ct (chng trt) ca t :
Di tc dng ca ngoi lc, trong mt b phn no ca t , lin kt gia
cc ht b ph hy v xy ra trt (chuyn dch) ca phn ny vi phn khc, v d nh
trt mi dc, tri t di mng cng trnh.

0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00
Ap lc nen P (kG/cm
2
)
H
e

s
o

r
o
n
g

e
F
P
nh
n
= o
F
P
nh
k
= o
C
P
D

C
o
l
l
e
g
e
GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 42

Ct 3 - 4 mu t vi gi tr ng sut php o khc nhau.
- Cho my ct vi tc 1-3 mm/min n khi no
mu b ph hoi; ghi li gi tr (t) ng vi lc
ng h o ng lc ngang t gi tr max.
Khi ct, bn khng nn c trng bng
cc thng s ng sut ti hn (o hay t) v chng
lun thay i. Mi lin Nh vy, v C l cc
thng s bn ca t khi ct v c dng
tnh ton sc chu v n nh trt ca t ,
tnh p lc t ln cng trnh chn, cng trnh
ngm.
H gia ng sut tip gii hn v ng sut php t =f(o) c m t bng phng
trnh ng thng: t =o

tg +C
Quan h gia cng chng ct v p lc php tuyn c th xem nh quan h ng
thng v biu din bng phng trnh Coulomb:
t =o tg +C
Trong : t : cng chng trt ti hn (kg/ cm
2
)
o : ng sut php (kg/ cm
2
)
tg: h s ma st trong t
: gc ma st trong ca t
C: lc dnh ca t (kg/ cm
2
)

3.4. Xc nh ch tiu tnh cht c l tng hp (tr tiu chun) v tr tnh ton
ca t:
3.4.1. Phn loi ch tiu trong n nguyn a cht cng trnh:
t trong t nhin thng t ng nht v lin tc trong phm vi ng k. Do
, m bo mc chnh xc v tin cy ca cc ch tiu cn c mt s lng th
nghim nht nh.
T

C
P
D

C
o
l
l
e
g
e
GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 43
Khi tnh ton nn theo trng thi gii hn II (gii hn bin dng) dng ch tiu tiu
chun nh gi nn v kim tra bin dng; cn dng ch tiu tnh ton kim tra
cng (trng thi gii hn I). Hai iu kin cn thit khi xc nh ch tiu tng hp:
a. t c tnh ng nht mi im kho st nh thnh phn khong vt, kin
trc, cu to, trng thi vt l,
b. Tnh cht ca t khng ph thuc vo v tr im kho st, lp t khng
c tnh d hng.
Nh vy, trc khi tm ch tiu tng hp phi tin hnh phn chia nn t
thnh cc n nguyn a cht cng trnh.
Mt n nguyn a cht cng trnh l mt khi t ng nht c cng tn gi
v tha mn: Cc c trng t trong phm vi n nguyn bin thin khng c tnh
quy lut; Nu cc c trng t bin thin c quy lut th quy lut ny c th b qua.
Phn Chia Cc n Nguyn a Cht Cng Trnh
Tin hnh phn chia s b t thuc khu vc kho st thnh cc n nguyn
a cht cng trnh c xt ti tui, cc c im cu to, kin trc v tn gi t.
Kim tra s ng n ca vic phn chia trn, trn c s nh gi s bin i theo
khng gian ca cc c trng dng cc ch tiu v tnh cht ca t sau y:
i vi t vn th dng thnh phn cp phi ht, h s rng v b sung thm
m chung v m cht lp nht l rng.
i vi ct dng thnh phn cp phi ht, h s rng v b sung thm cht.
i vi t st dng cc c trng tnh do, h s rng v m.
Nu xc nh c tnh bin thin ca cc c trng t khng c quy lut trn
mt bng v theo chiu su n nguyn th tnh ton cc gi tr c trng tiu chun v
c trng tnh ton.
Khng cn loi b cc gi tr c trng ca t nu s bin thin ca cc c
trng ny trong cng n nguyn a cht cng trnh c tnh quy lut, h s bin thin
(V) v ch s tin cy (o) khng vt qu cc gi tr trong bng. Nu gi tr V ln hn
gi tr ghi trong bng th phi phn nh n nguyn a cht cng trnh.
Khi xc nh ranh gii phn chia n nguyn a cht cng trnh phi xt ti cc
yu t sau y:
Mc nc di t:
S tn ti ca cc vng c nhiu tn tch thc vt;
S tn ti cc vng c mc phong ha khc nhau trong v trong t tn
tch.
S tn ti ca cc loi t ln t, trng n, nhim mn.
Cc tr s gii hn ca V v khi tm tr trung bnh

C
P
D

C
o
l
l
e
g
e
GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 44
3.4.2. Xc nh ch tiu tng hp (tr tiu chun) ca c trng:
Ch tiu tng hp l tr s trung bnh ca mt c trng (tnh cht c l).
- Gi tr trung bnh cng ca kt qu xc nh ring c ly lm gi tr tiu chun
ca tt c cc c trng t (tr c v ).
- Cc gi tr ring ca cc c trng ca t phi xc nh theo mt phng
php thng nht.
Kim tra tp hp (s liu th nghim) trong phm vi n nguyn a cht cng
trnh loi b s liu cha sai s ln,

- Tr trung bnh s hc :

- lch qun phng trung bnh tng hp:

X
=
=
n
i
i
X
n
X
1
1
( )
=
=
n
i
i th
X X
n
S
1
2 1
C
P
D

C
o
l
l
e
g
e
GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 45

CHNG 6: NC DI T

Nc di t l nc t do cha trong l rng v khe nt ca t . Khi chuyn
ng trong cc l rng, nc di t s gy tr ngi cho vic thi cng v iu kin lm
vic cng trnh: gy ngp h mng, xi ngm, ct chy...
* Tnh ton khi khai thc nc di t, nh mt khong sn c ch, cho cc
nhu cu sinh hot, phc v cng, nng nghip ca con ngi.
* Tnh ton chn la cc bin php tho kh h mng cc cng trnh t thp
hn mc nc di t.
* Tnh lng nc thm mt ca cc cng trnh gi, dn nc(h cha nc,
knh dn...) tm gii php khc phc.
gii quyt nhng vn trn chng ta cn phi nghin cu cc vn chung
v:
- Cc tng cha nc di t, s hnh thnh v t tnh ca n.
- Cht lng, tr lng ca nc di t.
- ng thi ca nc di t.
1. CC TNH CHT CHA NC CA T
H tng t b ri hoc nt n cha y nc trng lc c gi l tng cha
nc hoc lp cha nc.
H tng t thm nc yu hoc khng thm c gi l tng cch nc.
Ngoi cc lp cng, cc lp st cng, na cng c xem l tng khng thm nc.
Ch tiu c trng cho kh nng thot nc ca t l thot nc :
=V
wr
/ V
Trong : V
wr
: Th tch nc c th thot ra t do di tc dng trng lc trong
th tch t bo ha nc l V.
thot nc ca mt s t c th thay i trong phm vi hp:
- Cui si sch =0.35 0.3
- t ct =0.15 0.1
- t st pha =0.10 0.01
- t st =0 (ngha l thc t rt kh thot nc).

2. CHT LNG V TR LNG CA NC DI T
Cht v lng l hai ch tiu kinh t v k thut ca quan trng khai thc v s
dng nc di t. Mc khc n cng l nhng thng s tnh ton n mn, h thp
nc di t...khi xy dng cng trnh.
2.1. Cht lng nc di t:
a. Tnh cht ha hc:
Cc nguyn t v ion ng vai tr ch yu:
Cl
-
, HCO
3
-
, SO
4
2-
, CO
3
2-
, Ca
2+
, Mg
2+
, Na
+
, K
+
,
* Kh trong nc di t
* Phn ng hot tnh ca nc (pH)
Nc di t b phn ly:
H
2
O H
+
+OH
-
Tr s pH:
pH =- lg[H
+
]
C
P
D

C
o
l
l
e
g
e
GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 46
Nc c phn ng trung ha:
[H
+
] =[OH
-
] =10
-7
pH =-lg10
-7
=7
pH <7 : tnh axit
pH >7 : tnh kim
* cng: l tnh cht ca nc c cha nhng hp cht ha tan ca Ca
2+
v
Mg
2+
.
- cng cacbonat ch tnh cho HCO
3
-
cng c biu din bng meq hoc c (1meq=2,8 c)
khong ha: Tng s cc ion, cc phn t v cc hp cht khc cha trong
nc hp thnh lng khong ho ca nc.
Nc di t c th c tnh cht n mn b tng.
Kh nng ha tan ca nc i vi CaCO
3
c xc nh trc ht bi cacbonic
n mn c trong nc. Khi c cacbonic t do, ion CO
3
2-
khng th c vi lng ng k
v n s phn ng vi cacbonic to thnh HCO
3
-
CaCO
3
+H
2
O +CO
2
Ca
2+
+2HCO
3
-
Cacbonic dng ion CO
3
2-
gi l cacbonic lin kt, cn dng HCO
3
-
-
cacbonic bn lin kt. Mt phn CO
2
t do cha trong nc tham gia ha tan CaCO
3
;
cn phn kia gi l CO
2
cn bng th li trong dung dch v duy tr bicacbonat canxi
trong dung dch. Lng cacbonic cn bng xc nh theo phng trnh:

b. Tnh cht vt l ca nc di t:
- T trng ca nc ty thuc vo lng mui ha tan.
- Nhit ca nc di t bin i trong mt phm vi rng ln (t di 0
o
C
100
o
C) do iu kin kh hu, su a cht v su chn vi khc nhau.
- trong sut ca nc ph thuc vo lng khong vt b ha tan, cc hp cht
c hc, cht hu c v cht keo c trong nc. Nc nguyn cht th trong sut.
- Mu ca nc ph thuc vo thnh phn ha hcj v tp cht c trong nc. Phn
ln nc khng mu. Nc cng c mu xanh nht, nc cha Fe v H
2
S c mu lc
nht, cha cy mc v cht hu c c mu vng nht.
- Mi c lin quan n hot ng ca i khun trong cc cht hu c c trong nc.
Nc thng khng c mi, khi cha H
2
S c mi trng thi.
- V ca nc do cc loi mui, cc cht kh, tp cht c trong nc quyt nh.
- Tnh dn in ca nc di t ph thuc vo tng lng mui c cha trong
nc, tnh cht nc v nhit ca nc. Nc khong ha cao thng c tnh dn in
mnh.
- Tnh phng x cc loi nc di t hu nh u c tnh phng x nhng mc
ca chng khc nhau.
2.2. Tr lng ca nc di t:
Tr lng nc l ch tiu quan trng tho kh v khai thc nc. Do nc l
th lng, lun lun chuyn ng trong khe rng nn vic xc nh tr lng ca nc
khng hon ton ging nh xc nh tr lng cc khong sn rn nh than, kim loi...
( )
34
2
ket lien 2
bang cn 2
CO
CO =
C
P
D

C
o
l
l
e
g
e
GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 47
a. Tr lng thin nhin:
- Tr lng tnh Q
t
l th tch nc di t nm trong tng cha nc c th ly
ra c khi lm kh hon ton tng nc.
Q
t
= . V
Trong : : cha nc ca t cha nc; V: th tch tng cha nc.
- Tr lng ng Q
l lu lng dng thm t nhin qua mt tit din ngang ca

n.
Q
=k . F . J =k . H . J . B
Trong : k: h s thm ca t
H: Chiu cao ca dng thm
J : graien thm
B: Chiu rng ca dng thm
F =H . B
b. Tr lng khai thc: Q
kt
ca tng cha nc l lng nc di t c th ly
ln c bng cc cng trnh thu nc ph hp vi iu kin kinh t, k thut hin nay
m khng lm thay i ng k trng thi cn bng ca tng cha nc.

3. CC HNH THC H THNG HA KT QU TH NGHIM NC
- Ion l dng c bn biu din kt qu phn tch nc.
Cc ion ny tc dng tng h vi nhau theo cc t s ng lng nht nh v
vy cc kt qu phn tch c th biu din di dng ng lng.
Xc nh s mg ca mt ng lng bng cch ly nguyn t lng chia cho ho
tr.
Hm lng cc ion trong nc thng c biu din di dng mg/l.
Xc nh s meq/l bng cch ly s mg/l chia cho s mg ca mt ng lng.

C
P
D

C
o
l
l
e
g
e
GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 48

4. NH GI CHT LNG NC DNG TRONG XY DNG

C
P
D

C
o
l
l
e
g
e
GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 49

5. CC LAI NC DI T
5.1. Ngun gc sinh thnh nc di t, ct nc thy lc v hng chy
dng ngm:
Ph bin v d thy hn c lnc ngun gc do thm t nc mt.
Tng cha nc c mi v tng l hai tng cch nc th tn ti v vn ng nh
nc trong ng p lc, gi l tng nc p lc. Ngc li, tng cha nc c mi l mt
mt thong t do th gi l tng nc khng p.

Phng trnh Bernulli th hin tng nng lng cho mt n v
khi lng ti mt im bt k ca dng nc di t:
Nu dng c xem nh khng c ma st v khng chu
nn theo phng vn ng th tng 3 thnh phn l hng s, hay:

C th b qua thnh phn v
2
/2g, tng ct nc thy lc h s l:

T : h =z +h
p
Tng ct nc thy lc bng tng ct nc cao trnh v ct nc p sut.
Tng ct nc h, ct nc cao trnh z v ct nc p sut h
p

C
P
D

C
o
l
l
e
g
e
GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 50

Trong tnh ton nhng bi ton thm, thun tin, ngi ta hay so snh vi mt
mt chun thng ly l y cch nc v xem nh gi tr z = 0.
Phng php n gin nht xc nh hng dng ngm l phng php tam
gic.

5.2. Cc tng cha nc phn chia theo iu kin phn b

1.Nc th nhng
2.Nc thu knh (tng nc trn)
3. Nc n ct
4. Nc ngm
5. Nc p lc (actezi)
6 . Nc nm trong khe nt ca
cng: Do iu kin khe h ln m nc khe
nt vn ng nhanh, thng dng chy ri
v mang c tnh ca dng chy hn l dng
thm.
Ly im A su H - h di mc nc bin. p lc thy tnh ti im A s
bng: P
A
=(H h)
mn
.g . im B trong lc a trn ng ranh gii gia nc mn
v nc nht cng cao H - h. p lc thy tnh do nc nht gy ra s bng:
P
B
=(H h)
nht
.g +h
nht
.g
C
P
D

C
o
l
l
e
g
e
GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 51

Nc p lc c th gy bc y h mng khi thi cng.
iu kin an ton y h mng: t >
w
(h +t)

6. MT S QUY LUT VN NG CA NC DI T
6.1. C s ng lc hc ca s thm v mt s quy lut thm
Gi thit rng: dng nc di t chim ton b tng cha nc, bao gm tt c
khe hng v phn ct (cng) ca mi trng. Nh vy, dng vn ng thc t ca nc
di t ch theo cc khe hng c thay bng dng gi nh, chim tt c tng cha
nc v gi l dng thm.
6.1.1. Quy lut dng chy trong ng:
Kh nng thm nc ca t khng ch ph thuc vo kch thc, hnh dng
ca l rng v khe nt m cn ph thuc vo tnh cht nc thm v mi tng tc gia
nc v t . nghin cu dng thm, ta hy m hnh ho mi trng l rng v khe
nt thnh mi trng cc ng tr trn c ng knh khc nhau. Dng thm trong cc l
rng, khe nt c thay th bng dng chy trong ng.
Trong trng hp dng chy tng ta c biu thc lin h gia lu lng chy, vn
tc chy vi graien p lc ca dng chy.
Biu vn tc thm theo bn knh r c dng parabon vi vn tc ln nht ti tm
ng khi r =0.

2
0 max
4
r
J
V
q
=
C
P
D

C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 52
Lu lng dng chy trong ng Q
0
s bng:

T hai cng thc trn ta tnh c vn tc trung bnh dng chy trong ng:

Nh vy khi chy tng quan h gia lu lng, vn tc chy vi graien p lc
nc l quan h ng thng.
Trong trng hp chy ri, quan h gia vn tc V v gradien p lc J c dng:

Trong : V: vn tc trung bnh ca dng chy; : h s thu lc ph thuc vo
nhm ca thnh ng v ch s Raynon; g: gia tc trng trng; : h s nht ca nc; :
dung trng ca nc.

:
6.1.2. nh lut thm ng thng (Darcy)

T kt qu th nghim, acxi rt ra kt lun rng lng nc thm Q qua t
trong mt n v thi gian t l thun vi hiu mc nc trong ng o p h v din tch
tit din mu , t l nghch vi chiu di ct t L ; theo h s t l k.
dr
dv
r
o
h
2
h
1
L
r
o
h
1
L
h
2
Ah
L
Q
Ah
4
0
0
0
8
2
0
t
J
dr rV Q
t
r
q
t
t = =
}
2 8
max 2
0
2
0
2
0
0
V
r
J r
r
Q
V
tb
= = =
q
t
g
V
r
J
2
.
2
2
0
=
C
P
D

C
o
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 53

Trong : h / L =J (gradien p lc hay dc thu lc); k: h s t l c trng
cho tnh thm nc ca t c gi l h s thm.
Khi chia c 2 v phng trnh trn cho din tch tit din thm ta c:

6.1.3. nh lut thm phi tuyn:
Trong nt n mnh, l rng cacst, vn ng ca nc di t i khi mang
c tnh chy ri v c th tun theo biu thc sau:

Vi t loi st, nh lut thm c biu din theo biu thc sau:

y i
o
- Gradient p lc ban u

ng sut sinh ra khi nc chuyn ng trong t tc dng ln ht t gi l ng sut
thy ng:

Gradient thy lc khi bt u pht sinh hin tng y tri t gi l gradient
thy lc ti hn, k hiu i
th
:

6.2. Quy lut vn ng ca dng chy phng
Vic tnh ton nhm xc nh lu lng n v q, mc nc ngm hoc p lc ti
mt tit din bt k.
6.2.1. Tnh ton cho dng thm n nh
ca nc di t
a. Trng hp tng cha nc khng
p:
- y cch nc nm ngang.
Xt lu lng n v (lu lng ca dng
thm c b rng l 1m):
v
i
i
o
4/3 i
o
v=K.i
v=K (i-4/3 i
o
)
i=(v/K)(1+ov)
e
L
h
K Q
A
=
i K v =
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
3
0 0
0
3 3
4
i
i i
i i K v
w w
K
v
i J = = .
w
s
th
e
i
) 1 (
1
+

=
1
2
kJ V
Q
= =
e
C
P
D

C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 54

V y l dng thm n nh nn q ti mi tit din bng nhau d dng rt ra c
phng trnh ng mc nc:

b. Trng hp tng cha nc c p (nc artesia):
- y cch nc nm ngang

6.2.2. Trng hp tng cha nc gm hai lp t c h thm khc nhau v
c y cch nc nm ngang:
a. Hai lp t nm song song vi phng dng thm:
Xem nh: trn - nc khng p, cn phn di - nc di t vn ng nh
nc c p lc:

b. Tng cha nc c h s thm thay i theo phng vn ng
- lp 1:

- lp 2:

T :

Cng hai v ca hai phng trnh:
H
1
L
H
2
H
x
M
H
x
x
x
2
x
1
( )
L
h h K
q
2
2
2
2
1

=
x
L
h h
h h
x
2
2
2
1 2
1

=
L
H H
KM q
2 1
=
( )
x
L
H H
H H
x
2 1
1

=
h
1
H 2 H
1
h
2
x
2
M
L x
1
K
1
K 2
1
2
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + =
dx
dh
h K
dx
dH
M K q q q
2 1 2 1
h
1
h
2
L
2
L
1
K
2 K
1
1
2
h
s
s
1
2 2
1
1 1
2L
h h
K q
s
=
2
2
2
2
2 2
2L
h h
K q
s

=
1
1 2 2
1
2
K
L
q h h
s
=
2
2 2
2
2
2
K
L
q h h
s
=
C
P
D

C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 55

Chiu cao mc nc ti tit din s l:

Tng t i vi tng cha nc c p:

6.2.3. Vn ng n nh ca nc di t trong lp khng ng nht:
* Khi nc thm song song vi cc mt phn lp:
Thay tng cha nc khng ng nht bng
tng cha nc tng ng ng nht c h
s thm l K
tb
q =K
tb
.h. i
H s thm trung bnh ca tng cha nc khi
nc vn ng song song vi mt lp:

-Khi nc vn ng theo phng vung gc vi mt lp:

6.3. Quy lut vn ng ca nc di t n cc h khoan bm nc
Mt ging khoan c cu to gm nhng b phn c bn sau:ng chng, ng khai
thc, ng lc, my bm
Khi bm ht nc, mc nc xung quang ging s h thp, to thnh mt hnh
phu h thp.
Khong cc t ging khoan n ht ng cong h thp gi l bn knh nh hng
R. Bn knh nh hng (R) khng thay i khi dng thm n nh (khi my bm hot
ng vi lu lng Q n nh trong khong thi gian 3 ngy) v thay i khi dng thm
khng n nh.
Bn knh nh hng ph thuc vo cc yu t sau: thi gian ht nc, h s thm,
h thp mc nc.
Trng hp nc c p:
Trng hp nc khng p:
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
2
2
1
1 2
2
2
1
2
K
L
K
L
q h h
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
1
2
K
L
K
L
h h
q
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
1 1 2
1
K
L
K
L
K
h h L
h h
s
h
1
h
2
h
3
h
n
K
n
K
3
K
2
K
1
AH
1
AH
2
AH
3
AH
n
AH
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
2
2
1
1
2 1
K
L
K
L
H H M
q
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
2
2
1
1
2 1
1
1
1
K
L
K
L
H H
K
L
H H
s
n
n n
tb
h h h
h K h K h K
K
+ + +
+ + +
=
....
....
2 1
2 2 1 1
( )
n
n
n
tb
K
h
K
h
K
h
h h h
K
+ + +
+ + +
=
...
...
2
2
1
1
2 1
K S R 10 =
HK S R ). 2 95 , 1 ( =
C
P
D

C
o
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 56
- H khoan bm nc hon chnh nu ng lc t ht trong tng cha nc, nu
khoan khng ht chiu dy tng cha nc th l h khoan bm nc khng hon chnh.
Vn ng n nh ca nc di t n h khoan nc ngm hon chnh:
S vn ng ca nc n h khoan:

S dng nh lut thm tuyn tnh:
Q =K.i.A
Khi bm nc t h khoan hon chnh th din tch nc thm qua l din tch
xung quanh ca mt hnh tr c bn knh y l r v chiu cao l h.
A =2 t.r.h
dc thy lc ti tit din nc thm qua l:

Thay vo phng trnh ta thu c:

h
hk
R
h
r
hk
s
h
r
h
hk
R
h
r
hk
s
( )
hk
hk
r
R
h h K
Q
ln
2 2
=
t
dr
dh
i =
dr
hdh
Kr Q t 2 =
C
P
D

C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 57
Thay vo phng trnh v ly tch phn:

6. 4. Quy lut vn ng ca nc di t n chm h khoan bm nc
6.4.1. Mc ch nghin cu H <h
t
.

6.4.2. S vn ng ca nc di t n cc h khoan bm nc ng
thi

S1
A-1 S
SA-2
M
L
r1 2 r A 1 HK HK2
( )
hk
hk
r
R
h H KM
Q
ln
2
=
t
a
h>0,5m
b
h
at
H
C
P
D

C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 58

CHNG 7
CC HIN TNG A CHT HIN I LIN QUAN N
XY DNG CNG TRNH

1. HIN TNG NG T
1.1. Khi nim
- ng t do t st
- ng t do ni la
- ng t do cc chuyn ng kin to l loi ng t rt ph bin, c cng
mnh v phm vi nh hng ln nht.
Trung tm Vt l a cu
thuc Vin khoa hc Vit Nam
tin hnh th nghim nhng
vng c kh nng xy ra ng
t mnh bao gm:
1. Vng ng bc trng H Ni:
cp 7
2.Vng sng Hng, sng Chy
cp 7 - 8
3.Vng sng cp 8
4.Vng sng M cp 8 - 9
5.Vng bin Trung B cp 7
6.Vng bin Nam B v vng
sng ng Nai, sng Cu Long
cp 7

C
P
D

C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 59

1.2. nh hng ca gia tc ng t ln n nh ca t nn
Gia tc a chn a l mt c trng cho lc ng t. l lng dch chuyn ca
b mt Tri t trong mt n v thi gian. Lng dch chuyn ny c trng cho gia tc
m cc ht t mt t t c di tc dng ca sng a chn.
C th biu th gia tc a chn a qua bin dao ng A ca sng a chn v
chu k dao ng T ca chng:

Trong vic nh gi cc h s k thut ca ti trng do ng t hin nay, chng
ta thng s dng hai phng php c bn. Phng php th nht cn c vo ln v
khong cch t chn tm nh gi kh nng ho lng ca t nn. Tuy nhin, a s
cc trng hp, cng ng t ti mt v tr no c m t bng gia tc ln nht
v ko di ca cc chn ng.
Hu qu thm khc ca ho lng do ng t ca t bi v ct l hin tng c
ghi nhn t rt nhiu trn ng t. Vic nh gi dng mt n nh ny ca t l mt
trong nhng vn quan trng hng u khi thit k cng trnh trong vng ng t. C
s ca n chnh l xc nh th nng ho lng ca t su khc nhau bng quan h
ng sut ng trung bnh (t
av
) vi gi tr gii hn b ha lng ca loi t trong s
chu k tc ng nh sn (t
N
). H s n nh c trng nh sau:

iu kin c th xy ra s ho lng ca t l F
L
1. Gi tr t
N
xc nh bng thc
nghim t cc th nghim ng
1.3. Phng php nh gi th nng ha lng theo H.B. Seed
1. Biu ng sut ng t N chu k tc dng ng t
2
2
4
a A
T
t
=
av
L
N
F
t
t
=
C
P
D

C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 60
2. Biu ng sut ng gy ho lng trong N chu k bng th nghim trong
phng

Sc chng ct khng thot nc thu c vi tc bin dng c gi 0.5%/s
hoc thp hn th ta xc nh c sc chu ti ca t nn trong iu kin ti trng tnh:
c
u
=c
u(tnh)

Theo ngh ca Carroll cho hu ht cc loi t st bo ho nc

Whitman v Healy (1963) lm mt s th nghim ht chn khng cho cc loi ct kh.

R rng khi tng tc bin dng ban u th tng ng vi s gim gc ma st
trong ca t. Theo Vesic (1973) th gc ma st trong ng nh nht:
|
(ng)
=|
(tnh)
- 20

ng x ca t st khi chu ti ng tc thi
Modun bin dng E c xc nh theo th nghim nn n hng th modun bin
dng do ti tc thi ln gp 2 ln so vi modun bin dng vi ti tnh:
E
u(ti tc thi)
=2 E
u(ti tnh)

Khu vc ven bin cc tnh pha Nam c kh nng xy ra ng t cp 7 v ln
hn.
- Do t nn cu to bi cc lp trm tch mm ri v mc nc ngm gn mt t
nn khi c ng t th cp ng t c th cao hn. Gia tc ngang nh do ng t
ca khu vc c kh nng t n gi tr a=0,25g.
- Trm tch mm ri c kh nng chu ti trng ng t thp hn nhng gia tc
chn ng lan truyn cng nh hn. Nu ng t xy ra vi khong cch gn th nguy
c ph hoi cng trnh trn nn trm tch bi ri rt cao.
- Trong tnh ton nn mng c xt n nh hng ca ng t th gi tr gia tc
ng t thng c s dng v l thng s cn thit cho vic tnh ton.
1. Tc lan truyn gia tc ng t trong trm tch mm ri khu vc ven bin
ca cc tnh pha Nam v thnh ph H Ch Minh nh nhng kh nng chu ti trng
ng t thp, c bit trong iu kin mc nc ngm rt gn vi mt t.
2 5 . 1
q
q
) tnh ( u
) taixung ( u
~
o

s
a
u
ng suat
v
u
n
g

h
o
a

l
o
n
g
1
2
5 , 1
.) (
~
u
dyn u
c
c
1
1
3
3
sin ar
o o
o o
| |
= |
|
+
\ .
C
P
D

C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 61
2. Kh nng ng t t cc t gy kin to ven b bin pha Nam l kh cao v
c kh nng tc ng mnh ln cc cng trnh trn t yu v cc trm tch b ri ven
bin.
3. Khi chu ti trng ng t, chuyn v ng ( ln) ca cc khng ng k, tuy
nhin chuyn v ngang u cc c gi tr ng k. Dao ng ngang u cc trong thi
gian xy ra ng t c gi tr cc i v c th gy ra ph hoi cc cu kin bn trn v
lm h hng cng trnh.
4. Chuyn v ca t nn gn mt t c gi tr ln nht khi chu tc dng ng
t.
2. TC DNG CA PHONG HO
Hin tng t b v vn, bin i thnh phn trong kh quyn di tc dng
ca vic dao ng nhit , nc, cc cht ha tan, gi l hin tng phong ha.
2.1. Cc kiu phong ha
Phong ha vt l
Phong ha sinh ha
2.2. Phn i thng ng v phong ha
V phong ha c th chia thnh 4 i phong ha
1. i vn bt, hoc i ht mn
2. i vn nh hoc i ht
3. i dng tng
4. i nguyn khi
Cc m l cc axit th cc i phong ha thay i dn dn, cn cc m
l cc baz th khng thy chuyn bin dn dn nh vy m c s thay i t ngt t
m cng chc sang v phong ha ti xp ngay.
cc vng nng m nh nc ta thng xy ra qu trnh laterite ha. Qu trnh
laterite ha thng xy ra ni c a hnh dc thoi, kh hu nng m, hai ma ma,
kh k tip. Ma ma nc thm qua cc khe, ph hy ha tan cc alumosilicat to nn
mi trng kim, cc nguyn t Na, K, Mg, Ca b ra tri. Ma kh, do mao dn v bc
hi b mt, cc hydroxyt st, nhm di theo nc i ln ri bc hi tr thnh xit tch
t v keo kt. Tng tn tch c hm lng xit st v nhm tng ln to thnh laterite c
mu vng, nu c trng.
3. HIN TNG T CHY (HAY CT CHY)
Khi cc h mng v cc cng trnh bc l ra, ct ht mn, ht nh, ct cha bi v
nhiu bi cha nc s t chy hin tng ct chy.
3.1. Cc loi t chy
Ct chy xy ra do p lc thy ng.
i
th
=
sub
/
w

Trong : i
th
l tr s gradient p lc nc ti hn
phn t t khng b ct chy:

sub w w
dl
dh
i < =
C
P
D

C
o
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l
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 62

Ct lm th nghim c e = 0,68.
s
=2.66 g/cm
3
.
Chiu dy lp ct trong bnh L =0,4m . B dy lp
nc trn b mt lp ct h = 0,2m.
Hi khi ct trong bnh si ln v bt u chy th
chnh ct nc H l bao nhiu (Gi tr H khi bt u xy
ra ct chy)?

h mng hnh ch nht: a= 9m, b=11m o
trong tng cha nc c p vi chiu cao mc
p lc H=7m nh hnh v. Cc c trng c l
ca lp ct cha nc c b dy M=3m: h s rng e=0,755; khi lng ring ht
s
=2,661g/cm
3
; h s thm K=5m/ngy m. Bn knh nh hng khi bm ht
R=14,2m.
H mng hnh ch nht:
a= 8,5m; b=10m o trong tng
cha nc khng p c b dy
h=5,5m. Thnh h mng c gi
n nh thng ng. Cc c trng
c l ca lp t: khi lng th
tch bo ha
sat
=1,837g/cm
3
; khi
lng th tch ca nc
w
=1g/cm
3
; h s thm K=5,2m/ngy m. Bn knh nh hng
khi bm ht R=14m.
Tnh: H mng hnh ch nht tng ng h khoan bm nc c bn knh tng
ng r
o
(m); Xc nh lu lng khi tho kh hon ton Q (m
3
/ngy m); Gi tr
gradient ti hn i
th
; Gi tr gradient thc t i
tt
(xt trong trng hp an ton nht)

R
H
M
R
h
C
P
D

C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 63
4. HIN TNG XI NGM
Xi ngm l hin tng cc ht t b li cun khi v tr ban u di tc dng
ca nc thm; trong t dn dn hnh thnh cc khe hng; xi ngm nu pht trin
ln c th gy st ln mt t, h hng cng trnh.
4.1. iu kin pht sinh, pht trin xi ngm
1) V t :

2) V nc thm:

4.2. Bin php x l xi ngm
- iu tit dng thm: ko di ng thm nhm gim nh gradient thm thc t,
gim hoc trit tiu hn xi ngm nh dng sn ph, tng c, mn chn, khng ch
nc mt dao ng.
- Gia c t
- To lp t chng xi ngm
5. HIN TNG CACST
Cacst l hin tng nc trn mt v nc di
t ha tan t to nn cc khe rnh, cc hang ng
ngm.
Cng trnh bn trn cc hang ng c th b sp
, mt nc,
Dng nc cacst cho cc nhu cu dn dng,
lm ni cha nc, dn nc, i khi c th s dng
nh l cc cng trnh ngm.

20
10
60
>
D
D
( )( ) n n i
th
5 , 0 1 1 + A =
C
P
D

C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 64

6. HIN TNG TRT T
Trt t l hin tng di chuyn ca cc khi t (thng l t loi st)
vi cc t nm trn n, theo mt mt trt no cc sn dc. S di chuyn
xy ra vi cc tc khc nhau, t vi mm/ngy m n vi m/gi, rt t khi hng chc
m/gi.
6.1. n nh ca mi dc cu to bi t ri

i vi mi dc bng t ri: o s
T
P
N
o
o
C
P
D

C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 65

C
P
D

C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 66

Nu t mi dc l t dnh ch c lc dnh c (cn =0) th mi n mt su
no , c th thng ng, nu su hn th mi t c
dng ng cong.
Chiu cao gii hn h
gh
m ti mi t c th
gi c thng ng l nh lc dnh.

* n nh ca
mi dc cu to bi t c
lc dnh v ma st:

Phng php mt trt lng tr trn:
H s n nh q c tnh theo cng thc:

vi N
i
=Q
i
.coso; T
i
=Q
i
.sino
6.2. Phng php N.N.Maslov
c
h
gh
2
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|

=
z
c c
h
c
h
c
y
gh
gh
2
1
2
cos
1
2
cos
ln
2
+
=
T
cl Ntg
q
C
P
D

C
o
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 67

N.N. Maslov a ra ngh tnh ton s n nh ca mi dc khi mi dc cu to
bng cc lp nm ngang:

6.3. Bin php phng chng trt
a. Cc bin php phng: Cm khai o trn cc sn dc, chn dc; Hn ch
xy dng cc cng trnh nng trn cc b dc; C bin php thot nc tt trnh thm
nc lm tng khi lng khi trt v gim cng ca t; Gim dc ca mi
b. Cc bin php chng trt:

7. HIN TNG XI MN
- S xi l v sp cc b sng
- Cu trc ca cc thung lng sng
- Cc yu t quyt nh hot ng
xi mn ca sng
ng nng ca sng t l thun vi
tch s ca khi lng nc m vi mt na
bnh phng tc v ca dng chy, tc l:

Cc thung lng sng l nhng vng
tp trung ch yu cuc sng v hot ng
ca con ngi v ni c nhiu cng trnh
hin c hoc ang thit k.
o

c
tg tg + =
o o = = tg tg
C
P
D

C
o
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 68
Qu trnh xi mn c th nh hng n nh ca cc cng trnh. Chng
c biu hin tc dng xi l v xi tri (ph hoi) b v lng sng do dng nc
sng gy ra: s xi tri v ph hoi sn dc, cc khng gian chia nc do cc dng
nc ma gy ra.
Cu trc thung lng khi sng chy qua t c chc khc nhau

Cc thm thung lng sng theo mt ct ngang
ng nng ca sng t l thun vi tch s ca khi lng nc m vi mt na
bnh phng tc v ca dng chy, tc l:

So snh gi tr ng nng P ca sng vi trng lng G ca vt liu ri do sng
mang chuyn, tc lu lng dng cng, c th phn on c c im ca cng do
sng thc hin trn mt ct ngang hoc trn mt on no . Nu P > G th xi mn
chim u th; khi P = G th c s cn bng gia xi mn v tch t; khi P < G th tch t
chim u th. i vi cng mt con sng tng quan ny thay i ty tng ch.
Nu tc hin c hoc c th c ln hn tc cho php i vi t c xt
(v
th
>v
cp
) th tc dng xi l, sp b v lng sng l khng trnh c.
Bng: Tc dng nc cho php ln nht khng gy ra hin tng ra xi
i vi cc nhm t khc nhau

2
mv
P
2
=
C
P
D

C
o
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g
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 69
Bng: Vn tc y cho php khng xi ca t ri
Tr s vn tc cho php khng xi

Vn tc trung bnh cho php khng xi ca t dnh V
ox

6 / 1
6 / 1
.h
d
V
V
od
cp
=
C
P
D

C
o
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 70

CHNG 8
KHO ST A CHT CNG TRNH
Kho st a cht cng trnh nhm xc nh cc iu kin a cht cng trnh phc
v cho vic thit k, thi cng v qun l khai thc cng trnh.
Ty thuc vo loi cng trnh, cn thit phi c bin php, phng php v loi
hnh kho st ph hp.
Kinh ph kho st thng chim khong 0,25 n 1,0% tng kinh ph ca d n
khi v tr giao thng thun tin v iu kin a cht n gin. Cn ti nhng v tr phc
tp v ho lnh, kinh ph kho st hin trng c th chim n 5% tng kinh ph hay
nhiu hn.
Cng tc kho st thay i ph thuc vo quy m ca d n, su kho st, mc
phc tp ca t v lng thng tin tham kho sn c.
Thng thng, bo co KSCCT gm hai phn chnh, mt phn cha cc d liu
thc t cn mt phn l thuyt minh.
1. I CNG V CNG TC KHO ST CNG TRNH
1.1.Ni dung ca kho st a cht cng trnh
+Lm r cc iu kin a cht ca khu vc d kin xy dng cng trnh
+D on cc hin tng a cht c th xy ra trong qu trnh thi cng, khai thc
s dng cng trnh.
+ xut cc bin php x l cc iu kin a cht cng trnh khng c li.
hon thnh cc nhim v trn, ni dung kho st a cht cng trnh bao gm :
+Thu thp v nghin cu tt c cc ti liu a cht cng trnh v cc ti liu c
lin quan v khu vc d kin kho st,
+Tin hnh kho st a cht thc a bao gm: o v bn a cht cng
trnh, a cht thu vn, a mo-tn kin to...nhm gii quyt cc vn a cht nhanh
chng.
+T c s o v bn , tin hnh thm d gii quyt v nh tnh, nh lng
nhng vn m trong giai on o v cn tn ti.
+Tin hnh th nghim cc c tnh c-l ca t lm nn cng trnh, vt
liu xy dng.
+Nghin cu cc vn khc lm c s cho vic khc phc cc iu kin a
cht khng thun li nh:
+Trong qu trnh khai thc, s dng cng trnh cn c th tin hnh cng tc quan
trc chnh l cc ti liu a cht s dng trong qu trnh thit k, thi cng cng
trnh.
Kt qu cng tc kho st a cht cng trnh bt k giai on no cng phi c
bo co kt qu bao gm : cc bn v (bn , mt ct a cht...) cc s liu o thc t
ti hin trng, cc kt qu th nghim ti phng, thuyt minh km theo.
Kho st a cht cng trnh l mt cng tc khoa hc- k thut phc tp, do ,
cn phi tun theo cc nguyn l c bn sau :
+Nguyn l k tha
+Nguyn l giai on
+Nguyn l kt hp trong kho st a cht cng trnh
1.2. Nhim v ca kho st a cht cng trnh
- Xc nh cc iu kin a cht
- D on cc hin tng a cht c th xy ra trong khi thi cng v trong khai
thc s dng.
C
P
D

C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 71
- xut cc bin php x l cc iu kin a cht cng trnh khng c li.
- Thm d v xut cc bin php x l vt liu xy dng thin nhin.
Mt khi cng trnh c xy dng th s tn ti ca cng trnh li gp phn lm
thay i cc iu kin a cht ca khu vc xy dng. Bi vy nghin cu iu kin a
cht cng trnh cn thit phi c mt tm nhn bao qut, tng hp, lin h vi mi trng
mt cch cht ch. Nu khng lng c, nhng pht sinh i khi gy ra nhng tc hi
kh phc hi.
1.3. Ni dung ca iu kin a cht cng trnh
iu kin a cht cng trnh l tng hp ton b cc yu t t nhin ca mt khu
vc c nh hng ti cng tc thit k, thi cng v qu trnh s dng cng trnh.
iu kin a cht cng trnh bao gm:
1 . V tr a l, tnh hnh dn c v kinh t khu vc xy dng
2 . a hnh, a mo
3 . Cu to a cht
4 . Tnh cht c l ca t : c chn la tin hnh th nghim v bo co
ty theo yu cu v mc ch ca cng tc kho st.
5 . Cc hin tng a cht
6 . Tnh hnh vt liu xy dng
7 . iu kin a cht thy vn
Cng tc kho st a cht cng trnh c th tin hnh theo tng giai on sau:
- Xc nh yu cu kho st: mc ch kho st, kho st cho cng trnh loi g?
- Xc nh mc kho st: s b hay k thut
- Xc nh phng php v khi lng kho st.
- Nghin cu h s a cht cng trnh lu tr v ti liu xc nh v tr kho st.
- Tin hnh kho st hin trng.
- Cng tc th nghim: trong phng, hin trng.
- Chnh l ti liu, hon chnh h s.
2. CNG TC THM D A CHT
2.1. Phng php o v bn v mt ct a cht cng trnh
Nhc im ln nht ca cng tc o v bn a cht cng trnh l khng th
quan st c cc lp t , cc hin tng a cht di su, nht l cc lp b che
ph bi cc trm tch mm ri khc. Tuy nhin, y l cng tc kho st c tin hnh
u tin, qua , ta c th nh gi s b c cc iu kin a cht cng trnh trong
phm vi kho st
2.2. Khoan o thm d
Cc cng trnh khoan o thm d bao gm ; h o thm d, h khoan thm d,
ho thm d, hm thm d
H o thm d thng c tit din hnh ch nht vi kch thc 1.5x2.5)m.
Chiu su o thm d thng khng ln (thng thng nh hn 10m). i khi, chiu
su h o thm d cng c th su hn, lc , phi c cc vt liu chng thnh
h o (trng hp ny thng gi l ging o thm d).
Khi lng khoan o thm d:
Khi lng khoan o thm d nh mt v su ph thuc vo cc yu t
sau: giai on kho st; ti liu tham kho c; quy m v tm quan trng ca cng
trnh; tiu chun, quy phm kho st xy dng hin hnh cho tng ngnh c th.
Cch b tr im thm d: b tr theo tuyn vung gc hoc song song vi ng
phng ca lp ; b tr theo mng li; b tr theo trc mng; b tr theo chu vi ca
cng trnh.
C
P
D

C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 72
Trong mt cng trnh t nht phi c 3 h khoan b tr theo hnh tam gic th mi
c th xc nh c chnh xc mt phn lp t . i vi nhng cng trnh nh nh
nhng khu vc c kho st k t trc i khi ch cn mt h khoan.
-B tr cc cng trnh thm d: trn mt bng hoc theo cc tuyn.
- su nh hng ca ti trng cng trnh c xc nh cn c theo iu kin:
o
zp
=(0,10,2)o
bt

Ranh gii ca n nguyn a k thut c ghi nhn
trn cc bn v mt ct v c t tn hoc nh s.
Ni chung, cc hnh thc o thm d c u im l
quan st a tng, cc c im a cht trc quan, chnh xc
nhng nhc im l tn nhiu nhn cng, su kho st
khng ln, kh khn khi gp cc lp t cng chc, mc
nc ngm nng.
Cng tc khoan thm d c th khc phc c nhc
im ni trn, su khoan thm d c th ln n hn
1000m. Thnh phn v cc tnh cht ca t c th c
nghin cu qua vic ly mu t h khoan (nu khoan c ly mu) hoc i khi cng c
th nghin cu thnh phn t thng qua cc vn v ca t (nu khoan ph hu).
C hai nhm phng php khoan thm d : khoan tay v khoan my.
Hin nay, c 3 phng php khoan ph bin trong kho st a cht cng trnh:
khoan xoay, khoan p v khoan xoay p
2.3. Phng php thm d a vt l
u im ca phng php ny l:
+C th nghin cu cc cu to a cht su ln (c khi ln n hn 1000m).
+ i khi mt loi tn hiu c pht i cng c th cho c nhiu loi thng tin
nh : tnh cht ca t , mt ct a cht . .
+Vic nghin cu a vt l theo ngha t bn thn ca n l nghin cu khi
khng gian nn rt thch hp cho vic nghin cu tng quan a cht trong khu vc.
+Cc kt qu o a vt l thng c ghi li bng thit b t ng nn tnh
khch quan trong s liu rt cao.
+Mt s thit b o a vt l rt gn nh, tnh c ng cao, nng sut lm vic
tng i ln nn rt ph hp trong kho st a cht cng trnh.
Nhc im ca phng php ny l:
Kt qu o c th chu nh hng kt hp ca nhiu yu t, v d in tr ca t ph
thuc vo nhiu yu t : rng, m, t trng, nhit . . nn rt kh phn bit yu t
no c nh hng quyt nh n kt qu o, chnh v th, phng php a vt l trong
kho st thng ch p dng khi bit c mi lin h gia yu t nh hng ch yu
vi kt qu o.
Phng php in: da trn c s cc loi t khc nhau hoc c m khc
nhau s c in tr khc nhau
Phng php chn ng : Kho st a cht cng trnh bng phng php chn
ng da vo nguyn l nghin cu phng v vn tc truyn sng n hi pht sinh do
va chm hay do n trong trong lp phn v Qu t.
Phng php o in tr sut: mt trong cc phng php thm d in l
phng php thm d in thng ng. Phng php ny cho php xc nh c mc
nc ngm, phn lp a tng, vt nt a cht, cc t gy,
C
P
D

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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 73

3. CNG TC TH NGHIM A CHT CNG TRNH
3.1. Th nghim trong phng: mu t nguyn dng c chuyn v phng TN
phn tch cc ch tiu c l.
Vic tin hnh cc th nghim trong phng c u im l nhanh, d thc hin, t
tn km, c th xc nh c nhiu ch tiu trong mt mu.
Nhc im l trong mt s loi t , vic ly mu nh kh m bo tnh nguyn dng.
Kt qu th nghim khng chnh xc so vi iu kin t nhin ca t .
- Cc th nghim l hc v c hc ca t :
Trong th nghim thuc cng tc kho st a cht cng trnh, i vi cc mu t,
c th chia lm 2 dng th nghim : th nghim t nn v th nghim t s dng lm vt
liu p. Ph bin nht l th nghim nn, th nghim ct, th nghim xuyn, th nghim
m nn . . . v cc th nghim xc nh cc ch tiu chuyn mn khc.
- Cc th nghim l hc, ho hc v sinh hc ca nc di t.
3.2. Cc phng php th nghim hin trng
- Th nghim ht nc:
Cc ti liu th nghim c lp tp hp lp th Q = f(S), q =f(S) v tnh h
s k.
- Th nghim nc trong h o:

H s thm c xc nh s b theo cng thc:

Tuy nhin xc nh hn c th tnh theo cng thc sau:
Trong :
Q : lu lng nc (m
3
/ng)
K : h s thm (m/ng)
F : tit din vng kim loi kim loi trong (m
3
). (0,1m
3
)
Hk : p lc mao dn hnh thnh do nc thm vo t, bng 0,5 chiu cao mao
dn
h : b dy lp nc trn mt t
Z: chiu su thm
*Nn th nghim trong h o
( ) Z h H F
QZ
K
k
+ +
=
F
Q
K =
C
P
D

C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 74

Trn c s quan st ti trng nn v ln ca bn nn, ngi ta thnh lp th
quan h ln bn nn v ti trng S = f(S).
Gi tr mun bin dng E c xc nh theo cng thc sau:

Trong : E mun bin dng , kg/cm
2

P ti trng tc dng ln bn nn, kg
d- ng knh bn nn, cm
S ln cui cng ca bn nn, cm
- h s n hng ca t, i vi ct v ct pha l 0,3; i vi st pha l
0,35; i vi st l 0,42.

*Nn p hng
Xc nh tnh cht bin dng ca t ct st trong
cc h khoan. Phng php ny nhm o ln ca t to
thnh h khoan di tc dng ca p lc.
1 .Bnh kh nn;
2.Bnh o th tch;
3. ng h o p lc;
4.Bung cng tc;
5. Cc bung ph;
6.ng dn nc;
7.ng dnkh;
8.Lc p thnh h khoan.
M un bin dng xc nh theo cng thc:

Trong : dP- gia s p lc;
dr- gia s bin dng hng tm ng ng vi gia s p lc
r
o
- bn knh ca bung di p lc ban u;
- h s n hng.
Sd
P
E ) 1 (
2
=
dr
dP
r E
o
. ). 1 ( + =
C
P
D

C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 75

v - h s n hng ca t; - h s c nh i vi mi thit b (ph thuc bn
knh ca bung di p lc ban u); dP s gia p lc; dV s gia th tch ca bung
nn do bin dng ca t di tc dng ca s gia p lc.
Th nghim ct quay (Vane test):(Ct cnh)Th nghim ct quay l phng php
nh gi, xc nh sc chng ct t ca cc loi t yu nh : t loi st c st ln,
than bn, mn hu c . . ca t bn, t st ng nht, khng cha dm sn, ti su
20m.

hnh di ta thy rng khi cnh quay, t b ct theo mt tr vi chiu cao h v
ng knh d. Lc sc chng ct bng:
Sc chng ct t ca t c tnh theo cng thc:
Trong : : sc chng ct ca t kg/cm
2

M
max
: mmen xon cc i, kg.cm
K: i lng khng i ca cnh ct (cm
3
) ph thuc vo chiu cao h v ng
knh d ca n:Vi M
max
momen xon ln nht; K hng s cnh quay ph thuc vo
kch thc cnh:

K
M
max
= t
)
3
1 (
2
2
h
d h d
K + =
t
C
P
D

C
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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 76

*Th nghim xuyn (Phng php xuyn thm d)
- Phng php xuyn tiu chun (SPT)
- Th nghim xuyn ng
Nguyn l ca phng php th nghim ny l cho qu ba nng 63.5+-1 Kg ri
t cao 76 cm. S ln ba ri ng mi xuyn vo t l 30 cm c coi l lc
khng xuyn N (Theo TCXDVN tr s ny c k hiu l N30).
Ph thuc vo iu kin khi th nghim ( su, tnh trng thit b, iu kin a
cht thu vn) m s ln ba ng thc t N c th phi c hiu chnh cho ph hp

Da vo kt qu th nghim (N, N
h
), bng tin nh v cng thc thc nghim
chng ta c th phn loi t, xc nh trng thi t, moun bin dng, gc ma st trong
ca t ct, st ca t loi st, sc chu ti cho php ca t nn.
V d theo TCXD 226-1999 kt qu xuyn SPT c din dch nh sau:
i vi t ht ri c th da vo N
30
xc nh cht tng i D, gc ma st trong
v moun bin dng E theo bng v cng thc Terzaghi v Peck:

Trong :
- H s thc nghim bng 40 khi N
30
>=15 v bng 0 khi N
30
<=15.
- H s ph thuc loi t:
t loi st bng 3 ; Ct th bng 7
Ct mn ht nh bng 3,5 ; Ct trung bng 4,5
Ct ln sn si bng 10 ; Sn si ln ct bng 12

( ) 15
2
1
15 + = N N
h
( ) 6
30
+ + = N E | o
C
P
D

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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 77
Bng 8.1. Quan h N
30
vi D v
0
ca t ht ri ( theo Terzaghi v Peck)

i vi t dnh quan h gia N
30
vi st v bn nn n hng q
n
nh sau:
Bng 8.2. Quan h N
30
vi st v q
n
ca t dnh

Bng 8.3. Quan h gia s ba nn vi cc ch tiu vt l, c hc ca t (khi
xuyn su 30cm)

C
P
D

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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 78
- Th nghim xuyn tnh (Phng php xuyn tnh (CPT))
Trong phng php xuyn tnh mi xuyn c n t t vo t di mt p lc
nht nh. Ngi ta ghi li p lc cn thit xuyn mi xuyn vo t . Phng php
xuyn tnh c p dng cho hu ht cc loi t. C 2 loi thit b xuyn tnh c v
xuyn tnh in. Thit b xuyn tnh c s dng ph bin hin nay Vit Nam l xuyn
cn CPT nh my xuyn Gauda H Lan.
Kt qu th nghim xuyn c gm: sc khng u mi n v q
c
v sc khng st
bn hng n v f
s
. i vi th nghim xuyn in ngoi hai i lng ny cn c th xc
nh c p lc nc l rng.
Da vo kt qu th nghim xuyn tnh (q
c
, f
s
) cng thc thc nghim v bng
tin nh c th phn loi t, xc nh trng thi cht ca t ct, st ca t mng
cc, mng nng.

4. BO CO A CHT CNG TRNH
4.1. ngha v cc ti liu cn thit lp bo co a cht cng trnh
Tng hp tt c nhng d liu thu thp c hin trng, phng th nghim, h
s lu tr, tin hnh lm bo co a cht cng trnh.
Bo co a cht cng trnh l mt ti liu k thut tng hp tt c cc yu t
thun li v kh khn ca mi trng thin nhin v s tng tc gia mi trng vi
cng trnh xy dng.
4.2. Ni dung ca bo co a cht cng trnh
Ni dung ca bo co a cht cng trnh ph thuc vo: giai on kho st; iu
kin a cht v quy m cng trnh; phng php v iu kin k thut kho st
Ni dung c bn ca mt bo co:
I. PHN M U
- Nu mc ch, yu cu v nhim v kho st
- Quy m, tm quan trng ca cng trnh
- Khi lng kho st thc hin, thi gian thc hin
C
P
D

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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 79
- Cc tiu chun s dng
II. IU KIN A CHT CNG TRNH
- V tr, a hnh, a l dn c v kinh t khu vc
- iu kin kh tng thy vn khu vc
- a hnh, a mo ca khu vc:
- Cu to a cht
- Cc hin tng a cht ni, ngoi ng lc (nu c)
- Cc hin tng a cht cng trnh (nu c)
- c im v a cht thy vn
- c im v cc loi vt liu xy dng thin nhin
III. PHN KT LUN
- nh gi thun li, kh khn theo tng yu t iu kin a cht cng trnh, c
th l theo tng lp t trong tng phm vi.
- T nu kin ngh, gi cc gii php v nn mng, cc phng n x l ph
hp v cc kh khn c th gp khi thi cng
- Kin ngh cc phng php kho st cng nh khi lng kho st b sung nu
cn.
- D bo cc hin tng a cht c th xy ra trong qu trnh thi cng v s dng
cng trnh.
Ba phn nu trn l ni dung c trnh by di dng bn thuyt minh. Phn bn
v v cc loi hnh biu khc km theo gi l ph lc.
IV. PHN PH LC
- Cc bn v: mt bng kho st (c v tr v cao cc h khoan), hnh tr ca
tng h khoan, mt ct theo tuyn, theo s khi,
- Bng tng hp cc ch tiu c l ca cc mu t th nghim, cc biu bng v
kt qu th nghim trong phng.
- Cc biu bng, biu v kt qu th nghim hin trng v cc bn biu
chuyn dng khc nh biu xuyn, o in, biu ca kh tng thy vn, a cht
thy vn,
- Kt qu phn tch nc.
4.3. Nghin cu v s dng bo co a cht cng trnh
Bo co a cht cng trnh s c cung cp cho bn u t, cho cc k s thit
k, cho thi cng, cho gim st, v lu tr dng b sung cho cc th tc sau ny.
Mun s dng tt bo co a cht cng trnh th cn phi nm vng:
- Cc kin thc c bn v a cht cng trnh, cc tiu chun v kho st xy
dng.
- Pht hin nhng bt hp l hay nhng im cha r rng trong bo co.
- Khi thy cn thit th nn kt hp cht ch vi bn kho st cng trao i
cho sng t mi yu t v iu kin a cht cng trnh khu vc.
- Nhn xt nh gi s liu kho st, nu khi thit k thy cha p ng c yu
cu th phi kin ngh ngay cc khi lng cn kho st b sung cho kp tin yu cu.
- Khi c bo co cn lu phn kt lun trong thuyt minh v l nhng gi ,
l nhng d bo rt quan trng cho vic chn mt gii php hp l va an ton, va kinh
t.

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GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 80

5. BN A CHT CNG TRNH, MT CT A HNH
5.1. Bn a cht cng trnh
5.2. Mt ct a cht cng trnh
Mt ct a cht cng trnh l hnh chiu ca cu trc a cht ln mt phng thng
ng v l phn b sung quan trng ca bn a cht. Trn mt ct a cht, ngi ta
th hin tui, thnh phn t , iu kin th nm, nc di t.

Kyhieu hokhoan
Khoang cach (m)
Cao omieng ho
MAT CAT A CHAT CONG TRNH
Tyle:
Ngang: 1/200
ng: 1/200
30m
Cao o
0m
- 2m
- 4m
- 6m
- 8m
- 10m
-12m
- 14m
- 16m
- 18m
- 20m
- 22m
-24m
20m 20m
0. 0m 0. 0m
3.3m
4.3m
12.4m
8.8m
4.5m
6.5m
5.0m
7.0m
9.0m
12.0m
1
2
3
4
5
6
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HNH TRUHOKHOAN
PROJECT: ELEVATION OF GROUND WATER
Cong trnh: AT THE DRILLING TIME
LOCATION (Vtr) : (Mc nc ngam thi iem khoan)
BOREHOLE No (Hokhoan so): BH2
APPEARANCE (Xuat hien): -3.0m
TOTAL DEPTH OF HOLE (osau hokhoan): 14.0m DATE (Ngay o):
TOP ELEVATION OF HOLE (Cao omieng ho): +0.0 STATIC (On nh): -4.5m
STARTING (Khi cong) : COMPLETION (Hoan thanh): 21 - 11 - 2000 DATE (Ngay o):
D
E
P
T
H

(
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M
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L
A
Y
E
R

N
A
M
E
T
e
n

l
p
E
L
E
V
A
T
I
O
N

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m
)
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o

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T
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K
N
E
S
S

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m
)
B
e

d
a
y

(
m
)
SOIL GRAPH
MAT CAT
A CHAT
1/100
S
.
P
.
T
.
C
h
u
y

t
i
e
u

c
h
u
a
n
SOIL DESCRIPTION
MOTAAT
SPT
(N)
SPT DIAGRAM
Bieu oSPT
0 0
0.4 Xaban gach, cat, a
1
Set pha cat mau xam vang, 3
2 1 2.9 xam trang, trang thai deo
nhao - deo mem
3 8
Soi san laterite lan t set pha
4 2 1.2 cat mau nau o, nau vang
trang thai na cng - cng 28
5 Set pha cat lan t soi san
3 2.0 laterite mau xam trang, nau
6 o, trang thai deo mem
9
7 Set pha cat mau xam trang
om vang nhat, trang thai
8 4 2.3 deo mem
9 7
10
3.6 Cat mn lan bot mau vang
BORE HOLE LOG
3
8
28
9
7
0 10 20 30 40 50 >60
-0.4
0.0
-3.3
-6.5
-8.8
-4.5
m 5 . 2 0 . 2
3 2
4
3
4
m 0 . 4 5 . 3
5 2
14
13
14
m 0 . 6 5 . 5
7 2
4
4
5
m 5 . 8 0 . 8
9 2
3
3
4
m 5 . 10 0 . 10
11 2
m 0 . 1 5 . 0
1 2
1
1
2
0.4
3.3
4.5
6.5
8.8
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THC TP A CHT CNG TRNH
A. GII THIU
1. Gii thiu
Kho st CCT: nhm xc nh cc iu kin CCT
V tr a l, tnh hnh dn c v kinh t khu vc xy dng
a hnh, a mo
Cu to a cht
Tnh cht c l t (, c, , E
o
,)
iu kin a cht thy vn
Cng tc thm d v th nghim a cht cng trnh: o v bn ; Thm d a
vt l; Khoan thm d; Xuyn thm d
B tr cc cng trnh thm d: trn mt bng hoc theo cc tuyn.
su nh hng ca ti trng cng trnh c xc nh cn c theo iu kin:
o
zp
=(0,10,2)o
bt

2. Phng php khoan v thit b khoan
Phng php khoan: Khoan p c thi ra bng dung dch bentonite
1-Gin khoan
2- Rng rc
3- Dy cho
4- My n
5- ng chng
6- Cn khoan
7- Li khoan
8- Mng cha dung
dch bentonite
9- ng dn
10- My bm
11- Kho cn (m lt rng)

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3. Xuyn tiu chun (SPT - Standard Penetration Test) Chia vch trn cn khoan
lm 3 on, mi an 15cm.

m s ba khi ng mi xuyn vo t 15cm. (Mi xuyn c n vo t bi t
hoc ba hnh tr c l nh tm, nng 63,5 kg trt theo cn khoan vi chiu cao ri t
do l 760mm.)
B qua s ln c p ca 15cm u v ng mu thng i qua vn t yu ri t
trn xung. S c cc c p ca 30cm, gi l ch s N ca SPT.
4. Phng php xuyn tnh (CPT)
Xuyn tnh cho kt qu: Sc khng mi xuyn q
c
(kg/cm
2
) v ma st thnh n v
f
s
(kg/cm
2
) ca t loi st v t loi ct.
Kt qu c trnh by di dng bng s liu v biu .

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S cu to mi xuyn c o ma st
1 Gc mi xuyn o=60
o
; 2 u mi xuyn; 3 o ma st
*Tc xuyn 2cm/s
*Mi xuyn c n ring trn mt on di 4cm ( o lc
khng mi xuyn Q
c
). Gi tr p lc trn ng h lc l X.
*Cn xuyn c n tip theo mi xuyn vi khong cch .
*Ton b cn v mi c n xung mt on di 16cm ( o
c lc ton phn Q
t
). Gi tr p lc trn ng h lc l Y.
*Lc ma st hng l hiu s gia lc ton phn v lc u mi
xuyn Q
s
=Q
t
- Q
c
.
Vi A
pis
l din tch ca pistng p trn ng h lc, th Q
c
=X .
A
pis
; Q
t
=Y.A
pis;

- Sc khng n v mi xuyn:

- Sc khng ma st n v:
4.1. Cng vic chnh:
Xc nh v tr cc h khoan, xuyn
Khoan, ly mu nguyn dng, xuyn SPT, xuyn tnh
M t t , tnh tr s N, o mc nc ngm, ghi nhn cc s liu v a tng,
kt qu xuyn.
4.2. M t t :
Thnh phn (loi t), mu sc, trng thi
5. Vit nht k khoan
6. Thc hin v ghi nhn kt qu xuyn tnh
1
3
2
c
c
c
Q
q
A
=
s
s
s
Q
f
A
=
s
c
f
FR
q
=
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B. VIT BO CO TRONG PHNG
Phn 1: Thuyt minh
1. M u: Mc ch v nhim v
Cng tc kho st a cht cng trnh ti hin trng gip lm quen vi cng tc
khoan thm d, xuyn tiu chun (SPT), xuyn tnh, m t t theo cc s liu khoan,
ly mu nguyn dng, kim tra mc nc ngm.
Kt qu thu thp c hin trng c tng hp thnh Bo co thc tp a
cht cng trnh gm c phn thuyt minh v cc ph lc.
2. Tng quan v cng vic thc tp
- Thi gian: bt u v kt thc cng tc hin trng, lp bo co.
- V tr, a im ca khu vc kho st
- Thit b v phng php kho st
Khi lng cng vic:
S lng h khoan; xuyn
Chiu su mi h
Tng s mt khoan, xuyn
Cong tr nh:
V tr :
Hokhoan so: C quan thc hi en:
Phng phap khoan: Chi eu sau hokhoan:
K hi cong: osau mc nc ngam: (m)
Hoan tat: X uat hi en: Ngay, gi o:
Cao omat at: On nh: Ngay, gi o:
M au at so osau ( m) SPT
N H A T K Y H OK H OA N
M otaat a
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S mu nguyn dng
S mu SPT
3. iu kin a cht cng trnh
3.1. Cu to a cht
Theo s liu thu thp c hin trng trong phm vi cc h khoan ti su
kho st ln nht l ... m, cu to a cht ca khu vc c ... lp t chnh:
Lp 1: M t tng hp t lp t 1 (loi t, mu sc, trng thi), tr s N t
n , c b dy t ( h khoan s ...) n ( h khoan s ...)
Lp 2: tng t
Lp 6: [lp cui]: M t tng hp t lp t 6 (loi t, mu sc, trng thi),
tr s N t n , c b dy pht hin t ( h khoan s ...) n ( h khoan s
...).
3.2. iu kin a cht thy vn
Mc nc ngm cc h khoan vo thi im kho st.
S thay i ca mc nc ngm theo ma, theo thy triu.
4. nh gi iu kin a cht cng trnh v nu kin ngh
4.1. nh gi iu kin a cht cng trnh
[nh gi theo tng n nguyn a cht cng trnh (lp t): thun li hay khng
thun li cho vic xy dng cng trnh]
Cn c cc s liu thu thp c t vic kho st a cht cng trnh khu vc xy
dng v cc tnh cht c l t th nghim, nh gi iu kin a cht cng trnh.
M t s b, b dy tng lp: nhn xt thun li hoc khng thun li cho vic
xy dng cng trnh.
V d: Lp 2: St pha ct mu xm vng, trng thi do cng, c b dy t 3,5 n
4,2m: thun li cho vic xy dng.
4.2. Mt s kin ngh v gii php nn mng:
i vi cng trnh c ti trng va v nh: loi mng thch hp, su chn
mng nn chn l mt (cao y mng).
i vi cng trnh c ti trng ln ...
Cc hin tng bt li
5. Cc bn v v biu

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Gio trnh ti liu tham kho
[1]. Trn Ngc Nam (2007). Gio trnh a cht i cng. NXB i hc
Hu, 260 trang.
[2]. V Nng Lc (2002). a cht i cng. NXB Giao thng vn ti, 236
trang.
[3]. Tng Duy Thanh (Ch bin) (2003). Gio trnh a cht c s. NXB i
hc Quc gia H Ni, 306 trang.
[4]. Alan E. Kehew (1995) (Ngi dch: Trnh Vn Cng, Phm Mnh H,
Phm Hu Sy, Nguyn Uyn). a cht hc cho k s xy dng v cn b k
thut mi trng
- Tp Mt. NXB Gio dc (1998), 260 trang.
[5]. Alan E. Kehew (1995), (Ngi dch: Trnh Vn Cng, Phm Mnh H,
Phm Hu Sy, Nguyn Uyn). a cht hc cho k s xy dng v cn b k
thut mi trng
- Tp Hai. NXB Gio dc (1998), 284 trang.
[6] Phng Ngc inh (2002) B Gio dc v o to. Gio trnh a cht i
cng v a cht lch s, NXB Gio dc (144 trang)

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MC LC
CHNG: M U-NHNG NT I CNG V MN HC...2
1. A CHT HC V NI DUNG NGHIN CU CA N.2
2. CC PHNG PHP NGHIN CU A CHT HC...3
3. A CHT HC V S PHT TRIN C S TI NGUYN KHONG SN,
PHT TRIN NN KINH T CA T NC.4
4. NGUN GC TRI T V S TIN HA CA N...4
5. A CHT CNG TRNH I TNG V NHIM V........5
CHNG I: KHONG V CC KHONG TO ..7
1. V TRI T V CC HIN TNG DIN RA TRONG ..7
2. KHONG VT V CC KHOING VT TO ..11
CHNG II: THCH HC ......19
1. MACMA...19
2. TRM TCH.....21
3. BIN CHT.24
CHNG 3: A CHT KIN TRC27
1. I CNG V TC DNG KIN TO CA V TRI T...27
2. CC DNG BIN V CA T 27
CHNG 4: A CHT LCH S.....30
1. I CNG V A CHT LCH S30
2. CC PHNG PHP XC NH TUI T .30
3. S LC LCH S PHT TRIN CA V TRI T32
4. I MO....34
CHNG 5: THNH PHN CU TRC V MT S TNH CHT C
L CA T ..35
1. THNH PHN KT CU CA T ...35
2. CC TNH CHT VT L...37
3. MT S TNH CHT C HC ...............................................................................39
CHNG 6: NC DI T45
1. CC TNH CHT CHA NC CA T ....45
2. CHT LNG V TR LNG CA NC DI T..45
3. CC HNH THC H THNG HA KT QU TH NGHIM NC...47
4. NH GI CHT LNG NC DNG TRONG XY DNG48
5. CC LAI NC DI T.....49
6. MT S QUY LUT VN NG CA NC DI T51
CHNG 7. CC HIN TNG A CHT HIN I LIN QUAN N
XY DNG CNG TRNH...58
1. HIN TNG NG T...58
2. TC DNG CA PHONG HO...61
3. HIN TNG T CHY (HAY CT CHY).61
4. HIN TNG XI NGM...63
5. HIN TNG CACST....63
6. HIN TNG TRT T ......64
7. HIN TNG XI MN..67
CHNG 8. KHO ST A CHT CNG TRNH70
1. I CNG V CNG TC KHO ST CNG TRNH.70
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2. CNG TC THM D A CHT......71
3. CNG TC TH NGHIM A CHT CNG TRNH...73
4. BO CO A CHT CNG TRNH......78
5. BN A CHT CNG TRNH, MT CT A HNH..80
THC TP A CHT CNG TRNH...83
A. GII THIU.....83
B. VIT BO CO TRONG PHNG.86
GIO TRNH TI LIU THAM KHO..88
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Trng cao ng Phng ng Mn: a cht cng trnh

GV: Hunh Ngc Hi 1

l lu lng dng thm t nhin qua mt tit din ngang ca

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