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Bonding
Topic MainIdeas
Lewis
diagrams

UseONLYandALLvalenceelectrons(e.g.fromPTSwouldbe2,8,6soyouwoulduse6e)
Formostmolecules,theOCTETrulemustbeobeyedthatisatomsarestablewith8
electrons
Exceptionstotheoctetruleare:H(2),Be(4)andB(6)
ElectronsaredrawninPAIRS.Eachpair(or2or3pairsfordoubleandtriplebonds
respectively)iscalledanAREAOFELECTRONDENSITY
EachA.O.E.DREPELStheothersmaximally
ThereforedrawyourelectronsINPAIRSandFARAWAYfromeachother
Dontforgetthenonbondingelectrons(especiallyinthehalogensCl,F,BrandI)
Learntheshapes:names(linear,bent,trigonalpyramid,triangularplanarandtetrahedral)
andhowtodrawthem(trigpyramidandtetrahedralrequirewedgesanddashes)
Bondangles:dependONLYonthenumberofareasofelectrondensity.2areas=linear=
180,3areas=triangularplanar=120and4areas=tetrahedral=109.5
Polarity

POLARBONDSoccurbetweenTWODIFFERENTATOMSwhichhaveDIFFERENT
ELECTRONEGATIVITES(thereforeunevensharingofapairofunbondedelectrons)
POLARMOLECULEStodecidewhetheraMOLECULEispolaryoumustlookat:
1. thepresenceornotofPOLARBONDS(ifnopolarbondsmoleculeisNONPOLAR).Ifthere
AREpolarbondsyoumustalsoconsider:
2. thesymmetryofthemolecule(lookattheshapeandexplaintheshapeifyouhavenot
alreadydoneso).Asymmetricalmoleculewouldmeanthedipolescancelandthe
moleculewouldbeNONPOLAR.Anasymmetricalmoleculewouldmeanthedipolesdont
cancelandthemoleculesisPOLAR.
POLARMOLECULES:
deflectwhenachargedrodisheldnear
aresolubleinpolarsolvents(egwater)
areinsolubleinnonpolarsolvents(eghexane)

Thermoche
mical
calculations

Inchemicalreactions,heatenergyisabsorbedasbondsbreakandheatenergyisreleasedasnew
bondsform.

Ifenergyabsorbedinbondbreaking>energyreleasedinbondforming,thereactionis
ENDOTHERMIC( H+)
Ifenergyabsorbedinbondbreaking<energyreleasedinbondforming,thereactionis
EXOTHERMIC( H+)

Thermochemicalequationsarebalancedequationsshowingthetotalenergyabsorbed(+)or
released().

Readthefollowingequation:2C
4
H
10
+15O
2
8CO
2
+10H
2
O H5314.6kJmol
1

AS:2molesofbutanereactswith15molesofoxygentoform8molesofcarbondioxideand10
molesofwater,andindoingsoreleases5314.6kJofenergypermoleofreaction.

Whicheversubstancethequestionisaskingyouabout,dividetheequationtomakethatsubstance
1mole.Forexample:ifthequestionisaskingaboutCO2,dividethewholeequationby8:if8mol
CO2releases5314.6kJ,then1moleCO2willrelease5324.6/8kJenergy.Thiswillmakethe
calculationeasier.

Also:rememberyouwillmostlikelybegivenanumberofgrams.Youmustcalculateandworkin
moles:n=m/M(littlem=g,bigM=gmol
1
)

Theothertypeofquestionyouwillgetisusingbondenthalpies.Bondenthalpy=theenergy
requiredtobreak1moleofcovalentbonds(thereforeallbondenthalpiesarepositive,asenergyis
absorbedtobreakbonds).

YOUMUSTDRAWTHESTRUCTURES(commonerrorsincludeforgettingthatthereare2xOH
bondsineverymoleculeofwaterandmissingoutCCbondsinthemiddleoforganicmolecules)

Multiplythenumberofmolesbythebondenthalpyinthetable.Addupallthebondsbroken(
H+),anddothesamewithallthebondsformed( H).Addingthesetwonumbersgivesyou
youranswer.REMEMBERTHESIGNandTHEUNITS.

CAREFULLYEXPLAINYOURPROCESS
Properties
ofsolids

Solid Howdoyou
know?
particles bonds properties
MOLECULAR
allnonmetal
atoms
molecules
WIF nonconductors
polarsolubleinpolarsolvent
nonpolarsolubleinnonpolar
solvents
lowmpt
METALLIC metalatoms
only
metal
atoms
metallic
bonds
conductors
malleableandductile
highmpt
hard
IONIC metal+
nonmetal
atoms
ions Ionic
bonds
conductasliquidandaqueous
brittle
highmpt
solubleinpolarsolvents
COVALENT
NETWORK
CandSi/O
only
atoms covalent
bonds
graphiteconducts
highmpts
hard
graphitesolidlubricantandpencil

Specifics:
1. MetallichaveNONDIRECTIONALBONDS(malleableandductile).DELOCALISED
VALENCEELECTRONS(conductors).METALLICBONDSARESTRONGANDTAKEA
LOTOFENERGYTOBREAK(highmpt).LARGENETWORKOFSTRONGBONDS
(hard)
2. MolecularARETHEONLYSUBSTANCESTHATCANBEPOLARORNONPOLAR.Polar
dissolveinpolarsolventsbecausetheattractionoftheWATER(polar)forthePOLAR
SUBSTANCEisGREATERthanboththewaterwaterattractionandthepolar
substancepolarsubstanceattractionthereforetheSOLVENTcanattractthe
MOLECULESoutoftheLATTICEandformHYDRATIONSHELLSthusmakingthe
substanceSOLUBLE.NONPOLARmoleculesattractionfortheWATERisnotgreater
thanwaterwater,butISGREATERthannonpolarsolventnonpolarsolvent,therefore
nonpolarissolubleinnonpolarsolvent.
3. IoniccanconductasliquidandaqueousasIONS(charged)areFREETOMOVE.
BRITTLEasdirectionalbonds(forcecanforcelikechargestogetherwhichrepelandcause
alineoffracture)
4. GRAPHITE2DlayerswitheachCatomcovalentlybondedto3otherCatomsleaving1
ELECTRONFREE(canmoveandCONDUCT).WIFbetweenlayersEASYTODISRUPT
(littleenergy)lubricantandpencil.SilicaandDiamondlargenetworkofSTRONG
COVALENTBONDS=hard.StrongcovalentbondsneedLOTSOFENERGYtobreak
thereforehighmpt.

MODELLONGANSWER

________isa_________solid/substancewhichisa3Dlatticeof__________(particles)heldto
other__________(particles)by__________bonds.
[INSERTSPECIFICSTRUCTURALDETAILHERE]
[DEFINEPROPERTY]
[RELATESTRUCTURETOPROPERTYUSINGconnectorstherefore,because,andso,which
meansthatetc]

Organic
Topic MainIdeas
Reactiontypes

Substitution:oneatom(orgroup)isremovedandreplacedbyanotheratomorgroup.
SPECIFYwhichatomisremovedandwhatitisreplacedwith

Addition:aCtoCdoublebondisbrokenandtwonewatoms/groupsareaddedtothe
previouslydoublebondedCatoms.Theunsaturatedcompoundbecomessaturated.

Elimination:2atoms(usuallyanHandahalogenoranOH)areremovedfromadjacentC
atomsandadoublebondformsbetweenthose2Catoms.Asaturatedcompoundbecomes
unsaturated.

Oxidation:Oxygenisadded

Acid/base:aprotonisexchanged(donatedbytheorganicacid,COOHandacceptedbythe
organicbase,amine)
Keyreactions

UseyourSMILEYFACEsheet(plusyournotesforothersegreactionsofacids.

Suggestion:

Divideyourreactionsinto2groups:
1. thoseyoucanWORKOUTbylookingattheformulaorthoseyouEASILY
REMEMBERand
2. thosewhicharemoredifficulttoremember.

NowmakeaLISToftheHARDONES.Leaveaspaceblankforeachanswer.Theanswer
maybethePRODUCToraREAGENT/REQUIREMENT
FillintheanswersWITHOUTLOOKINGatyoursheet
Markthem.Redotheonesyougotwrongbyputtingacleansheetofpaperoverthe
answers.Repeatthisuntilyougetthemallright.
Nowrepeatthisexerciseacoupleofdayslater.Andagain.3or4timesshouldhaveyou
conqueringthereactions!
Distinguishing

Howtopositivelyidentify:
1. Carboxylicacids:useWETBLUELITMUS/UI.ItwillturnREDasCAareACIDS.OR
useMg.Bubbleswillbeseen(hydrogengas).ORuseaCARBONATE.Bubbleswill
beseen(carbondioxide)
2. Amines:useWETREDLITMUS/UI.ItwillturnBLUEasaminesareBASES
3. Alcohols:useCr
2
O
7
2
/H
+
ORMnO
4

/H
+
.OrangedichromatewillturngreenORpurple
permanganatewilldecolouriseBECAUSEALCOHOLScanbeoxidised(tocarboxylic
acids)
4. Alkenes(andalkynesbutyouwontgetalkynes).UseBr
2
water.ItisORANGEandwill
DECOLOURISEQUICKLYinanadditionreaction.ORuseMnO
4

/H
+
.Purple
permanganatewilldecolourisetoformadiol.
5. ANYTHINGELSE(alkanes,haloalkanes)identifyBYELIMINATINGEVERYTHING
ELSE.Br
2
water(orange)willdecolouriseALLcompoundsslowlywithUVlightso
ONLYusethiswhencomparingthetwocompoundsalkeneandalkaneONLY.
6. IfyouareSTILLSTUCKcheckforsolubility.LONGCHAINSarelesssolublethan
SHORTchains.POLARcompounds(alcoholsaminesandcarboxylicacids)are
moresolublethanthecorrespondinghydrocarbon.Youwillget2layersforinsoluble
substances.

MakesureyouareLOGICALinyourorder.e.g.Takeasampleofall5andaddX.
[observationsetc].Labeltheoneyouidentifyandseparate.Takeasampleoftheremaining4
andaddY.etcetc.

Tickoffalltherequirements:reagents,balancedequations,observations,specialconditions,
reasonsforreactivityetc.
Markovnikovand
Saytsev

MarkovnivandSaytsevsrulescomeintoeffectwhenyouhaveTWODIFFERENTanswers
toanequation.Simply,therichgetricher(Markvnikov)andthepoorgetpoorer(Saytsev).

Whendotheseconditionsapply?

ForMarkvnikov:youmusthave
1. Anasymmetricalalkene(egCH3CHCH2thedoublebondedCshavedifferent
numberofHs)AND
2. Anasymmetricalreagent(HCl,HOH(H
2
O),HBrNOTBr
2
,H
2
)

ForSaytsev:youmusthave
Ahaloalkanewherethe2CsADJACENTtotheCwiththeFUNCTIONALGROUP(Cl)have
differentnumberofHse.g.CH
3
CHClCH
2
CH
3
NOTCH
2
ClCH
2
CH
3
ORCH
3
CHClCH
3
.
Isomers

Isomers:2(ormore)compoundswiththeSAMEMOLECULARFORMULA(numberandtype
ofatoms)andaDIFFERENTARRANGEMENTofatoms.

CanbeCONSTITUTIONAL(branched/straight,differentpositionoffunctionalgroup)

orCIS/TRANS.

WHATaretherequirementsofcis/transisomerism?
1.anonrotationalCtoCdoublebond(alkene)
2.EachdoublebondedCmusthave2differentatoms/groupsattached.

NOWrelatethisSPECIFICALLYtothemoleculesinthequestion.

examples:pent2ene,but2ene,1,2dichloroethane

Equilibriumsystems
DateandTopic MainIdeas
Acidsandbases
(strongand
weakandpH)

AcidsarePROTONDONATORS(donateH+towatertoformH
3
O
+
)
BasesarePROTONACCEPTORS(ACCEPTH+fromwatertoformOH

e.g.HCl+H
2
OH
3
O
+
+ClH
2
OandH
3
O
+
areaCONJUGATEacidbasepair2
speciesrelatedbyasingleproton.SoareHClandCl.

CommonAcids:
Strong:HClH
2
SO
4
ANDHNO
3
weak:NH
4
+
allCOOHsHF

Commonbases:
Strong:NaOHKOHetc(IONIC)weak:NH
3
andamines

NBwhenwritingequationsforthestrongbases,astheyareionic,theequationisajusta
dissociation:NaOHNa++OH

YOUMUSTrememberthedifferencebetweenCONCENTRATEDandSTRONG.
concentrated=LOTSOFmolL
1
strong=fullydissociated/equilibriumliestotheright
Equally:
dilute=NOTMANYmolL
1
weak=onlypartiallydissociated/equilibriumliestotheleft

Whatdoesthismean?

1. STRONGacidshaveaLOWERpHthanEQUALLYCONCENTRATEDWEAK
acidsas[H
3
O
+
]>[OH

]
2. STRONGacidshaveaBETTERCONDUCTIVITYthanEQUALLY
CONCENTRATEDWEAKacidsasstrongacidshaveaGREATERconcentration
ofCHARGEDPARTICLES
3. STRONGacidshaveaFASTERREACTIONRATEthanEQUALLY
CONCENTRATEDWEAKacidsas[H
3
O
+
]>[OH

]
HOWEVER:
AstrongandweakacidofEQUALCONCENTRATIONwillproduceEQUALamountsof
product:thestrongacidwillproduceitQUICKERthough.(useequilibriumsystemsto
explainthis)
Equilibrium
systems

EquilibriumisDYNAMIC.Althoughitappearsthatnothingishappening,bothforwardand
reversereactionsareoccurringatEQUALRATESinOPPOSITEDIRECTIONS.

WecanfindthepositionofequilibriumbycalculatingtheEQUILIBRIUMCONSTANT,Kc.
Thislookslike:

aA+bBcC+dD
Kc=[D]
d
[C]
c
NOPLUSES,musthaveSQUAREBRACKETS(molesperlitre)
[A]
a
[B]
b

IfKcisHIGH(alargenumber),thismeansaPRODUCTDOMINATEDREACTIONbetter
saidbyTHEEQUILIBRIUMLIESTOTHERIGHT.
IfKcisLOW(asmallnumber),thismeansaREACTANTDOMINATEDREACTION
bettersaidbyTHEEQUILIBRIUMLIESTOTHELEFT.

YoucancalculatetheKcbysubbingintheCONCENTRATIONSINmolL
1
andsolving.

DONOTTAKESHORTCUTSANDSHOWALLWORKING!
Equilibrium
changes(Le
Chateliers
principle)
Ifachangeisimposedtoasystematequilibrium,thesystemwillreacttominimisethe
change.

Thechangesthatcouldbeimposedare:
1. changeintemperature
2. changeinpressure
3. changeintheconcentrationofareactantorproduct
4. theuseofacatalyst

Modelanswer:
1.Statethechange[Thechangeimposedisanincreaseintemperature]
2.Statetheresponse[thereforethesystemwillacttodecreasethetemperature]
3.Statethedirectionthesystemwillmoveinresponse[thesystemwillmovetothe
left/right]
4.Statethereasonforthisshift[astheDHisnegative,theforwardreactionis
exothermic,thereforethereverseisendothermic.Thesystemmovesintheendothermic
directiontocoolthetemperature,thusleft]
5.Relatethistothequestion[thereforethepurplecolourlightensasXispurpleanditis
decreasingitsconcentrationbymovingleftetc]

Pressure increaseinpressurewill
shifttheequilibriumtothe
directionofFEWERGAS
MOLES
decreaseinpressurewill
shifttheequilibriumtothe
directionofMOREGAS
MOLES
Temperature increaseintemperature
willshifttheequilibriumto
theENDOTHERMIC
direction
decreaseintemperature
willshifttheequilibriumto
theEXOTHERMIC
direction
Concentration increaseinconcentration
ofaREACTANTwillshift
theequilibriumtotheright
touseupthereactant
increaseinconcentration
ofaPRODUCTwillshift
theequilibriumtotheleftto
useuptheproduct
Concentration decreaseinconcentration
ofaREACTANTwillshift
theequilibriumtotheleftto
makemorereactant
decreaseinconcentration
ofaPRODUCTwillshift
theequilibriumtotheright
tomakemoreproduct

IfthequestionisabouttheMAGNITUDEofKc(i.e.whatwillhappentoKcif...)
remembertheONLYthingthatchangesKcisTEMPERATURE.

Acidsandbases
(salts)

SALTSareIONICtheyhaveametalpart(orNH4+)andanonmetalpart.

Commonexamplesare:NaCl,HCOONa,CH
3
COOK,NH
4
Cl,NH
4
NO
3
,NaHCO
3

TodecideWHATpHsolutionsofthesesaltswillhaveyouusuallyhavetowriteTWO
EQUATIONS

Equation1:thisshowstheIONICsaltdissociatingFULLY

1.NaClNa
+
+Cl

2.NH
4
NO
3
NH
4
+
+NO
3

3.HCOONaHCOO

+Na
+

Equation2:thisiswrittenifONEOFTHEPRODUCTIONSCANDONATEORACCEPT
APROTON

1.Na+andClDONOTreactwithwater.Nofurtherequations.[H
3
O
+
]=[OH

]andpH=7
2.NH
4
+
+H
2
OH
3
O
+
+NH
3
[H
3
O
+
]>[OH

]andpH<7(acidic)
3.HCOO

+H
2
OOH

+HCOOH[H
3
O
+
]<[OH

]andpH>7(basic)

ALLSALTSaregoodconductorsthisisbecausetheyareionic.Thereforethey
dissociatefullyinwaterproducingalargeconcentrationofions.

pHcalculations YouneedtorememberTWOequations:

pH=log[H
3
O
+
]and[OH

][H
3
O
+
]=1x10
14

Thereverseoftheseare:

[H
3
O
+
]=10
pH
[OH

]=1x10
14
/[H
3
O
+
]or[H
3
O
+
]=1x10
14
/[OH

Ifyougetaquestionlike:CalculatethepHofasolutionof0.0332molL
1
HCl,youneedto
maketheassumptionthatSTRONGACIDSdissociatefully,andthereforethe[H
3
O
+
]=
theconcentrationoftheacid(inthiscase0.0332)

DONTFORGETMOSTOFYOUWILLNEEDTOUSEBRACKETSIFYOUENTER
NUMBERSINSTANDARDFORM!!!
Rates 4waystochangeREACTIONRATE(toincreaserate)
increasetemperature
increasesurfacearea
increaseconcentration
useacatalyst

Explanations:

Temperature:
increasestheKINETICENERGYofthePARTICLES.ThereforeMOREPARTICLEShave
SUFFICIENTENERGYtoovercometheactivationbarrier,collideandreactsuccessfully.
ThereforemoreEFFECTIVECOLLISIONSPERSECONDandaFASTERREACTION
RATE.

Surfacearea:
crushingupaSOLIDmeansthereareMOREEXPOSEDPARTICLESandtherefore
MOREEFFECTIVECOLLISIONPERSECONDandaFASTERREACTIONRATE

Concentration:
increasestheNUMBERofPARTICLESINTHESAMEVOLUME.Thereforemore
EFFECTIVECOLLISIONSPERSECONDandaFASTERREACTIONRATE.

Catalyst:
ProvidesanALTERNATIVEPATHOFLOWERACTIVATIONENERGY.ThereforeMORE
PARTICLEShaveSUFFICIENTENERGYtocollideandreactsuccessfully.Therefore
moreEFFECTIVECOLLISIONSPERSECONDandaFASTERREACTIONRATE.

all
calculations
dontroundearlyanswers(roundthefinalansweronly)
giveanswersto3SF
DONTFORGETUNITS!!!!!

WhenImavailable!AllinJ112orIwillputupanotesayingwhereIam.Feelfreetojustgoinandstudy!
Date: Period1 Period2 Period3 Period4 Period5
Friday
November7
Available Available Available Available Available
Monday
November10
Mostlikely
available
Available Available Available
Tuesday
November11
Available Available

Goodlucklovelystudents.

Itsbeenfun!

Bestofluckforyourexams!

:)