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EDITED BY
Anubhav Lahiri
www.exampundit.in
30.10.2014

This is most comprehensive
guide for SSC, Postal
Assitant, IB and all Govt.
Exams
7500 BC : Civilization at Gulf of Khambar
2500-1500 BC: Indus Valley Civilisation.
2000-1500: Aryans arrive from central Asia.
1500-1000: The Early Vedic Age Rigveda.
1000-500: Later Vedic Period - Samaveda,
Yajurveda and Atharvaveda,
Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Samhitas, early
Upanishads and Sutras.
563-483 : Gautama Buddha born at Lumbini
(Nepal); attainment of knowledge
Bodh Gaya (Bihar); first sermon
Sarnath, near Varanasi (UP); Nirvana
Kusinagar (Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh).
540-468 : Mahavira born at Kundagrama near
Vaishali (Bihar) and nirvana at Pavapuri
(Patna, Bihar).
492-460 : Rule of Ajatasatru, son of Bimbisara,
king of Magadha.
364-321 : Rule of Nandas of Magadha
326 : Invasion of India by Alexander Battle
of Hydaspes.
322-298 : Reign of Chandragupta Maurya, the
founder of the Mauryan dynasty.
273-232 : Reign of Ashoka , son of Bindusara
261 : Kalinga war.
257 : Asoka's conversion to Budhism by
Upagupta.
250 : Third Buddhist council at Pataliputra
90 : Sakas invade India.
58 : The Vikrama Samvat (vikram era) intro-
duced by King Vikramaditya of Ujjain.
20-46 AD : Gondophernes, the king of Indo-
Parthians.
78 : Accession of Kanishka, TheSaka era begins.
100-300 : The Sangam Age in south India.
50 BC-250 AD : Satavahana dynasty in the Deccan.
320-335 : Reign of Chandragupta-I.
335-380 : Reign of Samudragupta known as Indian
Napoleon.
380-414 : Reign of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).
405-411 : The visit of the Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien
to India.
500-527 : Rule of Huns over North India.
606-647 : Harsha Vardhana of Kanauj. Hiuen-Tsang
visited India (AD 630-644).
500-757 : First Chalukya dynasty of Vatapi
630 : Harsha's clash with PulakesinII
973-1190 : Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani
760-1142 : Palas of Eastern India.
985-1014 : Reign of Rajaraja, the Great. Starts a
great land survey (AD 1000).
1014-1044 : Reign of Rajendra Chola. Naval cam-
paign against Sri Vijaya kingdom.
788-820 : Sankaracharya and his philosophy of
Advaita.
712 : Arabs occupy Sindh.
871-1173 : Imperial cholas of Tanjore.
916-1203 : Construction of Khajuraho Temples.
1000-1027: Invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni.
1191 : Prithviraj III, defeated Muhammad Ghori
in the first battle of Tarain .
1192 : Mohammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj in
theSecond Battle of Tarain in 1192.
1206 : Foundation of the Sultanate of Delhi by
Qutub-ud-din Aibak.
1210 : Death of Qutub-ud-din Aibak.
1210-1236: Reign of Iltutmish.
1221 : Mongol invasion under Chenghis Khan.
1231 : Iltumish completed the construction of
Qutub Minar at Delhi.
1236-1240: Reign of Empress Raziya, daughter of
Iltutmish, the first and last woman ruler
of Medieval India.
1266-1287: Reign of Sultan Balban.
Timeline: Indian History
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1288-1293: Visit of Marco Polo in India.
1290-1296 : Sultan Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khalji, founder
of the Khalji dynasty.
1296 : Alauddin Khalji invades Devagiri.
1296-1316: Reign of Sultan Alauddin Khalji.
1309-1311: Malik Kafur's expedition into South India.
1320-1325: Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (Ghazi Malik),
founder of the Tughlaq dynasty.
1325-1351: Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. Transferred
the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad-
1327. Issue of token currency 1329.
1333 : Ibn Batuta arrives in India.
1351-1388: Sultan Firuz Tughlaq.
1398 : Invasion of Timur during the reign of
Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud
1414-1451: Reign of Sayyid dynasty.
1420 : Visit of Nicolo Conti.
1451-1526: Bahlul Lodhi (1451-89), Sikandar Lodhi
(1489-1517), and IbrahimLodhi (1517-26)
1526 : The first Battle of Panipat (1526) Babur
defeats Ibrahim Lodhi.
1336 : Foundation of the empire of Vijayanagar
by Harihara and Bukka
1438-1468: Reign of Rana kumbha in Mewar.
1509-1530: Reign of Krishnadeva Raya, the great-
est king of Vijayanagar.
1565 : Battle of Talikota, decline of the empire
of Vijayanagar.
1346 : Foundation of the Bahmani kingdom by
Ala-ud-din Hasan Bahman Shah (1347-
1358).
1498 : Vasco da Gama arrives at Calicut
1505 : DeAlmeida, the first Viceroy of Portuguese
in India
1510 : Conquest of Goa from the Adilshahi Sul-
tan of Bijapur 1510.
1526 : Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodhi at the first
battle of Panipat. Formation of Mughal
empire.
1527 : Battle of Khanwa. Babur defeats Rana
Sanga of Mewar.
1530 : Accession of Humayun.
1538 : Death of Guru Nanak.
1539 : Sher Shah defeats Humayun at Chausa
and assumes sovereignty.
1540 : Humayuns defeat near Kanauj.
1542 : Birth of Akbar.
1545 : Battle of Kalinjar.
1545 : Death of Sher Shah.
1555 : Battle of Sirhind. Sikandur Suri was de-
feated by Humayun, Humayun recov-
ers the throne of Delhi.
1556 : Death of Humayun and accession of
Akbar. Second Battle of Panipat.
1556-1605: Akbar's reign.
1564 : Abolition of Jezyah.
1565 : Battle of Talikota Vijayanagar destroyed.
1571 : Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri.
1576 : Battle of Haldighati and defeat of
Maharana Pratap.
1579 : Infalliability decree issued by Akbar.
1581 : Din-i-Ilahi promulgated by Akbar.
1600 : Deccan expedition and siege of
Ahmadnagar
: Charter to British East India company.
1605 : Death of Akbar and accession of
Jahangir.
1605-1627: Reign of Jahangir.
1609 : William Hawking visited Jahangir.
1615 : Sir Thomas Roe in the court of Jahangir.
1627 : Death of Jahangir.
1628 : Shah Jahan proclaimed Emperor.
1631 : Death of Mumtaz Mahal.
1636 : Treaties with Bijapur and Golcunda.
1658 : Coronation of Aurangzeb.
1659 : Murder of Afzal Khan by Shivaji.
1663 : Death of Mir Jumla.
: Attack on Poona by Shivaji.
: Shaista Khan appointed Governor of Ben-
gal.
1665 : Conclusion of the treaty of Purandhar -
signed between Sivaji and Jai Singh.
1666 : Death of Shah J ahan.
1674 : Sivaji's Coronation and assumption of
the title of Chatrapati.
1675 : Execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur.
1679 : Jeziah imposed on the Hindus by
Aurangzeb.
1680 : Death of Sivaji.
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1686 : Conquest of Bijapur by Aurangzeb.
1687 : Golconda annexed to the Mughal empire.
1707 : Death of Aurangzeb at Ahmadnagar.
1739 : Invasion of Nadirshah.
1740-1761: Peshwaship of Balaji Baji Rao (Nana
Saheb).
1746-48 : First Carnatic war.
1748-54 : Second Carnatic war.
1756-63 : Third Carnatic war.
1757 : Battle of Plassey.
1760 : Battle of Wandiwash.
1761 : Third Battle of Panipat: The Marathas
defeated by the combined troops of
Ahmad Shah Abdali; the Mughals, and
other Muslim chiefs of India.
1764 : Battle of Buxar. The English defeat Shah
Alam, Shuja-ud-daulah and Mir Qasim.
1765 : Grant of theDiwani of Bengal, Bihar,
and Orissa to the East India Company
by Shah Alam II under Treaty of
Allahabad.
: Clive, Companys Governor in Bengal.
1765-72 : Dual Government of Bengal.
1767-69 : The First Anglo Mysore War.
1770 : The Great Bengal Famine.
1771 : Marathas occupy Delhi and restore Shah
Alam who was till then under English
protection at Allahabad.
1772-73 : Warren Hastings as Governor of Bengal.
: Abolition of Dual Government of Bengal
(1772).
1773 : The Regulating Act was passed, bring-
ing the company partially under
Parliaments control and the Presidencies
under Calcuttas control.
1773-85 : Warren Hastings Governor-General.
: Establishment of Supreme Court,
Calcutta.
1775-82 : TheFirst Anglo-Maratha War.
1776 : Treaty of Purandar
1780-84 : Second Mysore War.
1783 : Foxs India Bills give more powers to Par-
liament and to the Governor-General.
1784 : Treaty of Mangalore between Tipu and the
English.
: Pitts Act passed, Setting up Board of Con-
trol for East India Company.
: Asiatic Society of Bengal founded by Sir
William Jones.
1786-93 : Lord Cornwalis, Governor-General.
1790-92 : Third Mysore War.
1792 : Treaty of Srirangapatnam signed be-
tween Tipu and English.
1793-98 : Sir John Shore, Governor-General.
1793 : The Permanent Zamindari Settlement of
Bengal.
1798 : Lord Wellesley as Governor-General and
brought subsidiary alliance.
1799 : Fourth Mysore War. Fall of Srirangapat-
nam. Death of Tipu.
1800 : Establishment of the College of Fort Will-
iam.
1802 : The Treaty of Bassein between Peshwa
and English.
1803 : Occupation of Delhi by Lord Lake.
1803-05 : Second Anglo-Maratha War.
1807-13 : Lord Minto as Governor-General.
1809 : Treaty of Amritsar-Ranjit Singh and Brit-
ish sign treaty of perpetual amity.
1813-23 : Lord Hastings as Governor-General.
1814-16 : Anglo-Gurkha War.
1817-18 : Pindari War Peshwa defeated at
Kirkee.
1818-19 : Last Anglo-Maratha War.
1823-28 : Lord Amherst Governor-General.
1824-26 : First Burmese War.
1828-35 : Lord William Bentinck as Governor-
General.
1829 : Prohibition of Sati.
1829-37 : Suppression of Thuggee.
1833 : Renewal of Companys charter. Abolition
of the Companys trading rights.
1835-36 : Sir Charles Metcalf Governor-General.
1835 : Macaulays Education Resolution. English
made official language instead of Per-
sian.
1835 : Foundation of Calcutta Medical College.
1836-1842: Lord Auckland as Governor-General.
1839 : Death of Ranjit Singh.
1842-44 : Lord Ellenborough as Governor-General.
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1844-48 : Lord Hardinge as Governor-General.
1845-46 : First Anglo-Sikh War. Treaty of Lahore.
1848-49 : Second Anglo-Sikh War. Defeat of Sikhs
and annexation of the Punjab.
: Opening of a Hindu Girls School in Cal-
cutta by Bethune.
1848-56 : Lord Dalhousie as Governor-General.
1852 : Second Anglo-Burmese War.
1853 : Railway opened from Bombay to Thana.
Telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra.
1854 : Charles Woods despatch on Education.
1855 : Santhal insurrection in Bihar.
1856 : Annexation of Awadh. Indian Univer-
sity Act. Hindu Widows Remarriage
Act.
1856-58 : Lord Canning Governor-General.
1857-58 : Revolt of 1857. Revolt at Meerut begins
on May 10, 1857.
1858 : British India placed under the direct gov-
ernment of the Crown. Queen Victorias
Proclamation.
1858-62 : Lord Canning as Viceroy.
1861 : Indian Councils Act.
: Archaeological Survey of India set up.
: Indian Civil Service Act.
: Introduction of the Penal code.
1862-63 : Lord Elgin as Viceroy.
1864-69 : Sir John Lawrence Viceroy.
1865 : Telegraphic communication with Europe
opened.
1869-72 : Lord Mayo as Viceroy.
1875 : Visit of the Prince of Wales.
: Arya Samaj founded by Swami
Dayananda.
1877 : Lord Lytton held Durbar at Delhi where
Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress
of India.
1878 : Vernacular Press Act.
1879 : Theosophical Society at Adayar, (was
set up) Madras.
1880-84 : Lord Ripon as Viceroy.
1881 : Factory Act.
1883 : Indian National Conference held in
Calcutta.
1883-84 : Ilbert Bill controversy.
1884-88 : Lord Dufferin Viceroy.
1885 : First session of the Indian National Con-
gress held at Bombay.
1887 : Queen Victoria's Jubilee.
1888-93 : Lord Landsdowne Viceroy.
1892 : Indian Councils Act.
1894-99 : Lord Elgin II Viceroy.
1896 : Ramakrishna Mission founded.
1899-1905: Lord Curzon Viceroy.
1905 : Partition of Bengal.
1905-10 : Lord Minto II Viceroy.
1906 : Muslim League formed at Dacca.
1907 : Surat Congress, moderates-extremists
clash.
1908 : Newspapers Act. Tilak convicted of sedi-
tion.
1909 : Morley-Minto Reforms.
: Indian Councils Act passed.
1910-16 : Lord Hardinge II Viceroy.
1911 : Delhi Durbar.
: Partition of Bengal annulled. Census of In-
dia.
: Transfer of Capital to Delhi announced
1914 : Gandhi arrives in India.
1916 : Lucknow Pact of Indian National Con-
gress and All-India Muslim League.
: Foundation of Womens University at
Poona.
: The Home Rule League founded.
1916-21 : Lord Chelmsford as Viceroy.
1919 : Montague-Chelmsford Reforms.
: Rowlatt Act passed.
: Massacre at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar
(April 13).
1920 : Khilafat Movement and Non Co-opera-
tion Movement.
1921 : Moplah Rebellion and Wagon Tragedy.
1921-26 : Lord Reading Viceroy.
1921 : Harappa excavations begin.
1922 : Mohenjodaro excavations begin.
: Chauri Chaura incident.
1923 : Swarajists in Indian Councils.
1926-31 : Lord Irwin Viceroy.
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1927 : Appointment of Simon Commission.
1928 : Simon Commission comes to India.
: Death of Lala Lajpat Rai following po-
lice assault. Nehru Report.
1929 : Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt drops
bombs in the Legislative Assembly.
: Congress on December 31 at Lahore de-
claring its objective of Poora Swaraj for
India.
1930 : Gandhijis Dandi March. Civil Disobedi-
ence Movement.
1930-31 : First Round Table Conference.
1931 : Gandhi-Irwin Pact signed.
: Second Round Table Conference.
1931-36 : Lord Wellingdon Viceroy.
1932 : Third Round Table Conference.
: Communal Award announced.
: Poona Pact signed.
1934 : Civil Disobedience Movement called off.
1935 : Government of India Act, 1935 passed
by British Parliament.
1936-44 : Lord Linlithgow Viceroy.
1937 : Inauguration of Provincial Autonomy.
Congress Ministries formed in seven out
of eleven provinces.
1938 : Haripura session of the Congress.
1939 : Second World War begins (September).
1940 : Pakistan resolution passed by Muslim
League at Lahore.
1941 : Subhash Chandra Bose escapes from In-
dia.
1942 : Cripps comes to India with his propos-
als in March.
: Congress rejects Cripps Proposal (11
April).
: Quit India resolution passed by Con-
gress on August 8.
1944-47 : Lord Wavell Viceroy.
1944 : INA reaches Indian soil.
1945 : Labour Government in Britain. INA sur-
renders to the British (May). First trial
of INA men (November 5).
1946 : Cabinet Missions plans announced
(June 16).
1947-48 : Lord Mountbatten Viceroy.
1947 : Announcement of Lord Mountbattens
plan for Partition of India (June3).
: Indian IndependenceAct passed (July).
: Creation of free India and Pakistan on
midnight of August 14/15, 1947 as do-
minions.
1947-64 : Jawaharlal Nehru Prime Minister of In-
dia.
1948 : Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi
(January 30).
: Raja-gopalachari appointed first Indian
Governor-General (June 21).
1949 : New Constitution of India adopted and
signed (November 26).
1950 : India become a Republic. New Consti-
tution comes into force (January 26).
: Dr. Rajendra Prasad, first President of
Indian Republic.
: Planning Commission was set up
1951 : Inauguration of First Five Year Plan.
1952 : First General Election in India
: National Development Council (NDC)
set up.
: Family Planning is launched.
1953 : Conquest of Mount Everest.
: University Grants Commission (UGC) is
set up
: CBI is set up
: Formation of Andhra Pradesh on
linquiestic basis
1954 : Chou En-lai, the Chinese Premier visits
India.
: Panchashila signed between China and In-
dia.
1955 : Hindu Marriage Act and Indian Citizen-
ship Act.
1956 : Reorganisation of Indian States on lin-
guistic basis
: 2nd Five Year Plan launched.
: Nationalisation of insurance companies.
1957 : Second General election. Introduction of
decimal system of coinage.
: National Calender based on Saka era
adopted.
1959 : Dalai Lama reaches India for political
asylum, Indo-Chinese relations worsen.
: Panchayat Raj introduced in Rajasthan.
1961 : Goa, Daman and Diu liberated fromPortu-
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guese possession.
: Arjuna Award introduced
1962 : Indo-China War.
1964 : Death of Jawaharlal Nehru
: Lal Bahadur Shastri becomes PrimeMinis-
ter.
1965 : Indo-Pak War.
1966 : Tashkent Declaration
: Death of Lal Bahadur Shastri
: IndiraGandhi becomes PrimeMinister.
1969 : First Nationalisation of 14 Banks.
: First Dada Sahib Phalke Award was
given to Davika Rani
1971 : Indo-Pak War
: Birth of Bangladesh.
1972 : Shimla Agreement between India and
Pakistan.
1973 : Project Tiger
1974 : Underground nuclear explosion carried
out at Pokhran (May 18).
1975 : Emergency declared in the country.
: Aryabhatta goes to orbit.
1977 : Janata Party comes to power.
: Vajpayee address UNO in Hindi.
1978 : Denomination of high value notes of Rs.
1,000, Rs. 5,000 and Rs. 10,000
demonetised.
1979 : Morarji Desai resigns as Prime Minister.
: Charan Singh becomes Prime Minister.
: Death of Loknayak Jayprakash Narayan.
: Bhakara I launched
1980 : Mother Theresa gets Bharat Ratna.
: Six more commercial banks nationalised.
1981 : Apple was launched
: First Indian Antartic Expedition to
Qusim. Dakshin Gangothri, Indias first
permanent station at Antartica was set
up.
1983 : Bharat Ratna posthumously awarded to
Acharya Vinoba Bhave.
: INSAT-IB successfully launched.
1984 : Sqn. Ldr. Rakesh Sharma becomes first In-
dian cosmonaut to go into space.
: Bachendri Pal becomes first Indian woman
to scale Mount Everest.
: Indira Gandhi assassinated
: Rajiv Gandhi sworn in as new Prime
Minister.
: Bhopal Gas tragedy
1985 : Centenary celebrations of Indian Na-
tional Congress held.
: Dhronachary Award instituted
1986 : Centre and Laldenga sign Mizo Accord.
1987 : Frontier Gandhi, Khan Abdul Gaffar
Khan given Bharat Ratna. First foreigner
to get Bharatratna.
1988 : Bharat Ratna conferred on M.G.
Ramachandran.
: Contingent of Indian Army flown to
Maldives to help President Abdul
Gayoom.
: Lok Sabha passes Constitutional
Amendment Bill reducing voting age
from 21 to 18 years.
1989 : V.P. Singh sworn in as seventh Prime
Minister with Devi Lal as his Deputy.
1990 : Nelson Mandela honoured with Bharat
Ratna.
: V.P. Singh resigns after losing vote of
confidence in Lok Sabha.
: Chandra Shekhar is sworn as New Prime
Minister.
1991 : Rajiv Gandhi is assassinated at Sriperum
budur in Tamil Nadu.
: Bharat Ratna is conferred on Morarji Desai.
Rajiv Gandhi and Sardar Patel are awarded
Bharat Ratna posthumously.
1992 : Maulana Azad posthumously awarded
Bharat Ratna.
: Kar Sevaks demolished Babri Masjid in
Ayodhya
1993 : Battle tank Arjun inducted into Indian
Army.
: Job Quota for OBCs becomes operative.
: Earth quake at Lathur, Maharashtra
1994 : Panchayati Raj Act becomes operational.
1995 : Morarji Desai, dies. Bombay becomes
mumbai.
1996 : Atal Behari Vajpayee becomes Prime
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Minister on May 16 and resigns on May
28.
: H.D. Deve Gowda becomes Prime Min-
ister on J une 1. Madras becomes
Chennai.
1997 : Polar SatelliteLaunch Vehicle(PSLV-C1) is
launched from Sriharikota (Andhra
Pradesh).
: Arundhati Roy bagged the 29th Booker
Prize,
: Kalpana Chawla became the first Indian-
born US woman to go into space.
1998 : Indias second (May 11) and third (May
13) nuclear explosion at Pokhran.
: M.S. Subhalekshmi and Jaya Prakash
Narayan win Bharat Ratna.
: Vajpayee becomes 12 Prime Minister
of India.
: Param 10000 Indias new super computer
unveailed.
: Konkan Railway (760 km) inaugurated.
1999 : INSAT 2E was launched on April 3
: PSLV-C2 launched IRS P4.
: India becomes leading producer of milk
in the world.
: Amarthya Sen wins Bharat Ratna.
: India launched Operation Vijay to repel
the Pak intruders from Kargil.
2000 : Bill Clinton visits India.
: Lara Dutta of India becomes Miss Uni-
verse.
: Formation of the states of Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand and Uttaranchal.
: Karnam Malleswary wins bronze medal
in Sydney olympics.
: Priyanka Chopra of India becomes Miss
world.
2001 : GSLV D1 launches GSAT. Indian parlia-
ment attacked.
2002 : Ms. Poornima Advani is appointed Chair-
person of the National Commission for
women.
: Former Indian Air Force Chief, Arjan
Singh, is made the first ever marshal of
the IAF.
: A.P.J. Abdul Kalam 11th President
: Bhairon Singh Shekhawat is sworn in
the 12th Vice-President.
: The first exclusive 1,060 kg. meteoro-
logical satellite (METSAT) is success-
fully launched from the Sriharikotta by
PSLV.
: Justice V.N. Khare is sworn in Chief Jus-
tice of India.
2003 : L.K. Advani is appointed Deputy Prime
Minister.
: INSAT 3E, was launched (September 28)
: Air Marshal T.M. Asthana is named the
first Commander-in-Chief of the Strate-
gic Forces Command.
: The Prime Minister A.B. Vajpayee Chris-
tens METSAT, Kalpana I after Kalpana
Chawla.
: Mehbooba Mufti takes over as president
of the Peoples Democratic Party thus be-
coming the first woman to head a politi-
cal party in J and K.
: INS Talwar the Navys first stealth war-
ship is inducted into western fleet.
: G. Madhavan Nair assumes office as
Chairman, Space Commission and ISRO
: The government constitutes the 17th
Law Commission with J ustice M.
Jayannatha Rao as Chairman.
: The LokSabha passes the POTA
Amendment Bill, 2003, providing for safe-
guard against misuse.
: Rajya Sabha passes dual citizenship bill.
2004 : India becomes the first developing coun-
try to import LNG.
: India wins its first ever test series in Pa-
kistan.
: Major Rajya Vardhan Singh Rathore gets
the silver medal for India in shooting
(double trap category) at the Olympic
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Games.
: EDUSAT - Indias first exclusive satel-
lite for educational services, placed in
orbit.
: Tata Motors becomes the first company
in the Indian engineering sector to list
its securities on the New York Stock Ex-
change.
: Keralas Palakkad district collectorate is
the first in India to be totally computer-
ised.
: The Mahatma Gandhi International
Peace Award to the former Botswana
President Sir Ketimile Masire.
: Over 80,000 people are killed following
an undersea earthquake off Sumatra in
Indonesia, over 19,000 people are killed
in India.
: Lakshya pilotless target aircraft, test
flown.
2005 : Cabinet decided to offer dual citizenship
for all overseas Indians who migrated af-
ter January 26, 1950.
: Presidents rule was imposed on Goa and
the Assembly kept under suspended
animation, even after the Pratapsingh
Rane Government wins the trust vote.
: Tamil writer D. Jayakanthan is selected
for the 38th Jnanapith Award for 2002.
He is the second Tamil author after P.V.
Akhilandan to receive the honour.
: Dandi March route (384 km) is declared
a heritage path and the Prime Minister,
Manmohan Singh, announces a Rs 10
crore package for Sabarmati Gandhi
Ashram renovation, on the 75th anniver-
sary day of the breaking of the salt act
by Mahatma Gandhi.
: Indias Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
PSLVC-6 is launched from the spaceport
in Sriharikota, and it injects two satel-
lites CARTOSAT - 1 and HAMSAT into
their orbits.
: The Lok Sabha passes the Right to in-
formation Bill.
: The Prime Minister, Manmohan Singh,
launches the National Knowledge Com-
mission.
: The Government comes out with the first
ever Outcome Budget.
: Thetrial-run, of the first Amritsar- Lahore
service begins linking the two cities for
the first time nearly six decades.
2006 : Indias first rubber dam is installed across
the Janjhavati river in Andhra Pradeshs
Vizianagaram district.
: Booker Prize winner Arundhati Roy is
awarded the 2005 Sahitya Akademi
Award for English for her book of es-
says The Algebra of Infinite Justice.
: The first-ever-Lahore- Amritsar bus ser-
vice begins.
: The worlds longest rail is flagged off
from Bhilai steel plant.
: The President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, re-
turns the Office of Profit Bill for recon-
sideration
: A.P.J. Abdul Kalam becomes the first
President to make a sortie in a combat
aircraft after flying in a Sukhoi-30 MKT
after take off from Lahegaon airbase,
Pune.
: N. Gopalaswami takes over as the new
Chief Election Commissioner.
: The GSLV - FO
2
launch fromSriharikota,
Andhra Pradesh ends in failure after the
vehicle crashes into the Bay of Bengal.
: Social activist Arvind Kajriwal is elected
for the 2006 Ramon Magsaysay Award
in the Emergent Leadership category.
: The President A.P.J Abdul Kalam, con-
fers the 39th J nanapith Award on
Marathi writer Vinda Karandikar.
: Actor Shabana Azmi is chosen for the
Gandhi International Peace Prize 2006.
: The protection of women from Domestic
Violence Act 2006 comes into effect.
: The Prime Minister Manmohan Singh,
presents the 21st Indira Gandhi Prize for
National Integration to lyricist J aved
Akhtar.
: Sri Lankan President, Mahinda
Rajapaksa inaugurates the three - day
first Asian Mayors meet in Dehra Dun.
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INDIAN HISTORY
Pre-Historic Period
The earliest traces of human existence in India so
far discovered is between 4,00,000 and 2,00,000
BC from Sohan valley (now in Pakistan)
Neolithic settlements in Indian subcontinent are
not older than 4000 BC.
Wheat and barley were the first cereals grown by
Indians.
The name India was derived from the rivername
Sindhu which is also known as Indus.
India was originally considered as a part of a larger
area called Jambu-dvipa (The continent of Jambu
tree)
Krita, Treta, Dwapara and Kali are the four ages
of traditional Hindu thought.
Gulf of Cambut Culture
The Gulf of Cambut culture which was discov-
ered recently from the Bay of Cambut in Gujarat
dates back to 7500 BC.
This was found out by the National Institute of
Open Technology (NIOT).
Indus Valley Civilisation
The Harappan culture spread over the whole of
Sind, Baluchistan, almost the whole of Punjab,
northern Rajasthan, Kathiawar and Gujarat.
Harappa the first Indus site, was discovered by
Dayaram Sahni in 1921. It is situated in the prov-
ince of West Punjab, Montgeomery district in Pa-
kistan.
Harappa is located on the bank of river Ravi.
Mohanjedaro was excavated in 1922 by R.D.
Banarjee. It is situated in the Larkhana district in
Sind on the right bank of river Indus (Now in
Pakistan)
The Great Granery, the Great Bath a piece of
woven cotton, a beared man in steatite and a
bronze dancing girl are found from Mohanjedaro.
An assembly hall was also discovered from
Mohanjodaro.
The most important feature of Harappan
civilisation was town planning and urbanism.
The word Mohanjedaro in Sindi language means
the mount of the dead.
Mohanjodaro was believed to have destructed
by flood.
Harappans knew the art of growing cereals, wheat
and barley.
Banawali is situated in Hariyana.
Chanhudaro, discovered by N. Gopal Majundar
and Mackey, is situated in Sind on the bank of
river Indus.
Kalibangan, another famous Indus city discov-
ered in 1953 by A Ghosh, is situated in Rajasthan
on the banks of River Ghaggar. Kalibangan stands
for black bangles.
Lothal, first man made port in the world and dock-
yard made of burnt bricks, was discovered in 1953
by S.R. Rao is situated in Gujarat on Bhogava
river near Gulf of Cambay.
Ropar is the site situated in Punjab on the banks
of river Sutlej. It was discovered in 1953 by
Y.D.Sharma.
Harappan people were the earliest people in the
world to grow cotton and rice.
People cultivated rice at Lothal and Rangpur and
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barley at Benawali.
Harappan people domesticated oxen, buffaloes,
goats, camel, sheeps, domestic fowls and pigs.
Humped bulls were given special importance.
Horses were unknown to the Harappan people.
Indus people had trade contacts with Persian Gulf
and Mesopotamia.
The ancient name given to Indus region was
Meluha.
Indus people used a gold - silver mixture called
Electrum.
They used bronze and copper but iron was un-
known to them.
Indus people were the first to use copper in India.
Harappans used a system of weights and mea-
sures based on 16 and its multiples.
The chief male deity of the Indus people was
Pasupati Mahadeva (Porto Siva).
Their Chief female deity was the Mother Goddess.
They also worshipped fire, pipal trees and Uni-
corn.
Harappan script was Pictographic in nature, which
has not been desciphered so far.
Harappan seals were made of Terra - Cotta.
Chess - like game of Harappans was called Sent.
I ndus Valley civilisation belongs to the
Chalcolithic period dated between 3000 BC and
1500 BC. It is a Bronze Age civilisation or a proto
Historic civilisation.
The largest number of Harappan sites in post in-
dependent India have been discovered from
Gujarat.
Harappan civilisation extended from Jammu in the
North to Narmada in the South and from Makran
coast of Baluchistan in the West to Meerat in the
East.
The Northern most point of Indus valley
civilisation was Gumla in Jammu and the South-
ernmost was Daimbad.
Floods and Earthquakes, change in the course of
river Indus, aridity of the area, or drying up of
river Ghaggar, the invasion of Aryans are the sup-
posed reasons for the decline of the civilisation
towards 1500 BC.
Vedic Age
Vedic Age is the period of Aryans in India from
1500 - 500 BC.
Most Probable Home of the Aryans is Central
Asia. This theory is of Max Muller.
The word Aryan literally means high born, but it
generally refers to language.
The word Veda is derived from the word vid
which means knowledge.
Vedas are the oldest literary works of mankind.
Vedas are four in number, they are Rig Veda,
Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharva Veda. Rig veda
is the oldest veda.
Vedas are collectively known as Sruti
Vedangas are collectively known as Smriti
Vedangas are six in number. They are,
Siksha - Phonetic
Kalpa - Ritual
Vyakarana - Grammar
Nirukta - Etymology
Chhanda - Metrics and
Jyotisha - Astronomy
There are 1028 hymns in Rigveda. It is divided
into ten Mandalas (Chapters).
Rig Vedic Hymns sung by priests were called
Hotris.
Sruti literature belonged to the Sathyayuga,
Smriti belonged to Treatayuga, Puranas belonged
to Dwaparayuga and Thanthra literature belonged
to Kaliyuga.
Rigveda starts with the line Agnimele Purohitam
Famous Gayatri Mantra is contained in the
Rigveda (It is believed to have composed by
Vishwamitra)
Yajurveda deals with sacrifices and rituals.
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Yajurvedic hymns are meant to be sung by priests
called Adhavaryu.
Yajurveda is derived into two: SuklaYajurveda
(WhiteYajurveda) and Krishna Yajur Veda (Black
Yajurveda)
Sama Veda deals with Music.
Sama Vedic hymns are meant to be sung by priests
called Udgatri.
Atharva veda is a collection of spells and incan-
tations. Ayurveda is a part of Atharva Veda, which
deals with medicine.
The saying, War begins in the minds of men is
from Atharva Veda.
The 10th Mandala of Rigveda contain the
Purusha Sukta hymn which tells about the ori-
gin of caste system.
Upanishads are 108 in number. Upanishads are
philosophical works
Upanishads are known as theJnanakantas of
Vedas.
The words Sathyameva Jayate have been taken
from Mundaka Upanishad
Brahdaranya Upanishad was the first to give the
doctrine of Transmigration of Soul and Karma.
Puranas are the part of Smriti literature. They are
18 in number 6 vishnupuranas, 6 sivapuranas and
6 Brahmapuranas.
Bhagvata purana is divided into 18 skandas The
10th skanda mentions about the childhood of Sri
Krishna.
Skanda purana is considered as the largest
purana.
Brahmapurana is also known asAdipurana.
Adhyatma Ramayana is included in the
Brahmantapurana.
Cattle was the chief measure of wealth of the vedic
period.
Rigvedic tribe was referred to as Jana .
Many clans (vis) formed a tribe.
The basic unit of society was kula or the family
and Kulapa was the head of the family.
Visah was a cluster of gramas.
Important tribal assemblies of the Rig Vedic pe-
riod were Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana.
The Aghanya mentioned in many passages of
Rigveda applies to cows.
The Rigvedic religion was primitive animism.
Indra was the greatest God of Aryans and Agni
occupied second position.
Varuna was God of water and Yama was the Lord
of dead.
Savitri was a solar diety to whom the famous
Gayatri Mantra is attributed to.
Prithvi was Earth Godess.
The battle of ten kings mentioned in the Rig Veda
was fought on the division of water of river Ravi.
It was fought on the banks of River Ravi
(Purushni).
Indra was known as Purandara.
The people called Panis, during the Vedic period
were cattle breeders.
The Vedic God in charge of truth and moral order
was Varuna.
Indra Played the role of the Warlord. He is also
considered as the rain god.
The two priests who played a major part during
the Rig Vedic period were Vasishta and
Visvamitra.
Later Vedic Period
The period assigned to Later Vedic Phase is 1000
BC to 600 BC.
Later Vedic people used particular type of pot-
tery called Painted Grey Ware (PGW)
The Later Vedic Aryans were familiar with two
seas, the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean.
Rice became the staple diet of Indian people dur-
ing the Later Vedic Period.
The term Rashtra which indicates territory first
appeared in the later vedic period.
Mention of the word Sudras - Rigveda (10th
Mandala)
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Mention of the Gotra is found in the
Atharvaveda.
Origin of Kingship is found in Aitareya
Brahmana.
Soma was an intoxicating drink mentioned in
the 9th Mandala of the Rig Veda.
Mention of the word Varna is found in Rigveda.
The fourfold division of the society is found in
the 10th Mandala of the Rigveda.
Mention about the Varnashranadhrama is found
in the Jabla Upanishad.
The Doctrine of Trimurti is found in the
Maitrayani Upanishad.
Mention about the origin of Universe is found in
the Rig Veda (10th Mandala).
Purohita Senani and Vrajapati were the impor-
tant functionaries who assisted the king in day-
to-day administration.
The officer who enjoyed authority over the pas-
ture land was called Vrajapati.
The kings power increased during the Later Vedic
Period.
First law giver of ancient India was Manu. He
wrote Manusmrithi.
Manusmrithi was translated into English by Wil-
liam Jones.
Shyma Shastri translated Arthasastra into En-
glish
Bali was a tax, which the king used to collect from
the people of the Vedic period.
Aryans used iron for the first time India.
Horse, Iron, Sugarcane, Pulses etc reached India
by the coming of Aryans.
The God who occupied supreme position in the
Later Vedic Period was Prajapati.
Rudra was regarded as preserver and protector
of the people.
The most important functionary who assisted the
Vedic king was Purohita.
Manarchy was the normal form of Government in
the vedic period.
Each Tribal republic was headed by Ganapati or
Jyeshtha.
The Vedic Education system revealed through
Frog Hymn in the Rigveda and Wedding Hymn
describe the oldest marriage rituals.
Max Mullar was the first person to speak of Ary-
ans as a race.
Epics
Hinduism has two epics Ramayana and
Mahabharata.
Mahabharata was written by Vyasa.Mahabharata
is also known as Jayasamhita, Satasahasri
Samhita and thefifth veda.
Mahabharata has 1,17,000 hymns in it.
Mahabharata is divided into 18 Purvas, an ap-
pendix Harivamsa is considered as 19th Purva.
12th Purva is the largest and 7th is the smallest.
It describes the 18 days battle of Kurukshetra.
Stories of Sakuntalam, Pralayam, Ramcharitam,
Rishysringan, Satyavan Savitri,Nala and
Damayanthi etc are included in the Mahabharata.
Valmiki is the author of Ramayana.
Ramayana has 24000 hymns and is divided into
Seven Skandas (Kandas)
Bhagavatgita is included in the Bhishma Purva of
Mahabharata. It is divided into 18 chapters and
has about 700 hymns.
Jainism
Vardhamana Mahavira was believed to have born
in 540 BC in Kundala Grama in Vaishali thecapital
Six systems of Indian Philosophy
Samkya ................................ Sage Kapila
Yoga ......................................... Patanjali
Vaisheshika .............................. Kannada
Nyaya ................... Akshapada (Gautama)
Vedanta Gaudapada and Shankaracharya.
Mimamsa.................................... Jaimini
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of Vajji. Now it is in Mussafar district in Bihar.
He belonged to Jnatrika Kshatriya clan.
Mahaviras family was connected with the royal
family of Magadha.
The word Jaina was originated from the word
Jina which means conqueror.
Jainism speaks about 24 thinthankaras. Mahavira
was the 24th Thirthankara, who is considered as
the founder of Jainism.
Rishabha was the first Thirthankara. Neminath
and Parswanatha were the 22nd and 23rd
Thirthankaras respectively.
Bhagavatapurana, Vishnupurana, Vayupurana,
etc mentions about Rishabhadeva.
Sidhartha, ruler of Nandadynasty which ruled
Kundalapuri, was the father of Vardhmana
Mahavira.
Mahaviras mother was Trissala and Yasodha was
his wife.
Jameli was the daughter of Mahavira.
Mahavira is also known as Vaishalia as he was
born in Vaishali.
He got Kaivalya at the age of 42 under a Sal tree
on the bank of river Rajpalika near Village
Jimbhrikagrama.
At first Mahavira followed the practice of an as-
cetic group called Nirgrandhas , which earlier led
by Parswanath.
Makhali Gosala was a companion of Mahavira.
Who later founded the Ajivika sect.
Mahavira attained Nirvana at the age of 72 at
Pavapuri near Rajagriha in 468 BC.
Jains observe the day of his nirvana as Dipavali.
Gautama Indrabhuti is considered as his first
desciple.
Jain sacred texts are called Angas.
Jain texts were written under Bhadrabahu in BC
296.
Jain texts were written in the Prakrit language of
Ardhamagadhi.
Ahimsa Paramo Dharma is the sacred hymn of
Jainism.
Ahimsa, Satya, Asateya, Aparigriha and
Brahmacharya are the five major principles of
Jainism.
Brahmacharya is the principle added by Mahavira.
Mahavira taught the three Jewels of J ainism
(Triratna) - Right Faith, Right Knowledge and
Right Conduct.
The Jains repudiated the authority or infallibility
of the vedas. The Jains rejected the concept of
Universal soul or a supreme power as the creator
and sustainer of the Universe.
Jainism does not condemn the Varna system.
Mahavira believed that all individuals irrespec-
tive of caste can strive for liberation through good
deeds and living.
First Jain council was held at Pataliputra in the
fourth century BC under the leadership of
Stulabahu.
Second Jain council was held at Vallabhipur in
third Century BC under the leadership of
Aryaskandil Nagarjuna Suri.
Third Jain council was held at Vallabhipur in
Gujarat in 5th Century AD under the leadership
of Devardhi Kshamasramana.
Jainism was divided into two sects Swetambaras
and Digambaras after the first Jain Council.
Digambaras are sky-clad or naked and
swetambaras are clad in white.
Gomateshwara statue is
situated in Sravana
belgola.
Syad Vada is a Jain phi-
losophy of Knowledge.
Kharavela of Kalinga
gave patronage to
Jainism.
Mahavir Jayanti and
Rakshabandan are the
festive occassions of
Jainism.
Temple on the Mount Abu in Rajasthan is a fa-
mous centre of Jain worship.
Gomateshwara
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Jain Temple at Sravanabelgola in Hassan district
in Mysore is known as Kasi of the Jains.
Names of Rishabhadeva and Arishtanemi are also
mentioned in the Rigveda.
Chandragupta Maurya the founder of the
Mauryan Empire, abdicated the throne towards
the end of his life, accepted Jainism reached
Sravanabelgola and died there.
Buddhism
Buddhism originated in the 6th century BC.
Gautama Buddha the founder of Buddhism was
born in Lumbini in Kapilavasthu on the border of
Nepal in 563 BC.
Buddhas mother
Mahamaya died seven
days after his birth. He
was brought up by his
aunt Mahaprajpati
Gautami, hence he got
the name Gautama.
First Buddhist nun was
Gautami
Budhas birth place is
now known as Binla.
Budhas orginal name was Sidhartha.
Buddha belonged to the Sakhya clan of
Kshatriyas.
His father was Subhodhana.
Buddhas wife was Yasodhara and his son was
Rahulan.
Four sights changed his mind and initiated him to
spiritual life they were death, old age, sadness
and sufferings.
He left home at the age of 29 along with his chari-
oteer Channa and favourite horse Kandaka. This
incident is known as Mahanishkramana.
Buddhagot enlightenment at Bodha Gaya, on thebanks
of Niranjana river in Bihar at theAgeof 35.
After enlightenment Buddha came to be known
as thadhagatha. He is also known as
Sakhyamuni.
1. Rishabhdev
2. Ajitnath
3. Sambhavnath
4. Abhinandan
5. Sumitnath
6. Padmaprabhu
7. Suparsavanath
8. Suridhi
9. Chandraprabh
10. Sheetal Nath
11. Shreyanshanath
12. Vasupujya
13. Vimalnath
14. Anandanath
15. Dharmanath
16. Shantinath
17. Kunthunath
18. Arnath
19. Mallinath
20. Munisuvrata nath
21. Neminath
22. Arishtanemi
23. Parshvanath
24. Mahavira
JAIN THIRTHANKARAS
Buddha made his first sermon after enlightenment
at a deer park at Saranath in Uttar Pradesh. This
incident is known as Dharmachakra
pravarthana.
Buddhas first teacher wasAlara Kalama and sec-
ond teacher Udraka Ramaputra.
During his first sermon at Sarnath, Buddha de-
scribed the four noble truths andthe eight fold
path.
Buddha made his sermons in Pali language and
the early Buddhist texts were also written in Pali
language.
Buddha died at the age of 80 in 483 BC at
Kushinagara in UP. This was known as
Parinirvana. Buddha died by consuming poi-
soned meat or poisoned mushroom.
Last meals of Buddha was served by a blacksmith
Chunda.
His last words were All composite things decay,
strive diligently.
Four noble truths of Buddhism are:
life is full of misery, desire is the cause of mis-
ery, killing desires would kill sorrows, Desire
can be killed by following the eight-told path.
The eight fold path of Buddhism are:
Right Belief, Right Thought, Right Speech,
Gautama Buddha
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Right Action, Right Living, Right Effort, Righ
Recollection, Right Meditation
Buddhism does not recognise the existence of
God and Soul (Atman)
Buddha accepted the traditional belief in transmi-
gration of the soul and law of Karma.
The three jewelsof Buddhism are Buddha,
Dhamma andSangha.
The first Buddhist council was held in 483 BC at
Sattaparni (Rajagriha) under the presidentship
of Mahakashyapa and under the patronage of king
Ajatasatru of Magadha..
Vinayapitaka and Suddhapitaka were codified at
the first council.
Second Buddhist council was held in 383 BC at
Vaishali under the presidentship of Sabhakami
and under the patronage of king Kalashoka.
At the second Buddhist council Buddhism was
divided into two Staviravadins and
Mahasankikas which later came to be known a
Hinayana and Mahayana respectively.
Third council of Buddhism was held in 250 BC at
Pataliputhra under the presidentship of
Mogaliputta Tissa and under the patronage of
Ashoka the Great.
Abhidhamma Pitika was codified at thethird council.
At the third council decision was also taken to
send missionaries to spread Buddhism.
The fourth Buddhist council was held in the first
century AD at Kundalavana in Kashmir under
the President-ship of Vasumithra and Ashvagosha
and under the patronage of Kanishka.
Clear division of Buddhism into Hinayana and
Mahayana tookplace at the fourth council.
Upagupta converted Ashoka to Buddhism.
Ashvagosha was the first biographer of Buddha
who wrote Budhacharitam in Sanskrit.
Vasubandu is known as Second Buddha.
Ashoka is known as the Constantine of Bud-
dhism.
Ashoka accepted Buddhism after the battle of
Kalinga in BC 261.
5 SYMBOLS OF BUDDHA
Birth....................................... Lotus and Bull
Renunciation........................................ Horse
Enlightenment ................................ Bodhitree
First Sermon......................... Dharma Chakra
Nirvana (Death) ............................ Foot prints
Buddhist worshipping centre is known as Pagoda.
Viharas are the Buddhist monastries.
Vajrayana was a sect of Buddhism which believed
in achieving salvation through Mantras and
spells.
Jataka stories describe the stories related to
the birth of Buddha. They are 500 in number.
Holy book of Buddhism is Tripitika- Vinayapitika,
Suddhapitika and Abhidhamapitika are collec-
tively known as Tripitika.
Bimbisara of Magadha was a contemporary of
Buddha.
Kanishka who worked to spread Buddhism like
Ashoka is known a Second Ashoka.
Ashoka sent his son and daughter, Mahendra
and Sanghamitra to SriLanka to spread Bud-
dhism.
Sri Buddha is known as the Light of Asia He
was named as such by Edvin Arnold.
Edvin Arnolds Light of Asia was translated into
Malayalam by Nalappad Narayanamenon.
Hinayanism is wide spread in Sri Lanka.
The Bodhi tree at Gaya was cut down by Sasanka,
a Bengal ruler.
The chief Buddhist monastery was at Nalanda,
which was under the patronage of Pala kings.
Previous Buddhas are known as Bodhisatvas.
Milandapanho a book of Nagasena describes how
Greek king Menandar accepted Buddhism.
Sangham Age
First five centuries of the Christian Era are com-
monly known as Sangham Age.
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Sangham was an Assembly of literature held at
Madhurai.
References to the Sangham Age can be found in
the inscriptions of Ashoka, and Kharavela of
Kalinga and in the Indica of Megastenese.
The literature of the Sangham Age was written
mostly in the form of Poetry.
In the Sangham Age, the most common form of
government was hereditary monarchy. The vil-
lage was the fundamental unit of administration.
Small village Assemblies during the Sangham Age
were known as Arai.
Tradition refers to three sangham lasting for 9,900
years.
Language of the Sangham literature was Tamil
People of the Sangham Age mainly worshiped
Murugan.
The greatest work of the Tamil literature of the
Sangham Age is Tholkappium written by
Tholkappiyar.
Tholkappium is considered as the earliest sur-
viving Tamil literary work. It is a book on Tamil
grammar.
The Capital of the Pandyas was at Madhurai.
Uraiyur was the capital of Cholas, known for cot-
ton trade.
Vanchi was the capital of Cheras.
Silappadigaram, Manimegalai and
Jeevakachintamani are the three epics of
Sangham literature.
Korkai was the main seaport of the Pandyas.
Megastanese described Pandya Kingdom as
Pearl as it was ruled by women.
Kaveripumpatnam was the main sea port of the
Cholas.
Silappatigaram as written by Ilango Adikal. It
describes the love story of Kovalan and Kannaki
Nedujezhian is the Pandyan king mentioned in
Silapadigaram.
Satanar wrote Manimekhalai which is also an
epic and tells about the story of the daughter of
Kannaki and Kovalan.
Manimekhalai gives reference about Buddhism.
FAMOUS ERAS
VikramEra ........................................ 58 BC
Saka Era.......................................... 78 AD
Gupta Era...................................... 320 AD
Hijra Era........................................ 622 AD
KollamEra..................................... 825 AD
Illahi Era.......................................1583 AD
II and XIII rock edicts of Ashoka mention about
the South Indian kingdoms.
Karikala most prominent among early Cholas is
known as the master of seven notes of music.
Bharatam was a Tamil version of Mahabharata
sung by Perundevanar.
Manimekhalai is looked upon as the Tamil Od-
yssey.
Thirukkural is known as Tamil Bible compiled
by Thiruvalluvar. His statue is seen near
Vivekanandappara in Kanyakumari.
The greatest of the Chera rulers was
Senguttuvanchera also known as Red Chera.He
built a temple for Kannaki.
The famous Chera port Muziris was a great cen-
tre of Indo-Roman Trade.
The largest single tax collected during the Sangha
period was the land tax called Karai.
The founder of later Cholas was Rajaraja I The
most important ruler of this dynasty was Rajendra
Chola.
Rajendra Chola is also known as Gagaikonda
Chola Helater named his capital as Gangaikonda
Cholapuram.
RajaRaja I built Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore.
Cholas were well known for their naval supremacy
and efficient village administration.
The Utharameroor inscription tells about the lo-
cal self government under the cholas.
Thirukkural of Thiruvalluvar is the Tamil work
which is known also as the fifth Veda.
Jivaka Chintamani the third epic of the Tamil was
written by Tirukkadevar.
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Roman king built a temple of Augustus at
Muziris.
Literary Activities in Ancient India
Ashtadhyayi by Panini (5th C.BC) the earliest
grammar book also called Bhagavati Sutra.
Mahabhashya was written by Patanjali.
Manusmriti was a law book composed between
200 BC and 200AD.
Arthashastra by Kautilya deals with statecrafts
is a major source of Mauryan administration.
Indica by Megastenes is a source of Mauryan
society and administration.
Chandsutra was written by Pingala.
Buddhacharita by Aswaghosha is the earliest
biography of Buddha. It was written in Pali lan-
guage.
Raghuvamsa by Kalidasa is an epic based on
Mahabharata.
Naishad Charita by Sri Harsha contains story of
Nala and Damayanti.
Drama
Natyashastra by Bharatamuni is the earliest
known work in Sanskrit.
Malavikagnimithram, Vikramorvashiyan and
Abhinjana Syakuntalam are dramas written by
Kalidasa.
Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarshika aredra-
mas written by Harshavardhana.
Lyric Poetry
Meghadutam by Kalidasa
Srinagarashataka, Nitishataka and
Vairagyasataka were written by Bhartrihari.
Gita Govinda was written by Jayadeva.
Historical writing
Harshacharita - Written by Banabhatta
Vikramamangadeva charita - written by Bilhana.
Prose Literature
Dasakumaracharitam........................ Dandin
Vasavadatta ...................................... Subandu
Brihat Kathamanjari ................. Kshemendra
Kathasaritsagara........................... Somadeva
Panchathantra ......................... Vishnusharma
Hitopadesha ........................... Narayan Pandit
Kamasutra and Arya Manjushree ..... Vatsyayana
Pavandhoot .......................................... Dhoyi
Swapna Vasavadatta ............................. Bhasa
Matavilasa Prahasana ....... Mahendravarman I
Si-yu-ki ..................................... Hiuen Tsang
Fo-kuoki ........................................... Fa-hien
Panchasidhantika ........................ Varahamihir
Suryasidhantika and Aryabhatiyam.... Aryabhatta
Nitisara ....................................... Kamandaka
Charak Samhita ............................... Charaka
Hastayurveda ................................... Palkapya
Mitakshara ................................. Vigneswara
Dayabhaga ................................ Jimutavahana
Sidhanta Siromani ................ Bhaskaracharya
Nighantu .................................... Dhanvantari
Mudrarakshasa ......................... Vishakadatta
Prabhanda Chintamani .............. Meruthunga
Geography of India............................ Ptolemy
Brihat Kathakosh ............................ Harisena
Mrichakatika ................................... Sudraka
Prithviraj Vijaya .............................. Jayanak
Nala Vemba ................................... Pugalendi
Magadhan Empire
In the 6th century BC there originated 16
Mahajanapadas in North India
Four prominent royal dynasties stand out promi-
nently out of these J anapadas. They were
Haryankas of Magadha, theIkshvakus of Kosala,
the Pauravas of Vatsa and the Pradyotas of Avanti.
Haryanka is the name of a new dynasty founded
in Magadha by Bimbisara.
Bimbisara founded the dynasty by defeating the
Brihadrathas.
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Bimbisara was a contemporary of Buddha.
Magadha became a supreme power in North In-
dia under Ajatasatru. So Ajatasatru is consid-
ered as the founder of Magadhan Supremacy.
Pataliputra and Rajagriha were the capitals of
Magadhan kingdom.
Magadha falls in the Patna region of Bihar.
Haryankas were overthrown by Sisunaga and he
founded the Sisunaga dynasty there.
Kalasoka the son and successor of Sisunaga was
succeeded by Mahapadma Nanda and he
founded the Nanda dynasty.
Ajatasatrus successor Udayin was the founder
of the city of Pataliputra.
Persian Invasion
The Achaemenian king of Persia, Darius (522 -
486 BC) captured some territories the east of
Sindhu in 518 BC.
The Persian domination over Indian territory
lasted upto 330 BC.
Xerxes was the persian ruler who enlisted Indi-
ans in his army.
The Kharoshti script was brought to India by
Persians.
Alexanders Invasion
Alexander was born in 356 BC as the son of King
Philip II of Mascedonia.
Epirus or Olympias was Alexanders mother.
Aristotle was Alexanders teacher.
He became the king in 336 BC
He defeated the Persian ruler Darius III.
Alexander founded the city of Alexandria in
Egypt
I n 326 BC Alexander defeated Porus
(Purushothama) the ruler of Punjab and Captured
Taxila through the battle of Hydaspes on the
banks of river Jhelum.
Ambhi the ruler of Taxila invited Alexander to In-
dia.
Alexander died of Malaria at the age of 33 in 323
BC while he was in Babylon.
Alexander was cremated at Alexandria.
Alexander was known as Shehansha in Persia and
Sikhandar-I-Asam in Indo-Pak region.
The Last general of Alexander in India was
Eudamas.
Alexanders first General in India was Selucus
Nikator.
Alexander IV succeeded Alexander as the
Masedonian King.
Alexanders teacher Aristotle is considered as the
father of Politics, Biology, Taxonomy and the Sci-
ence of Logic.
Mauryan Empire (321-185 BC)
Major sources for the study of Mauryan Empire
are the Arthasastra of Kautilya and Indika of
Megasthenes.
Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of
Mauryan Empire.
Details about his early life are not available
He is believed to have belonged to Moriya Clan,
hence got the name Maurya.
It is also said that his mother was Mura a women
of lower birth hence got the name Maurya.
In some texts he is referred to as Vrishala and
Kulahina.
He conspired with Chanakya (Kautilya or
Vishnugupta) the minister of Nanda to overthrew
the last Nanda ruler DhanaNanda.
Chandragupta Maurya ascended the throne in
BC 321.
He fought against Selucus in 305 BC. Selucus
surrendered before him and sent an ambassador,
Megasthenese to the court of Chandragupta
Maurya.
Chandraguptas Governor Pushygupta con-
structed the famous Sudarshana lake.
ChandraGupta Maurya was converted to Jainism,
abdicated the throne in favour of his son
Bindusara, passed his last days at
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Sravanabelagola (Near Mysore) where he died in
298 BC.
Chandragupa Maurya was responsible for the po-
litical unification of North India for the first time.
Bindusara was a follower of Ajivika sect.
Bindusara was known as Amitragatha.
Ashoka ascended the throne in 273BC and ruled
upto 232 BC.
He was known as Devanampriya priyadarsi the
beautiful one who was the beloved of Gods.
Maski and Gujara Edicts of Ashoka gave the
name Devanampriya Priyadarsi.
Buddhist tradition says Ashoka killed 99 of his
brothers to capture the throne.
Ashoka was the first king in Indian history who
had left his records engraved on stones.
Ashokan inscriptions were written in Kharoshti
and Brahmi scripts.
Ashoka fought the Kalinga war in 261 BC Kalinga
is in modern Orissa.
Ashokan inscriptions were deciphered by James
Princep.
After the battle of Kalinga Ashoka became a Bud-
dhist, being shocked by the horrors of the war.
Ashoka was initiated to Buddhism by Upagupta
or Nigrodha a disciple of Buddha.
For the propagation of Buddhism Ashoka started
the institution of Dharmamahamatras.
The IV Major Rock Edict of Ashoka tells about
the practice of Dharma
The Major Rock Edict XII of Ahoka deals with
the conquest of Kalinga.
Ashoka held the third Buddhist council at his
capital Pataliputra in 250BC under the
presidentship of Moggaliputa Tissa.
He sent his son and daughter to Sri Lanka for the
spread of Buddhism (Mahendra and Sanghamitra)
Ashoka spread Buddhism to SriLanka and Nepal.
He is known as theConstantine of Buddhism.
In his Kalinga Edict he mentions All man are as
my children.
Ceylones ruler Devanmpriya Tissa was Ashokas
first convert to Buddhism.
Ashoka ruled for 40 years and died in 232 BC.
The emblem of the Indian Republic has been
adopted from the four lion capital of one of
Ashokas pillars which is located in Saranath.
Rock-cut architecture in India made a beginning
during Ashokas reign.
Brihadratha the last Mauryan ruler was killed by
Pushyamitra Sunga who founded the Sunga Dy-
nasty in 185 BC.
Megasthenese the first foreign traveller to India
mentions about the existence of seven castes in
India during the Mauryan period.
Stanika in Mauryan administration refers to tax
collector.
Post Mauryan Period
Sunga Dynasty (185-71 BC)
Sunga Dynasty was founded by Pushyamitra
Sunga the commander-in-chief of last Mauryan
king, Brihadratha.
Kalidasas drama Malavikagnimitram is about the
love story of Pushyamitras son Agnimitra and
Malavika.
Last ling of sunga dynasty was Devabhuti.
Kanva Dynasty (72 BC - 27 BC)
Kanva dynasty was founded by Vasudeva Kanva
in 72 BC after defeating the last Sunga ruler
Devabhuti.
This dynasty ruled for a period of 45 years.
Vasudeva, Bhumimitra, Narayana and Susuman
were the rulers of Kanva dynasty.
Cheta (Cheti) Dynasty of Kalinga
The Cheti Dynasty was believed to have founded
by Maha Meghavahana
The Hatigumbha inscription of Kharavela, of the
Important Mauryan Officers
Samaharta ................ Collector of Revenue
Sannidata ....................... Head of Treasury
Dandapala ........................... Head of Police
Durga Pala................... Head of Royal Fort
Pradeshikas .... Head of District Administration
Prashasti .......................... Head of Prisons
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Kalinga ruler gives details about the Chedis of
Kalinga.
Kharavela was a follower of Jainism.
Satavahanas (235 BC - 100BC)
Satavahanas were the most powerful ruling dy-
nasty after the Mauryas.
Satavahanas were also known as Andhras.
Satavahanas were the Indian rulers who prefixed
their mothers name along with their names.
Most important Satavahana ruler was
Gautamiputra Satakarni.
Satavahanas were Brahmanas.
Nagarjuna Konda and Amaravati in
Andhrapradesh became important seats of Bud-
dhist culture under the Satavahanas.
The two common structures of Satavahanas were
the temple called Chaitya and the monastery called
Vihara.
Satavahanas mostly issued lead coins.
The official language of the Satavahanas was
Prakrit
Indo Greeks
First to invade India were the Greeks who were
called Indo-Greeks.
Themost famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander
with his Capital at Sakala in Punjab (Modern
Sialkot)
The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins
in India.
The introduction of Hellenistic art features into
India werealso thecontribution of Indo-Greek rule.
Menander was converted into a Buddhist by Bud-
dhist monk Nagasena (Nagarjuna)
Indo-Greeks were the first to issue coins bearing
the figure of kings.
Demitrius, the king of Bacteria invaded India
about 190BC. He is considered as Second
Alexander (But the Indian ruler who accepted the
name second Alexander (Sikandar-i-sani) was
Alauddin Khilji)
Indo-Greeks were the first to introduce military
governorship in India.
The Parthians (19 - 45 AD)
Parthians also known as Pahalavas were Iranian
People.
Gondophernes was the greatest of the Parthian
rulers.
St. Thomas is said to have came to India for the
propagation of Christianity during the period of
Gondophernes.
The Sakas (90 BC - Ist AD)
Sakas were also known as Scythians.
The first Saka king in India was Maues or Moga
who established Saka power in Gandhara.
The most famous of the Saka rulers in Western
India was Rudra Daman I. His achievements are
highlighted in his Junagarh inscription written in
150 AD.
Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman was the
first inscription in Sanskrit.
Ujjayini was the capital of Rudradaman.
Kushans
Kushans are also known as Yuch-chis or
Tocharians.
Kushans came to India from North Central Asia.
First great Kushana king was Kujala Kadphises
or Kadphises I.
The most famous
Kushana ruler was
Kanishka.
He became the ruler in 78
AD and started Saka Era
in 78 AD.
The Capital of Kanishka
was Peshawar or
Purushapura.
Kanishka convened the fourth Buddhist council
in Kashmir.
Kanishka
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Scholars like, Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha,
Charaka and Nagarjuna were the courtiers of
Kanishka.
The Gandhara School of Art received royal pa-
tronage under the Kushans.
Kanishka patronised Mahayana form of Bud-
dhism.
Kanishka is righty called the Second Ashoka
Kanishka was the first king who inscribed the
image of Lord Buddha on his coins.
Kanishka started the Saka era in 78 AD. The first
month of Saka era is Chaithra and the last month
is Phalguna.
Vasudeva was the last great king of Kushana
Dynasty.
Kushana school of art is also referred to as the
Mathura school.
Gupta Empire (320 - 540 AD)
Gupta Empire was founded by Sri Gupta.
Ghatotkacha was the second ruler.
Chandra Gupta I was the real founder of the Gupta
Empire. He came to the throne in 320 AD.
He was the first ruler to adopt the title
Maharajadhiraja.
He laid the foundation of Gupta Era on 26 Febru-
ary 320 AD.
Samudra Gupta succeeded Chandragupta I in 335
AD.
The Allahabad Pillar inscription composed by
Harisena contains information about
Samudraguptas conquests.
Allahabad Pillar inscription is also known as
Prayagaprasasti.
Samudra Gupta is also known as Linchchavi
Dauhitra. (son of the daughter Kumaradevi of
Lichchavis)
Samudra Gupta is described as Indian Napoleon
by V.A. Smith.
Samudra Gupta composed Vahukabita and had
thetitleKaviraja.
Historically Important Places
Ayodhya Birth place of Sri Rama (UP)
Amber Palace Rajasthan
Aghakhan Palace Pune (Maharashtra)
(Gandhi and Kasturba were
kept in prison here)
Kedarnath Holy place of Hindus
(Utharanchal)
Amarnath Pilgrim centre (Kashmir)
Elephanta caves Near Mumbai
Ellora Caves Maharashtra - 34 cavetemples
(Hindu, Buddha - Jaina)
Rajgir Jain Temple in Bihar
Golden Temple Amritsar - Harmandir Sahib of
Sikhs
Golgumbus Bijapur (Karnataka)
Tomb of Muhammed Adil Shah
Tanjore Capital of Cholas -
Brihadveswara Temple
Charminar Hyderabad (Monument of
Plague eradication)
Konark Temple Orissa (Sun Temple)
Qutab Minar Delhi
Khajuraho Near Bhopal (M.P.) 80 temples
Mahabalipuram Centre of Pallava architecture
(Tamil Nadu)
Kurukshetra Battle of Mahabarata (in
Haryana)
TajMahal Agra (UP) Built by Shah Jahan
Sanchi Buddhist Stupa (Madhya
Pradesh)
Haridwar Holy Place of Hindus
(Uttaranchal)
Sanskrit was the court language of the Guptas.
India became Greater India under Samudra
Gupta.
Samudra Gupta was an accomplished Veena
player.
Chandragupta II the greatest of Gupta rulers was
popularly known as Vikramaditya.
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He adopted the title Sakari after his victory over
Rudradaman II of Gujarat.
Fa hein, the Chinese traveller, visited India dur-
ing his period.
The exploits of Chandragupta II are glorified in
an iron pillar inscription fixed near Qutub Minar.
Chandragupta II adopted the title Vikramaditya
as a mark of his victory over the Sakakshatraps.
Nine gems or Navratnas was a famous Scho-
lastic Assembly in the court of Chandragupta II.
The members in the Ninegems were - Kalidasa,
Kadakarbhara, Kshapanaka, Varahmihira,
Vararuchi, Vethalabhatta, Dhanvantari,
Ammarasimha, Sanku.
Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son
Kumaragupta I.
Skandagupta Vikramaditya was the last great
ruler of Gupta Empire.
Skandagupta Vikramaditya was the only hero in
Asia and Europe who defeated the Hunas in their
glorious period.
Vishnu Gupta was the last ruler who died in 570
AD.
Mantriparishad assisted the king in administra-
tion.
Most important Industry of the Gupta period was
textile.
Period of the Gupta is compared to Periclean
Age of Greece, Augustan Age of Rome and
Elzabethan Age of England.
Period of the Guptas is considered as the Golden
Age in the history of India.
Earlier Guptas had their capital at Prayag in
Allahabad, later it was shifted to Ujjain by
Chandragupta II.
The most important officers in the Gupta empire
were Kumaramatyas.
The royal seal of the Guptas bore the emblem of
Garuda.
Aryabhatta was the first to treat Mathematics as
a separate subject. He wrote Aryabhattiyam. He
belonged to the Gupta period. Aryabhatta was
the first to use Decimal System.
Panchsidhanta, Brihat Jataka, Laghu Jataka and
Brihat Samhita are the works of Varahamihira.
The best specimen of the Gupta paintings are seen
at Ajanta caves and the Bhaga caves.
The Gupta period marked the beginning of Indian
temple architecture.
Guptas issued large number of gold coins in In-
dia.
Guptas largely patronised art and architecture.
Guptas patronised the Gandhara school of art,
Madhura School of Art and the Andhra School
of Art.
The Fresco paintings in the Ajanta caves are ex-
amples of the art of the Guptas.
The chief source of income was land revenue.
The position of women declined during the Gupta
period.
A renowned physician of
the Gupta period was
Vaghbhatta
Nalanda and Taxila were
the two universities of this
period.
Kalidasa is generally
called Indian
Shakespeare and the
Prince of Indian Poets.
Books on Sciences
Chandra Vyakaran ............... Chandragomin
Amar Kosh .............................. Amar Singh
Niti Shastra ............................... Kamandak
Kamasutra ................................ Vatsya yana
Panchasiddhantika................ Varahamihira
Ashtanga Hridaya ...................... Vaghbhatta
Hastyaurveda ............................... Pulkapya
Sankhyakarika...................... Iswarkrishna
Kalidasa
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Patanjali founded Yoga Shastra, a school of
Hindu philosophy during this period.
The Hunas
The Huns were a nomadic and barberic race of
Central Asia.
They were defeated by Skanda Gupta.
In the last quarter of the 5th century AD, the
Hunas established an independent kingdom in
the Punjab.
Toramana and Mihirakula were important Huna
leaders.
In 510 AD Bhanu Gupta defeated Toramana.
Narasimha Gupta defeated Mihirakula.
The Hunas gave rise to the Kshatriya Rajaputs.
Sialkot was Mihirakulas capital.
The Maitrakas of Valabhi
They were of Iranian origin, they ruled Gujarat.
Valabhi was their Capital.
Siladitya I (606 - 612 AD) was the first indepen-
dent king of Maithrakas.
The Vakatakas (250-500 AD)
The Vakatakas established their power in Deccan.
Their capital was Vidarbha.
The founder of the dynasty was Vindhyasakthi.
Vakatakas were Brahmins.
Vakatakas were later defeated by the Chalukyas
of Badani.
Harsha Vardhana (606 - 647AD)
The last Hindu Emperor of North India was
Harshavardhana (Last Hindu king of Delhi was
Prithviraj Chauhan)
Harshavardhana belonged to the Pushyabhuti
Dynasty, also known as Vardhana Dynasty.
The Pushyabhuti dynasty was founded by
Pushyabhuti.
Harsha came to power in 606 AD (Harsha Era)
He made Kanauj his new capital from Taneswar.
Original name of Harsha was Siladitya.
Chinese traveller Hieun Tsang visited India dur-
ing his reign.
Harsha summoned a religious assembly at Prayag.
Hieun Tsang said Indians were Truthful people
although quick tempered
Harshas biography Harsha Charita was writ-
ten by his court poet Banabhatta. He also wrote
Kadambari.
Harsha Vardhana was a poet and dramatist.
Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda are the
works of Harshavardhana.
Harsha Vardhana was defeated by the Chalukyan
king Pulikeshin II in AD 634.
Harshavardhanas empire was the last Buddhist
empire in India.
After Harsha, the Karkotas of Kashmir established
their power.
Mahendravarman I and Pulikeshin II were the
contemporaries of Harshavardhana.
Matanga, Divakar, Jayasena and Bhartrihari
were the famous scholars in the court of
Harshavadhana.
Harsha founded the Harsha Era in 606 AD.
Chalukyas of Badami
In 535 Pulikeshin I founded a small kingdom with
the Capital at Vatapipura (Modern Badami)
He was succeeded by Kirtivarman and
Mangaleshna.
Pulikeshin II was the most famous ruler of the
Chalukya dynasty.
The greatest achievement of Pulikeshin II was
the defeat he inflicted on Harshavardhana.
The Pallava king Narasimhavarman captured
Vatapi and adopted the title Vatapikonda.
Pulikeshin II defated the Pallavas and captured
Kanchi. He also defeated Cheras, Cholas and
Pandyas.
Kirtivarman, the last ruler of this dynasty was
defeated by the Rashtrakutas and the Chalukyan
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rule came to an end in 757 AD.
The magnificient temples of Belur and Halebid
and the Elephanta caves were constructed during
the Chalukyan period.
From the Chronological point of view Chalukyas
can be divided into four
The Chalukyas of Vatapi (535 - 642 AD)
The later Chalukyas of Vatapi (655 - 753 AD)
The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (615 - 1076)
The Later Western Chalukyas of Kalyani (973-
1190 AD)
Pallavas
Simhavishnu was the founder of the Pallava dy-
nasty.
Narasimhavarman , a Pallava ruler, defeated
Pulikeshin II and adopted the title Vatapikonda.
Narasimhavarman I was called Mahamalla which
meants a wrestler.
The book Mattavilasa Prahasana was written by
Narashimvarman I.
The Ratha temples at Mahabalipuram (Seven Pa-
godas) were created by Narasimhavarman I.
Dandin the author of Dasakumaracharitam, lived
in the court of Narasimhavarman II.
Narasimhavarman II was the most important ruler
of the Pallava dynasty.
He founded Kailasanatha Temple and the Shore
Temple at Mahabalipuram.
Rashtrakutas
Rashtrakuta dynasty was founded by
Dandidurga in 753 AD. With the capital at
Manyakhed or Malkhed.
Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha I wrote
Kavirajamarga which is the earliest Kannada
work on poetics. He also wrote Prasnottarmalika.
The Kailasanath Temple at Ellora was founded
by the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna I.
Krishna III (940 -968) was the last great ruler of
Rashtrakuta dynasty.
The Rashtrakuta power was overthrown by Thiala
II.
Pratiharas
The Pratiharas are also called Gurjara - Pratiharas
- belonging to the 36 clans of Rajputs.
The dynasty was founded by Nagabhatta I (725-
740)
Nagabhatta II made Kanauj his capital.
Pratihara ruler Mihir Bhoja adopted the title
Adivaraha.
Yashpal was the last ruler of this dynasty.
Sulthan Muhammed of Ghazni entred Kanauj dur-
ing the period of the Pratiharas.
Palas
ThePala dynasty was founded by Gopala in 750 AD.
Famous Odandapuri University was founded by
Gopala.
The Vikramsila and Sompur Universities were
founded by the Pala king Dharmapala.
The Pala power was destroyed by Vijayasena who
founded the Sena dynasty.
Senas
The Sena dynasty was founded by Vijayasena
towards to end of 11th century. (1093)
Senas had a capital in Vikrampura and another
in Vijayapura.
About the middle of 13th century the senas were
overthrown by the Deva dynasty.
Elephanta caves
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Jayadeva, the author of Gitagovinda was patron-
ized by Sena ruler Lakshmana Sena.
Chauhans
The four Agnikula Rajputs were the Pratiharas,
Chau-hans the Solankis and Paramaras.
Chauhans had their capital at Ajmer and Delhi.
Ajayaraya established the city of Ajayameru or
Ajmer.
Themost prominent ruler was Prithviraj III (1177-
1192). He defeated Muhammed of Ghore in the
First Battle of Tarain (1191). But Ghore defeated
and killed himin theSecond Battle of Tarain (1192).
Prithviraj Chauhan III was the last Hindu ruler
of Delhi.
Prithvi Raj Rao is the historical Kavya written by
Chand Bardai.
The Chandelas of Bundelkhand
The Chandela dynasty was founded by
Yasovarman with Mahobas as the Capital
The Khajuraho temples are the best examples of
the Chandela art.
Cholas
Vijayalaya was the founder of the Chola empire.
He was a feudatory of the Pallavas of Kanchi.
Raja Raja I (985 - 1014) adopted the titles of
Arumudivarman, Mammudichodadeva,
Jaykonda, Marthanda Chola, Mamudichola etc.
He built the Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjavur.
which is called the RajaRajeswara temple.
Rajendra I led an expedition to North India, de-
feated the Pala ruler Mahipala I and adtoped the
title, Gangaikondachola and established a new
Capital, Gangai Konda Cholapuram.
Cholas maintained a well established local - self
government system. Ur, Sabha or Mahasabha -
and Nagaram were the assemblies for local ad-
ministration.
TheUttaramerur inscription of Dantivarman Pallava
gives details about the local self government.
Temples and Builders
Kailas Temple at Ellora........................ Krishna I
Chunnakesava Temple, Belur ....Vishnuvardhana
Rathas at Mahabilipuram... Narashimhavarman I
Brihadeswara Temple, Tanjavur ...RajaRaja Chola
ShoreTemple, Mahabalipuram...Narasimha VarmanII
Lingaraja Temple, Bhavaneswar ........................
......................................Eastern Gangarubs
Karjuraho Temples............................Chandellas
Rajarajeshwara Temple, Tanjavur.........Raja raja I
Meenakshi Temple at Madhurai .. Nayaka Rulers
Shiva Temple at Tanjavur ...........Raja Raja Chola
Eminent Personalities of Ancient
India
Alexander : he was the ruler of Macedonia in
Greece. He attacked India in 326 BC and captured
upto river Bias.
Ajatasatru : Son of Bimbisara. He established the
city of Pataliputra.
Arien : Greek historian who wrote about
Alexanders Indian invasion.
Ashwaghosh : Buddhist monk who initiated
Kaniskha to Buddhism wrote Buddha charita,
Sutralankar and Sandaranand.
AmarSimha : Sanskrit scholar in the court of
Chandragupta who wrote Amarakosha.
Aryabhatta : He analysed the reasons for Solar
and Lunar eclipses and declared that the Earth is
round. Wrote Aryabhattiyam.
Bimbisar : Founded the Magadhan Empire or
Haryanka dynasty. He was the first influential king
of ancient India.
Banabhatta : Court poet of Harshavardhana and
author of Harsha Charita and Kadambari.
Charak : He was an Ayurvedic expert wrote
Charak-Samhita and established the Aitereya
branch of Ayurvedic medicines.
Amoghavarsha : He was a famous Rashtrakuta
ruler.
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Dhanananda : He was a powerful king of
Magadha. Alexander did not go forward to in-
vade Magadha only after hearing his reputation.
Darius I : The ruler of Iran (Persia) who invaded
India in 6th century BC.
Gautami Putra Shatakarni : He was the most
famous Satavahana king in 2nd Century.
Harisena : He was the writer of Pryaga Prashasti
or Allahabad Pillar Inscription.
Kharavel : Ruler of Kalinga in I century AD. The
Famous Hathigumbha inscription belonged to
him.
Kanishka : (I century AD) : Most powerful
Kushan king. Started Shaka Era. Organised fourth
Buddhist council at Kundalvan near Kashmir.
Karikala : Chola ruler who founded the city of
Puhar (Kaveri patanam) in I century BC.
Kautilya : also known as Vishnugupta or
Chanakya. He wroteArthasasthra, which is com-
pared to The prince of Machiavelli.
Kalidas : Famous Sanskrit poet who wrote,
Raghuvamsa, Kumara Sambhavam, Abhigyana
Shakuntalam, Vikramorvashiyam and
Malavikagnimitram. He also wrote
Meghadootam and Ritusamharam.
Kamban : A Tamil poet of 11th century who wrote
Ramayan in Tamil.
Mihir Bhoja : Famous Prathihara ruler of 9th cen-
tury.
Kalhana - Famous Kashmiri poet and historian.He
wrote Raja Tarangini.
Marco Polo : Venitian Traveller to India in 13th
century.
Menander : He came to India as a foreign aggres-
sor in II Century BC. MilindaPanho, a book writ-
ten by Nagasena, is about him.
Nagarjuna : Famous Buddhist monk. He
popounded the philosophy known as
Madhyamika.
Makkali Gosala : Philosopher of 6th Century BC.
H was the founder of Ajivika sect.
Mihirkula : Huna conqueror defeated by
Yashodharma.
Skand Gupt : Last mighty Gupta ruler.
Shushrut : He was a doctor of Ayurvedic medi-
cine. He started the Dhanwantri branch and was
an expert in Plastic Surgery.
Pulikeshin II. Most powerful king of Chalukyas
of Vatapi who defeated Harshavardhana in North
and Mahendravarman of South.
Pushya Mitra sunga : He killed the last Mauryan
ruler and laid the foundation of Sunga dynasty in
185 BC.
Pliny : He was a Roman historian who wrote the
Natural History. He wrote about the Mauryas of
India.
Panini : Sanskrit scholar specially of Grammar.
He wrote Ashtadyayi.
Varahamihira : He was famous astronomer who
wrote Brihat Samhita.
Sankaracharya : He was born in Kaladi in Kerala.
He propagated Advaita Philosophy.
Selected Questions from
Ancient Indian History
The source of Swastika symbol
Indus Valley
Who is considered as the father of Indian
archaeoloy
Alexander Cunningham
Meter scale has been discovered from .........
Harappa
Weapon never used by the Indus people
Sword
What was the major industry in Chanhudaro?
Bead making
The word Sindhan used by the Indus people
denoted
Cotton
Evidence of fractional burial has been excavated
from
Harappa
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The word godhume used in the vedic period
denote
Wheat
Yava denoted
Barley
Term used to denote rice in the vedic text
Vrihi
Vedic term sita denoted
Ploughed field
Which veda mentions about wheel
Rigveda
Vedi terms Urvara or kshetra denoted
Cultivated field
The famous frog hymn in Rig Veda throws light
to
Vedic education
Who was considered as the god of the vedas?
Varuna
Rigvedic term Duhitri denoted
Milker of cows
Method used to calculate the number of cows in
the Vedic period
Ashtakarni
Part of which veda has prose part
Yajur Veda
Who spread Aryan religion in South India
Agasthya
Vedic term Aghanya denotes
Cows
The term Bharata and Bharatavarsha were
first used in
Rig Veda
Upanishad which mentions the four Ashramas of
Vedic period
Jabala Upanishad
Largest number of hymns in Rigveda a are in
praise of
Indra
First town in the vedic period to use burned bricks
Kausambi
First reference about lending money for interest
can be found in
Satpatha Brahmana
Rigvedic paintings have been discovered from
Bhagvanpura. It is in which state
Hariyana
Upanishad which mentions about police system
Brihadaranyaka Upanishads
God who was considered as God of Gods
Varuna
Community which was considered as untouch-
ables by the Buddhists.
Chandalas
The language used by the Jains to spread their
religion
Prakrit
Who is considered as the St.John of Buddhism
Ananda
Who is considered as Devil by the Buddhists
Mara
Three daughters of Mara
lust, emotion and desire
The ruler who persecuted Buddhists
Pushyamitrasunga
Major philosophic school of Bhagvatism
Vishishtadvaita
Earliest reference about Srikrishna can be found
in
Chandoghya Upanishad
Hindu God who found place in Greek literature
Sri Krishna
Jain Thirthankara, who was related to Sri Krishna
Rishabhadeva (Ist Thirthankara)
Tamil god of the Sangham age for War and Vic-
tory
Kottavai
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Saint who founded the Saivism
Lakulisa
Tamil kingdom of the Sangham Age which sent
an ambassador to the court of Roman Emperor
Augusts
Pandyas
First Sangham was founded by
Saint Agasthya
Famous poetess of the Sangham period
Avvaiyar
Greeco-Roman traders who visited South India
during the Sangham period were denoted with
the term
Yavanas
Sangham work which describes about Buddhism
Manimekhalai
The word used by Ashoka to denote Buddha
Bhagavati
Ashokan inscriptions were desciphered by James
prince in the year
1837
Indo-Greek ruler who had his boundaries upto
Pataliputra
Menander
Yuchi ruler who introduced gold coins for the first
time
Vima Kadphesus
Edict which mentions about the relation between
India and China
Nagarjunakonda
MEDIEVAL INDIA
Arab Conquest of Sindh
During the Khaliphate of Omar, Arab forces made
fertile attempts to get Bombay
Arabs captured Sindh in 712 AD.
The Arab conquest of Sindh was led by
Muhammed Bin Kassim.
Muhammed Bin Khasim was the nephew of Al-
Hajaj, the governor of the Arab province of Basra.
Dahir, a Brahmin was the ruler of Punjab at that
time. He was killed by Kassim.
The Arabs lost control over Sindh in 779 AD.
Arab conquest of Sindh resulted in the spread of
Islam to North India.
But Islam was first introduced in India by Malik
Ibn Dinar in Kerala in 644 AD.
Turkish Invasions
Ghazni in Afghanistan was ruled by a Turkish
family called Gamini of Ghaznavid dynasty.
Muhammed Ghazni was the first Turkish con-
queror of North India.
Muhammad Ghaznis father was Subu ktigin.
He attacked India only for want of wealth.
He attacked India seventeen times between 1000
and 1027 AD. He made all the raids in the guise of
Jihad.
First Invasion was in 1001 AD.
He defeated Jaipal and Anandpal of Shahi dy-
nasty in 1001 and 1009 respectively.
The most important raid of Muhammed was the
Somanath expedition. It was in 1025. He completely
distroyed the temple. Somanath Temple was on
the sea coast of Gujarat.
Muhammed Ghazni died in 30th April 1030.
Later his son Masud attacked India and caputred
Kashmir.
The famous Persian poet Firdausi who wrote
Shahnama (The Book of Kings) lived in his
court.
Alberuni, an Arab Historian, who wrote Tarikh-
ul-Hind (Reality of Hindustan), accompanied
Muhammed Ghazni to India.
Al-Firdausi is known as Indian Homer, Per-
sian Homer, or The Immortal Homer of the
East.
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Muhammed of Ghore attacked India betwen 1175
and 1206 AD.
Muhammed Ghori made his first expedition to In-
dia and captured multan in 1175 AD.
In the First Battle Tarain in 1191 (near Taneswar)
Muhammed Ghori was defeated by the Rajput
forces under Prithviraj Chauhan III.
In the Second Battle of Tarain (1192 AD)
Muhammed Ghori assisted by Qutub -ud-din
Aibek a slave, defeated Prithviraj Chauhan III and
killed him.
In 1193 Muhamed Ghori attacked Jaichand, fa-
ther in law of Prithviraj . III at Kanauj, Jaichand
was defeated.
Muhammed Ghori returned from India by intrust-
ing his territories in India in the hands of Qutub-
Uddin Aibak.
After the death of Ghori in 1206 Aibek founded
theSlave Dynasty.
Muhammed Ghoris Indian invasion resulted in
the foundation of Islamic rule in India.
Delhi Sultanate
The five dynasties which founded subsequently
after the Turkish invasion were collectively known
as Delhi sulthanate. They are:
Slave Dynasty ..................... 1206 - 1290
Khilji Dynasty .................... 1290 - 1320
Tughlaq Dynasty ................. 1320 - 1412
Sayyid Dynasty ................... 1414 - 1451
Lodi Dynasty....................... 1451 - 1526
Slave Dynasty (1206 - 1290)
Slave Dynasty was also called Ilbari Dynasty,
Yamini Dynasty or Mamluk Dynasty.
Qutub-ud-din Aibak was a slave of Muhammed
Ghori and he founded the Slave Dynasty in 1206
AD.
Aibak was the first Muslim ruler of India.
The capital of Qutub-ud-din Aibak was at Lahore
Important Court Scholars
Kalidasa.......... Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
Banabhatta............................ Harshavardhana
Alberuni ............................ Muhammed Ghazni
Firdausi ............................. Muhammad Ghazni
Amir Khusru ........................... Alauddin Khilji
Todarmal ............................................... Akbar
Tansen.................................................. Akbar
Birbal .................................................... Akbar
Mansingh ............................................. Akbar
Abul Fazal ............................................. Akbar
Ashva Ghosha................................. Kanishka
Amara Simha......................... Chandragupta II
Chand Bardai ...................... Prithviraj Chauhan
Revikirti ....................................... Pulikeshin II
Dhanwantari .......................... Chandragupta II
Harisen ................................... Samudra Gupta
Tenali Rama........................ Krishnadeva Raya
He was known as Lakh Baksh or giver of lakhs
or giver of favours for his magnanimity.
Hasan Nizami was a famous historian in the court
of the Aibak.
Qutub-ud-din Aibak started the construction of
Qutub Minar in 1199 in Delhi in memory of the
Sufi saint Quaja Qutub - ud-din Bhaktiar Kaki.
Its construction was completed by Ithumish. It is
a five storied building.
Qutub-ud-din Aibak died 1210 by falling from
horseback while playing Polo.
After the death of Qutubuddin, Aram Shah as-
cended the throne but he was
deposed by I lthumish and
crowned himself the Sulthan.
During the period of Ilthumish
(1210-1236) Chengizkhan, the
Mongole conqueror attacked
India (1221).
Chengizkhan
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Ilthumish is considered as the real founder of
Delhi Sulthanate.
Ilthumish is considered as the real founder of
Delhi Sulthanate
Ilthumish was the first Sulthan of Delhi to get
recognition of the Khalif of Bagdad.
Ilthumish was also the first Sulthan to make Delhi
his capital.
He issued a purely Arabic coinage of Silver and
was the first to do so.
Coins introdued by Ilthumish, Silver Thanka
and Copper Jital were the two basic coins of
the Sulthanate period.
He organised the Chalisa or the famous Turk-
ish forty to help him in the administration.
Iltumish completed the construction of Qutub
Minar.
The revenue system of the Sulthanate Iqta sys-
tem, was introduced by Ilthumish.
Ilthumish was succeeded by his son Ruknuddin
Firoz Shah. But he was later executed and Razia
became the sulthan (daughter of Ilthumish)
Sulthana Raziya, the only women ruler of, the
Sultanate came to power in 1236 and reigned till
1240.
Sulthana Raizya rejected the Pardah, she adorned
the male dress and held open courts.
In October 14, 1240 both Razia and Altunia who
earlier raised arms against Razia but later joined
with her were, beheaded at Kaithal.
After Raizya Behran Shah (1240 - 42) Allaud-din-
Masudshah (1242 - 46) and Naziruddin
Muhammad (1246 - 1266) ruled and Balban, the
founder of the second Ilban dynasty, became the
Sulthan.
Ghiasuddin Balban a slave water carreer, hunts-
man, noble, statesman became the Sulthan of Delhi
in 1266 and continued in power till 1686 AD.
Balban is considered as the founder of Second
Ilbary Dynasty.
Balban described himself as shadow of God or
the viceregent of God on Earth (Zil-i-illahi)
Balban because of his autocratic rule is consid-
ered as a typical oriental despot.
The Chalisa or forty established by Ilthumish was
abolished by Balban.
His policies are considered to be Draconian.
He started the Iranian system of Sajda and Piabos.
He was a patron of men of letters and showed
special favour to the poet Amir Khusrau.
After Balbans death in 1286, Kayqubad (1287 -90)
became the Sulthan.
Madhavacharya of theDwaita Philosophy got help
from Balban.
Balbans Tomb is situated in Delhi. It was con-
structed by Balban himself.
Kayqubad was the last Slave Sulthan. (Kayumars
who ruled for a term of three months was actually
the last Slave Sulthan. He was killed by Jalaluddin
Khilji) and founded the Khilji Dynasty.
Khilji Dynasty (1290 -1320)
Khilji dynasty was founded by Malik Firoz in
1290 and assumed thetitle Jalaluddin Khilji (1290-
96)
In 1292 the Mongols under Abdulla accepted de-
feat from Jalaluddin Khilji.
Alauddin Khilji, the nephew
of Jalaluddin Khilji, killed him
after his victory on Devagiri
in 1296.
Alauddin Khiljis early name
was Ali Gurushap.
He became the Sulthan in
1296 AD and ruled till 1316
AD.
In 1303 Alauddin Khilji attacked Chittor, the capi-
tal of Mewar, to marry Padmini the wife of Chittor
king Ratna Singh.
But Padmini and other Rajput women committed
Juhar (Juhar is a mass suicide by Jumping into
fire, committed by Rajput women to escape from
being polluted by others)
Padmavat is a historical kavya about Padmini epi-
sode written by Malik Muhammed Jayasi.
Malik Muhammed Jayasi was the court poet of
Shersha Suri.
Alauddin Khilji was the first Muslim ruler to at-
Alauddin Khilji
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tack South India.
Malik Kafur was Alauddin Khiljis Commander
who attacked South India.
Alauddin Khilji was the most famous ruler of the
Khilji Dynasty.
Alauddin was the Sulthan of Delhi who banned
the use of liquor.
Alauddin had a dream of a World Conquest so he
assumed the title Sikhandar-i-sani or Second
Alexander.
Demitrius a Bactrian ruler is popularly known as
Second Alexander.
Alauddin abolished the Zamindari System and
imposed tax on cattle.
He was the first muslim ruler of Delhi to introduce
measurement of land for tax assessment.
His market regulations were to get goods at con-
trolled price to the people of Delhi.
Alauddin Khilji was the first Sulthan of Delhi who
separated religion from politics.
He was also the first to proclaim I am the
Khalifa.
Alauddin constructed Alai Darwaza the gate way
of Qutub Minar.
He built the city of Siri, the second of the seven
cities of Delhi, near Qutub Minar.
The first marriage between a muslim ruler and a
Hindu princess was between Alauddin and Ka-
mala Devi, the widow of the ruler of Gujarat.
Alauddin Khilji was killed by his commander
Malik Kafur by poisoning.
Amir Khusru was the court poet of Alauddin
Amir Khusru is known as the Parrot of India
He is considered as the father of Urdu language
and the inventor of Sitar.
Laila Majnu and Tughlaq Nama are the famous
works of Amir Khusru.
Alauddin khilji was the first Sulthan to maintain a
permanent standing army.
Alauddin Khilji was responsible for the introduc-
tion of postal system in medieval India.
Mubarak shah khilji was the last ruler of the
khilji Dynasty.
IMPORTANT DYNASTIES
IN INDIAN HISTOY
MAURYAN EMPIRE.............. 322 BC - 185 BC
Chandragupta Maurya........... BC 322 - 297 BC
Bindusara.............................. 297 BC - 274 BC
Ashoka................................. 274 BC - 237 BC
KUSHANA EMPIRE.............. 20 AD - 225 AD
Kanishka............................... 78 AD - 120 AD
Gupta Empire........................320 AD - 606 AD
Chandragupta I ....................320 AD - 330 AD
Samudra Gupta.....................330 AD - 380 AD
Chandra Gupta II ..................380 AD - 413 AD
VARDHANA DYNASTY ...... 580 AD - 647 AD
Harsha Vardhana..................606 AD - 647 AD
SLAVE DYNASTY ........... 1206 AD - 1290 AD
Qutubuddin Aibak.................. 1206 - 1210 AD
Ilthumish................................ 1210 - 1236 AD
Raziya Sulthana...................... 1236 - 1240 AD
Balban.................................... 1266 - 1286 AD
KHILJI DYNASTY ................ 1290 - 1320 AD
Alauddin Khilji ....................... 1296 - 1316 AD
TUGHLAQ DYNASTY .......... 1320 - 1412 AD
Muhammed Bin Tughlaq......... 1325 - 1351 AD
LODHI DYNASTY ................ 1451 - 1526 AD
Ibrahim Lodi ............................ 1517 -1526 AD
MUGHAL EMPIRE ...... 1526 - 1540, 1555-1857
Babar ..................................... 1526 - 1530 AD
Humayun .................1530-1540, 1555-1556 AD
Akbar..................................... 1556 - 1605 AD
Jahangir ................................. 1605 - 1627 AD
Shahjahan................................ 1628-1658 AD
Aurangazeb............................ 1658 - 1707 AD
Bahadurshah II ....................... 1837 - 1857 AD
Khilji dynasty came to an end when the Mubarak
shah Khilji was killed by Khusrau Khan.
Some historians consider Khusrau Khan as the
last Khilji Sulthan.
Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 - 1412)
Tughlaq Dynasty was founded by Ghiazuddin
Tughlaq. His real name was Ghazi Malik.
Ghiasuddin Tughlaq founded the dynasty after
killing Khuzru Khan in 1320.
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Ghiazuddin died by the collapse of a pavilion.
He built the Tughlaqabad Fort in Delhi the third
city of Delhi to the east of Qutub complex.
Ghiassudhin Tughlaq was the first Sulthan to start
irrigation works.
GhiassuddinTughlaq was succeeded by his son
Jauna Khan, popularly known as Muhammed Bin
Tughlaq.
Muhammed Bin Tughlaq is considered as the
single most responsible person for the decline of
Delhi Sulthanate.
Muhammed Bin Tughlaq was known as a mix-
ture of opposites, wisest fool, Pagal padushah,
unfortunate idealogue and the predecessor of
Akbar in intellectual and religious matters.
Ibn Batuta called him an illstared idealist.
He shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri
(Daulatabad) in 1327.
In 1330 he introduced token currency of bronze
and copper.
Moroccan Traveller Ibn Batuta visited India dur-
ing his period.
Edward Thanas described him as prince of
moneyers.
Muhammed Bin Tughlaq was succeeded by his
elderly cousin, Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq was the first Sulthan of Delhi
to impose Jaziya. It was a religious tax for the
freedom of worship. He imposed it only upon Brah-
mins.
He built the city of Firozbad in Delhi. The Firoz
shah Kotla was also built by him. The gate way of
Firozshah Kottla is Khooni Darwaza, or blood
stained gate. It was constructed by Shersha Suri.
He transplanted two Ashokan Pillars to Firozabad.
He is the author of Fatuhat -i- Firozshahi
After Firozshah Tughlaq Muhammed Shah
Tughlaq or Naziruddin Muhammed came to the
throne.
It was during the period of his reign that Timur
theLame or Tamerlain a Turkish conqueror of
Tartar tribe from Samarkhand attacked India in
1398.
Timur appointed Khizr Khan, the governor of
Multan his authority in India.
Sayyid Dynasty (1414 - 1451)
Sayyid Dynasty was founded by Khizr Khan in
1414.
Last Sayyid Sulthan was Alauddin Alamshah or
Shah Alam I. He was killed by Bahalol Lodhi in
1451.
Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526)
Lodhi dynasty was founded by Bahlol Lodhi in
1451. The dynasty lasted upto 1526.
Lodhi dynasty was the first Afghan dynasty or
first Pathan dynasty in India.
Sikhandar Lodhi, who ruled from 1489 to 1517
shifted the capital from Delhi to Agra.
Sikhandar Lodhi is considered as the Maker of
Agra City.
Last Lodhi Sulthan or last Delhi Sulthan was
Ibrahim Lodhi. Rana Sangram Singh of Mewar
defeated him. His brother Daulat Khan Lodhi in-
vited Babar to India to defeat Ibrahim Lodhi in
1524.
Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle
of Panipat in 1526 April 21.
The title Sulthan was started by the Turkish rul-
ers. Muhammed Ghazni was the first to assume
the title Sulthan.
The official language of the Delhi Sulthanate was
Persian.
Bahmani and Vijayanagara Kingdoms
The decline of the Sulthanate of Delhi gave birth
to two mighty states in South India the Bahmani
Kingdom of Gulbaraga and the Vijayanagara Em-
pire.
The Bahmanis were Muslim rulers, while the rul-
ers of the Vijayanagar were Hindus.
The Bahmani kingdom was founded by Zafar
Khan (Hassan) who took the title of Alauddin
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Bahman Shah. He selected Gulbaraga as its capi-
tal and renamed it Ahsanabad.
There were total eighteen Sulthans and they ruled
from 1347 to 1527.
Muhammed Gawan was the famous minister of
Bahmini kingdom.
The last prince of the Bahmani Kingdom was
Kalimullah.
By 1527, the Bahmani kingdom was split up into
five independent principalities.
The Adil Shahis of Bijapur -founder - Yusuf
Adilshah (1489 - 90)
The Nizam Shahis of Ahamadnagar - founder -
Malik Ahmad (1499)
The Imadshahis of Berar - founder -Fateh Ulla
Imadshanti (1490)
The Qutubshahi kingdom of Golconda - founder
- Qutabshah (1512)
The Baridshahis of Bidar - founder - Amir Ali
Barid (1527).
Vijaya Nagara Empire
The founders of Vijaya Nagar Empire were
Harihara and Bukka Rai, the revenue officers of
the Kakatiya ruler Pratap Rudra Deva II of
Warrangal.
They founded the dynasty in 1336 with the capi-
tal as Vijaya Nagara on the banks of Tungbhadra
river witht the help of Saint Vidyaranya.
Vijayanagara kingdom lasted for 230 years and
produced four dynasties.
Sangama (1336 - 1485)
Saluva - (1485 - 1505)
Tuluva (1505 - 1565) and
Aravidu (1565 - 1672)
Krishna Deva Raya (1509 -
1529) belonged to the
Tuluva dynasty. The Ital-
ian traveller Nicolocont
visited his court.
Krishnadeva Rayar is
known as Andhra Bhoja
He wrote Ushaparinayam and Amuktamalyada
Allasani Peddanna, a Telugu poet was a courtier
of Krishna Deva Raya. He is considered as the
Andra Kavita Pitamaha the Grand Father of
Telugu poetry.
Ashtadiggajas was the famous Scholastic As-
sembly in the court of Krishna Deva Raya.
Vijayanagar Empire was visited by many foreign
travellers.
Nicolo Conti - Venitian traveller, visited during
the reign of Devaraya I.
Abdur Razzak : Ambassador of Sulthan
ShahRukh to the court of Devaraya II.
Damingos Paes : He visited Krishna Devarayas
court.
Ferona Nuniz : A Portuguese who visited during
Achyuta Rayas reign.
Durate Barbosa : A portuguese who visited
Krishnadeva Rayas court.
Athenasius Nikitin (1415) : He was a Russian,
who visited during Deva Raya Is period He wrote,
Voyage to India.
The Mughal Empire
The Mughals were originally Turks.
They belonged to the Chaghtai branch of the
Turkish race.
Period of the Mughal empire is known as Second
Classical Age. First Classical Age is the period
Guptas.
Mughal Empire is also known asTimurid Empire
because of its relation to Amir Timur.
Mughal Emperors are 20 in number. They ruled
India from 1526 to 1857. Only six are considered
great They are:
Zahiruddin Muhammed Babur (1526 - 1530)
Naziruddin Mirza Muhammed Humayun (1530 -
40 & 1555 - 1556)
Jalaluddin Muhammed Akbar - (1556 - 1605)
Nuruddin Muhammed Jahangir (1605 - 1627)
Krishnadeva Rayar
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Shahabuddin Muhammed Shah Jahan (1628 -
1658)
Muhiyuddin Muhammed Aurangazeb Alamgir
(1658 - 1707)
Babur
Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, was
the fifth descendant of Timur
on Fathers side and the four-
teenth descendant of
Chengizkhan on mothers side.
Babur was born in Farghana in
Turkey on 14 Feb. 1483 as the
som of Umer Sheik Mirza ad
Qulik Nigarkhanum.
Baburs father Umershiek Mirza was the grand
son of Amir Timur and the ruler of Farghana.
Babur became the ruler of Samarkhand at the Age
of 11.
He captured Kabul in 1504.
Then Babur attacked India 5 times for want of
wealth.
Baburs first Attack of India was in 1519 Bhera
was the first place captured by Babur.
In 1524 Daulatkhan, Ibrahim Lodhis brother in-
vited Babur to India.
On 21 April 1526 Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi,
the last Lodhi Sulthan in the First Battle of
Panipat.
On 16 March 1527 he defeated Rana Sangha of
Mewar, in the Battle of Khanwa.
The Rajputs in 1528 under Medini Raj of Malwa
fought against Babur in the Battle of Chanderi,
but were defeated.
In 1529 the Afghans under Muhammed Lodhi
fought against Babur in the Battle of Ghaghra
but were defeated.
In 1530 December 26, Babur died and was cre-
mated at Kabul.
Babur was the first to use Artillery in India.
His memoirs or autobiography Tuzuk-i-Baburi
or Baburnamah was written in Turkish language,
Baburs mothertongue.
Babur said I dont like India and Indians.
Babur was the first Mughal ruler to keep in hand
the Kohinur Diamond.
Babur was a contemporary of Krishnadeva Raya
of Vijaya Nagara Empire.
Humayun
Humayun was born in 1507 in Kabul as the son of
Babur and Mahim Sulthana.
He became the Mughal Em-
peror on 29 December 1530 at
the age of 23.
He divided the empire among
his brothers - Askari, Hindal
and Kamran.
The word Humayun means
fortunate But Human is con-
sidered as the most unfortunate Mughal ruler.
Human was an accomplished mathematician and
astronomer.
In 1539 by the Battle of Chausa, Humayun was
defeated for the first time by Shershah Suri.
In the next year (1540) Shershah completely de-
feated Humayun in the battle of Kanauj and
founded the Sur dynasty.
After the lapse of 15 years Humayun re-captured
the Empire by defeating the last Sur ruler
Sikhandar Shah Suri by the battle of Sirhindh in
1555, July.
After the restoration Humayun ruled for only six
months.
The period from 1540 to 1555 is known as the
period of temporary eclipse of the Mughal.
Humayun died by an accidental fall from the
straicase of his Library Shermandal at the
Puranakwila in Delhi on 24 January 1556.
The Purnakwila was constructed by Humayun but
its construction was completed by Shershah.
Humayuns biography Humayun Namah was writ-
ten by Humayuns sister Gulbadan Begum. The
language used to write this biography was a mix-
ture of Turkish and Persian.
Babur
Humayun
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In 1533 Humayun built the city of Dinpana (world
refuge) in Delhi.
Humayuns tomb is situated in Delhi (first build-
ing in India having double domes)
Humayun tomb is known as predecessor of
Tajmahal, because Taj was modelled after this,
also known as a dormitory of the house of Timur.
Mirak Mirza Ghias is its architect.
Akbar the Great
Father - Humayun
Mother - Hamida Bhanu Begum
Step mother - Magam Anaga
Guardian - Bairam Khan
First Guardian - Munim Khan
Akbar was born at Amarkot in
Sindh in 23 Nov. 1542.
He came to the throne on February 14, 1556 at the
age of 14 at Kalanur.
Hemu the Hindu Prime Minister of Muhammed
Adilshah of Bihar occupied Agra and accepted
the title Maharaja Vikramaditya.
Akbar killed Hemu in theSecond Battle of Paniput
in 1556 November 2.
Akbar became an independent ruler at the age of
18 in 1560, after dismissing Bairamkhan.
Later he married Bairam Khans widow Salima
Begum.
In 1561 he defeated the musician Sulthan of
Malwa - Baz Bahadur.
In 1562 Akbar married Joda Bhai, the daughter of
Raja Bharmal of Amber
In 1564, he abolished the religious tax Jaziya.
Jaziya was impossed for the first time by Firozshah
Tughlaq.
In 1572 he captured Gujarat and in memory of that
he built a new capital city Fathepur sikri (city of
Victory) near Agra.
The early name of Fathepur Sikri was city of Sikri.
Buland Darwaza is the gate way of Fathepur Sikri,
built by Akbar.
In 1575 Akbar constructed a prayer house in
Fathepur Sikri known as Ibadatkhana.
In 1579 he issued the Infallibility Decree by which
he made himself the supreme head in religious
matters.
In 1580 the first Jesuit missionaries arrived at the
court of Akbar.
In 1585 Ralph Fitch the first English man to reach
India, reached Akbars court.
Ralph Fitch is known as pioneer English man or
torch bearer Englishman.
In 1582 Akbar founded a new religion for univer-
sal peace and monotheism known as Din Ilahi
means Divine Faith.
In 1583 he started a new Calendar called Ilahi
Calendar.
In 1576 Akbar defeated Maharana Pratap of
Mewar in the battle of Haldighat. Haldighat is a
mountain pass in the Aravally hills in Rajasthan.
The Portuguese introduced tobacco for the first
time in India in the court of Akbar in 1604.
Akbar was the Mughal Emperor when the En-
glish East India Company was being founded in
1600 December 31.
Akbar died in 1605.
His tomb is situated at Sikhandra near Agra.
Akbar was an illiterate person, but he was a pa-
tron of men of eminence. He maintained a Scho-
lastic Assembly in his court. They included the
following personalities.
Abul Fazal : Akbars court historian who wrote
Akbars biographical works Ain-i-Akbari and
Akbar Namah..
Abul Faizi : Persian poet and brother of Abul
Fazal. He translated Mahabharata into Persian in
name Razam Namah and Bhaskaracharyas
mathematical work Leelavati into Persian.
Mian Tansen : His original name was Ram Thanu
Pande. He was the court Musician of Akbar. He
composed a Raga, Rajdarbari in honour of Akbar.
Birbal : His real name was Mahesh Das. He is the
court jester of Akbar.
Akbar
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Raja Todarmal : RajaTodarmal was Akbars fi-
nance or revenue minister. He formulated Akbars
revenue system Zabti and Dashala systems. Raja
Todermal also translated Bhagavatapurana into
Persian.
Maharaja Mansing : Akbars military commander.
Badauni : a historian who translated Ramayana
into Persian - Tarjuma -1-Ramayan.
Tulasidas : Hindi poet who
wrote Ramacharitamanas.
Akbars military system was
known as Mansabdari system,
which included Ranks from 10
- 7000
Akbar was also responsible
for the introduction Persian as
the official language of
Mughals.
He divided the Mughal Empire into 12 Subahs
(provinces) for the administrative conveniences.
Akbar was also the first ruler to organise Hajj.
Pilgrimage at the government expense. The Port
Cambay in Gujarat is known as the Gate way to
Mecca from Mughal India.
Akbar was an accomplished Sitar player.
Mughal - Rajput friendly relation began during
the period of Akbar.
Jahangir
Early name of Jahangir was Salim. Akbar called
him Sheika Baba.
Jahangir came to the throne in
1605.
Jahangir was the son of Akbar
and Jodabai.
He married Mehrunnisa, an
Afghan widow in 1611 Later he
gave her the titles, Noor Mahal
(light of the palace) Noor Jahan (light of the world)
and Padusha Begum.
In 1606 Jahangir executed fifth Sikh Guru Guru
Arjun Dev, because he helped Jahangirs son
Prince Khusru to rebel against him.
In 1609, Jahangir received William Hawkins, an
envoy of King James I of England, who reached
India to obtain trade concession.
In 1615 Sir Thomas Roe reached the court of
Jahangir as the first ambassador of James I of
England in the court of Jahangir. As a result of
his efforts first English factory was established
at Surat in Gujarat.
Period of Jahangir is considered as the Golden
Age of Mughal Painting. Jahangir himself was a
painter. Ustad Mansur and Abul Hassan were fa-
mous painters in the court of Jahangir.
Jahangir built Shalimar and Nishant Gardens in
Srinagar.
Jahangir suspended a chain of Justice known as
Zndiri Adal infront of his court.
Anarkali was Jahangairs lover. Mughal-i-Asam
directed by K. Asif is a famous film which tells
the love story of Jahangir and Anarkali.
Jahangir wrote his autobiography Tuzukh -i-
Jahangiri in Persian language.
J ahangir died in 1627 and was cremated at
Shahdhara in Lahore.
Shah J ahan
Shah Jahan was born on 5th January 1592 at
Lahore.
His mother was Jagat Gosain
and his childhood name was
Khurram.
He married Arjumand Benu
Begum, daughter of Asaf Khan,
brother of Noor Jahan. She later
came to be known as Mumtaz
Mahal which means beloved of the Palace.
Shahjahan destroyed the Portuguese settlements
at Hoogly.
Shah Jahans period is considered as the Golden
Age of Mughal Architecture and Shah Jahan is
known as the Prince of Builders.
In 1631 he started the construction of Tajmahal
in memory of his wife and completed in 1653. It is
Tulasidas
Jahangir
Shah Jahan
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situated on the banks of Yamuna river in Uttar
Pradesh. Utad Iza a Turkish/ Persian was its ar-
chitect. British administrator Furgurson called it
a love in marble. Now Sulphur Dioxide, emitted
by oil refinaries in Madhura after mixing with mois-
ture in the atmosphere forms Sulphuric Acid and
damages the marble of Tajmahal.
In 1638 Shah Jahan built his new capital Shah
Jahanabad in Delhi and shifted the capital from
Agra to there.
In 1639 he started the construction of Red fort in
Delhi on the model of Agrafort built by Akbar. Its
construction was completed in 1648. The Diwan-
i-Am, Diwan-i-Khas and the Moti Masjid are situ-
ated inside the Red fort. The Mothi Masjid in
Agra was constructed by ShahJahan.
The INA Trial in 1945 was conducted at the Red
Fort.
The Gateway of Redfort is the Lahore Gate. It is
here at the Lahore Gate that the Prime Minister of
India hoists the National Flag and addresses the
nation on the independence day.
In 1656 ShahJahan constructed theJuma Masjid
in Delhi. It is the biggest masjid in India. First
masjid in India was constructed at Kodungallur
in Kerala (Cheraman Palli) in 644 AD by Malik Ibn
Dinar.
Shah Jahans period is known as the Golden Age
of Mughal Empire.
The Portuguese introduced European painting in
India during the reign of Shah Jahan
In 1658 Shah Jahan was imprisoned by his son
Aurangazeb and he died in 1666, after eight years.
His daughter Jahan Ara was also kept in prison
along with him at the Agra fort.
Shah Jahans son Dhara Shukoe was a famous
scholar. He translated Bhagavat Gita and Sixty
Upanishads into Persian. He also wrote a book
titled Mujm-ul-Behrain (Mingling of the Oceans)
He also translated Atharva Veda into Persian.
ShahJahan was a famous Lyricist. He wrote Lyr-
ics in Hindi.
The famous Peacock Throne was built by Shah
Jahan. It was abducted from here by Nadirsha in
1739 during his Indian invasion (Persian con-
queror). Now it is kept at the London Tower Mu-
seum, Britain.
French travellersBernier and Tavernier and Ital-
ian traveller Manucci visited India during
ShahJahans period.
Aurangazeb
Aurangazeb imprisoned his father and made him-
self the Padushah in 1658. But his actual corona-
tion was conducted in 1659.
Alamgir was the name
adopted by Aurangazeb when
he became the Padusha.
Aurangazeb is known as
Zinda Pir or living saint be-
cause of his simple life.
He banned music and dance.
He ousted all the artists from
his court. At the same time he was an accom-
plished Veena player.
Aurangazeb was the last great Mughal Emperor.
In 1675 he executed 9th Sikh Guru Guru Tej
Behadur because of his reluctance to accept Is-
lam.
Teg Behadur was executed at the Chandni Chauk.
In 1679 Aurangzeb constructed the tomb of his
only wife Rubiad Daurani at Aurangabad in
Maharashtra. It is known asBibi ka Makabara. It
is otherwise known as Mini Tajmahal as it was
the blind imitation of Tajmahal. In the same year
he reimpossed Jasya upon all the non Muslims,
which was earlier abolished by Akbar.
Aurangazeb called Shivaji a mountain rat and
gave him the title Raja because of his guerilla tac-
tics.
In 1660 he entrusted Shaisthakhan to defeat
Shivaji.
Later in 1665 the treaty of Purandar was signed
between Maharaja Jaisingh of Amber and Shivaji
Jaisingh was deputed by Aurangazeb.
Aurangazeb
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The Mughal Rajput relation became worse dur-
ing the period of Aurangazeb.
Aurangazeb was the only Mughal Emperor who
was not a drunkard.
Aurangazeb is considered as religiously fanatic.
He was also a temple breaker. He persecuted the
Hindus and imposed prohibition against the free
exercise of Holi and Divali.
Aurangazeb died in 1707 February 20,at
Ahmednagar. Aurangazebs tomb is situated at
Daulatabad in Maharashtra.
Later Mughals
Bahadurshah I came to the throne after the death
of Aurangazeb. His real name was Muassam.
In 1739 Nadirshah Quli the Persian conqueror
attacked India during the period of the Mughal
Emperor Muhammed Shah or Rustan Khan
(1719-1748) and took away ShahJahans famous
Peacock Throne and Kohinoor Diamond.
Ahmedshahs (1748 -1754) period saw the mighty
invasion of Ahmed Shah Abdali of Afghanistan.
Akbar Shah II (1806 - 1837) conferred the title
Raja upon Ram Mohan Roy.
Bahadurshah II (837-1862) was
the last Mughal emperor. On
17th May 1857 Bahadurshah II
was declared the independent
Emperor of India by the Muti-
neers. He was surrendered to
LtW.S.R. Hodson at Humayuns
Tomb in Delhi. In 1859 he was
deported to Rangoon in December where he ex-
pired on Nov. 7, 1862. The Tomb of Bahadurshah
II is in Pwin Manah, the capital of Myanmar.
Bahadurshah II was also a famous Urdu Poet.
Bahadurshah II was also known as Bahadurshah
Zafar Zafar means gifted poet.
Shershah Suri
Shershahs original name was Farid.
He was born in Hissar Firosa.
His father was Hassan Khan
His family came to India from Afghanistan.
He entered the service of Baharkhan Lohani of
Behar from whom received the title of Sherkhan,
for killing a lion single handed.
Later he became a member of the Mughal court of
Babur.
In 1539 by the battle of Chausa, Sherkhan de-
feated Humayun for the first time and assumed
the name Shershah.
Later in 1540 he completely defeated Humayun in
in the battle of Kanauj and founded the Sur dy-
nasty.
While directing the operations of his artillery at
Kalanjar against the ruler of Bundelkhand Raja
Kirat Singh, Shershah was seriously wounded by
a sudden fire from his own artillery and died on
May 22, 1545.
Shershah constructed theGrand Trunk Road from
Sohargaon to Attock (Calcutta to Amritsar)
He introduced the National Highway concept for
the first time in India.
Now the Grand Trunk Road is known as Shershah
Suri Marg. Its part from Delhi to Amritsar is
known as National Highway -1.
Grand Trunk Road is also known a Long Walk.
He was the first ruler to introduceSilver Rupiya
(one rupiya was equal to 64 dams) and gold coin
Ashrafi.
He built the Purana Qila in Delhi (its Construc-
tion was started by Humayun) and his own
Mousoleum (Tomb) at Sasaram in Bihar.
He also constructed the Khooni Darwaza (blood
stained gate) the gate way of Firozshah Kotla in
Delhi.
Hindi poet Malik Muhammed Jayasi completed
his Padmavat, during his reign.
His Revenue system was excellent and hence
Akbars administrative reforms were modelled af-
ter him. He is regarded as the forerunner of Akbar.
Shershah was succeeded by his son Islam Shah.
Bahadurshah II
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The last Sur ruler was Sikkandar Shah Sur. Who
was defeated by Humayun in 1555 by the battle
of Sirhindh.
The Marathas
The first great leader of the Marathas was
Chatrapathi Shivaji.
The Marathas became prominent in the later half
of the 17th century.
Shivaji belonged to the Bhonsle clan of the
Marathas.
Shaji Bhonsle and Jiga Bai were the Parents of
Shivaji.
He was born in 1627 February
19 at the fort of Shivner near
Junnar.
His father was a military com-
mander under the Nizam Shahi
rulers of Ahmedanagar and
later of Bijapur.
Shivajis tutor wasDadaji Kondadev.
Shivaji received the help of Malavi tribe to cap-
ture the territories of Bijapur Sulthan.
Torna was the first place captured by Shivaji in
1646.
Shivaji came to conflict with the Mughals for the
first time in 1657, during the period of Shah Jahan.
In 1659 Bijapur Sulthan Ali Adilshah sent Afzal
Khan to kill Shivaji. But he killed Afsal Khan.
In 1660 Aurangazeb deputed his viceroy of
Deccan, Shaisthakhan to kill Shivaji.
1665, Shivaji signed the treaty of Purandar with
Raja Jai Singh of Ambher, who was deputed by
Aurangazeb.
In 1666 Shivaji visited Aurangazeb in his court at
Agra. But he and his son Sambaji were impris-
oned by Aurangazeb in the Jaipur Bhavan.
On 16th June 1674 Shivaji crowned himself an
independent Hindu king became the Chatrapathi
and assumed the title Haidavadhasmodharak.
Shivaji died in 1680 at the age of 53.
Shahu became the Chatrapathi in 1708 and his
period witnessed the rise of Peshwaship.
Balaji Vishwanath (1712 - 1720) Baji Rao (1720 -
40) Balaji BajiRao I (1740 - 61) and Madhav Rao I
(1761 - 1772) were the Peshwas who ruled
Maharashtra.
Baji Rao popularised the idea of Hindu
Padpadshahi or Hindu Empire.
Balaji Baji Raos period witnessed the Third Battle
of Panipat in 1761. In this battle Ahmed Shah
Abdali of Afghanistan defeated the Marathas.
Madhava Rao was the last great Peshwa.
Last Peshwa was Baji Rao II.
Madhava Raos period witnessed the disintegra-
tion of the Maratha power and the formation of in-
dependent kingdoms - Holkarofindor, Bhonsle of
Nagpur, Sindhya of Gwalior and Gaekwad of Baroda.
Shivajis Council of Ministers was known as
Ashtapradhan. They were Peshwa, Pandit Rao,
Sumant, Sachiva, Senapathi, Amatya, Mantri and
Nyayadhyaksha.
Peshwa was the Maratha Chief Minister.
Chaudh and Sardesh Mukhi were two special laxes
collected by the Marathas.
The first Maratha war (1775 -82) Swai Madhav
Rao Vs Raghunath Rao with English support.
Second Maratha war 1803 - 05.
Third Maratha war 1816 - 19.
The last great Soldier and statesman of Maratha
was Nana Phadavnis (1800)
The Maratha script was called Modiscript.
Peshwaship was abolished in 1818
Baji Rao was the ablest of the Peshwas.
Shivaji did not allow women in his military camp.
The Marathas were equipped with an efficient
naval system under Shivaji.
Sikhism
Sikh is a sanskrit word which means desciple
Sikh religion was founded by
GuruNanak.
Guru Nanak was born was born
at Talwandi in Lahore, belonged
to the Khatri Caste (Mercantile
Community)
Nanak called his creed as
Gurumat or Gurus wisdom.
Shivaji
GuruNanak
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GuruNanak was born in 1469 and died in 1538.
He was the first Guru of the Sikhs.
Nanak preached only in Punjabi.
Nanak nominated Guru Angad as his successor.
Guru Angad introduced Gurumukhi Script. He
also compiled Guru Nanaks biography Janam
Sakis.
Langar or free community dining was also intro-
duced by Guru Angad.
Third Sikh Guru was Amar Das. He started the
Manji system ie, branches for the propagation of
Sikhs. He made Guruship hereditory.
Guru Ramdas was the fourth Sikh Guru. He
founded the city of Amritsar. The place for the
city was donated by Akbar.
Under the fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjun Dev,
Sikhism became an organised religion. He com-
piled the Adi Grandh the sacred book of the
Sikhs. He built a temple at Amritsar , (later the
Golden Temple) Har Mandir Sahib. He helped
Jahangirs son Prince Khusru to rebel against the
Emperor So he was executed by Jahangir at Lahore
in 1606 AD.
The sixth Guru Hargovind, created a Sikh army
and turned against Shah Jahan. He founded a
palace opposite to Harmandir Sahib known as
Akaltakt. He also adopted the title Sacha
Padusha, which means true ruler. (the title was
not adopted by Teg Bahadur)
Seventh Guru was Har Rai. He was succeeded
by Guru Harkishan. Har Kishan became the Guru
at the age of five, hence he is the youngest Sikh
Guru.
The 10th and the last Guru, Govind Singh formed
the Khalsa or the Sikh brotherhood.
He introduced Panchkakar of Sikhism -ie Kesh
(long hair) Kanga (Comb) Kripan (Sword), Kachha
(Underwear) and Kara (Iron bangk)
He introduced baptism and wanted every Sikh to
bear community surname Singh or lion.
His aim was the establishment of a Sikh State af-
ter overthrowing the Mughals. In 1708 he was
killed by an Afghan.
Vichithra Natak is the autobiography of Guru
Govind Singh.
Sikh Guru
Guru Nanak .............................. 1469-1538
Guru Angad ........................... 1538 - 1552
Guru Amardas........................ 1552 - 1574
Guru Ramdas.......................... 1574 - 1581
Guru Arjundev ....................... 1581 - 1606
Guru Hargovind...................... 1606 - 1645
Guru Har Rai ........................... 1645 - 1661
Guru Har Kishan....................... 1661-1664
Guru Teg Bahadur..................... 1664-1675
Guru Govind Singh................. 1675 - 1708
Kartarpur Dabir is the root form of Guru Grandh
Sahib.
Govind Singh proclaimed the Grandh Sahib as
the eternal Guru.
Renjith Singh (1780 - 1836)
Renjith Singh became the ruler of Punjab in 1799.
He assumed the title Maharaja
in 1801.
The 1809 the British and Renjith
Singh made the Treaty of
Amritsar during the period of
Lord Minto
In 1809 Shah Shuja the grand-
son of Ahmedshah Abdali pre-
sented the Kohinoor diamond to Ranjith Singh.
Later Punjab was annexed to the British territo-
ries by Lord Dalhousiein 1849. Sir John Lawrence
became the first Chief Commissioner of Punjab.
The Sikhs fought two wars against the English
First Anglo-Sikh War (1845- 1846) and the Sec-
ond Anglo-Sikh war (1848 - 1849)
The Bhakti Movement
Love and devotion to one personal God is the
basic concept of Bhakti.
The Alvars or Vaishanava saints and Nayanars
or Saivite, saints became the promoters of Bhakti
movement in South India.
Ramanuja, a Vaishana saint of 12th century AD,
was born at Sriperumbathur and founded philoso-
phy of Vishistadvaita or qualified monism.
Renjith Singh
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The leader of Bhakti movement or Hindu revival-
ism was Sankaracharya. His philosophy was
Advaita or pure monism. He wrote Commentary
on Brahmasutra and Upanishad. He founded four
matts- Sringeri, Dwaraka, Puri and Badrinath.
Vallabhacharya promoted the philosophy of
Pushtimarga. He was the founder of Sudhadvaita.
The North India the Bakti movement was pro-
moted by two sects of thought - the Saguna and
Nirguna schools.
Ramanand, born at Prayag preached
Vaishnavaism. He was a followers of Ramanuja.
Kabir (1398 -1458) a nirguna was born near
Benaras. His followers started the Kabirpanthis.
Tulasi Dasa (1532 - 1623) a worshipper of Rama
compossed Ramcharithamanasa in Hindi. His
other works are Kavitavali and Gitavali.
Mirabai (1498 - 1509) a Rajaput princess hailed
from the Sisodiya dynasty of Chittoor was a devo-
tee of Lord Krishna. Her lyrics were written in
Brijbhasha and in Rajasthani.
Jnanadeva, Namadeva, Eknatha Tukaram and
Samarth Ram Das were the leading Maratha
saints of Bhakti movement.
Jnanadeva founded the Maharashtra Dharma. His
famous work Jnaneswari is a commendarel on
Bhagavatgita.
Ekanath promoted the custom of singing
Kirthana and he composed abhangas or typical
poems.
Tukaram a contemporary of Shivaji was the pro-
moter of Maratha nationalism.
Samarth Ramdas, the spiritual guide of Shivaji,
wrote Dasabhodha.
Sufism
Mythical movement of the Muslims was known
as Suficism.
Sufi movement first came to India in the wake of
Muhammed Ghaznis invasion in the 11th cen-
tury.
Sufi orders are called Silsilahs.
Chishti Silsilah was founded by Khawaja
Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmir.
Sufism declined in the 17th Century.
Famous Personalities in Medieval
India
Al Masudi - An Arabian traveller who came to
India in 10th century AD.
Al Beruni - He came to India with Muhammed
Ghazni, his book, Tahrik-ul-Hindh.
Abbas Khan Shervani : He was a historian of
Shershahs time. He wrote Tarikh-1-Shershahi.
Abul Fazal : He was a a great scholar poet Histo-
rian in the court of Akbar. He wrote Akbarnamah
and Ain-i- Akbari.
Bhaktiyar Khilji : Commander of Muhammed
Ghori who conquered Bengal and crushed the
Sena dynasty.
Bhar Mal : He was the Rajput ruler of Amber. His
daughter Jodabai was married to Akbar. Akbars
commanders Bhangavandas and Mansingh were
his son and grandson respectively.
Chathaniya : He popularised Bhakti in Bengal.
He was worshipper of Krishna.
Chand Bibi : She was the daughter of Nizam Shai
ruler of Ahmed Nagar and was married to the Adil
Shahi ruler of Bijapur. As a widow she fought
with Mughals to save her dynasty.
Bairam Khan : He helped Akbar to defeat Hemu.
Firadusi : famous poet in the court of Muhammed
Ghazni HewroteShah Namah (The book of kings).
He is known as Indian Homer or Persian Homer.
Ibn Batuta : He was an African (Morocco) who
visited the court of Muhammed bin Tughlaq and
wrote the book Rihala.
Hasan Gangu - founder of Bahmani dynasty un-
der the name Alauddin Bahamanshah.
Jai Chandra - He was the ruler of Kanauj, be-
longed to the Gahawala dynasty. He was defeated
in 1194 by Muhammed Ghori in the battle of
Chandwar.
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Khawaja Moinuddin Chisti : He was a sufi saint
of 12th century who started the Chishtia sect at
Ajmir.
Islam Shah : Second Sur ruler, son of Shersha He
codified the law and introduced an impartial sys-
tem of Justice.
Lalitaditya of Karkota dynasty : He ruled over
Kashmir from 724 to 760. The famous Martand
Mandir temple was built by him.
Malik Kafur : He was an army commander of
Alauddin Khilji - who conquered south India for
him. He was converted to Islam from Hinduism.
Muhamed Gawan : He was a minister to the
Bahmani rulers.
Malik Amber : He was a Syrian slave who could
became the Prime Minister of Ahmed Nagar. He
administered the State very well fought against
the Mughals and Marathas.
Mirza Ghias Beg : He was the father of Nur Jahan
and received the title Etmatuddaula. His tomb is
in Agra.
Murshid Quli Khan : He was an independent
ruler of Bengal, who founded the city of
Murshidabad.
Rana Kumbha : He was a Rajput ruler of 15th
century He built a kirti Stambh at Chittar.
MODERN INDIA
Advent of the Europeans
A new Sea route to India via Cape of Good Hope
(Southern tip of South Africa) by Vasco da Gama
in 1498 AD marked the beginning of European
period in Indian History.
He first arrived at Kapad near Kozhikode in Kerala.
Saint Gabriel was the name of the ship in which
Vasco-da-Gama landed at Kappad, the port of
Zamorine of Calicut.
The most famous Portuguese men from the point
of view of India Vasco da Gama, Almeida and
Albuquerque.
Vasco-da-Gama arrived for the second time in 1502
and for the third chance in 1524. He died at Fort
Cochin and was cremated at the St. Frnacis
Church there. Later his remains were brought back
to Portugal.
Don Francisco deAlmedia was the first Portu-
guese governor in the East. His policy was called
the bluewater policy which aimed at the
establishement of strong navy.
In 1507 the Portuguese arrived at Madras. The
city finally got its name from their leader Madra.
The greatest Portuguese governor to the East was
Albuquerque. He was the real founder of the Por-
tuguese authority in India.
Albuquerque tried to abolish Sati.
His policy mixed colony system was to encour-
age intermarriage between the Portuguese and
Indians.
They Portuguese religious policy was
Lantinisation of Kerala.
The conflict for the establishment of Latin rite
and syrian rite led to the Coonan Cross Oath in-
cident in 1653.
The Portuguese introduced agricultural products
such a cashew, coconut, custardapple, pineapple
etc in India.
They introduced Tobacco in the court of Akbar
in 1604.
Portuguese authority in Indian seas remained upto
1595.
The Portuguese started the first press in India at
Goa in 1556.
The first Portuguese fort in India was constructed
at Cochin.
Portuguese captured Goa from the Bijapur Sulthan
in 1510.
The Dutch
In 20 March 1602 the United East India Company
of the Netherlands was formed. The Name of the
Dutch Company was Vereenidge Oostindische
Companie(VOC)
The Dutch set up their first factory at
Masulipattanam in 1605.
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In 1663 the Dutch captured Cochin.
In 1741 Marthandavarma, the Travancore ruler
defeated the Dutch in the Battle of Kolachal.
The final Collapse of the Dutch came with their
defeat by the English in the Battle of Bedara in
1759.
The English and the French
The English East India Company was formed by
a group of Merchants known as The Merchant
Adventurers in 1599.
Early Name of the company was John Company.
English East India Company was formally estab-
lished on 31st December 1600 by a Charter issued
by Queen Elizabeth of the Tudor dynasty.
Hector, the first ship of the English East India
company reached Surat on 24 August 1606.
In 1612 the Company became a joint stock com-
pany.
Sir Thomas Roe, first ambassador of James I of
England landed at Surat and met Jahangir in 1613
and the first English factor, was established at
Surat.
The company acquired Bombay from Charles II
on lease which he got as dowry from Portugal.
The designation of Chief Justice was introduced
in India by the English in 1678.
Madras became the first presidency chartered as
municipal corporation with Mayors court 1687.
Job Charnock founded the city of Calcutta.
Colbert the minister of Louis XIV created the
compangnile des Indes Orientales in 1664.
Francis Carton set up the first French factory at
Surat in 1668.
The First French Governor of Ponicherry was
Francois Martin.
The arrival of Dupleix as French Governor in In-
dia in 1742 saw the beginning of Anglo- French
Conflict.
The first Carnatic war between the French and
the English for supremacy in South India occured
in 1742. It ended in 1748 by the treaty of Aix-la-
Chapple.
The second Carnatic war was from 1748 to 1754.
Robert Clive was the Governor of the English
during the Carnatic wars.
The Gregorian Calendar came to be used through-
out the British dominion in 1752.
The Second Carnatic war ended with the treaty of
Pondicherry in 1754.
The Third Carnatic war was from 1758 to 1763.
At theBattle of Wandiwash Eyre Coot defeated
French general Lally in 1760.
With the treaty of Paris in 1763 peace was settled
between the French and English.
The battle of Plassey was fought in the year 1757
June 13.
In 1756 Siraj-ud-daula, the Nawab of Bengal, at-
tacked Calcutta and captured it. 146 British pris-
oners including their com-
mander John Zepheria Holwell
and four women were locked
in a small room. 123 of them
died inside due to suffication.
This incident is known a
Black-hole tragedy.
Battle of Plassey was fought
between Robert Clive and
Siraj-ud-daula, the Nawab of Bengal.
Siraj-ud-daula was defeated in the battle.
Mir Zafar was made the Nawab of Bengal after
the battle of Plassey.
After the battle of Plassey Robert Clive became
the first Governor of Bengal.
The Construction of fort William of Calcutta was
started by Lord Clive.
In 1764 the European Bengal Regiment mutinied
which was followed by the First Indian Sepoy
Mutiny against the British.
The combined forces of Mirkassim, Emperor of
Delhi and Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula of Oudh were
defeated in the Battle of Buxar on October 23
1764.
Robert Clive introduced official postal system in
India in 1766.
Siraj-ud-daula
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Robert Clive introduced Dual government in
Bengal.
Conquest of Mysore
Haider Ali was the son of Fatheh Muhammed.He
was born in 1722.
In 1766 he became the ruler of Mysore after the
death of Mysore Raja Krishna Wodeyar.
First Mysore war between Haider Ali and the En-
glish started in 1767 and ended in 1769.
First Anglo-Mysore war ended with the defeat of
English and the treaty of Madras.
Second Mysore war was from 1780 to 1784.
Haider Ali died in 1782 and Tipu Sulthan became
the Mysore ruler.
The second Mysore war ended by the treaty of
Mangalore in 1784.
Second Mysore war was fought during the pe-
riod of Warren Hastings.
Third Mysore war started in 1790 and ended in
1792.
The third war ended by the treaty of
Seringapatnam on March 19th1792.
Fourth Anglo Mysore war was in 1799.
Fourth Mysore war was fought during the period
of Governor general wellesley.
In this battle Tipu was killed in 1799 at
Srerangapatanam by Col. Arthur Wellesley.
Tipus Capital was Srerangapatanam.
Tipu is known as Mysore Tiger.
Fathul Mujahiddin is the book written by Tippu
which describes about Rockets.
Maratha Wars
First Anglo Maratha war (1775-82) It ended by
the treaty of Salbai.
Second Anglo-Maratha War was from 1803 to
1805.
The treaty of Bassein was signed between the
last Peshwa Baji RaoII and the English in 1802.
The second Maratha War was ended by the treaty
of Rajghat, 1806.
The third Anglo Maratha war was from 1817-
1818. Thus by the end of third Maratha war the
Maratha power disappeared and the English cre-
ated the State of Sathara.
Subsidiary Alliance system and other
Policies
Subsidiary Alliance System was used by
Wellesley to bring Indian States within the orbit
of British political power.
First Indian ruler to join the Subsidiary Alliance
System was the Nizam of Hyderabad.
Lord Wellesley is consdiered as the Akbar of
English East India Company by Marshman.
Permanent Revenue Settlement was introduced
in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and districts of Benaras
and northern districts of Madras by Lord
Cornwallis in 1793. It was planned by Johnshore.
Ryotwari System was introduced in Bombay,
Madras and Assam. This system was similar to
Akbars revenue policy Zabti system.
Mahalwari System was introduced in Awad re-
gion, Punjab, NWFP and parts of Central India.
Executors of British Policies
Warren Hastings : (1772-85) Heintroduced quin-
quennial settlement of land revenue in 1772.
He codified the Hindu and Muslim laws.
He founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal with
the help of William Jones in 1784.
The trial of Maharaja Nandakumar (1775) and his
Judicial Murder was during the period of Warren
Hastings.
He abolished the Dual Government in Bengal in
1772.
After his return to England he was impeached
there in 1785.
By the Regulating Act 1775 of appointed him
the first Governor General.
First Anglo - Maratha war took place during his
period.
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In 1780 James Augustus Hickey started a weekly
paper called Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General
Advertiser during the period of Warren Hastings.
Warren Hastings established a Muhammedan
Madrasa in Calcutta.
Lord Cornwallis (1786 - 93)
He introduced Permanent settlement in 1793.
The Police system was introduced in India.
Cornwallis Code was introduced. It was based
on the separation of powers.
Lord Wellesley (1793 - 1798)
Described himself as Bengali Tiger.
He created the Madras presidency.
Introduced the system of Subsidiary Alliance.
The first state to sign the Subsidiary Alliance sys-
tem was Hyderabad in 1798. Then Mysore,
Tanjore, Awadh, Peshwar, Bhonsle, Sindhia, Jodh-
pur, Jaipur, Mecheri, Bundi, Bharatpur and Berar
signed the subsidiary treaty.
Lord Wellesley fought the second Maratha war.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy wrote the Tuhfat-ul-
Muwahiddin (gift to the Monotheists) during his
period.
Lord Minto (1807-1813)
Signed the treaty of Amritsar in 1809 between
Ranjith Singh of Punjab and the English.
Lord Hastings (1813-23)
He was made Marques of Hastings due to his
success in the Gorkhar war or the Anglo Nepalis
war.
He abolished the Peshwaship and annexed his
territories to the Bombay presidency after the third
Anglo-Maratha war (1818)
Introduced the Ryotwari System in Madras presi-
dency by Governor Thomas Munroe in 1820 un-
der the governor generalship of Hastings.
Mahalwari System of land revenue was intro-
duced in North West Province by James Thomson.
Lord William Bentinck (1828- 35)
First Governor General of India by the govern-
ment of India Act of 1833.
Known as benevolent Governor General.
Banned the practice of Sati in 1829. Suppressed
Tughi in 1830.
Banned female infanticide.
Created the province of Agra in 1834.
Made English to be the court language in higher
court but Persian continued in Lower courts.
Appointed Macaulay as president of the commit-
tee of public instruction, Mecaulays Minutes was
submitted in 1835.
Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835 - 36)
Abolished restriction on press
He is called the Liberator of Press
First Afghan war was started during the Gover-
nor Generalship of Lord Auckland.
Slavery was abolished by Governor general Lord
Ellenborough.
Lord Dalhousie (1849 - 56)
Introduced the policy of Doctrine of Lapse
Indian states annexed through the Doctrine of
Lapse were Satara (1848), Jaitpur and Sambalpur
(1849) Baghatpur (1850), Udaipur (1852) Jhansi
(1853) and Nagpur (1854).
Introduced the Woods Despatch known as the
Magnacarta of English Education in India pre-
pared by Charles Wood in 1854.
Boosted up the development of Railways and laid
the first Railway line in 1853 from Bombay to
Thane and Second from Calcutta to Raniganj.
Gave a great impetus to Post and Telegraph. Tele-
graphic lines were laid - first line from Calcutta to
Agra.
Shimla was made summer Capital and Army Head
Quarters.
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Hindu Marriage Act was passed in 1856.
In 1853 started recruitment of theCovenanted Civil
Service by competitive examination.
A Post Office Act was passed in 1854. Postage
stamps were issued for the first time.
In 1855 the Santhal Uprising took place
Abolished the title of the Nawab of Carnatic.
Socio - Religious Reform Movements
Rammohan Roy (1772 - 1883) and Brahmo Samaj
Raja Ram Mohan Roy is
known as the father of Mod-
ern India, Herald of New
Age, Bridge between Past
and Future. First Modern
Man in India Father of In-
dian Renaissance, Pathfinder
of his Century etc.
Believed in monotheism and opposed idol wor-
ship.
Established the Atmiya Sabha in Calcutta in 1815
inorder to propagate monotheism and to fight
against the evil customs and practices in Hindu-
ism.
He got legitimisation to his views from
Upanishads.
In 1821 hestarted a paper called Samvat Kaumudi.
In 1822 he started Mirat-ul-Akbar, which was the
first journal in Persian.
In the same year Rammohan and Dwarakanath
Tagore jointly started a newspaper called
Bangadatta.
In 1825 he started the Vedanta College at Calcutta.
In 1828, August he founded the BrahmaSabha
Later in 1845 the name Brahmasamaj was given
to it by Devendranath Tagore.
Against the Brahmasabha orthodox Hindus lead
by Raja Radhakant Deb started Dharmasabha.
In 1829 December 4 Sati was abolished by gover-
nor general William Bentinck.
In 1831 he went to England to argue the case of
Akbar II before the Board of Control.
The Mughal Emperor Akbarshah II gave Ram
Mohan the title Raja.
After the death of Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Brahmasamaj was divided into several sects.
Adi Brahmasamaj lead by Devendra Nath Tagore
and Bharatiya Brahmasamaj led by Keshav
Chandra Sen were started in 1866.
Sadharana Brahma Samaj was started by
Anandmohan Bose in 1878.
Devendra Nath Tagore was the founder of
Tatvabodhinisabha in Calcutta in 1839.
Keshav Chandrasen started a paper calledIndian
Mirror in 1861.
Brahmasamaj reached outside Bengal under
Keshav Chandra Sen.
Keshav Chandra Sen was the first Indian who
attempted to reform the society on an all India
basis.
Surendra Nath Banerjee was the first Indian to
took up his political activity on an all India basis.
Precepts to Jesus is a book written by Rajaram
Mohan Roy.
Thuhafath ul - muvahiddin or Gift to Monothe-
ists is also a work of Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
Prarthana Samaj
Founded in 1867 in Bombay by Dr. Atmaram
Pandurang (not by MG Ranade) as an offshoot
of the Brahmasamaj.
It was later joined by M.G. Ranade and R.G.
Bhandarkar.
Arya samaj
It was founded by Swami
Dayanand Saraswathi in
1875.
He considered Vedas as
eternal and infalliable and
said Go back to Vedas
Dayanand Saraswati (1824
- 1883) was a Sanyasi from
Gujarat.
Raja RamMohan Roy
Swami Dayanand
Saraswathi i
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He was the first to teach an aggressive, reformed
and militant Hinduism.
Dayanand, was known in his early life as Mul
Shankar.
He founded the Arya Samaj at Bombay in 1575.
He is known as Luther of Hinduism.
He was the first to use the terms - Swarajya
Swabhasha and Swadharma.
He was the first to consider Hindi as a National
Language.
He started the Suddhi Movement to re-convert to
Hinduism those who were converted to other re-
ligions.
His book Satyartha Prakash is a commentary on
Vedas.
Hestarted Dayanand Anglo Vedic College in 1866.
Aryaprakash was the news paper started by
Dayanand Saraswati.
Ramakrishna Mission
Shri Ramakrishna Paramhamsa (1834 - 1886)
was born in Kumarpukur village in the Hoogly
village of Bengal.
His early name was Shuddirama Gadhadhar
Chatterjee.
He was a priest in the Dakshineswar Kali temple.
So he is called the Saint of Dakshineswar.
The most famous disciple of
Ramakrishna was
Vivekananda (1861 - 1903).
Vivekananda was born in a
Kayastha family of Calcutta.
He attended the Parliament
of Reigions at Chicago in
1893, September 11.
He was invited to the Congress of the History of
Religions at Paris in 1900.
He founded the Ramakrishana Mission on Ist May
1897.
1899 the Matha or the centre of the mission was
shifted to Belur.
He started two papers - the monthly Prabudha
Barat in English and Udbodhana a Bengali fort-
nightly.
He is called thepatriot saint of India.
He was also described as a Cyclonic Hindu.
In 1898 Sister Nivedita, (Margaret Elizebth Noble)
an Irish lady was initiated to brahmacharya by
Vivekananda.
Theosophical Society
The Theosophical Society was founded by Ma-
dame Blavatsky and Col. H.S.Olcott in Newyork
in 1875.
In 1882 it shifted its head quarters to Adayar near
Madras.
Its philosophy was inspired by the Hindu
Upanishads.
Dr.Annie Basant came to India in 1893, was its
notable President.
In 1898 she started the Central Hindu School at
Benaras, it later became Benaras Hindu Univer-
sity under Madan Mohan Malavya (1916).
She was the first woman to become the president
of INC in 1917.
She started theHome Rule League with the Co-
operation of Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1916 with
Dadabhai Naoroji as its President.
Young Bengal Movement
Started by Henry Vivian Derozio, teacher in the
Calcutta Hindu College.
His followers were known as the Derozians They
attacked the old traditions and decadant customs.
In 1828 he started the Academic Association.
Gopal Ganesh Agarkar
Reformer from Maharashtra he advocated the
power of human reason.
He founded the Deccan Education Society at
Poona in 1884 with Tilak, V.K. Chiplunkar and
N M Joshi.
Vivekananda
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J yotiba Phule
Belonging to the low caste of Mali from
Maharashtra, struggled against upper caste domi-
nation and Brahamincal supremacy through his
Sathyashodhak Samaj founded in 1873.
He wrote Ghulam-giri in 1872 exposing the con-
ditions of the backward castes.
He pioneered the Widow Remarriage Movement
in Maharashtra and worked for the education of
women.
Deva Samaj
It was started in 1887 by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri
at Lahore.
The religious text of this Samaj was Deva Shastra
and the teaching Devadharma.
NM J oshi
Initially a member of Ghoklales Servants of India
Society.
He founded the Social Service League at Bombay
in 1911.
He also founded theAll India Trade Union Con-
gress in 1920 at Bombay.
He left AITUC in 1929 and started the Indian
Trades Union Federation.
HN Kunzru
He founded the Seva Samiti at Allahabad in 1914
with the objective of organising social service
during the natural calamities and promoting edu-
cation sanitation, physical culture etc.
Shri Ram Bajpal
Founded the Seva Samiti Boys Scouts Associa-
tion in 1914 at Bombay on the lines of world wide
Baden Powell organisation, which at that time
banned Indians from Joining it.
Veerasalingam Pantulu
Most prominent social reformer of South India in
the second half of the 19th Century.
He founded the Rajmundri Social Reform Asso-
ciation in 1878 with the principal objective of pro-
moting widow remarriage.
Muslim Reform Movements
Aligarh Movement
This movement was started by Sir Syed Ahmad
Khan (1817 - 98)
Sir Syeds journal Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq advocated a
rational approach towards religion.
He founded the Muhammadan Literarary Soci-
ety at Calcutta in 1863.
In 1875 he founded the Aligarh Muhammadan
Anglo-Oriental College, (later Aligarh Muslim
University)
Altaf Hussain Hali, Dr. Nazir Ahmad, Nawab
Mutin Ul Mulk, Chirag Ali etc were the prominent
leader of Aligarh Movement.
In 1866 Syed Ahmed Khan founded the Muslim
Educational Conference.
Ahmadia Movement
Founded byMirza Ahmad at Quadiani in Punjab.
Sikh Reform Movements
In 1873 the Singh Sabha Movement was founded
at Amritsar.
The Akali Movement was also started for Sikh
reform
Kuka Movement was started with the aim of Sikh
reform and restoration of Sikh sovereignty in
Punjab by driving the British away.
Kuka movement was founded by Bagat
Jawaharmal, popularly known as Sian Sahib in
the 19th century.
Kukas recognised Guru Govind Singh as the only
true Guru of the Sikhs.
Some other Reformers
Prof. D.K. Karve who took the cause of widow
remarriage started the Indian Women University
at Bombay in 1916.
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B.M. Malabari started a Crusade against child
marriage and his efforts were crowned by the en-
actment of the Age consent Act. 1891.
Ahrar Movement was founded in 1910 under the
leadership of Maulana Mohamed Ali.
The Revolt of 1857
The Great Mutiny of 1857 took place during the
period of Lord Canning.
The Centres and Leaders of the Revolt
Lucknow - Begum Hazrat Mahal
Kanpur - Nana Saheb
Delhi - General Bhaktkhan
Bihar - Kunwar Singh
Jhansi - Rani Lekshmi Bai
Faridabad - Maulavi Ahmmadulla
Bareili - Khan Bahadur
The revolt of 1857 ended in failure but it promoted
the spirit of Nationalism and Patriotism.
The 19th Native Infantry
at Berhampur which re-
fused to use the greased
Cartridge and the enfield
rifle, started mutiny in Feb-
ruary 26, 1857.
The first shot was fired on
March 29 by Mangal
Pandey (of Ballia, UP) of
the 14th Bengal Infantry at
Barrakpore of Bengal.
Mangal Pandey was hanged to death on 29 March
1857.
May 10, 1857 witnessed the real mutiny at Meerut
then in Delhi on 11th May.
The first British to loose
his life was Col.Finnis Meerut.
Bahadurshah II surren-
dered to Lt. W.S.R. Hodson on Sep-
tember 21, 1957 at Humayuns Tomb
in Delhi.
The capture of Delhi and
the proclamation of Bahadurshah as
the Emperor of Hindustan gave a
positive political meaning to the re-
volt.
The immediate cause for
the 1857 revolt was the introduction
of the greased Catridges.
Educated middle class
section of Indian population did not
support the revolt fo 1857.
As a result of the revolt
of 1857 the then Governor General
Lord Canning was appointed as the
Viceroy of India.
On November 1, 1858 a
proclamation was made by the
Queen to the people of India in
eighteeen languages.
Major Tribal Movements
Tribe Area Year
Chuars W.Bengal 1768 - 1832
Bhils Khandesh 1818 - 1848 Sevaram
Hos Chotanagpur 1820-1832
Kolis Sahyadri hillis 1824 - 48
Kharies Khasi hils 1829 - 32 Tirut Singh and Barmanik
Singh PhosAssam 1830 - 39
Kols Chotanagpur 1831 - 32 Budho Bagat
Kayar Andhra Pradesh 1840 - 1924 Alluri Sitaram Raju
Kachnagar Assam 1882 Sambudhan
Ahom Assam 1828 - 33 Gomdhar Konovar
Khonds Orissa 1846 - 1914 Chattre Bisayi
Santhals Rajmahal Hills 1855 - 56 Sidhu and Kanhu
Naikadas Gujarat 1858 - 68 Rup Singh Jogia Bhagat
Mundas Chotanagpur 1899 - 1900 Birsa Munda
Bhils South Rajasthan 1933 Govind Guru
Oraons Chotanagpur 1914 - 1915 Jatra Bhagat
Kukis Manipur 1917 - 19 Rani Gaidinlue
Rampa Andhra Pradesh 1916 Alluri Sitaram Raju
Mangal Pandey
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The best and the bravest mili-
tary leader of the rebels sir
Hugh Ross said this about Rani
of Jhansi.
The original name of Rani of
Jhansi was Mani Karnika.
The administration by Indian
civil service officers started as
a result of the Queens proclamation.
The revolt was completely crusted in 1858.
Benjamin Disraeli described the revolt as a Na-
tional Rising.
V.D. Savarkar in his book First war of Inde-
pendence called it The First War of Indepen-
dence.
Eighteen Fifty Seven is a book written by
Surendra Nath Sen.
The Great Indian National Movement
The most important events during Lord Duferins
Period (1884-1888) were the third Anglo Burmese
War (1885-86) and the establishment of the first
All India organisation, the Indian National Con-
gress.
The INC was founded in December 28, 1885 at the
Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay.
72 delegates participated in the first session of
the INC.
It was founded by A.O. Hume a retired Civil Ser-
vant.
W.C. Banerjee was the first president of INC.
The Indian Association of S.N. Banerjee and
Anand Mohan Bose, organised an All Indian Na-
tional Conferencein 1883
December. They had
given a call for another
conference in 1885.
The term congress was
desired from the history
of The United States of
America.
Congress means as-
sembly of the people.
The name Congress was suggested to the
organisation by DadaBai Naoroji.
Dadabai Naoroji founded the East Indian Asso-
ciation in 1866.
A.O. Hume was the General Secretary of INC till
1892.
The Second Session of the INC met at Calcutta in
December 1886, under the presidentship of
Dadabhai Naoroji. Here the National Conference
merged itself with the INC.
The second session was attended by 436 del-
egates and there were 2000 delegates in 1889.
The period from 1885 to 1905 is known as the
Moderate Phase of Indian National Congress.
Prominent leaders of this phase were Dadabhai
Naoroji, Badruddin Tyabji, Pheroz Shah Mehta,
Surendranath Banerjee, Gopalakrishna Gokhale
etc.
We do not ask favours, we only want justice,
these were the words Dadabhai Naroji.
Dadabhai Noaroji is the author of the book Pov-
erty and UnBritish Rule in India which con-
tains the famous drain theory.
The British committeeof INC was founded in 1889.
Aurobindo Ghosh called INC a begging insti-
tute
Bibin Chandra Pal viewed INC playing with
bubble.
Tilak, the father of Indian unrest said INC should
distinguish between begging and claiming
right Tilak said Rights are not begged they
are claimed.
The congress sessions lasts only for three days
a year.
Dadabhai Naoroji is known as The Grand Old
Man of India. He was the first Indian to become
a member of the House of Commons on the Lib-
eral Partys ticket. He became the president of INC
thrice, in 1886, 1893 and 1906. He founded Gyan
Prakash Mandali and Bombay Association in
1852. He is also known as father of Indian Eco-
nomics and Politics.
Jhansi Rani
DadaBai Naoroji
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Badruddin Tyabji was the first Indian barrister at
Bombay High Court. He was the first Muslim
president of INC. He became the third president
of INC in Madras session in 1887.
W.C. Banerjee founded the Bombay chronicle in
1913 and the Moderate school.
S.N. Banerjee founded the Indian Association in
1876. He was the first President of Indian National
Liberal Federation (1918).
Gopalakrishna Gokhale founded the Servants
of India Society in 1905.
K.T. Telang became the first Hardworking sec-
retary of INC.
Jawaharlal Nehru observed the Early Congress
to be an English knowing upper class affair.
George Yule was the first foreigner to become
the President of INC. (1888, Allahabad)
Gopala Krishna Gokhale was populary known as
EARLY ASSOCIATIONS
Year.. Organisation Founder Place
1838... Landholders society............................. Dwaraknath Tagore.................................. Calcutta
1839... British India Society.............................. William Adams ......................................... London
1851... British India Association....................... Devendranath Tagore............................... Calcutta
1862... London India Committee....................... C.P. Mudaliar ............................................ London
1866... East India Association.......................... Dadabhai Naoroji ...................................... London
1867... National Indian Association.................. Mary Carpenter ........................................ London
1872... Indian Society ...................................... Anand Mohan Bose................................. London
1876... Indian Association ............................... Anand Mohan Bose andS.N. Banerjee......Calcutta
1883... Indian National Society......................... Shishir Chandra Bose............................... Calcutta
1884... Indian National Conference................... S M Banerjee............................................ Calcutta
1885... Bombay Presidency Association........... Mehta and Telang .................................... Bombay
1888... United India Patriotic Association......... Sir Syed Ahmed Khan............................... Aligarh
1905... Servants of India Society...................... G.K. Gokhale............................................ Bombay
1920... Indian Trade Union Congress ............... NM Joshi (founder) .................................. Lucknow
Lala Lajpat Rai (President)
1924... All India Communist Party..................... Satyabhakta............................................. Kanpur
1928... Khudai Khidmatgar............................... Abdul Gaffar Khan ................................... Peshwar
1936... All India Kisan Sabha........................... Sahajananda and N.J. Ranga..................... Lucknow
1940... Radical Democratic Party....................... M.N. Roy................................................. Calcutta
the Socrates of Maharahstra. M.G. Ranade was
the political guru of Gokhale.
Gokhale is considered as the political guru of
Gandhiji.
Sarojini Naidu was the first
Indian woman to become the
president of Indian National
Congress (1925 Kanpur ses-
sion)
Nellin Sengupta became the
third woman President of INC,
1933 at the Calcutta Session.
in 1906.
The word Swaraj was first used in the Calcutta
session in1906.
First J oint session of Congress and Muslim
League was held at Lucknow 1916.
Sarojini Naidu
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First session held in a village was 1937 session
held at Fazipur.
Only session presided over by Gandhi - Belgaum
(1924)
Complete independence was demanded for the
first time (1929) at Lahore.
For the first time National Song was sung in the
Calcutta session (1896) of INC ie Vande Mataram.
During the fourth session of INC (1888, Allahabad)
emphasise was given on the formation of its con-
stitution.
During the Nagpur session 1891, the word Na-
tional was added to congress.
During the Poona session (1895) representives
for the second time discussed on the formation
of its Constitution.
In the Lucknow session of the Congress (1916)
the two factions of congress (extremists and mod-
erates) reunited.
During the special session of the congress in
Calcutta (1920) Gandhi proposed to start Non-co
operation Movement. Instead of Constitutional
self-government congress declared Swaraj Party
in 1922.
During the Delhi session (1923) Indian National
Congress decided to establish All India Khadi
Board.
During the Guwahati session of INC (1926) wear-
ing Khadi was made cumpulsory to its workers.
During the Madras session (1908) its constitu-
tion was formed.
In Madras session of the INC (1927) proposals
for independence and to boycott Simon Com-
mission were passed
During the Karachi session (1931) Fundamental
Rights and Economic Policy proposals were
passed.
During its 1932 and 1933 Sessions Government
had declared INC an illegal organisation.
During the Lucknow session (1936) Nehru ex-
plained for the first time.
During Faizpur session (1937) Congress decided
to takepart in election of 1937.
1938 session of Congress was held in a village
Haripura.
In the Ramagarh session (1904) decision was
taken on Individual Satyagraha.
While Britishers tried to use Congress as a safety
valve, Indian leaders tried to use it as a lightning
conductor.
During the Tripura session (1939) Subash Chandra
Bose defeated Pattabhi Sitaramayya (Gandhis
candidate in presidential election) but later re-
signed and Rajendra Prasad became the presi-
dent.
During Calcutta session (1928) first All India
Youth Congress was established.
During the Delhi session (1918) along with S.N.
Banerjee many liberals resigned and Rajendra
Prasad became its president.
Aurobindo publishedNew Lamps For Old. It was
the first systematic critic of the Moderates.
The radical wing of the INC that emerged at the
end of the 19th century is referred to as the Ex-
tremist Group.
The main leaders of the Extremist Group were Lala
Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, B.C. Pal and
Aurobindo Ghosh.
Tilak asserted Swaraj is my birthright and I shall
have it.
Tilak started two newspapers the Mahratha in
English and the Kesari in Marathi. He started
Sivaji festival to stimulate nationalism.
Lord Curzon Partitioned Bengal on 20th July 1905
as a part of the Divide and Rule Policy.
Rabindra Nath Tagore composed Amer Sonar
Bengla as a part of ante
partition movement,
which later became the
National Anthem of
Bangladesh.
Boycott of British prod-
ucts was first sug-
gested by Krishna
Kumar Mitra in
Sanjivani.
Rabindra Nath Tagore
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The Swadeshi Movement was started in 1905.
Charka (spinning wheel) came to typify the
popular concern for countrys economic self suf-
ficiency.
Swadesh Bandhav Samiti of Barisal founded by
Ashwini Dutt was the largest Volunteer body to
support Swadeshi Movement.
First real labour union - The Printers Union was
formed on October 1905.
Vande Mataram Movement was started by
Chandra Pal in Madras
Tilak began the Swadesh Vastra Pracharine
Sabha to propagate Swadeshi Movement.
Savarkar founded Mitra mela.
Chakravarthi Vijiaraghavacharya was the first
Indian leader to undergo imprisonment in 1882.
He was an extremist leader. He was the first In-
dian to draft a Swaraj constitution for India which
was presented at the Madras session in 1927.
First congress leader to suffer severe terms of
imprisonment for the sake of the country was Bal
Gangadhar Tilak.
Tilak wrote Gita Rahasya.
Bipin Chandrapal started an English weekly New
India.
Bipin Chandrapal founded Bande Mataramin 1906
(an organization)
Lala Lajpat Rai is popularly known as Sher-e-
Punjab (Lion of Punjab). He founded and edited
The Punjabee, The Vante Mataram and the
English weekly The people.
The Bengali daily Yugandar was started by
Aurobindo Gosh. He also started weeklies
Karma Yogin and Dharma.
The Formation of the Muslim League
(1906)
All India Muslim League was founded under the
Leadership of Aga Khan to divert the Muslims
from the National Political Movement. On Decem-
ber 30th Nawab Salimulla Khan of Dhaka became
its first President.
Muhammed Iqbal, who presided over the
Allahabad session of the League in 1930 gave
the idea of Separate Muslim State in North West
India. Hence Iqbal is known as the father of the
idea of Pakistan. But the name Pakistan was
framed by Rahmat Ali.
Mohammed Ali Jinnah gave his famous Two Na-
tion Theory in March 1940, at the Lahore session
of the Muslim League.
Sarojini Naidu called Jinnah theProphet of Hindu-
Muslim Unity.
Later Jinhah became the first Governor General of
Pakistan. He is also known as the father of Paki-
stan.
Surat Split (1907)
The clash between the Moderates and Extrem-
ists culminated in a split which occurred at Surat
in 1907.
Dr. Rash Bihari Bose was the INC President dur-
ing the Surat Split.
After the Surat Split the congress remained un-
der the control of the Moderates.
The Moderates did not approve the boycott of
foreign goods but the Extenmists favoured it. The
Moderates continued to have faith in the good
intensions of the British government. They
wanted self government in gradual stages, while
the Extremists wanted complete autonomy at the
earliest.
Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909
The Minto Morley Reforms for the first time tried
to introduce communal representation (for
muslims) and a popular element in the govt.
The real purpose of the reforms of 1909 was to
confuse the Moderate nationalists and to check
the growth of unity among Indians.
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Home Rule Movement (1916)
Home Rule Movement was started by Annie
Besant and Tilak in 1916.
Self government for India in British Empire and
work for national education, social and political
reform etc were the aims of Home Rule League.
Annie Besnat was the first woman president of
INC (1917, Calcutta Session)
Annie Besant set up the newspapers -New India,
Common Weal and Young India (1916).
Home Rule Movement marks the beginning for
the attainment of Swaraj.
The Montague declaration of 1917 was the great-
est achievement of the Home Rule League.
The Lucknow session of the Indian National Con-
gress in 1916 marked the re union of the Moder-
ates and Extremists together at Lucknow in 1916.
The Lucknow pact was executed between the
congress and Muslim League in 1916.
Montegue - Chelmsford Reforms 1919
It is also known as the Government of India Act
of 1919.
In 1918, Edwin Montague, the Secretary of State
and Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy produced their
scheme of constitutional reforms which led to the
enactment of the Government of India Act of
1919.
The Provincial Legislative Councils were enlarged
and the majority of their members were to be
elected. The provincial government were given
more powers under the system of dyarchy.
Indian National Congress in a special session at
Bombay in August 1918 criticised the reform as
disappointing and unsatisfactory.
The Montague Chelmsford reforms introduced
dyarchy in the provinces.
Provincial subjects were divided into Reversed
subjects and Transferred Subjects.
Central legislature was made bicameral by this
reform.
J alianwala Bagh Massacre - April 13,
1919
In 1919, Rowlatt Act, which authorised the gov-
ernment to detain any person without trial was
passed.
The Act was passed during the period of Lord
Chelmsford.
The official name of the Rowlatt Act was the An-
archical and Revolutionary Crimes Act (1919).
Sir Sydney Rowlatt was the president of the com-
mittee to make proposals for the Act.
C.Sankaran Nair was the only Indian official
member who supported the bill, while all the 22
elected Indian members in the Imperial Legisla-
tive Council opposed the bill.
Gandhiji set up Rowlatt Committee to protest
this act.
The protest against this Black Act was the
strongest in Punjab where it led to the Massacre
at Jalianwala Bagh Amritsar on April 13, 1919. It
was on a Baishaki day. The British Officer Gen-
eral Dyer ordered his troops to open fire at un-
armed gathering, who were gathered there to pro-
test against the arrest of their popular leaders
Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal.
On this occasion Tagore renounced his Knight-
hood in protest.
Michael ODyer Governor of the Punjab prov-
ince supported the incident and on March 15,
Martial law was declared.
Gandhiji renounced the Kaiser-i-Hind medal
given to him for his work during the Boer War.
Hunter Committee was appointed to enquire into
the Jallianwallah Massacre (1920)
Hunter Commissions report was described by
Gandhiji as a white wash.
Sardar Udham Singh, who took the name Ram
Muhammed Singh, Sonak Murdered Dyer in En-
gland as a revenge to the Massacre.
The English House of Lords presented a jewelled
sword to General in which was inscribed sav-
iour of the Punjab.
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Events/Acts/Reforms.............. Viceroy/Governor Generals
Permanent Settlement (1793)..........Lord Cornwallis
Subsidiary Alliance (1798)..............Lord Wellesley
Abolition of Sati (1829) ....... Lord William Bentinck
Introduction of Civil service..........Lord Cornwallis
Doctrine of Lapse......................... Lord Dalhousie
Railways started in India............... Lord Dalhousie
Post and Telegraph....................... Lord Dalhousie
English Education in India.. Lord William Bentinck
Vernacular Press Act (1878).................Lord Lytton
Arms Act (1878) .................................Lord Lytton
Local Self Government (1882) ............ Lord Rippon
Ryotwari System................................ Lord Munro
Partition of Bengal (1905) ...................Lord Curzon
Rowlatt Act (1914) ...................... Lord Chelmsford
Simon Commission (1928) ... Lord William Bentinck
Sepoy Mutiny (1857) ....................... Lord Canning
Queens Proclamation (1858) .............Lord Canning
Factory Act (1881) .............................. Lord Ripon
Repeal of Vernacular Press Act (1881)Lord Canning
Indian councils Act/Minto -Morley Reforms (1909)
....................................................... Lord Minto II
Partition of Bengal revoked (1911) Lord Hardinge II
Transfer Capital to Delhi (1911) ... Lord Hardinge II
Dyarchy in province (1919) ......... Lord Chelmsford
Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy (1919).. Lord Chelmsford
Non co-operation ....................... Lord Chelmsford
Poorna Swaraj resolution (Lahore 1929) . Lord Irwin
Frist Round Table Conference (1930) ..... Lord Irwin
Gandhi Irwin Pact (1931) ....................... Lord Irwin
Communal Award (1932) ..............Lord Wellington
Poona Pact (1932) ........................ Lord Wellington
2nd Round TableConference(1931) ....Lord Wellington
3rd Round TableConference(1932).....Lord Wellington
Separate Electorates (1932) ..........Lord Wellington
Government of India Act (1935)....Lord Wellington
Non-Co-operation Movement (1920)
Non Co-operation Movement was started with
the aim of the annulment of the Rowlatt Act, and
correcting the Punjab wrong changing the
Khilafat wrong as well as moving towards the
cherished goal of swaraj.
It was the first mass based political movement
under Gandhiji.
The movement was launched as per the resolu-
tion of Calcutta session and ratified in Nagpur
session in December 1920.
The main emphasise of the movement was on
boycott of schools, colleges, law courts and ad-
vocacy of the use of Charka.
The whole movement was called off on 11th Feb-
ruary 1922 at Gandhis insistence following the
news of burning alive of 22 English plicemen by
the angry peasants at ChauriChaura (Chauri
Chaura Incident) in Gorakhpur district of Up on
5th February 1922.
The Non Cooperation movement converted the
national movement into a mass movement . It
strengthened Hindu-Muslim unity.
Khilafat Movement (1919)
The main object of the Khilafat Movement was to
force the British Government to change its atti-
tude towards Turkey and restore the Turkish
Sulthan (Khalifa) to his former position.
A Khilafat committee was formed under the
leadersip of Ali brothers Maulana Azad, Hakim
Ajmal khan, and Hasrat Mohani.
Provincial Autonomy (1937)......... Lord Linlithgow
Cripps Mission (1942) .................... Lord Linthgow
Quit India Movement................... Lord Linlithgow
Cabinet Mission (1946) ...................... Lord Wavell
INA Trial (1945) ................................. Lord Wavell
Indian IndependenceAct 1947) .......Lord Mountbatten
Partition of India (1947) ............ Lord Mountbatten
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The Khilafat Movement lost its relevance due to
the reforms of Mustafa Kamal Pasha in Turkey.
Pasha abolished Khilafat and made Turkey a secu-
lar state.
On 1 J une 1920 the Khilafat Committee at
Allahabad unanimously accepted Gandhis sug-
gestion of non co-operation and asked him to
lead the Movement.
Indian Working Class
First organised strike by any section of the work-
ing class was the Signalers Strike in May 1899
in the Great Indian Peninsular (GIP) Railway.
AITUC was formed in 1920 with Lala Lajpat Rai as
its first President and Dewan Chaman Lal as its
General Secretary.
Indian National Congress at its Gaya session of
1922 welcomed the formation of AITUC.
Government appointed the Royal Commission on
Labour in 1929.
Simon Commission
In November 1927, the British Government ap-
pointed the Indian Statutory Commission, popu-
larly known as Simon Commission, to go it to the
question of further constitution reform.
The Congress passed a resolution to boycott the
Simon Commission at its Madras session 1927.
The day Simon landed at Mumbai ; 3 February
1928 all the major cities and towns observed a
complete hartal.
The Madras session 1927 was presided over by
Dr. Ansari.
On the arrival of the Commission in Mumbai in
1928, it met with the slogan Go back Simon.
There were Seven members in the Simon Com-
mission. but no Indian.
Lala Lajpat Rai was severely wounded in a po-
lice Lathi charge and died while protesting against
the Commission.
To avenge the death of Lala Lajpat Rai, Bhagat
Singh shot dead General Saunders.
Books and Authors
Vande Mataram.....................Aurobindo Ghosh
New Lamps for Old...............Aurobindo Ghosh
Bhavani Mandir....................Aurobindo Ghosh
Hind Swaraj ........................... Mahatma Gandhi
Gora................................ Rabindranath Tagore
Ghare Baiyare.................. Rabindranath Tagore
Gitanjali ........................... Rabindranath Tagore
Discovery of India............................ J.L. Nehru
Essays in Indian Economics..........M.G. Ranade
Arctic Home of the Aryans................B.G. Tilak
Geeta Rahasya................................... B.G. Tilak
Poverty and Un-British Rulein IndiaDadaBhai Naoroji
We........................................... M.S. Golwalkar
Durgesh Nandini .... Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
Bang Darshan......... Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
Anand Math .......... Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
India in Transition ............................ M.N. Roy
Economic History of British India....... R.C. Dutt
The Indian Struggle......Subhash Chandra Bose
Indian Musalmans.................................Hunter
Gana Devta ....... Tarashankar Bandhopadhyaya
Philosophy of the Bomb..... Bhagavati Charan Vohra
Why Socialism................ Jayaprakash Narayan
Gandhi Versus Lenin....................... S.A. Dange
Problem of the East....................... Lord Curzon
Neel Darpam...................... Deen Bandu Mithra
India Today........................................ R.P. Dutt
India Wins Freedom............ Abdul Kalam Azad
Indian Unrest .......................... Valentine Chirol
Prachya Aur Paschchatya.... Swami Vivekanand
Gau Karunanidhi .................... Swami Dyayanda
Letters from Russia............ Rabindranth Tagore
Wither India...................................... J.L.Nehru
Soviet Asia ...................................... J.L. Nehru
Pather Debi ................... Avanindranath Tagore
History of Hindu Chemistry .................. P.C. Rai
Peasantry of Bengal ........................... R.C. Dutt
Some Commissions
Amini Commission on Land Revenue and Famine
(1878)
Fraser Commission on Agriculture (1902)
Hunter Commission on Punjab Disturbance (1919)
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Rowlatt Commission on Sedition (1919)
Butler Commission on Indian States (1927)
Sapru Commission on Unemployment (1935)
Whitley Commission on Labour (1939)
Floud Commission on Tenancy in Bengal (1940)
Peasant Movements
Indigo Revolt - 1860
The revolt was directed against the British Plant-
ers who behaved like Feudal Lords in their estates.
The revolt began after Hemachandrakar deputy
Magistrate, published on 17 August, 1859 a proc-
lamation to policmen that they should interefere
with the rights of the peasants to saw whatever
they preferred.
It began at Govindpur village in Nadia and was
led by Digambar Bishwas and Bishnu Bishwas.
Din Bandu Mitras novel Neel Darpan protrayed
this struggle.
An Indigo Commission was also appointed in 1860.
Pabna Revolt (Bengal)
In may 1874 an Agrarian League was formed in
Pabna. Main leader wasIshan Chandra Roy. The
revolt was against increased rent.
Champaran Satyagraha (1917)
The peasants in this region were forced to culti-
vate indigo at the prices decided by the British.
This system was known as Tinkathia system.
Gandhijis first Satyagraha in India was the
Champaran in 1917.
Kheda Satyagraha (1918)
Chiefly directed against the government.
It was started by Madan Mohan Malavya later
taken up by Gandhiji in 1918.
Swaraj Party (1923)
C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru resigned from con-
gress on 31 December 1922 and founded the
Swaraj Party on 1st January 1923.
Its early name was Congress Khilafat Swaraj
Party.
C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru were the frist presi-
dent and Secretary respectively of the Swaraj
Party.
C.R. Das gave the slogan Enter the Council
Swaraj Party was formed at Allahabad.
The 1924 when Gandhi came out of Jail he sup-
ported the programme of Swaraj Party.
Trade Union Movement in India
First Textile Mill : Bombay (1853)
First Jute Mill at Rishra in Bengal (1855)
First Factory Act was passed in 1881.
The Second Factory Act was passed in 1891.
First Industrial Commission was appointed in
1875.
The first real labour union was formed in October
1901 in Calcutta called the Printers Union.
The Madras Labour Union was the first
organisation with regular membership and was
started by G. Ramanujalu Naidu, G. Challapathi
and was presided over by B.P. Wadia in 1918.
The All India Trade Union Congress was founded
in 1920. The Indian National Congress President
of the year was elected as its President.
The Trade Union Act of 1926 organised trade
unions as legal Associations.
The J amshedpur Labour Association was
founded by S.N. Haldar and Byomkesh
Chakravarthy in 1920.
In 1929, All India Trade Union Federation was
formed under the leadership of NM Joshi.
The Congress Socialist Party was founded in
1934.
Kanpur Labour Enquiry Committee was founded
under the chairmanship of Rajendra Prasad.
In 1944 national leaders lead by Sardar Patel
organised the Indian National Trade Union Con-
gress.
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Civil Disobedience movement -1930
In 1930, Gandhiji launched the Civil Disobedience
Movement.
In 1929 INC adopted Poorna Swaraj (complete
independence) as its goal at the Lahore session
of the congress under the Presidentship of Nehru.
It also decided for launching a Civil Disobedi-
ence Campaign.
At midnight on 31 December 1929, Jawaharlal
Nehru unfurled the newly adopted Tricolour Flag
of freedom on the bank of river Ravi.
26 January 1930 was fixed as the first indepen-
dent day.
The Civil Disobedience Movement was started
by Gandhiji with his famous Dandi March
He started his Salt Satyagraha or the Dandi
March on the morning of 12 March 1930 with a
band of 78 volunteers. It was 385km (240 miles)
Journey from Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad
to Dandi on the West Coast. On April 5, at 6 in the
morning Gandhiji and his volunteers picked up
Salt lying on the sea-shore. (Sarojini Naidu, at
this hailed Gandhiji as Law breaker)
In Tamil Nadu C. Rajagopalachari led a Salt
March from Trichirapalli to Vedaranyam on the
Tanjore Coast. He was arrested on 30 April, 1930.
In Malabar K. Kelappan, the hero of the Vaikkom
Satyagraha, walked from Calicut to Payyannur to
break the Salt law.
Gandhiji was arrested on May 5, 1930. After his
arrest his place was taken by Abbas Tyabji and
after the arrest of Abbas leadership passed on to
Sarojini Naidu.
Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy called the decision
of Gandhi as a Kindergarten stage of revolu-
tion.
Irwin called Gandhis breaking of salt law as a
Storm in a tea cup
Salt suddenly became a mysterious word, a word
of power These words were spoken by Nehru
on the occassion of Salt Satyagraha.
On 18, April 1930 Chittagong Armoury was raided
by Surya sen.
On 23 April 1930, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khans
Governors Generals of India
1772-1785.............................Warren Hastings
1786 - 1793............................. Lord Cornwallis
1793 - 1798................................. Sir Joh Shore
1798 - 1805.............................. Lord Wellesley
1807- 1813 .................................... Lord Minto
1813 -1823 ................................Lord Hastings
1823 - 1828................................ Lord Amherst
1828 - 1835.................... Lord William Bentinck
1835 - 1842....................... Baron Ellenborough
1842 - 1844.................. William Wilberfore Bird
1844 - 1848............................... Lord Hardinge
1848 - 1856.............................. Lord Dalhousie
1856 - 1858................................ Lord Canning
Viceroys of British India
1858 - 1862................................ Lord Canning
1862 - 1863.............................. 8th Earl Elgin I.
1863.................................... Sir Robert Napier
1863 - 1864.................... Sir William T. Dension
1864 - 1869................................. Earl of Mayo
1872 - ..................................Sir John Strachey
1872 - 1876........................ Baron North Brook
1876 - 1880................................... Lord Lytton
1880-1884..................................... Lord Ripon
1884 -1888 .................................Lord Dufferin
1888-1894.............................Lord Lansdowne
1894 -1899 .................................. Lord Elgin II
1899 - 1905.................................. Lord Curzon
1905 - 1910.................................Lord Minto II
1910 - 1916............................ Lord Hardinge II
1916 - 1921............................ Lord Chelmsford
1921 -1926 .................................Lord Reading
1926-1931...................................... Lord Irwin
1931 -1936 ............................ Lord Wellington
1936 -1942 ............................. Lord Linlithgow
1942-1947....................................Lord Wavell
1947 (March 13 - August 14) ..........................
................................. Lord Louis Mounbatten
Governors - Generals of Indian Union
1947 (August 15)
1948 (June 20) ...........Lord Louis Mountbatten
1950 Jan. 25....................... C. Rajagopalachari
Khudai Khidmatgar activated the NWFP leading
to rioting where the Hindu Gahrwal Rifles refused
to fire on Muslim rioters.
Darshana Salt Works (21 may) Satyagraha led
by Sarojini Naidu, Imam Saheb and Manilal
Gandhi.
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One notable feature of the Civil Disobedience
Movement of Gandhiji was wide participation of
women.
Round Table Conferences
The British government organised the First Round
Table Conference at London to discuss the Simon
Commission Report.
The first Round Table Conference was from 12
Nov. 1930 to 19 January 1931.
British Prime Minister Ramsay Mac Donald pre-
sided over the First Round Table Conference.
The first Round Table Conference was attended
by Tej Bahadur Supru B.R. Ambedkar, Muhammed
Shafi, M.A. Jinnah etc. Gandhiji did not partici-
pate in it.
As a result of the Gandhi Irwin pact (1931) Con-
gress decided to stop the Civil Disobedience
Movement.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed on 5th March 1931.
The Second Round Table Conference started in
London on 7 September 1931. It was attended by
107 Indians including Gandhiji.
The Second Round Table Conference was a fail-
ure. So the Civil Disobedience movement was re-
started on 3rd January 1932.
Sarojini Naidu participated in the Second Round
Table Conference.
The Communal Award was announced on Au-
gust 16, 1932 by British Prime Minister Ramsay
Mac Donald.
By the Communal Award minority communities
were given Separate Communal Electroates.
The Communal Award was opposed by Gandhiji
and he decided to go on fast unto death.
The Third and the last Round Table Conference
was held between Nov. 17 and December 24, 1932.
The Third Round Table Conference agreed upon
certain broad principles for the future constitu-
tional set up: Which were published later as white
paper (March 1933)
The Poona Pact was signed on 25 September 1932
at Bombay. By this the separate electorate for de-
Famous Conspiracy Cases
Case Date Accused
Nasik 1909-10 Vinayak Savarkar
Conspiracy
Alipore 1908 Aurobindo Ghosh
Hawrah case 1910 Jatin Mukharjee
Dacca Case 1910 Pulin Das
Delhi case 1915 Amirchand, Awad
Bihari and Bal Mukund
Lahore case 1929 - 30 Bhagat Singh, Rajguru
and Sukhdev
Banaras case 1915 - 16 Sachindranath Sanyal
Kakori case 1925 Rama Prasad Bismil and
Ashfaq
pressed classes was abolished.
Harijan upliftment now became Gandhijis main
concern. He started an All India Anti-Untouch-
ability League in September 1932 and the weekly
Harijan in January 1933. The January 8, 1933 was
observed as Temple Entry Day.
Only Indian to participate all the three Round Table
conference was B.R. Ambedkar.
Socialists
It was above all Jawaharlal Nehru who imported a
socialist vision to the national movement.
At the Lahore session in 1929 Nehru introduced
this idea.
The Congress Socialist Party was founded in
October 1934 at Bombay under the leadership of
Jaya Prakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev
and Minoo Masani
The CSP supported the Quit India Movement.
Socialist ideas led to the emergence of Commu-
nist Party of India (CPI) and the Congress So-
cialist party.
Towards the end of 1920 M.N. Roy and other In-
dian emigres at Tashkant formed a communist
party of India. In India on 1st September, 1924
Satyabhakta in a press note announced the for-
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mation of the Communist Party of India with him-
self as the Secretary.
In December 1928 the All India Worker and Peas-
ants Party came into existence.
The government declared CPI illegal in 1934.
Revolutionary Terrorism
Ram Prasad Bismil, J ogesh Chatterjee and
Sachindranath Sanyal founded the Hindustan
Republican Associations (HRA) in 1924, whose
object was to establish a Federal Republic.
On 9 August 1925 ten revolutionaries robbed the
8-Downtrain at Kakori, near Lucknow. This is
known as Kakori Conspiracy.
HRA became Hindustan Socialist Republican
Association in 1928.
Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt threw bomb on the
Central Legislative Assembly against the passage
of the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes
Bill.
Chittagong Armoury Raid was planned by
Suryasen and his associates on 18 April 1930.
In March 1929, a group of 31 labour leaders were
tried in Meerat Conspiracy Case.
Provisional Government of Free India was set up
at Kabul in 1915 by Mahendrapratap and
Barkatulla.
Death of Jitin Das, a revolutionary in jail on the
64th day of a hunger strike was in 1929.
Execution of Bhagatsingh Sukh Dev and RajGuru
by the British was on March 23, 1931.
Death of Chandrasekhar Azad in 1931 in an en-
counter with police at Allahabad.
Government of India Act (1935)
The government of India Act 1935 proposed a
government based on Federal System.
It ensured complete autonomy
First general election as per the Act of 1935 was
held in 1937, Congress got the majority.
But all the Congress Ministers resigned in 1939
as a protest against Britains decision to drag In-
dia into the Second World War.
August offer (1940)
The famous proclamation made by Lord
Linlithgow on 8 August 1940 is known a August
Offer.
This ensured to give dominion status and free-
dom to frame constitution based on representa-
tive nature.
Cripps Mission 1942
The mission under Stafford Cripps (the Lord Privy
Seal and a member of the British War Cabinet) ar-
rived in India on March 22, 1942 to find out a politi-
cal formula for transfer of power to Indians.
The main proposals of the mission was to grant
Dominion status to India at the end of the Sec-
ond World War and setting up of an interim gov-
ernment to administer the country in all matters
except defence.
The Congress and the League rejected the offer
Gandhiji called the cripps offer a Post Dated
Cheque on a Crashing Bank.
Quit India Movement (1942)
The failure of the Cripps Mission was the major
reason for the beginning of Quit India Movement.
The All India Congress Committee met at Bombay
on August 8, 1942 passed the famous Quit India
resolution.
The Movement began on 9 August 1942.
On the occasion of the Quit India Movement
Gandhiji gave his famous call of Do or Die.
The term Quit India was coined by an American
Journalist while interviewing Gandhiji.
Quit India, Bharat Chodo Do or Die these
were the powerful slogans of Quit India move-
ment.
Muslim League new slogan during the Movement
was Divide and Quit.
C. Rajagopalachari evolved, in 1944, a formula
called the CR Formula to end the struggle be-
tween the Congress and Muslim League.
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Lord Wavell, the then Governor General offered
the famous Wavellplan in 1945 at Shimla.
Royal Indian Navy Mutiny (1946)
On 18thFebruary 1946 1,100 naval ratings of the
Signal School of HMIS Talwar (ship) in Bombay
went on strike against racial discrimination regard-
ing pay and food.
BC Dutt was arrested for writing Quit India on
HMIS Talwar.
Both Congress and Muslim league did not help
the mutineers.
Cabinet Mission (1946)
The British Government headed by Attlee of the
Labour Party, appointed a Cabinet Mission con-
sisting of Pethic Lawrence, Stafford Cripps and
A.V. Alexander.
Cabinet Mission proposed a federal government
for the whole of India.
Elections to the Constituent Assembly were held
under the Cabinet Mission Plan, in 1946.
Cabinet Mission arrived in India in 1946 March
23.
The Mission was headed by Lord Pethwick
Lawrence.
It provided an interim government during the time
of Lord Wavell
It also provided for the establishment of a
Constitutent Assembly to frame a constitution
On 2 September 1946 an Interim Government
headed by Nehru came to power.
It was a 12 member Ministry.Three members were
Muslims.
Liakqat Ali Khan was the Finance Minister in the
Interim Government.
The Muslim League proclaimed Direct Action
Day on 16 August 1946 with battle cry of
Pakisthan, Larke Langa Pakistan.
TheMuslim League proclaimed September 2, 1946
as a Day of Mourning.
Communal riots broke out in Naokhali from No-
vember 7, 1946 to March 2, 1947 Gandhiji toured
in these 49 villages.
December 3 - 6, 1946 The British Prime Minister
Clement Atlee summoned Jawaharlal Nehru,
Baldev Singh, MuhammedAli Jinnah and Liaqat
Ali Khan for an extraordinary conference at 10
Dawning Street London.
Constituent Assembly: The constituent Assem-
bly started its session on December 9, 1946 in the
Library of the Council Chamber without the par-
ticipation of the League.
Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President of
the Constituent Assembly.
Mountbatten Plan (1947)
Mountbatten arrived in India on March 22, 1947.
Mountbatten became the last Viceroy of India,
the last Governor General of India and first gov-
ernor general of free India.
Mountbatten proposed a plan to divide India.
Clement Atlee announced the plan in the House
of Commons on 2 June 1947, hence it came to be
known as 3rd June Plan.
Work of the demarcation of the boundaries was
done by Radcliff . Hence the line is known as
Radcliff line.
The 3rd June Plan was given effect by the In-
dian Independence Act 1947.
The dominion of Pakistan was inaugurated in
Karachi on 14th August 1947. India became free
on 15th 1947.
Integration of States
The integration of Princely States was done by
Sardar Patel with the assistance of V.P. Menon.
By August 1947, all the 554 States, with the ex-
ception only of Hyderabad, Kashmir and Junagarh
acceded to the union.
On 26th October the Maharaja of Kashmir,
Harisingh signed the Instrument of Accession
and Sheik Abdulla is known as Lion of Kash-
mir.
The Nizam of Hyderabad signed the agreement
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to join the Indian Union through police action in
1948.
Indian National Army (INA)
The idea of Indian National Army was first con-
ceived by Mohan Singh at Malaya, an officer in
British Indian Army.
The first division of INA was formed in Septem-
ber 1942 with Japanese help.
Subash Chandra Bose began to associate with
INA by July 1943. The command was handed over
by Rash Bihari Bose
To the Indians Subash Chandra Bose said you
give me blood I will give you freedom..
Subash Chandra Bose set up two INA headquar-
ters at Rangoon and Singapore.
The womens regiment called the Rani Jhansi
regiment was under Captain Lekshmi Segal.
He was the first to address Gandhiji as the Fa-
ther of the nation in his appeal on the Azad
Hind Radio Singapore.
In may 1944 INA captured Mowdok and hoisted
the tri-colour flag on Indian soil.
The J apanese government handed over the
Andaman and Nickobar island to him which were
renamed Shaheed and Swaraj islands respec-
tively.
The INA troops surrendered before the British
army in 1945.
The British Government of India charged INA
soldiers of waging war against the king. The tri-
als were held in the Red Fort in Delhi.
The first three accused were capt. P.K. Sehgal ,
Capt. Shah Nawaz and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon.
Subash Chandra Bose was born at Cuttack in
Orissa.
He appeared for the Indian Civil Service in 1920
and passed with merit, but resigned before com-
pleting his probation in April 1921, he joined the
Congress and plunged into the national move-
ment.
He was unanimously elected President at the
Haripura Congress session in 1938 and was re-
elected for the second term at the Tripuri ses-
sion in 1939, defeating Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya,
who was supported by Gandhiji.
He resigned the Presidentship of INC in April 1939
and founded All India Forward Block and the
Kisan Sabha.
But in January 1941, he escaped out of India and
reached Berlin (Germany) from where he arrived
in Singapore in 1943.
Bose was popularly known as the Netaji
He was reportedly killed in an air cash over Taipei,
Taiwan on August 18, 1945.
A.N. Mukherjee Commission enquired about the
mysterious disappearance of Subash Chandra
Bose.
The Viceroys of India
Lord Canning (1856 - 62)
Revolt of 1857.
Queen Victorias Proclamation and passing of the
Indian Act of 1858.
Withdrawal of the Doctrine of Lapse in 1859,
which was passed by Lord Dalhousie.
Foundation of the Universities of Calcutta,
Bombay and Madras in 1857.
Indigo Revolt in Bengal in 1859-60.
White Mutiny by the European troops of East
India Company in 1859.
Bahadurshah II was sent to Rangoon
Enactment of Indian Penalcode.
Indian Councils Act of 1861.
Enactment of Indian Code of Criminal Procedure.
Lord Elgin (1862 - 63)
Supressed the Wahabi Movement
Sir J ohn Lawrence (1864 - 69)
Famine commission was constituted.
Followed a policy of rigid non-interference in Af-
ghanistan called policy of masterly inactivity.
Set up highcourts in Calcutta Bombay and Ma-
dras (1865).
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Lord Mayo (1869-72)
Wahabi and Kuka movements were active.
Mayo was murdered
Lord Lytton (1876-80)
Passing of the Royal Titles Act of 1876 and the
assumption of the title empress of India (Qaiser-i-
hind) by Queen Victoria.
Holding of Delhi Durbar in 1877.
Passing of the Vernacular Press Act of 1878.
Passing of the Arms Act of 1878.
Lowering of maximum age from 21 years to 19
years for the Civil Services Examination, an at-
tempt to prevent Indians from entering Civil Ser-
vices.
Appointment of first Famine Commission under
Sir Richard Strachy.
Started Statutory Civil Service.
Second Anglo Afghan war in 1878.
Lord Ripon (1880-84)
Passing of the first Factory Act in 1881 for the
welfare of child labour.
Repeal of Vernacular Press Act in 1882.
Foundation of the Local Self Government (1882)
Holding of the first decennial and regular census
in 1881 which put the total population at 254 mil-
lion.
Appointment of an Education Commission under
Sir William Hunter in 1882.
The Ilbert bill controversy.
Famine code of 1883.
Lord Dufferin (1884 - 88)
Foundation of Indian National Congress
Third Anglo Burmese war
Commented on the Congress being a microscopic
minority.
Lord Curzon (1899-1905)
Creation of a new province called the North West
Frontier Province.
Appointment of Universities Commission in 1902
under Sir Thoma Releigh and passing of Indian
Universities Act 1904.
Partition of Bengal
Lord Hardinge (1910-1916)
Coronation durbar in 1911 at Delhi in honour of
George V
A separate state of Bihar and Orissa was created
in 1911.
Indias capital was decided to shift to Delhi in
1911 and shifted in 1912.
Kamagata Maru incident.
1916, Saddler committee on Univerisities ap-
pointed.
Tilak founded Home Rule League.
Lord Chelmsford (1916 - 21)
Foundation of womens university at Poona.
Hunter Commission on Jalianwala Bagh Massa-
cre.
Chamber of Princes established in 1921.
Home Rule League founded by Annie Besant.
Third Afghan war started.
Aligarh Muslim University was founded in 1920.
Lord Reading (1921-26)
Foundation of Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh
by K.B. Hedgewar at Nagpur in 1925.
Beginning of Indianisation of the officers cadre
of the Indian Army.
Railway Budget was separated from General Bud-
get in 1921.
Hilton Young Committee on currency was ap-
pointed in 1926.
Viswa Bharati University started by Rabindra
Nath Tagore.
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Train Robbery at Kakori.
Lord Irwin (1926-31)
Popularly known as Christian Viceroy.
Simon Commission arrives in Bombay.
Meerut conspiracy case.
Gandhi started his Dandi March.
Chitagong Armoury Raid.
First Round Table Conference.
Gandhi-Irwin pact.
Lord Willington (1931-36)
Communal Award in 1932 by Ramsay Mac
Donald.
Third Round Table Conference in 1932.
White Paper on Political reforms in India was pub-
lished in 1933.
Burma was separated fromBritish Empire in 1935.
Lord Linlithgow (1936-43)
August Offer by the Viceroy in which he declared
dominion status as the ultimate goal of British
policy in India.
In 1940 individual Civil Disobedience Movement
was started.
1942 Cripps Mission came.
Congress startsQuit India Movement.
Lord Wavell (1943-47)
Wavell Plan, Shimla conference Congress repre-
sented by Maulana Azad
RIN Mutiny (1946)
Interim Government was formed (September 2,
1946)
Prime Minister of Britain Clement Atlee an-
nounced to give independence to India by June
1948.
Cabinet Mission 1946.
16th August 1946, Muslim League begins Di-
rect Action day.
Lord Mountbatten (1947-48)
His plan to make India free on August 15 1947 is
also known as June 3rd Plan.
First Governor General of free India
Rajagopalachari (1948-50)
First Indian Governor General.
Father of Our Nation
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, called Mahatma,
is the father of our nation.
He was born on 2 October 1869 at Porbandar in
Gujarat as the son of Diwan Karamchand and his
fourth wife Putilibai.
In 1883, at the age of 14, he married Kasthurba
Later he went to England to study law.
In 1893 he went to South Africa to practice law.
After his studies in England Gandhiji began his
practice as a lawyer in Bombay and Rajcot.
He was subjected to racial discrimination and
organised Natal Indian Congress in 1894. There
he started a weekly, Indian opinion 1904.
Gandhiji experimented the weapon Satyagraha for
the first time in South Africa in September 1906 to
protest against the Asiatic Ordinance issued
against the Indians in Transval
Gandhijis first imprisonment was in 1908 at
Johannesberg in South Africa.
In 1899 during the Boer war Gandhiji organised
Indian Ambulance Corps for the British.
Gandhiji was humiliated and ousted from Peter
Marits Burg Railway Station in South Africa.
Gandhiji became a Brahmachari in 1906.
Gandhiji started Tolstoy Farm South Africa in
1910.
Gandhiji started the Foenix Settlement in Durban.
Gandhian Era in Indian politics is from1915 -1948.
He returned to India on 9th January 1915, leaving
South Africa for ever. January 9 is observed as
Pravasi Bharatiya Divas to commemorate this.
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Gandhijis first Satyagraha in India was for the
right of Indigo workers in Champaran in 1917.
Gandhijis first fast was in 1918 in connection with
the strike of mill workers in Ahmedabad.
He started the Satyagrahasrama on the banks of
Sabarmati river in Ahmedabad in 1917.
In 1918 he started two weeklies - Young India in
English and Navjeevan in Gujarati.
Gandhiji abandoned his title Kaiser -i-Hind in pro-
test against Jallianwalabagh Massacre (1919)
Gandhijis first National Movement was organised
against the Rowlat Act in 1919.
Gandhiji launched the Non-Co-operation Move-
ment on August 1, 1920 which caused the violent
incident at Chauri Chaura in UP. This incident
initiated Gandhiji to suspend the movement in
1922.
Gandhiji renounced worldly pleasures and be-
came a symbol of halfnaked villager in 1920.
The only Congress session presided over by
Gandhiji was the one which held at Belgaum in
1924.
Gandhiji started his historic Dandi March on 12
March 1930 related to the Salt Satyagraha.
Gandhiji partcipated in the Second Round Table
Conference in London in 1931 August.
With the aim of eradicating untouchability
Gandhiji founded the All India Harijan Samaj in
1932.
Gandhiji started his journey for Harijan upliftment
from the Wardha Ashram in Maharashtra.
Gandhiji called low class people as Harijan
which means sons of God.
He started the weekly Harijan in 1933.
Gandhi-Irwin pact was signed on 5 march 1931.
Gandhiji was associated with the Vaikom and
Guruvayur Sathyagraha in Kerala.
Gandhiji called the Temple Entry Proclamation a
wonder of the Modern Age.
Pattabhi Sitaramayya Gandhijis candidate for the
Presidentship of INC was defeated by Subash
Chandra Bose.
Gandhiji called Subhah Chandra Bose
thePalriots, Patriot
Winston Churchil called Gandhiji a Half naked
Seditious Fakir.
The name Gurudev was given to Tagore by
Gandhiji
Tagore called Gandhiji Mahatma.
Wardha scheme of education was the basic edu-
cation policy formulated by Gandhiji.
In 1940 Gandhiji started Individual Satyagraha and
selected Vinoba Bhave and Nehru for that.
In 1942 August 9 Gandhiji started the Quit India
Movement and gave the call Do or Die.
Gandhiji called the Cripps Mission (1942) a post-
dated cheque on a drowning bank.
Gandhiji was assassinated by Nadhuram Vinayak
Godse on 30 January 1948 at the Birla house in
Delhi. He died at 5 : 17 pm.
He Ram, He Ram was his last words.
Godse used an Italian Beritta Pistol to shoot at
Gandhiji.
Gandhiyum Godseyum is a book written by N.K.
Krishnavarier.
Mem Nadhuram Godse Bolthai is a play written
by Pradeep Dalvi to humiliate Gandhi.
After the assassination, The R.S.S was banned in
1948 February 4.
Narayan Dathathrya Apte was hanged to death
along with Godse on the Gandhi Assassination
case.
French Novelist who wrote the biography of
Gandhiji was Romain Rolland.
Medalim Slaiduin a British woman became a fol-
lower Gandhi and came to be known as Meera
Ben.
The original autobiography of Gandhiji written in
Gujarathi language was Sathya na Karogo.
Liberty or Death written by Patrick French deals
with antogonism in Gandhis life.
Gandhiji called his hanging clock my little dicta-
tor.
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Ente Gurunathan poem written by Vallathol
Narayana Menon speaks about Gandhiji.
Thats my mother Gandhiji said these words
about Bhagavatgita.
Gandhijis political guru was Gopalakrishna
Gokhale.
Gandhis prisoner is a book written by Uma
Dupfeli Mistri , daughter of Gandhis son, Manilal.
Harilal, Manilal, Ramdas and Devdas were
Gandhijis four sons.
I follow Mahatma is a book written by
K.M.Munshi.
Unto This Last of John Ruskin greately influ-
enced Gandhiji
R.K. Narayan wrote Waiting for the Mahatma.
A week with Gandhi, Gandhi and Stalin and Life
of Mahatma Gandhi are the books written by
Fischer.
Gandhiji grandson Thushar Gandhi led the sec-
ond Dandi March from Marh 12 - April 17, 2005
on the 75th anniversary of Dandi March.
Gandhijis autobiography My Experiments with
Truth was written in 1922 while he was in Jail. It
describes his life from 1869 to 1921.
It was translated into English by Mahadev Desai.
Leon Tolstoy is considered as the spiritual guru
of Gandhiji.
One of the great dreams of Gandhiji was the es-
tablishment of Grama Swaraj. He said India lives
in villages. He started Sewagram Ashram on
30 April 1936.
Gandhiji said Non violence is not one form it is
the only form of direct action.
Gandhiji once sarcastically (humorously) called
jail His Majestys Hotel.
''Generations to come it may scarce believe that
such a one as this ever in flesh and blood walked
upon this earth'', Einstein said about Gandhiji.
Truth and Non-violence are my Gods Gandhiji
Untouchability is a crime against God and Man-
kind Gandhiji.
Swaraj for me means freedom for the meanest of
our countrymen - Gandhiji
The light has gone out of our lives and there is
darkness everywhere Nehru on the death of
Gandhiji.
Non-violence is the law of our species as vio-
lence is the law of the brute Gandhiji
Indian culture is neither Hindu, Islam, nor any
other wholly. It is a fusion of all - Gandhiji
Non Co-operation with evil is as much a duty
as co-operation with good - Gandhiji
My only hope lies in prayer and answer to
prayer - Gandhiji
Rabindnranath Tagore
Rabindranath Tagore was born at Calcutta in
West Bengal as the son of Maharshi
Devendranath Tagore and Sarda Devi. One of
Rabindranaths brothers, Satyendranth Tagore
was the first Indian to get selcted for the ICS in
1864.
In 1901 Tagore established a school at Shanti
Niketan which finally developed into the world
famous University of ViswaBharati in 1921.
In 1913,Tagores Gitanjali was selected for the
Nobel prize for Literature.
In 1912 Tagore Published Jana Gana Mana (Now
Indias National Anthem)
The National anthem is composed in the Raga,
Sankarabharanam
The English translation of the national anthem is
The morning song of India.
National anthem was first sung at the Calcutta
session of INC (1911)
India accepted it as our national anthem on 24
January 1950.
Bharat Vidhata was the first name of National
anthem.
National anthem was first published in the book
Tatvabodhini.
Tagore also wrote the national anthem of
Bangladesh Amar Sonar Bengla.
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In 1915, Tagore was awarded Knighthood by the
British Monarch George V, but he surrendered it
in 1919 as a protest against the Jalianwallabagh
Massacre.
Gandhiji called Tagore Gurudev.
For Tagore, the great objective of education was
to know man and to make oneself known to
man.
Jeevan Smriti is the autobiography of Tagore.
Gora, Raja and Rani Rajarishi, Kabooliwala
etc are the famous novels of Tagore.
Purabhi, The cycle of the spring The evening
song The morning song etc are the other fa-
mous works of Tagore.
J awaharlal Nehru (1889-1964)
Jawaharlal Nehru was the son of Motilal Nehru
and Swarupa Rani.
Jawahar means Jewel.
He was born in 1886 November 14.
Vijayalekshmi Pandit and Krishna Harthising
were the sisters of Nehru.
Nehru became a member of Theosophical Soci-
ety at the age of 13.
He went to London in 1905 and joined the Haro
Public School, Then Trinity College in Cambridge
and finally at the Inner Temple.
He returned India in 1912 and started practice at
the Alahabad High Court.
Nehru attended the Bankipore Congress Session
in 1912.
He met Gandhi in 1916 at the Lucknow session.
Nehru became the General Secretary of INC in
1923.
Nehru became the president of INC for the first
time 1929. Poorna Swaraj Resolution was passed
at this session (Lahore).
Nehru became the President of INC for the larg-
est number of times Lahore (1929), Lucknow
(1935), Faizpur (1936), New Delhi (1951),
Hyderabad (1953) and Kalyan (1954).
Nehru started a newspaper called National Her-
ald.
Nehru headed the interim ministry formed in 1946
September.
He became the first Prime Minister of India after
independence in 1947.
Nehru has the largest term as Indias Prime Min-
ister.
Important works of Nehru are Glimpses of World
History,The Unity of India, The Discovery of
India Bunch of Old letters.
An Autobiography is the autobiography of
Nehru.
.......... At the stroke of the mid night hour, when
the world sleeps, India will awake to life and free-
dom........... these are the words of Nehru.
Nehrus main contribution to the evolution of
Indias foreign policy was the acceptance of non-
allignment.
Non-alignment meant taking independent deci-
sions on international issues with a sense of neu-
trality.
Nehru visited China in 1954, both the countries
signed the Panch Sheel.
I want the cultures of all lands to be brought to
my house as freely as possible He said
The expression Tryst with destiny was first used
by Jawaharlal Nehru on the Occasion of India
attaining freedom.
There will be no freedom in this country or in the
world so long as a single human being is unfree.
Jawaharlal Nehru.
It is not so much the existence of a nation that
counts but what the nation that counts but what
the nation does during various periods of exist-
ence Nehru.
Nehru was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1955.
Nehru got placed in Indial Postal Stamp in 1964.
India government began to distribute Interna-
tional Award for International understanding in
1965 U Thant got it for the first time.
First woman to get the award was Mother Theresa
(1969)
Nehru died on 27 may 1964 at the age of 75.
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Famous Statements
Lord Dufferin : Congres was a microscopic mi-
nority.
Lord Curzon : Congress was tottering to its
fall and one of his greatest ambition in India was
to assist it (congress) a peaceful demise.
Charles Napier: We have no right to seize Sind,
yet we shall do so and a very advantageous, use-
ful humane piece of rascality it will be .
Thomas Roe : I know these people are best
treated with the sword in one hand and the
caducean in the other.
Nabin Chandra Sen : The battle of Plassey was
followed by a night of eternal gloom for India.
John Sullivan : Our system acts very much like a
sponge drawing up all the good things from the
banks of the Ganges and Squeezing them down
on the banks Thames
Tipu Sultan - Better to die like a Soldier, than
to live a miserable dependent on the infidels in
the list of their pensioned Rajas and nobles.
Peter the Great of Russia Bear in mind that the
commerce of India is the commerce of the world.
Cornwallis Every native of Hindustan is cor-
rupt.
William Bentinck : The misery hardly find a par-
allel in history of commerce, the bones of the cot-
ton weavers were bleaching the plains of India.
Rani of Jhansi - With our own hands we shall
not let our Azadshahi burry.
J.L. Nehru : British power became the guard-
ian and upholder of many and evil custom and
practice which it other wise condemned.
Cornwallis : One third of Bengal has been trans-
formed into a jungle inhabitated only by wild
beats
A.O. Hume - A safety valve for the escape of
great and growing forces generate by our ac-
tion was urgently needed.
Dada Bhai Naroji : Regarding law and orders
pray strike on the back but dont strike on the
belly.
Dufferin : Branded the national leaders as Dis-
loyal Babus Seditious Brahmins and Violent
Villains.
Swami Vivekananda For our own motherland a
junction of the two great system Hinduism and
Islam is the only hope.
Swami Vivekananda We are just dont touchists
Our religion is our kitchen our god is the cooking
and our religion is dont touch me, I am holy. If
this goes on for a century, everyone of us will be
in a lunatic asylum.
Aurobindo Ghosh : - Political freedom is the
life breath of a nation.
Tilak : Swaraj is my birth right and I will have it.
Gandhiji on the eve of Dandi March Sedition
has become my religion.
Ram Krishna Paramahamsa God is of no use
to the hungry belly
Swami Vivekananda Christianity wins its prosperity
by cutting the throats of its fellowmen.
INDIA AFTER
INDEPENDENCE
India - Pak Wars
The major cause of the India - Pak wars was the
Kashmir problem.
On September 1, 1965 Pakistan started attack on
the border and invaded Chhamb and Dewa re-
gions.
On September 11, UN Secretary General U-Thant
reached to talk on cease fire.
After the battle, Tashkent agreement was signed
under the mediation of Russia.
Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Sastri and
Pakistan President Ayub Khan signed the agree-
ment.
On December 2 The Border Security Force was
formed.
Lal Bahadur Sastri died at Tashkent on 11 Janu-
ary 1966.
The deplomacy of Sastri was the major source
behind Indias victory in the 1965 Indo-Pak war.
The Second Indo-Pak war was in 1971. After the
war Bangladesh became an independent country.
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The agreement signed after the 1971 war was the
Simla Agreement.
Simla Agreement was signed by Indian Prime
Minister Indira Gandhi and Pakistan Prime Minis-
ter Sulfiker Ali Bhuto in 1972.
The Kargil war in 1999 was against the terrorist
usurpation into Kashmir from Pakistan.
Kargil military operation of India was known as
Operation Vijay.
Former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee con-
ducted the famous Lahore Bus Journey in 1999
February.
The Kargil war officially ended on 26 July 1999.
Boundary line between India and Pakistan is
Radcliff line.
The Lahore declaration was signed between A.B.
Vajpayee and Nawaz Sherif.
Military operation conducted by India on Paki-
stan 1948 was known as Operation Sojila.
The operation in which Indian army captured
Siachin was known as Operation Meghdoot.
India and Pakistan signed the Indus River Water
Agreement in 1960.
Indo-China War
Nehru and Chinese Prime Minister Chau Enlai
established bilateral friendly relation signing the
Panchsheel in 1954.
But giving asylium to the Dalai Lama of Tibet
(1954) provocated China.
China attacked India by crossing the Mac Mohan
line on September 8, 1962.
On October 19 Chinese made a massive attack.
On October 26 Government declared Emergency
and Defence of India Ordinance.
Keeping view of the Chinese aggression the Gold
Bond Scheme was declared.
In November 1962 the National Defence Council
was set up.
On Nov. 10, the Chinesedeclared a Unilateral with-
drawal.
In 2005 China removed Sikkhim fromChinese map
and accepted it Indias part.
In 2006, Two countries agreed to open the Nathula
pass (Sikkim) after a lapse of four decades.
Liberation of Pondicherry and Goa
Goa was in the hands of Portuguese from 1510
AD onwards.
The Liberation Army captured Dadra, Nagarhaveli
on 22 July 1954.
Goa, Daman and Diu were liberated from the Por-
tuguese in 1964.
Pondicherry was under the French
Since 1946 there were freedom struggle in
Pondicherry.
The legal hand over of Pondicherry was in 1962.
Malayalam speaking Mahi, Telegu speaking
yanam and Tamil speaking Karakkal are the parts
of Pondicherry.
Pondicherrys new name is Puthussery.
Nuclear Experiments in India
Nuclear researches in India were lead by Homi J.
Bhaba.
Council for Scientific Industrial Research Insti-
tute was formed in 1942.
Indias first Nuclear Experiment was on 18th May
1974.
First Nuclear Experiment of India was code named
as Buddha Smiles. It was during the period of
Indira Gandhi as Prime Minister.
It was conducted at the Pokhran Desert in
Rajasthan.
Uranium was used in the process.
It was lead by Dr. H.N. Setna and Dr. Raja
Ramanna.
Second Nuclear experiment was in 1998.
It was code named a Operation Shakti or Bud-
dha Smiles again.
Pokhran is in the Jaisalmer district in Rajasthan.
Second experiment was conducted during the term
of Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
Ante Sikh Riots
In 1984, General K. Sundarji, Commander-in-chief
with the army besieged the Golden Temple in
Operation Blue Star on June 5.90 soldiers and
712 Sikh extremists including Bhindranwale.
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The operation was done by 15th Cavalry Regi-
ment of Indian Army.
As a sequel to theOperation Blue Star. Indira Gandhi
was gunned down and killed by her own security
guards, Sub Inspector Beant Singh and Constable
Satwant Singh on October 31, morning.
In the Ante Sikh riots more than 3000 sikhs died.
Congress president Sonia Gandhi officially
apologised the Community in 1998.
Justice Ranganath Mishra Commission ap-
pointed in 1985 submitted the report in 1986.
Kapur Mithal Committee (1987) Jane Banerjee
Committee Potti Rosha Committee (1990) Jane
Agarwal Committee (1990) Dhillan Committee
(1985), Narula Committee (1993), Nanavati Com-
mission (2004) etc enquired about the incident.
Demolition of Babri Masjid
On 6th December 1992, the B.J .P. and VHP
organised a huge rally of over 20,000 volunteers
at the site of Babri Masjid. The BJP Chief Minis-
ter of Uttar Pradesh, Kalyan Singh assured to the
Supreme court that the mosque would be pro-
tected. But the mosque was hammered down.
The Central Government banned VHP, RSS,
BajrangDal and Jamaat -e-Islami. The Kalyan
Singh government was dismissed.
Babri Masjid was constructed by Babars gover-
nor Mir Sakhi at Ayodhya (U.P).
Narasimha Rao was the Prime Minister when the
Babary Masjid was demolished.
Ayodhya 6th December, 1992 is a book written
by NarasimhaRao,published Posthumously.
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Indian
Constitution
T
he Constitution of India lays
down the framework on
which Indian polity is run. The
Constitution declares India to be
a sovereign socialist democratic
republic, assuring its citizens of
justice, equality, and liberty. It
was passed by the Constituent
Assembly of India on November
26, 1949, and came into effect on
January 26, 1950. India celebrates
January 26 each year as Republic
Day. It is the longest written
constitution of any independent
nation in the world, containing
395 articles and 12 schedules, as
well as numerous amendments,
for a total of 117,369 words in the
English language version.
Besides the English version, there
is an official Hindi translation.
The Constitution lays down
the basic structure of government
under which the people chose
themselves to be governed. It
establishes the main organs of
government - the executive , the
legislature and the judiciary. The
Constitution not only defines the
powers of each organ, but also
demarcates their responsibilities.
It regulates the relationship
between the different organs and
between the government and the
people.
The Constitution is superior to
all other laws of the country. Every
law enacted by the government has
to be in conformity with the
Constitution. The Constitution lays
down the national goals of India -
Democracy, Socialism and National
Integration. It also spells out the
Fundamental Rights, Directive
Principles and Duties of citizens.
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Fill in the Blanks
1. ......... is the highest legal
adviser to the Government of
India.
2. ......... decides the question of
disqualification of a member
of the Lok Sabha.
3. The time gap between two
sessions of the Parliament
should not exceed .........
4. The residuary powers under
the Indian Constitution rest
with the .........
5. The Prime Minister is
responsible to the .........
6. National Integration Council
is chaired by .........
7. The credential of all
Ambassadors or High
Commissioners of foreign
countries are received by .........
8. No money bill can be
introduced in the Legislative
Assembly without the
recommendation of the .........
9. Any dispute between the two
houses of the Parliament can
be resolved by joint sitting of
both the houses summoned by
the .........
10. The provisions as to
disqualification on grounds
of defection by a member of
Parliament are contained in
.........
11. The minimum number of
members that must be present
to hold the meeting of the Lok
Sabha is .........
12. The number of members of a
state Legislative Assembly
cannot be more than .........
13. The proclamation of national
emergency ceases to operate
unless it is approved by the
parliament within .........
14. The first no confidence
motion was moved in the Lok
Sabha after independence
was in the year .........
15. A bill for alteration of
boundaries of states shall not
be introduced in the
Parliament without the
recommendation of .........
16. The Supreme Court passed
the special judgement that the
basic tenets of our
constitution cannot be
changed by the Parliament by
any amendment, in the .........
case.
17. A member of Parliament will
lose his seat if he remains
absent from all meetings
without permission for a
period of ......... days.
18. Judges of the Supreme Courts
cannot practice, after
retirement, in .........
19. If the Finance Minister fails to
get the annual budget passed
in the Lok Sabha, the Prime
Minister should be expected
to .........
20. The name of an Indian State
can be changed by .........
21. The Finance Commission is a
......... body.
22. The article which lays down
the amendment of the
constitution is ...................
23. The introduction of no
confidence motion in the Lok
Sabha requires the support of
at least ......... members.
24. Betting and Gambling is
included in ......... list.
25. Prisons are included in .........
list.
26. According to the Indian
Constitution, the ministers
shall hold office during the
pleasure of the .........
27. The function of a Public
Service Commission in India
is .........
28. In ......... of the constitution,
reference to Hindus shall
include a reference to Sikhs.
29. Raja Chellayya Committee
dealt with .........
30. The Constituent Assembly of
India took all decision by .........
Answers sto Fill in the blanks
1. Attorney General of India
2. Speaker
3. six months
4. Parliament
5. Lok Sabha
6. The Prime Minister
7. The President
8. Governor
9. President
10. 10th schedule
11. 1/10 of the total membership
of the house
12. 500
13. one month
14. 1963
15. The President
16. Minerva Mills Ltd. & others,
17. 60
18. any courts in the country
19. submit the resignation of his/
her cabinet
20. the Parliament of India
21. Quasi-Judicial
22. 368
23. 50
24. State
25. State
26. Prime Minister of India
27. Advisory
28. Article 25
29. tax reforms
30. consensus.
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One Word Questions
1. Name the words which were
added to the Preamble by the
42nd Constitutional Amend-
ment.
2. On whose recommendation
was the Constituent Asse-
mbly formed?
3. To whom does the Public
Accounts Committee submit
its report?
4. Who is the executive head of
a state in the Indian Union?
5. If a state is under Presidents
rule, then the state Budget is
passed by whom?
6. By how many years has the
62nd Amendment of the
Constitution in 1990
extended the reservation for
persons belonging to SC and
ST in Public Services?
7. What is the power of the Rajya
Sabha in regard to money
bills?
8. How many states in India
have bicameral legislature?
9. Name the Union Territories
which have a legislature and
a Chief Minister?
10. Which state in India has the
largest membership in its
Legislative Assembly?
11. Who finances the Village
Panchayat?
12. Freedom of the Press is
guaranteed under which
Article?
13. Who is legally competent to
declare war or conclude
peace?
14. How many times has a
national emergency been
declared so far by the
President?
15. Which parliamentary comm-
ittee in India is normally
chaired by a prominent
member of the opposition?
16. What is contained in the Tenth
Schedule of the Constitution?
17. How many times can the
President of India seek re-
election to his post?
18. How many committees were
set up by the Constituent
Assembly for framing the
Constitution of India?
19. Name the article which
empowers the President to
appoint the Prime Minister of
India.
20. What is meant by Capital
Punishment?
21. In which year was voting age
reduced from 21 to 18 in
India?
22. A party in India in order to be
recognised as official
opposition in the parliament
should have at least how
many seats?
23. Which is the oldest financial
committee in the Parliament?
24. Extradition is included in
which list?
25. Through which resolution,
the Lok Sabha brings a
change in the Government?
26. What is the maximum
number of starred questions
that can be asked in Lok Sabha
on a particular day?
27. How long does a national
emergency duly proclaimed
and approved by the
Parliament remain in force?
28. States earn more revenue
directly through which tax?
29. In the case of subjects not
mentioned in any of the three
lists, the power to make laws
rests with whom?
30. In which year the state
reorganisation Bill was
passed by the parliament?
Answers
1. Socialist, Secular, integrity
2. Cabinet Mission
3. The Speaker of the Lok Sabha,
4. The Governor
5. The Parliament
6 . 10 years
7. It can only withhold the bill
for 14 days to make recomme-
ndations
8. 6
9. Puducherry and Delhi
10. Uttar Pradesh
11. State Government
12. Article 19 (1)
13. The President
14. Thrice
15. Public Accounts Committee,
16. Provisions regarding disqua-
lification on grounds of
defection
17. Any number of times
18. 13
19. Article 74
20. Death sentence
21. 1989
22. 1/10 th of the elected members
of the parliament
23. Public Accounts Committee
24. Union List
25. No Confidence Motion
26. 20
27. Until repealed
28. Sales tax
29. The Union Government
30. 1956.
Short Notes
1. What are the distinct features
of a Constitution?
2. The President & his Funct-
ions
3. How can the constitution be
amended?
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4. Anti-Defection Law
5. What are the maj or
commitments of the
Constitution of India as
incorporated in its Preamble?
6. Indian Constitution is
drawn from different
sources. Establish the point.
7. Identify the nature and
methods of Parliamentary
control over the Executive in
Indian Polity.
8. Explain the concept of
Minorities in the Indian
Constitution and mention the
safeguards provided there in
for their protection.
9. Discuss the power privileges
and immunities of the Indian
Parliament.
10. Explain the relevance of Rajya
Sabha in the federal set up of
the Indian Parliamentary
System.
11. Highlight the significance of
the 73rd Amendment to the
Constitution of India.
12. Indian Judiciary
13. Supreme Court
14. Jurisdiction of the Supreme
court
15. 42nd Amendment
16. Relation between the Union
and the States
17. Fundamental Duties
18. Powers of the Governor
19. Sarkaria Commission
20. Public Service Commission
21. Election Commission
22. Finance Commission
23. Contingency Fund
24. Eighth Schedule of the
Constitution
25. Family Courts
26. CAT
27. Lok Adalats (LAs)
28. High Court
29. Discuss about the
constitutional provision of the
no-confidence motion.
30. 93rd amendment Bill
Answers
1. An analysis of the various
definitions of a constitution
shows that the constitution
has the following distinct
features:
Firstly, it refers to a collection
of those basic laws which are
more sacrosanct than the
ordinary laws.
Secondly, the constitution is
not entirely written. Though
a maj or part of the
constitution is generally
available in the form of a
written document, certain
laws are also based on
customs, usages and
conventions and form part of
the constitution.
Thirdly, the constitution may
be created by a special body
set up for the purpose or
evolved in course of time.
Fourthly, the constitution
determines the structure of the
main organs of government,
the distribution of sovereign
power between various
authorities and the relations
between the citizens and
various organs of the
government.
Fifthly, it contains procedures
for its own change which is
generally quite different from
the procedure for the
enactment of ordinary laws.
Sixthly, the constitution
generally contains a
statement of its objectives.
Finally, the constitution not
only lays down the rights of
the citizens, but also specifies
the limitations on the
authority of the government.
2. The President of India is the
head of the Union Executive.
The President is elected by
indirect election by an
electoral college, in
accordance with the system of
proportional representation
of single transferable vote.
The electoral college shall
consist of elected members of
both houses of Parliament, the
elected members of the
Legislative Assemblies of the
States and the elected
members of the Legislative
Assemblies of the Union
Territories of Delhi and
Pondicherry.
Qualification for a presid-
ential candidate are :
Must be a citizen of India.
Must have completed 35
years of age.
Must be qualified to be a
member of the Lok Sabha.
Must not hold any office
of profit.
The following appointm-
ents are made by the
President,
The Prime Minister and
on his advice other
ministers.
Attorney General of India.
Comptroller and Auditor-
General of India.
Judges of the Supreme
Court and High Courts
including the Chief
Justice.
Governors of States.
Lieutenant Governors
and Commissioners of
Union Territories.
Members of Finance
Commission.
Members of the Union
Public Service Commi-
ssion.
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Chief Election Commissi-
oner and other members
of the Election Commiss-
ion.
Special officers for the
scheduled castes and
other tribal areas.
The President of India
who is the Supreme
Commander of the armed
forces has the following
powers:
Right to declare war and
peace.
Legislative powers which
include nomination of 12
members to the Rajya
Sabha and 2 Anglo-
Indian members to the Lok
Sabha.
Right to address the
Parliament.
The tenure of the
President is five years.
The President takes the
oath of office before the
Chief Justice of India but
his letter of resignation
should be addressed to
the Vice-President of
India. The President shall
be removed only through
impeachment, applicable
only for the violation of
the Constitution. In case
of a dispute related to the
Presidential election,
only the Supreme Court of
India has jurisdiction
over it. With regard to
vacancy a new President
should be elected within
six months.
3. Three methods of amendment
of different provision of
constitution are prescribed in
the Article 368 of the
constitution. First method of
amendment is by a simple
majority. Certain other
provisions to be amended
requires a majority of not less
than two third of the members
present and voting in each
house. In some other cases
besides two third members of
both the house present and
voting, it must be ratified by
the legislatives of the one-half
of the states.
4. Anti Defection Law was
passed in 1985 as the 52nd
Constitutional Amendment
with the aim to political
defections in India. A member
of Parliament or state
legislature belonging to a
political party shall be
disqualified if he voluntarily
gives up the membership of
his party or vote against the
party directive or abstain from
voting.
Anti-defection law is added
as the 10th schedule of Indian
Constitution. The speaker
considers the question of
disqualification under anti-
defection law. The decision of
the speaker in anti-defection
law is now open to judicial
review.
5. The Preamble of the
Constitution of India
embodies the ideals,
aspirations and objectives of
the social and political order
to which the people of India
are committed. The Preamble
rests the sovereignty in the
people of India which is a
socialist, secular and
democratic republic. Thus, the
head of the nation will be
elected, all religions will be
respected and the State of
India would be a welfare state
committed to the ideals of
socio-economic justice to be
obtained in a democratic way
by the rule of law. Commit-
ment is made to political,
social and economic justice.
And to ensure social,
economic and political
j ustice, the Preamble
emphasises the need for
securing liberty, equality and
fraternity for the Indian
people. The liberty, would be
of thought, expression, beliefs
and faith, signifying political
freedom and secularism.
Equality is sought to be
ensured on political, social
and economic level thus
besides adult franchise there
would be equality of status
and opportunity. Indivi-
duals self expression would
be allowed freedom but
within the limits of the overall
objective of national unity
and progress.
6. The constitution of India may
be said to be a borrowed
Constitution as its framers
have gathered the best
features liberally from
various sources. The single
most important source is the
Government of India Act of
1935: the federal scheme,
office of the Governor, power
of federal j udiciary,
emergency powers were
drawn from this Act. The
British practice influenced
the law- making procedure,
rule of law, single citizenship,
besides, of course, basically
giving the mode of
Parliamentary Government.
The U.S. Constitution
inspired in independence of
judiciary, judicial, funda-
mental rights, removal of
Supreme and High Court
judges.
The Irish Constitution was
the source for the Directive
Principles, method of
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presided elections, nomin-
ation of members of Rajya
Sabha by the President. From
the Canadian Constitution
was taken the idea of a
federation with a strong
Centre, and placing residuary
powers with the Centre. The
Weimer Constitution of
Germany was the source of
provisions concerning the
suspension of fundamental
rights during emergency,
while the idea of a Concurrent
List was taken from the
Australian Constitution.
7. Indian Parliament is vested
with the power to control over
the Executive. The Executive
is collectively responsible to
the Lok Sabha. Thus it is
assumed that the working of
the Union Government is
effectively controlled by the
Parliament. However, in
practice this control is
exercised only in the form of
question on adminstration
raised during the question
hour in the houses of
Parliament. Parliament also
has control over the revenue
and expenditure of the
Government. The Executive,
cannot impose any tax
without legislative sanction.
If any tax is imposed without
legislative authority, the
aggrieved person can obtain
his relief from the courts of
India. As for expenditure, the
pivot of parliamentary control
is the Consolidated Fund of
India. No money can be
issued out of the Consolidated
Fund of India unless the
expenditure is authorised by
an Appropriation Act. In fact,
Executive cannot spend the
public revenue without
parliamentary sanction. The
Policy Resolution of the
Parliament are meant as
supreme guidelines for the
functioning of the executive
Government. Parliament also
specifies the manner in which
certain specific powers
constitutionally granted to
different authorities is to be
exercised.
8. According to the
Constitution of India, the
concept of Minorities
incorporates the groups of
people differing from the
other in religion, culture and
language numerically the
majority. Thus there are
religious, linguistic and
cultural minorities. Religious,
cultural and educational
safeguards are incorporated
in the Constitution to protect
all minority groups (religious,
cultural and linguistic.)
The safeguards are:
i. Right to maintain
religious and charitable
institutions and manage
religious affairs without
state interference.
ii. Religious and linguistic
minorities may establish
and administer their own
institutions and avail of
state grants without
discrimination.
iii. A minority language may
be recognised as one of
the official language in a
State.
iv. Special officer for
linguistic minorities to
report on their status.
Besides these, the state
does not discriminate on
the basis of religion,
culture etc, in manners of
public appointment and
employment.
9. The Parliament can claim a
privilege if (i) the
Constitution grants it
specifically or (ii) it has been
created by a law of the
Parliament (iii) it was enjoyed
by the lower house on
January 26, 1950. More
specifically the Parliament
enjoys freedom of speech,
immunity from court
proceeding, freedom from
arrest in civil cases within 40
days before and after the
session of the Parliament and
immunity from liability in
respect of Parliamentary
papers. The Parliament can
punish a person for contempt,
can legislate and control the
executive. The basic financial
function of the parliament
relates to the imposition of
taxes and expenditure from
consolidated funds of India.
The Parliament can amend
the Constitution but cannot
alter its basic structure. The
Parliament has internal
autonomy to regulate its
proceedings and act
independently in internal
matters.
10. The Raj ya Sabha is an
indirectly elected body of 250
members under Article 80 of
the Constitution, can offer
expert opinion on many
issues as it consists of more
experienced men. It has many
legislative and watch dog
functions to perform. It
provides for additional
debating forum and can
reduce the legislative time
problems faced by the Lok
Sabha. It has exclusive power
to transfer state legislative
powers to the Centre. It can
impose emergency in case the
Lok Sabha stands dissolved.
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It can revise bills, control
passing of hasty legislation
and interpose reasonable
delay on arbitrary
functioning of the Lok Sabha.
11. In the year 1994, our
parliament enacted a very
important constitutional
amendment. This amendment
was concerned with the
Panchayati Raj Institutions
(PRIs). As India opted for the
planned development of the
country, a proper role for the
Panchayati Raj Institutions
was prepared. This
amendment is concerned
with the last tier of the three-
tier PRI system. In the long-
drawn debate of the
democratic decentralisation, a
major part had been
concerned with the financial
resources of the Gram
Panchayat. The other
important factor was the
suitable role of the Gram
Panchayat in planning
process of the area. The
present constitutional
amendment went for major
power delegation to the Gram
Panchayat. The Gram Sabha
was given full autonomy in
the matters of planning as
well as some extent of
financial self-reliance. One-
third of the elected seats in the
Gram Panchayat were
reserved for the women. The
most important fact
concerning the Gram
Panchayat had been
concerning the financial
powers. The eleventh Finance
Commission has been asked
by the President to devise the
methods through which the
Gram Panchayats could raise
their fund as well as the
devolution of revenue
resources to them. The other
important part of the
Amendment is concerned
with the constitutionality of
the Plan, the Gram
Panchayat passes for their
local development. As per
political scientists, the 73rd
Constitutional Amendment is
a milestone in the adminis-
trative development of the
country.
12. One of the greatest legacies of
British rule is the Judiciary
and the legal set-up in India.
An independent judiciary is
the very heart of a republic.
The foundation of a
democracy, the source of its
perennial vitality, the
condition for its growth, and
the hope for its welfare, all lie
in that great institution - an
independent judiciary. There
is a single, integrated judicial
system for the Union as well
as the States for the
administration of both Union
and State laws. The judiciary
is perhaps the most vital limb
of the Government. The
sanctity of any constitution
rests, to a large extent, on this
organ. The Constitution of
India provides for an
independent judiciary for the
country, with the Supreme
Court at the apex and High
Courts at the State level. The
Supreme Court of India is the
highest judicial body of the
land.
13. Union Parliament has been
vested with the power to make
laws regulating the
constitution, jurisdiction,
organisation and powers of
the Supreme Court. It now
consists of a Chief Justice and
25 other judges. The strength
of the judges of the Supreme
Court was initially fixed at
eight (including the Chief
Justice). Every judge of the
Supreme Court is appointed
by the President. The judges
hold office until they attain
the age of 65 years. No
minimum age has been
prescribed for the appoint-
ment as a judge of the Supreme
Court of India nor any fixed
period of office. In order to be
qualified for appointment as
a judge of the Supreme Court,
a person must be
(a) a citizen of India and
(b) either a distinguished
jurist, in the opinion of the
President, or
(c) should have been a High
Court Judge for at least
five years.
An advocate on a State High
Court of ten years standing
also qualifies for the post. The
independence of the Judges of
the Supreme Court has been
secured by the Constitution in
a number of ways. Our
Supreme Court possesses
larger powers than its
American counterpart, in
many respects. The law
declared by the Supreme
Court shall, be binding on all
courts within the territory of
India.
14. The Supreme Court of India
enj oys three types of
jurisdiction:
(a) original, (b) appellate and
(c) advisory
Besides, the Supreme Court
has been constituted as a
court of record and has the
power to punish for
contempt. This is an
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extraordinary power which
must be used sparingly, but
where the public interest
demands it, the Court will not
shrink from exercising it and
imposing punishment even
by way of imprisonment in
cases where a mere fine may
not suffice. The Supreme
Court has been conferred
powers to direct the transfer
of any civil/criminal case
from one State High Court to
another. As the final appellate
court, the Supreme Court can
revise the decisions of the
High Courts. Likewise,
substantial questions of law
of general importance
pending before State High
courts may be taken over by
the Supreme Court and
disposed of. The Supreme
Court enjoys numerous other
powers including the power
of judicial review. The apex
court through its power of
judicial review, has ensured
that the basic structure of the
constitution is in any way
vitated.
15. The j urisdiction of the
Supreme Court was sought to
be severely curtailed by the
42nd Amendment of the
Constitution effected in 1976.
It is called as the Mini
Constitution. The amending
Act is a piece of compreh-
ensive legislation containing
59 clauses and touching
upon varied constitutional
issues.
The drastic impact of the
42nd Amendment Act briefly
was:
(a) It narrowed down and
fettered the scope for
j udicial review of
ordinary laws.
(b) It devalued the Funda-
mental Rights vis-a-vis
the Directive Principles.
(c) It effectively obviated the
possibility of judicial
review of any Act for
amendment of the
constitution.
(d) It virtually unsettled the
original balance between
the various organs of the
State.
This amendment had in fact
effected a mini revolution,
whereby Parliament sought
to overthrow the supremacy
of the Constitution and made
itself supreme in its stead.
Some of the far-reaching
changes introduced by Mrs.
Gandhi through this
amendment were reversed by
the Janata Government, by
repealing them (through the
43rd Amendment Act of
1977). Some provisions of the
42nd Amendment, however,
still stick (despite the Janata
Governments bid to scrap
them too), as a result of
opposition of the Congress
Party in the Rajya Sabha.
16. Despite the unitary characte-
ristics and centralising
tendencies, the Indian
Constitution is yet a federal
constitution of its own kind.
India is a diverse society with
fundamental underlining
unity. The unity of India is
firmly based on geography
and deeply rooted in history.
Criticism has become
inevitable, in recent years,
that the Union Government
by virtue of its dominant
position in the economic
sphere, has left the States high
and dry, and they have to
constantly look to the Centre
for financial assistance from
time to time. The autonomy of
the States having been thus
eroded, some of them
(especially those ruled by
opposition parties) have been
fighting hard to alter the
picture. They have been
pressing for greater
autonomy, while demanding
for a radical revision of the
lopsided financial relations
that subsist between the Centre
and the States. The welfare
activities of the States
involving huge expenditure,
coupled with recurring
natural calamities, do call for
an urgent revision of the
financial provisions of the
Constitution, in the light of the
experience of 50 long years of
our sovereign existence as a
modern state.
17. Fundamental Duties is
incorporated as part IV A of
the constitution by the 42nd
Amendment Act, 1976, based
on the former USSR model.
Fundamental Duties include
ten duties of the citizens
towards the State, by which it
shall be the duty of every
citizen of India.
The ten duties are:
1. to abide by the
Constitution and respect
the National Flag and the
National Anthem;
2. to cherish and follow the
noble ideas which
inspired our national
struggle for freedom;
3. to protect the sovereignty,
unity and integrity of
India;
4. to defend the country;
5. to promote the spirit of
common brotherhood
amongst all the people of
India;
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6. to preserve the rich
heritage of our composite
culture;
7. to protect and improve the
natural environment;
8. to develop scientific
temper and spirit of
inquiry;
9. to safeguard public
property ;
10. to strive towards
excellence in all spheres
of individual and
collective activity.
18. The powers of the Governor
are:
He/She appoints the
Chief Minister and the
council of Ministers, the
Advocate-General and
the members of the State
Public Service Commi-
ssion.
The Governor nominates
one member of the Anglo-
Indian community to the
Legislative Assembly of
his State.
The Governor can
promulgate ordinances
during the period, when
the State Legislature is
not meeting.
The Governor has the
power to grant pardon,
reprieves, respites or
remission of punish-
ments. But he has no
power to pardon death
sentence.
19. The Sarkaria Commission, set
up in June 1983 to study the
Centre-State relations, has
submitted its 1,500 page
report. The report, which has
now been published,
comprehensively and categ-
orically recommends a strong
Centre for the proper
functioning of the State. It also
laid down wholesome
guidelines for the application
of Article 356 which was not
to be exercised for the purpose
of securing good government.
20. For the recruitment to the civil
services and other posts
under the Government, the
Constitution provides for an
independent body known as
the Public Service
Commission. The chairman
and members of .the
Commission are appointed by
the President. Article 315
provides that there shall be a
Public Service Commission
for the Union as well as
separate Public Service
Commissions for each State.
Two or more states may agree
among themselves to have a
common Public Service
Commission. Further, the
Union Public Service
Commission, if requested by
the Governor of a State may,
with the approval of the
President, agree to serve the
needs of two or more states.
To ensure the integrity and
independence of the
commission the Constitution
debars its chairman and
members from further
employment after retirement,
either under the Government
of India or any State
Government.
21. Indian Constitution provide
for an independent body
called Election Commission
in Article 324 for the conduct
of fair and unpartial elections.
At present, the Election
Commission consists of a
Chief Election Commissioner
and two Deputy Commissi-
oners. Generally they hold
office for a term of six years or
till the age of retirement. The
main functions of the Election
Commission are:
(1) Prepare electoral rolls for
the election to parliament
and state legislatures.
(2) Supervise, direct and
controls elections of
President, Vice-President,
Parliament and State
Legislatures.
(3) Lays down general rules
for election and issues
notification of dates and
schedules of election.
(4) Accord recognition to
political parties and allot
symbols etc.
22. The President constitutes a
Finance Commission every
five years. Article 280 of the
Constitution provides for the
appointment of the Finance
Commission. It consists of a
chairman and four other
members to be appointed by
the President. The Finance
Commission makes recom-
mendation to the President
regarding the distribution of
money between the Union
and States and the net
proceeds of taxes. The 11th
Finance Commission was set
up in 1997 under the chairm-
anship of A.M. Khusro. It
submitted its report. The 12th
Finance Commission was
appointed by the Govern-
ment in 2002 under the
chairmanship of C. Ranga-
rajan. The 13th Commission
was setup in 2007 under the
chairman ship of Vijay Kelker.
23. Parliament has established a
contingency fund of India,
into which sums are
deposited from time to time. It
is placed at the disposal of the
President to enable advances
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to be made by him to meet the
unforeseen expenditure.
Similar funds at the disposal
of the State Governors are
created in the State.
24. List of 22 regional languages
are recognised by the
Constitution in this schedule.
With the passing of the 100th
constitutional Amendment
Bill four new languages
(Maithili, Dogri, Bodo and
Santhali) were included in
the group of officially
recognised languages. The
other 18 languages are
Assamese, Bengali,
Gujarathi, Hindi, Kannada,
Kashmiri, Malayalam,
Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi,
Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil,
Telugu, Urdu, Konkani,
Manipuri & Nepali. Konkani,
Manipuri and Nepali were
added to the 8th schedule by
the 71st amendment. English
is not included in the list.
25. Family Courts were set up in
the country under the Family
Court Act passed in 1984.
They aim to promote
conciliation and secure
speedy settlement of disputes
relating to marriage and
family affairs. These courts
are set up in cities with a
population of more than 10
lakh. Subtle family disputes
are settled in an atmosphere
of friendliness and
consideration. The aim of the
court is to strengthen family
ties and bind people not to
break them apart wherever
possible. International Day of
the Family is observed on
May 15. 1994 was observed
as the international Year of
the Family by U.N.
26. CAT is the Central Admin-
istrative Tribunal. CAT was
set up in November 1985 to
provide speedy and
inexpensive justice to Central
Government employees in
respect to their service
matters. The tribunals are
empowered to resolve
disputes and complaints
relating to recruitment and
conditions of service of
persons appointed to public
services and posts in
connection with affairs of the
union Government. It has the
jurisdiction, powers and
authority of a court in
specified matters.
27. Lok Adalats are
supplementary forums for
conciliatory settlement of
disputes. All categories of
cases except criminal cases
can be settled through LAs.
They have acquired a
statutory base and the
awards passed by the LAs are
deemed to be the decrees of
the civil court and are
binding on all parties to the
dispute. There does not lie
any appeal to any court
against an award passed by
LAs. Permanent and
continuous LAs are being set
up in all districts for
encouraging the parties to
resolve their disputes and
differences amicably.
Legal services Day is
observed on November 9.
28. The High Court is the zenith
of judiciary in the State.
Jurisdiction of a High Court
can be extended to more than
one State. The Chief Justice is
appointed by the President in
consultation with the Chief
Justice of the concerned High
Court. The salaries are from
the charged expenditure of
the consolidated fund of the
state. They retire at the age of
62.
29. According to the constitution,
the Council of Ministers stays
in office only as long as it
enjoys the confidence of the
Lok Sabha; once the
confidence is withdrawn the
Government is bound to
resign. The rules of
parliamentary procedure
accordingly provide for
moving a motion to ascertain
this confidence. The motion is
generally known as no-
confidence motion. A motion
of this kind must express
want of confidence in the
council of ministers, and an
individual minister, as the
Constitution only provides for
collective responsibility. A
notice of such a motion must
be given before the
commencement of the sitting
on the day it is desired to be
raised. If the Speaker is
convinced that the motion is
in order, the motion is read in
the House. Members in favour
of leave being granted to
debate the motion are to
indicate their support. The
Speaker grants leave if not
less-than fifty members
support the motion. Once
admitted, the motion has to be
taken up within ten days of
the leave being granted. The
time for discussion is usually
decided after consulting the
Business Advisory Commi-
ttee.
30. The 93rd Amendment Bill of
the Constitution to make
elementary education a
fundamental right secured
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the approval of the Lok Sabha
on November 27, 2002. Once
the bill becomes Act, all the
children in the 6 to 14 age
group will have the
Fundamental Right to free
and compulsory education.
As per the bill the state shall
endeavour to provide early
childhood care and educ-
ation for all children until
they complete the age of six
years. The new law
empowers a child to take a
state to court of he/she be
devoid of his/her fundamen-
tal Right.
Terminology
Adjournment: When a sitting
assembly is discontinued to
be resumed later, it is said that
the assembly is adjourned
and if the assembly is
discontinued without prescr-
ibing the date for
reassemblage, it is said that
the assembly has been
adjourned sine die. A sitting
can be adjourned by the
speaker on a resolution being
passed by the assembly.
Adult Franchise: Franchise
refers to the right or privilege
of voting. Adult franchise is a
voting right of an adult
without the distinction of
gender, caste, colour or
religion. This is also called
universal suffrage. New
Zealand is the first country to
introduce women franchise.
Bicameral States: Those
states which have two
Houses of Legislature is
called bicameral states.
Unicameral states have only
one House of Legislature.
Climbing on the Bandwagon:
Endorsing support to a
person who is likely to be
elected.
Crossing the Floor: When a
legislator changes his party
label, he is said to have
crossed the floor.
Cross Voting: The voting by
members breaking the
barriers of the party is cross
voting.
Dissolution: Disbanding of
the Assembly to hold fresh
elections.
Extradition: The removal of a
person by the state where he
happens to be, to the state or
the territory on which he is
alleged to have committed a
crime.
Gallup Poll: Conduct of test
poll to ascertain public
opinion on topical subjects. It
has been named after Dr.
Gallup of U. S.A. , who
introduced this poll.
Gram Sabha: It is a general
body of all the voters residing
within the jurisdiction of the
village panchayat.
Gram Panchayat: It is the first
tier of the Panchayati Raj and
is elected by Gram Sabhas.
Gerrymandering: A reorga-
nisation of electoral districts
to gain some advantage in a
forthcoming election. It
should be distinguished from
the reorganisation of electoral
districts which is sometimes
essential to ensure that every
parliamentary representative
speaks for approximately the
same number of votes, which
is known as redistribution.
Judicial Review: Judicial
Review refers to the power of
the judiciary to pronounce
judgement with regard to the
validity of legislation passed
by the legislature and the
action taken by the
administrative authorities.
Article 32 confers the power
of judicial review on the
Supreme Court.
Junta: It is a collective body,
consisting usually of military
men, which imposes military
rule in a country.
Lobbying: The practice of
trying to canvass support for
a particular measure or
viewpoint through personal
contacts with the members of
legislature. This is usually
done in the lobbies to which
public has access. Hence the
term lobbying.
Legal Sovereignity: The
Sovereignity of a state which
is legally vested in a particular
agency e.g., the Monarch of
England, the President of
India etc. Such persons may
be called titular or nominal
sovereigns.
Manifesto: It is a document
which is issued, generally
before a major election, by a
political party, outlining its
policies and programmes.
Martial Law: A state of affairs
declared by a civilian
government in which the
military forces are authorised
to govern and control certain
areas without the usual
constraints of democratic
decision making or without
accepting civil rights. Martial
law is a temporary state of
affairs and is legitimate in the
sense that is directly decided
upon and granted by the
civilian government.
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Nyaya Panchayat: It is the
judicial panchayat and is
considered an adjunct of the
Panchayati Raj system. It is
meant to provide speedy and
cheap justice to the villagers.
People Sniffer: Indictment of
Government through unoffi-
cial media.
Plebiscite: A vote by which
the people of an entire
country or district, express an
opinion for or against a
proposal especially on a
choice of government or ruler.
Political Defection: The
phenomenon of a legislator
elected as a member of a
political party quitting the
party without resigning the
seat is called political
defection.
Prorogation: The discontinued
sitting of the Assembly is to
be reassembled later. It is done
by the Governor or the
President on the advice of the
Chief Minister or the Prime
Minister respectively.
Adjournment can be over
ruled by prorogation.
Proportionate Represen-
tation: An electoral system
which was first advocated by
J.S. Mill. According to this, the
votes of minorities are not
wasted. Indian President,
Vice-President and members
of Rajya Sabha are elected by
this method.
Public Interest Litigation: It
means that any member of the
public can directly write and
draw attention of the court to
some injustice being suffered
by the members of the public.
Shadow Cabinet: the persons
who have been elected by the
opposition party to assume
portfolios in case the party is
able to wrest the power.
Snap Vote: Voting unexpec-
tedly recorded without the
voters being informed in
advance by party whip.
Zila Parishads: It is the third-
tier of the Panchayati Raj and
consists of Presidents of
Panchayat Samithis, besides
the MLAs and MPs elected
from the district.
Amnesty: An act of general
pardon of offenders and
termination of their penalties
Amnesty is generally granted
for political offences in the
name of the Head of the State
to placate the opponents of the
regime through an act of
generosity and trust.
Byelection: Special election to
a seat rendered vacant during
the running term of an elected
person (by death, resignation
or disqualifica-tion)
Cold War: A state of tension
between countries in which
each side adopts policies
designed to strengthen itself
and weaken the other, but
falling short of actual war.
Coupd'etat: A sudden
change of government by
force, brought about by those
who already hold some
governmental or military
power.
Filibuster: Parliamentary
device of long speeches, not
necessarily relevant to
obstruct delay or bargain over
a measure under consideration
for voting.
Guillotine: The act of putting
all the demands to vote
without discussion on the last
day marked for discussion of
budget.
Ratification: The formal
adoption by a state of a treaty
signed by the representatives.
Refrendum: A device of direct
democracy which is used to
ascertain the view of electorate
either in the form of
government or as a legislative
proposal on a policy issue.
Question Hour: The first hour
of every parliamentary sitting
is slotted for this. During this
time, the members ask
questions and the ministers
usually give answers. The
questions are of three kinds
namely starred, unstarred
and short notice.
Zero Hour: It is an informal
device available to the
members of the parliament to
raise matters without any
prior notice. The zero hour
starts immediately after the
question hour and lasts until
the agenda for the day. The
time gap is 60 minutes.
No-Confidence Motion:
Article 75 of the constitution
says that the ministry stays in
the office so long as it enjoys
confidence of the majority of
the members of the LokSabha.
In otherwords, the Lok Sabha
can remove the ministry from
office by passing a non
confidence motion. The
motion needs the supports of
50 members to be admitted.
Abbreviations
AAGSP : All Asian Gana
Sangam Parishad.
ABVP : Akhil Bharatiya
Vidhyarthi Parishad.
AG : Attorney General.
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AIADMK: All India Anna
Dravida Munnetra
Kazhagam.
BJP : Bharatiya Janatha
Party.
BKD : Bharatiya Kranthi Dal.
BJD : Biju Janata Dal.
BLD : Bharatiya Lok Dal.
BSP : Bahujan Samaj Party.
CPI : Communist Party of
India.
CPI (M) : Communist Party of
India (Marxist).
CMP : Common Minimum
Programme.
CAT : Central Administrative
Tribunal.
CAG : Comptroller and
Auditor General.
DMK : Dravida Munnetra
Kazhagam.
ESMA : Essential Services
Maintenance Act.
EVM : Electronic Voting
Machine.
FBL : Forward Block.
INL : Indian National
League.
ISP : Indian Socialist Party.
IUML : Indian Union Muslim
League.
JD (U) : Janata Dal (United).
JP : Janata Party.
MDMK : Marumalarchi Dravida
Munnetra Kazhagam.
NCP : National Congress Party.
NDA : National Democratic
Alliance.
POTA : Prevention of Terrorism
Activities (Act).
PDP : Peoples Democratic
Party.
PMK : Pattali Makkal Katchi.
RJD : Rashtriya Janata Dal.
RJP : Rashtriya Janata Party.
RLD : Rashtriya Lok Dal.
RPI : Republican Party of
India.
RSP : Revolutionary Socialist
Party.
SJP : Samajwadi Janata Party.
SAD : Shiromani Akali Dal.
TDP : Telugu Desam Party.
TULF : Tamil United Libera-
tion Front.
UPA : United Progressive
Alliance.
Amendments deal with
Amend. 7(1956) Implement State Re-
organisation Plan.
Amend. 25 (1971) Amended Art. 31 regarding
the right of the state to acquire private property
for public purpose.
Amend. 42 (1976) Brought about drastic changes
in the Indian Constitution. Because of its wide
sweep and drastic nature, it came to be called a
Mini Constitution. Its main provisions are 1) the
words secular and socialist were added to
the Preamble. 2) the primacy of Directive
Principles over Fundamental Rights was
ensured 3) restrictions were placed on the
exercise of judicial review by the High Courts. It
was laid down that the Supreme Court alone
would be entitled to examine the constitutional
validity of union laws.
Amend. 44 (1978) The Right of Property, a
fundamental right was taken away and it is
only a legal right now.
Amend. 56 (1987) Accorded the status of
Important Amendments
statehood to Goa. Provided a 40 member
Legislative Assembly to Goa.
Amend. 61 (1988) Reduced the voting age from
21 to 18 years for the Lok Sabha as well as
Assembly elections.
Amend. 71 (1992) Provides that the Konkani,
Manipuri, and Nepali shall be included in the
Eighth Schedule, thus raising the number of
languages from 15 to 18.
Amend. 73 (1992) Lead to the formation of
Panchayati Raj.
Amend. 74 (1992) Led to the formation of
Nagar Palikas.
Amend. 79 (1999) Extended the reservation of
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and
Anglo- Indians in Lok Sabha and State
Assemblies for ten more years ie, upto 2010.
Amend. 84 (2000) Relates to the creation of new
states of Jharkhand, Chattisgarh and
Uttaranchal.
93 Amendment Bill : Education - A
Fundamental Right.
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Source of Indian constitution

Govt. of India act 1935: Federal system, office of the Governor, Power of federal judiciary,
emergency power, public Service commission, Administrative details
United Kingdom: Law making procedure, Rule of law, provision of single citizenship,
Parliamentary Govt., Bicameralism, prerogative writs, Office of the CAG
USA: Independent judiciary, Judicial review, Fundamental rights, Removal of supreme and high
court judge (Impeachment), preamble, Function of Vice president
Canada: Federation with a strong centre, residuary power with the centre, Appointment of state
Governors by center, Advisory/review of Supreme Court
Ireland: Directive principle of state policy, method of presidential election, Nomination of
members of Rajyasabha by president
Germany: Emergency provision and suspension of fundamental rights
Australia: Con current list and Freedom of trade
South Africa: Amendment procedure
France: Republic
Russia (USSR): Fundamental duties
Japan: Procedure establish by law
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The Himalayas is the highest mountain range in the
world and also theyoungest mountain range.
Longest Mountain Range is Andes in South
America
Mountains between the Indus and the Brahma-
putra are called 'theHimalayas' meaning 'the abode
of snow.'
The Himalayas consist of three parallel ranges.
(i) The southernmost range, called the Siwalik is
the lowest.
(ii) The ranges lying north of the Siwalik areknown
as the middle Himalayas or the Himachal.
(iii) The northernmost ranges of the Himalayas,
known as the Himadri, are the highest with an
average height of more than 6,000 metres above
the sea level.
Longitudina or Regional Divisions of Himalayas.
Kashmir Himalayas, between river indus and sutlej.
India : Physical
Features
The Indian mainland can be divided into
five physiographic units namely
(i) The Great Mountains of the North
(ii) The North Indian Plains
(iii) The Peninsular Plateau
(iv) The Coastal Plains (v) The Islands
Mountains of India
The mountains extending between the
Pamir plateau and the Indus river in Kash-
mir are known as the Karakoram.
The Karakoram mountains contain the
Siachen, which is the world's largest moun-
tain glacier.
The world's second highest peak called K2
(Godwin Austin) belongs to Karakoram
range.
The Himalayas surrounds India on thenorth,
north west and north - east which extends to
about 2400 km.
Indi an Geography
Karakoram
World's largest and most expensive cruise liner
Queen Mary 2, the luxury ship carrying more than
2,500 passengers and 1,500 employees.
Queen Mary 2
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Kumaon Himalayas, between river Sutlej and River
Kali.
Nepal Himalayas, between river Kali and river
Teesta.
Assam Himalayas, between river Teesta and
Brahmaputra Gorge.
The Himadri contain some of the world's highest
peaks.
Mt. Everest (8848 m) in Nepal is the world's
highest peak.
Kanchenjunga in Sikkim is the highest peak of
the Himalayas in India.
Highest Mountain Peak in India
(a) K2 (b) Kanchenjunga
(c) Nanda Devi (d) Mt. Everest
Ans: (a) K2
It is in Pak Occupied Kashmir. Hut Zym-Kn-I -amb n
CXvC y-b psS{] t Z-i -am-Wv.
Important passes of Himalayas
Kashmir : Burzil and Jojila
Himachal Pradesh : Bara, Lepcha-la, Shipkila
Uttar Pradesh : Thanga-la, Niti-la, Lipu-Lekhla
Sikkim - Nathula, Jelepla
Khybar pass is the most famous pass which leads
from Peshwar to Kabul.
South of Khybar pass is the Gomal Pass (it is in
Pakistan)
The Bolan Pass leads from Kandahar to Quetta.
Shipki Pass leads from the Punjab to Tibet.
The Purvachal Hills in the north-east consist of
the Patkai-Bum, the Garo-Khasi-Jaintia and Lushai
Hills.
Vindhya mountains cut off the northern plain from
the south.
The Peninsular mountains include The Western
Ghats (The Sahyadris), The Eastern Ghats, The
Satpura Range and The Aravallis.
The Western Ghats runs along the west coast
from the south of Tapti river valley to
Kanyakumari. Passes in Western Ghats are the
Palghat between Palakkad and Coimbatore,
Shenkotta between Kollam and Madurai, Thalghat
between Mumbai and Pune and the Bhorghat be-
tween Mumbai and Nassik.
The Eastern Ghats are irregular hill ranges that
stretch from northern Orissa to the Nilgiris in
Tamil Nadu across the coastal Andhra.
The Satpura range extends from the Narmada val-
ley in the north to the Tapti valley in the south.
The 800 km range Aravallis stretching from the
north-east to the south - west of India separates
the semi-desert regions of Rajasthan from the fer-
tile Udaipur and Jaipur regions.
Aravallis is the oldest mountain range in India.
Sahyadri hills is a part of the Western Ghats.
Nilgiris is also a part of Western Ghats. Nilgiri is
known as the Blue Mountains.
The southernmost tip of Eastern Ghats is called
CardamomHills.
The Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats meet at
Nilgiri Hills.
The Peninsular Plateau
Rising from the Alluvial plains of U.P and Bihar,
south of the Yamuna - Ganga line, the great Indian
plateau (Peninsular plateau) extends towards the
south to encompass the whole of the peninsula.
Its north-west limit is marked by theAravalli range.
The Peninsular plateau can be divided into three-
Geographically, Deccan plateau is the
oldest part of India.
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the Central Plateau, the Eastern Plateau and the
Deccan Plateau.
The Eastern plateau lies to the north - east of
Malwa.
East of Baghelkhand is the Chottanagpur plateau
in Jharkhand which is 700m high and has steep
borders.
The Malwa plateau, particularly its north - east-
ern part called the Chottanagpur plateau is the
richest mineral producing region of India.
Anamudi (Idukki) in Kerala is the highest peak of
Peninsular India.
The Deccan plateau lies to the south of northern
plain. The plateau is flanked by mountain ranges
called Eastern and Western Ghats.
The triangular plateau is Indias largest plateau
with a height ranging from 900 to 300 m in the
west and east. N- Sextenat - 1600 km and E-Wextent
- 1400 km.
Great Plains
The Great plains are found between the Himalayas
and Peninsular plateau which extends to about
2400 km.
The plains are drained by river Sutlej and the Beas
in the west, the Ganges and its tributaries in the
east.
Sambhar, the salt lake lies in the Rajasthan plains.
The most fertile region of India is the northern
plains formed by the valleys of rivers Ganges and
Brahmaputra.
The Islands
Besides mainlands India has two groups of Islands
namely the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the
Bay of Bengal and the Lakshadweep Islands in the
Arabian Sea.
Andamans consists of a northern cluster of 204
small islands and Nicobar islands consists of a
southern cluster of 19 Islands.
Ten degree channel separates Andaman from
Nicobar.
Port Blair is the capital of Andaman & Nicobar
Islands.
The southernmost tip of India, Indira point is in
Great Nicobar islands which is the biggest island
in Nicobar group.
The islands of Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi
in the Arabian sea are known as Lakshadweep. It
comprises of a group of 36 islands, about 300km
to the west of Kerala coast. Only 10 of the islands
are inhabited.
Kavarathi is the capital of Lakshadweep.
New Moore Island lies in Bay of Bengal near West
Bengal also belong to India.
Coco Islands North of Andaman belong to
Myanmar.
Biggest Island in Andaman Group - Middle
Andaman
Biggest Island in Nicobar Group - Great Nicobar
Smallest Island in Andaman Group - Ross Island
Smallest Island in Nicobar Group - Pilomillow Is-
land
Highest point in Nicobar Group - Mount Thullier.
Soils in India
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR) divides the soils found in the country into
8 major groups.
They are: Alluvial soil, Black soil, Red soil, Later-
ite soil, Forest soil, Arid and Desert soils, Saline
and Alkaline soils and Peaty and Organic soils.
Alluvial Soil
Alluvial soil contributing the largest share, is
formed by the deposition of sediments by rivers
in the interior parts of India and by the sea waves
Anthroth Island
The largest Island in Lakshadweep
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hydrated double iron and titaniferous magnetite.
Black soil found in Maharashtra, Gujarat, West
Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu
Red Soil
Red soil is formed by the weathering of ancient
metamorphic and crystalline rocks.
They are airy and need irrigation support for cul-
tivation. Red soil is suitable for the cultivation of
pulses and coarse grains.
Red soils are poor in nitrogen, phosphorous, po-
tassium and organic matter.
They are more suitable for the cultivation of rice,
in the coastal areas of the country.
Alluvial soil is the best agricultural soil because
(i) They contain a variety of salts derived from
Himalayan rocks.
(ii) They are light and porous, therefore easily
tillable.
(iii) They are good for canal irrigation because of
high water table and an easily penetrable stratum.
Alluvial soils are rich in potash and poor in nitro-
gen and organic matter.
Alluvial soils are suitable for cultivation of almost
all kinds of cereals, pulses, oil seeds, cotton, sug-
arcane and vegetables.
Ahmedabad, Baroda and Kheda districts of
Gujarat, Orissa and
Kerala are some of
the states in which
alluvial soil is
found.
The coastal allu-
vium is of tidal ori-
gin.
The desert alluvium
or 'Loess' is
bought by wind
erosion.
Black Soil
Black soil is found
largely in the
Deccan plateau.
Black soil is suit-
able for the cultiva-
tion of cotton and
therefore it is called
black cotton soil.
The black colour of
the black soil is at-
tributed to the pres-
ence of compounds
of Iron and alu-
m i n i u m ,
accumulated hu-
mus, aluminiumsili-
cate, colloidal
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ragi, tobacco and vegetable.
Laterite Soil
Laterite soils are formed by the weathering of lat-
erite rocks. Laterite soils are deficient in nitrogen.
They are chiefly found in Karnataka, Kerala,
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Malabar areas.
These soils are agriculturally unimportant because
of intensive leaching, a low base exchange capac-
ity and their acidic nature.
Forest Soil
Forest soils are formed by the deposition of or-
ganic matter derived from forests. They are rich in
organic matter and humus. They are found mainly
in Punjab, Karnataka, Manipur and Jammu &
Kashmir.
These soils are used for plantations of tea, cof-
fee, spices and fruits.
Arid and Desert Soils
Arid and Desert soils are formed under arid and
semi arid conditions in the north -western parts of
the country. They are rich in phosphate though
poor in nitrogen.
These soils often have a high soluble salt content
and low to very low humus content.
These soils are made fertile by adding gypsum.
Saline and
Alkaline Soils
Saline and Alkaline soils are salt impregnated
and infertile. These soils are found especially in
the dry tracts of the north.
Also known as reh, kallar, usar, thur, karl and
chopan
They contain a larger proportion of sodium po-
tassium and magnesium
They acquire salts largely because of dry climate
and poor drainage
Peaty Soils
Peaty soils are developed under humid conditions
as a result of the accumulation of large amounts
of organic matter. These soils are highly saline
and rich in organic matter.
The River Systems of India
Rivers in India may be classified into the Hima-
layan rivers, the Deccan river (Peninsular Rivers).
These soils cover the high rainfall areas of West
Bengal, Orissa and Kerala.
Himalayan rivers
The Himalayan rivers are perennial snow fed riv-
ers. During the monsoon season, the rivers dis-
charge the maximum amount of water causing fre-
quent floods.
Yamuna, Gomti, Ghagra, Gandak, Ram Ganga, Son,
Chambal, Betwa and Ken are the the main tribu-
taries of Ganga.
Ganga is known by thenamePadma in Bangladesh.
Ganga flows through Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West
Bengal and finally enters into the Bay of Bengal.
Brahmaputra is the second largest river system
of I ndian sub-continent. The 2,688 km
Brahmaputra is longer than the Ganges, but only
one third of the river passes through India.
Brahmaputra orginates from the Manasarovar lake
in Western Tibet. It mainly flows through Tibet
and a small portion of it flows through India.
In Tibet, Brahmaputra is known as Tsang Po.
After making deep gorges in Namcha Barwa, it
enters India in Arunachal Pradesh as 'Dihang'. It
enters Sadiya District of Assam and known as
Brahmaputra when it enters Bangladesh, it is
named as 'Meghna.'
k n ph pw{_ l va] p{Xb pwKwK-t b - m h ep-Xm-
The River Ganga is
the longest river
(2640 km) in India. Its
source is at Gangotri
glacier in the
Himalayas.
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sW- nepwCh -b psS sNdn-sb mcp ` mKwam{Xt a
C y-b n-eqsSHgp-I p- p- p.
Brahmaputra is the only river in the world which
form a river island named 'Majauli Island.'
Indus is the longest river of Indian sub-continent.
It is 2900 kmlong. It flows mainly through Pakistan.
Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum are the five
tributaries of Indus. Mount Kailash in Tibet is the
source of Indus river. It enters into the Arabian sea.
The Ravi is the smallest river of Punjab and is well-
known as the 'River of Lahore.' It rises near the
Rohtang pass in the Kulu hills of Himachal Pradesh.
The Chenab is the largest of Indus tributaries. It
has a total length of 1,800 km in India.
Peninsular rivers
Peninsular rivers (The Deccan System) are gener-
ally rainfed and comprises the rivers of peninsu-
lar India. They are shorter and seasonal in nature.
River Godavari is the largest river system (1465
km long) of peninsular India. It is known as the
'Vridha Ganga' or 'Dakshin Ganga.' It rises from
Trambak in Nasik district in the Western Ghats.
River Krishna rises from the north of
Mahabaleswar in the Western Ghats. It enters into
the Bay of Bengal. Krishna basin forms the third
largest river basin in India.
River Cauvery rises from the Brahmagiri hills in
the Coorg district of Karnataka. About 55 percent
of the cauvery basin lies in Tamilnadu, 41 percent
in Karnataka and three percent in Kerala.
River Pennar rises in the Kolar district of Karnataka.
River Damodar rises from the Chottanagpur pla-
teau near Tori in Palamau district of Jharkhand.
River Damodar of Jharkhand is called as "Sorrow
of Bengal and Jharkhand", because of frequent
flood, mass, soil erosion and heavy siltation.
River Narmada which rises from the Amarkantak
plateau in Chhattisgarh is the largest among the
west flowing peninsular rivers.
Narmada and Tapti are the major west flowing
rivers of India. They drains into the Gulf of
Cambay in the Arabian Sea.
Satpula Mountain range lies between Narmada
and Tapti.
Luni and Sabarmati are the other two west flow-
ing peninsular rivers.
Sabarmati rises from the Jai Samand lake of
Udaipur, Rajasthan.
The Luni orginates from Annasagar in the Aravallis
and ends on the Sahni marshes, North of Rann of
Kutch.
The worlds largest delta, Sunderbans is formed
by the Ganges and Brahmaputra in West Bengal
and Bangladesh, in the Bay of Bengal.
The Third river system is also called the Rivers
of Inland Drainage Basins which consists of small
rivers in the sandy areas of Rajasthan.
Lakes
The largest fresh water lake in India: Lake Kolleru
(Andhra Pradesh). Wular is the second largest
fresh water lake.
The second largest salt water lake is Sambhar in
Rajasthan.
Important lakes in India are Chilka (Orissa),
Sambhar (Rajasthan),
Pulicat (Andhra
Pradesh) and
Vembanad (Kerala),
Woolar (J &K), Dal
(J &K), Uday Sagar
(Rajasthan), Puslikar
(Rajasthan), Puslikar
(Rajasthan), Loktak
(Manipur Hills).
Dal Lake is fa-
mous for house boats.
Sambar in
Rajasthan is the largest inland salt lake in India.
Indian Climate
Indian climate is greatly influenced by the pres-
ence of Himalayas in the north and the Indian
Ocean in the south.
The climate of India is monsoonal type, fed up by
two rain bearing winds.
Latitude and the monsoon winds are the major
factors affecting the Indian climate.
The Tropic of Cancer divides India into two al-
most equal climatic zones namely the northern
zone and the southern zone.
India receives 90% of thetotal rainfall frommonsoons.
Monsoons arethe seasonal winds which blow during
six months of summer fromocean to land and for the
six months of winter from land to sea.
The South West Monsoon forms the main mon-
soon season in India (June to August).
The largest
saltwater lake :
Lake Chilka
(Orissa)
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landmass of north-western India towards the In-
dian Ocean.
Thunder storm cause upto 25 cm of rainfall along
the Kerala and Karnataka coasts and about 10 cm.
in the interior of South India. Such rains are called
'Cherry Blossoms' in Karnataka where they
prove immensely beneficial to coffee plantation.
They are called as 'Mango Showers' in South
India, due to their salutary effect on mango crop.
The normal date of the onset of the rains is 20th
May in Andaman & Nicobar Islands and by the
end of June, it is usually established over most of
the country.
The North East Monsoon (October - November)
brings rain mainly to Tamil Nadu.
On the basis of monsoonal variations there are
four seasons in India namely the cold (winter)
season (December to February), the hot (summer)
season (March to May), the south west monsoon
(the rainy season) (June to September) and the
season of retreating monsoon (October to No-
vember).
The North - East Monsoons are comparitively mi-
nor monsoons confined to a smaller area of the
country. They are the winds blowing out from the
Wild life Sanctuaries & National Parks
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Normal duration of the monsoon varies from 2 to 4
months.
The Trans-Himalayan and Greater-Himalayan re-
gions, Drass and Kargil of Ladakh region are the
coldest regions in the country.
Chirapunji in Meghalaya is the wettest place in
India.
Jaisalmer in western Rajasthan is the driest place
in India which receives the lowest rainfall.
India : Natural Vegetation
(Forests)
Natural vegetation in India varies from region to
region due to variations in climatic conditions,
soil types and relief features.
Nearly 19.39% of the total land area in India is
under forest. The National Forest policy has laid
down a target of raising the area under forest to
nearly 33.3%.
Tropical Evergreen forests are dense forests of
luxuriant growth found in areas where rainfall
ranges between 200 to 300 cm. eg; Western Ghats
and sub-Himalayan regions.
Tropical Decidous Forests or Monsoon Forests
are areas having annual rainfall between 100-200
cm.
Tidal or Littoral Forests occur along the deltas of
West Bengal Orissa and Andhra Pradesh receiv-
ing annual rainfall above 200 cm. Sundari tree is
the important tree in these forest.
Dry Tropical forests are mostly prevalent in re-
gions with an annual rainfall of 90 to 130 cm.
Swamps or Littoral forests are also called tidal
forests which occur in and around the tidal creeks
and along the deltas of river Ganges, Mahanadi,
Krishna and Godavari.
Alpine forests cover the alpine areas in the
Himalayas, at a height of 2880 m to 3700m.
Siwaliks are covered with tropical moist deciduous
flora such as sal and bamboo.
Planting of trees is known as afforestation.
Deforestation is the destruction of trees.
Forests also help to prevent soil erosion and
land slides. It maintains the ecological balance
and provides forest products such as timber and
industrial raw materials. Forests helps to pro-
tect wild life and rare species of trees and plants.
Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under for-
est among the Indian states.
National Parks, Sanctuaries and
Biosphere Reserves in India
Namdapha (B.R) .................. Arunachal Pradesh
Kaziranga (N.P) ...................................... Assam
Manas (N.P) ........................................... Assam
Hazaribagh (N.P) ............................... Jharkhand
Gir (N.P) .................................................Gujarat
Nalsarovar (S) ........................................Gujarat
Jaldapara (S).................................. West Bengal
Manali (S) ............................. Himachal Pradesh
Dachigam (N.P) ..................... Jammu & Kashmir
SalimAli (N.P) ....................... Jammu & Kashmir
Karakoram (S)........................ Jammu & Kashmir
Bandipur (N.P) .................................. Karnataka
Kudremukh (N.P)............................... Karnataka
Ranganathittu (S) .............................. Karnataka
Eravikulam (N.P) ...................................... Kerala
Silent Valley (N.P) .................................... Kerala
Idukki (S) ................................................ Kerala
Indravati (N.P)............................... Chhattisgarh
Kanha (N.P) .................................. Chhattisgarh
Sariska (N.P)...................................... Rajasthan
Jim Corbett (N.P) ............................. Uttaranchal
Dudhwa (N.P)............................... Uttar Pradesh
Nanda Devi (N.P) ............................ Uttaranchal
Mawsynram in
Meghalaya (1141 cm) is the
rainiest place in the world.
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Haryana has the least area under forest.
Arunachal Pradesh has the largest percentage of
area under forest.
India provides about 8% of the worlds hardwood
and ranks third after Brazil and Indonesia.
Mangrove forests are found in the coastal plains.
The forests on the Ganges delta in Bengal are called
Sunderbans after the sundari trees in these forests.
Evergreen forests (Tropical) are found in the West-
ern ghats and Sub-Himalayan region. They pro-
vide hardwood like teak, rosewood, ebony etc.
Social forestry aims at not only providing
fuelwood, fodder and other forest products, but
also to meet the requirement of ecological bal-
ance through large scale afforestation on
community lands and waste lands.
Energy plantations are plantation of softwood and
grass to meet the energy needs of households.
World Environment Day : June 5
Indias Wild Life
The wild life reserves of India are of two types -
the Wild life sanctuaries and National parks.
Presently the country has 500 Wildlife Sanctuar-
ies, 92 National Parks and 27 Tiger Reserves.
Wild life protection in India was given statutory
status with the adoption of the Wildlife (Protec-
tion) Act, 1972 by all the Indian states except
Jammu and Kashmir..
Trade in endangered species is subject to strict
rules under the Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species (CITES) of wild flora and
fauna, to which India is a signatory.
Some of the endangered species are Asiatic Lion,
One Horned Rhinocerous, Hangul, Royal Bengal
Tiger, Wild Ass etc.
The Animal Welfare Board of India was estab-
lished in 1962. Research programmes in wildlife
are carried out by the Wild life Institute of India,
Dehradun and the Salim Ali Centre for
Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore.
Project Tiger is the centrally sponsored scheme
launched on April 1, 1973 to save the tigers from
extinction on India.
At present Madhya Pradesh tops the state with
greater number of Tigers. Madhya Pradesh is
known as the tiger state of India. M.P was fol-
lowed by Uttar Pradesh.
Project Elephant was launched to protect the wild
life and elephant population during the eighth
plan, ie in 1991.
A wild life week is observed in the first week of
October every year.
Biosphere Reserves: Biosphere preserve are multi
purpose protected area to preserve the genetic
diversity in representative eco system.
So far fourteen biosphere reserves have been set
up.
They are: Nilgiri, Nanda Devi, Nokrek, Great
Nicobar, Gulf of Mannar, Manas, Sunderbans,
Similipal, Dibru Daikhowa, Dehong Deband,
Panchmarhi, Khangchendzonga. Agastyamalai
and Achanakamar - Amar Kantak.
Mineral Wealth In India
India is rich in mineral resources and has the po-
tential to become an industrial power.
India is the 5th largest exporter of Iron ore in the
world.
India is the largest producer of mica in the world.
Jharkhand is the leading producer of mica. Bihar,
Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh also produce mica.
The Great plains of Northern India are devoid of
deposits of economic minerals. On the other hand
Jharkhand and Orissa areas on the North-Eastern
parts of Peninsular India possess large concen-
tration of mineral deposits accounting for nearly
three-fourths of the countrys coal deposits.
Keibul Lamjo is the only floating National
Park in the country, is located in Manipur in
Loktak Lake
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Raniganj (West Bengal), Jharia (Bihar), Singarui
(Madhya Pradesh) and Korba (Chhattisgarh) are
the major coal fields in India.
Mineral deposits are also scattered over the pen-
insular India and in parts of Assam and Rajasthan.
Thorium, a likely future substitute for Uranium as
a fission meterial in atomic reactors, occurs in con-
siderable quantities as ThO
2
, in the beach sands
of Kerala coast.
Thorianite and Monazite are the main ores of tho-
rium. Monazite deposits of commercial value are
found in about 160 kms between Cape Comorin
and Kollam in Kerala.
India possesses the largest reserves of monazite
known in the world.
Uranium compounds occurs in Singhbhum - cop-
per belt of J harkhand, Aravalli's and central
Himalaya.
Monazite which contains small percentage of Ura-
nium Oxide occurs in the beach sands of the east
and west in India.
Marble is found largely in Rajasthan.
Diamond is found at Panna in Madhya Pradesh.
India is rich in iron, mica, manganese and bauxite.
India is deficient in copper, lead, mercury, zinc,
tin, nickel, petroleum products, sulphur and
tungsten and spends considerable amounts in
foreign exchange on their imports.
Gypsum deposit is found in Rajasthan.
Leading salt producer in India is Gujarat. It pro-
duces 60% of salt of the country.
State with the largest mineral deposit is Jharkhand.
Formerly it was a part of Bihar.
Jharkhand is the state with highest mineral out-
put in India.
Chottanagpur plateau is the richest mineral belt
of India.
Gold is found in the Kolar Gold fields in Karnataka
and in small quantities in Ramigiri gold fields in
Andhra Pradesh.
Ligniteis mainly found in theNeyveli fields in Tamil
Nadu.
Natural gas fields are Ankleshwar and Cambay in
Gujarat, Bombay high and Assam.
Almost all the copper in India comes from
Singhbhum and Hazaribagh in Jharkhand and
Khetri in Rajasthan.
India ranks third in the world in the production of
manganese. Orissa is the leading producer of man-
ganese in the state.
The first successful oil well was sunk at Digboi in
1889. The recently discovered sea-bed oil fields of
Bombay High are also yielding, substantial quan-
tities of oil.
Bombay High is the offshore oil field located in
the coast of Maharashtra.
The first boring was made at Nahor Pung in No-
vember, 1866 in Makum area of Assam.
Digboi in Assam is the oldest oil well of India.
Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) was set
up at Dehradun in 1956.
Major Industries in India
The Industrial policy adopted by the Government
of India envisages a mixed economy, i.e., the
co-existance of public and private sectors.
The large scale industries of India covers iron
and steel, engineering, jute, cotton, textiles and
sugar industries.
Cotton textiles is the oldest industry in India. It
has the largest number of workers employed in
an industry.
Mumbai has become the 'cottonpolis' of India.
Ahmadabad Vadodra region is the second largest
centre of cotton textile.
Kanpur is famous for textiles and clothing, large
modern tanneries, leather works and shoe
manufacturing.
Sholapur is famous for important textiles based
on cotton grown in local regular soils.
The first modern cotton textile mill was estab-
Mineral State of India
Jharkhand
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lished in Bombay in 1851.
Karnataka is the largest producer of silk.
First modern silk factory - was set up at Howrah in
1832.
Dharwar - Belgaum are known for cotton textiles
railway and general engineering goods.
In 1870, the first steel industry,Bengal Iron
Company was set up at Kulti, West Bengal.
The first large scale steel plant in the private sec-
tor was Tata Iron and Steel Company, Jamshedpur.
The public sector steel plants are managed by the
Steel Authority of India (SAIL).
Majority of the jute mills are located in West Ben-
gal. As a foreign exchange earner, it is an impor-
tant industry in the country.
Rourkela steel plant in Orissa was set up under
the second five year plan in assistance with Ger-
many.
Bokaro, the biggest plant in Asia was set up un-
der the fourth five year plan in association with
the Russian Government. I t is located in
Jharkhand.
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is a quasi gov-
ernmental institution for drawing up standards
for the products of Indian industry. It was estab-
lished in 1947.
National Productivity Council (NPC) is an autono-
mous body formed to inculcate productivity in
industries, established in 1958.
Godavari - Krishna delta is known for local to-
bacco, sugarcane, rice, oil, cement and small tex-
tiles.
The industry associated with sports materials
mainly located at Agra, Meerut (UP), Batalla,
Jalandhar (Punjab) and Delhi.
Pinjore in Haryana and Jalahalli in Bangalore are
associated with watch industry.
Moradabad is famous for brass utensils with en-
graving and polishing.
Indian Explosives factory is located at Gomia in
Hazaribagh (Jharkhand).
First fertilizer plant is near Ranipet of Tamil Nadu
in 1906.
First public sector fertilizer plant is at Sindri
(Jharkhand)
The first synthetic rubber factory was started in
Bareilly in 1955.
There are only four newsprint manufacturing
plant:
(i) at Vellore (near Kottayam) in Kerala
(ii) at Nepanagar (M.P) - 1955
(iii) Shimoga in Karnataka.
(iv) Pugalur in Tirchchirapalli (T.N.)
West Bengal is the leading state in paper manu-
facturing.
NALCO (National Aluminium Company Ltd.),
BALCO (Bharat Aluminium Company),
HINDAL CO (The Hindustan Aluminium Corpo-
ration Ltd.), The Indian Aluminium Co. Ltd.
(INDAL) are the leading producers of aluminium
in the country.
India is the largest sugar producing country with
over 15% share of the global output. It is also the
largest consumer.
Maharashtra produces more than one third of the
total production of sugar in country.
Agriculture
Agriculture is the largest source of livelihood for
over 2/3rd (about 70%) of the population of India.
Agriculture contributes 22% to the GDP.
Crops in India can be classified into subsistence
crops, commercial crops, plantation crops and hor-
ticulture crops.
Crop season in India can be classified into three
such as Kharif, Rabi and Zayad.
Kharif (rainy) crops are sown in June/July and
harvested in September / October. Rice, Jowar,
Bajra, Ragi, Maize, Cotton and Jute are the impor-
tant Kharif crops.
Rabi (winter) crops are sown in October/ Decem-
ber and harvested in April/ May. Wheat , Barley ,
Peas, Rape-seed, Mustard and Grams are the im-
portant Rabi crops.
Zayad (Summer) crops : Swon in April, May and
June. Products are mostly fruits and vegetables.
Cardamom is found mainly in Karnataka, Kerala,
Sikkim and Tamil Nadu.
Punjab is
known as the
'Granary of
India.'
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Cashewnut is mainly found in Kerala.
Saffron is found mainly in Jammu and Kashmir.
Groundnut is found mainly in Gujarat.
Karnataka is the chief producer of coffee.
Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of sugar-
cane.
Tobacco is mainly produced in Maharashtra.
TheGreen Revolution (first) was launched in 1967-68.
The second Green Revolution was launched in
1983-84.
The father of Green Revolution in India - Dr. M.S.
Swaminathan.
Father of Green Revolution - Norman Borlaug.
To increase yield per hectare government of India
introduced a programme called Green Revolu-
tion. According to this programme the farmers are
taught to use high yielding variety of seed (H.Y.V),
correct types of fertilisers and the government
has provided facilities of irrigation.
Rice in the staple food of India.
India has the largest area under rice cultivation in
the world
In terms of production it is next only to China.
India occupies second position in rice exports,
nex only to Thailand.
Banana ranks no 1 in fruit production in India's
followed by Mango and citrus.
Potato ranks No. 1 in vegetable production in In-
dia, followed by Brinjal, Tomato, Cabbage.
India accounts for 10% of world fruit production.
India has highest productivity in grapes.
India's share in mango production is 54% of world
production
India leads the world in Mango, banana and acid
lime.
India occoupies first position in the production
of cauliflower, second in onion and third in cab-
bage in the world.
India is the largest producer, consumer and ex-
porter of cashew in the world.
India is the largest producer and consumer of
pulses
India is the second largest producer of ground-
nut in the world.
India is the second largest producer of tobacco in
the world after China.
Tobacco crop depletes the potash content of the
soil.
India is the third largest producer of and fourth
largest consumer of Rubber.
Black pepper is the most important dollar earning
crop.
India occupies second position after Gautemala
in terms of production, productivity and export of
cardamom.
Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of chil-
lies.
India is the largest (80%) producer of ginger
India stands second in terms of cultivated land
after USA.
Millets (Jowar & Bajra) is a poor man's food.
Two varieties of tea in India : Black tea and Green tea.
Indian Coffee is known for its quality and aroma.
There are two types of coffee : Arabica and
Raibusta. Arabica is better than Raibusta.
Wheat production is highest in Uttar Pradesh
and Punjab comes next.
Operation flood I was launched in 1970, which
aimed at capturing a commanding share of the
liquid milk market.
A centrally sponsored Command Area Develop-
ment Programme was launched in 1974-75 with the
main objective of improving utilization of irrigation
potential and optimizing agricultural productivity.
India is the leading producer of tea.
Uttar Pradesh leads in the production of wheat,
sugarcane, maize and barley.
Gujarat is the leading producer state of cotton,
caster seed and groundnut.
Rajasthan leads in theproduction of coriander (a-n).
West Bengal leads in the rice production and jute
production.
Irrigation in India can be classified into Wells,
Tanks and Canals.
Wells account for about 48% of the total irrigated
area in the country.
Tanks account for about 10% of the total irrigated
area, are used in Central and Southern India.
Canals are the major sources of irrigation in Punjab,
Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. They account for
about 40% of the total irrigated area.
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The
largest
state:
Rajasthan
The
smallest
state
Goa
The most
populous state
of India: Uttar
Pradesh
The least
populous state:
Sikkim
The eastern
most state:
Arunachal
Pradesh
The Mineral
state:
J harkhand
The southern
most tip of
India: Indira
point
Largest
populated
city:
Mumbai
The
smallest
Union
Territory
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INDIA
Water Bodies
INDUS
Indus ( km) is
the largest
river of Indian
sub continent.
J h e l u m ,
Chenab Ravi,
Sutlej, Beas are
the important
tributaries
Chenab is the
largest of all
the I ndus
tributaries
East Flowing
Rivers
Mahanadi,
Godavari, Krishna,
Kaveri are the
important rivers.
Godavari is the
longest river of the
Peninsula.
Bhima, Krishna and
Thungabhadhra are
the three tributaries
of Krishna.
Brahmaputra
Brahmaputra is
the second
largest river
systemof Indian
sub continent.
After making
deep gorges in
Namcha Barwa,
it enters India in
Arunachal
Pradesh as
Dihang. It
enters Sadiya
District of
Assam and
known as
Brahmaputra.
When it enters
Bangladesh, it is
named as
Meghna.
GANGA
It is the longest
river in India
(2640 km).
Formed by two
head streams,
Alakananda and
Bhagirathi which
join at Devprayag.
The Yamuna is the
largest and the
most important
tributary of Ganga.
Ganga is known as
Padma in
Bangladesh.
Narmada &
Tapti arethe two
important west
flowing rivers of
India
T
ap
ti
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INDIA Physical Features
Mount Everest:
Highest Peak
in the World
(Nepal)
Kachenjunga
in Sikkim is
the highest
peak of the
Himalaya in
India
Aravallis is the
Oldest Mountain
Range in India
Worlds second
highest peak: K2
(Godwin Austin)
The highest peak in
Western Ghaths:
Anamudi
Cardomom Hills
Southern tip of
Eastern Ghats
Deccan Plateau
is the oldest part of
India
Bhor Ghat, Thal
Ghat, Pal Ghat are
the important passes
of Western Ghats
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Now India have
Wild life Sanctuaries: 490
National Parks : 88
Keibul Lamjo is the only floating National
Park in India (Manipur)
India has the worlds largest
reserves of iron.
Chottanagpur plateau is the
richest mineral belt of India.
India is rich in iron, mica,
manganese and bauxite but
deficient in copper, lead,
mercury, zinc, tin, nickel,
petroleum products, sulphur &
tungsten.
India ranks third in the world in
the production of manganese
Orissa is the leading producer.
Gold is found in Kolar Gold
fields in Karnataka and in small
quantities in Ranigiri gold fields
in Andhra Pradesh.
Sanctuaries/National Parks .... Location & State
Valmiki ............................ Hazaribagh (J harkhand)
Simlipal .................................Mayurbhanj (Orissa)
Palamau .......................... Daltonganj (J harkhand)
Bandipur................................Mysore (Karnataka)
Kanha...................... Mandla and Balaghat (M.P)
Melghat............................................... Maharashtra
Ranthambore.......... Swai Madhopur (Rajasthan)
Corbett............................. Garhwal (Uttarakhand)
Sunderbans........................................ (West bengal)
Manas......................................... Barpetal (Assam)
Peri yar ........................................... Idukki (Kerala)
Sariska....................................... Alwar (Rajasthan)
Buxar ....................................................West Bengal
I ndravathi ............................................. Chattisgarh
Nagarjuna Sagar............................ Srisailam (A.P)
Namdapha ................ Tirap (Aruanchal Pradesh)
Dudwa.............................Lakhimpur Kheri (U.P)
Kalkad Mundanthuria Tirunelveli (Tamil Nadu)
Bandhavagarh.............Shadol (Madhya Pradesh)
Panna............................................ Madhya Pradesh
Dampha....................................Aizwal (Mizoram)
Bhadra..................................................... Karnataka
INDIA - Minerals
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River Valley Projects
Idukki Project........................................................ Periyar
Koyna Project......................................................... Koyna
Tehri Dam Project ..................... Bhilangana, Bhagirathi
Narmada Sagar Valley Project ......................... Narmada
Obra Power Station .................................................. Obra
Rihand project....................................................... Rihand
Bhakra - Nangal Project.......................................... Satlej
Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC) .............. Damodar
Hirakud Dam Project......................... Mahanadi (Orissa)
Mayurakshi Project.................................... Murali (A.P.)
Nagarjunasagar Project ....................................... Krishna
Kosi Project................................................................Kosi
Pallivasal .....................................Mudirappuzha (Kerala)
Peringalkuthu..................... Chalakkudy Puzha (Kerala)
Sabarigiri ................................................. Pamba (Kerala)
Kuttiyadi ................................. Kuttiyady Puzha (Kerala)
Name of the Project .............................................. River
Farakka Project ................................. Ganga - Bhagirathi
Beas Project............................................................... Beas
Rajasthan canal project ................ Beas, Ravi and Sutlej
Chambal Project................................................. Chambal
Kakrapara Project .....................................................Tapti
Ukai Project...............................................................Tapti
Poochampad Project ..........................................Godavari
Malaprabha Project....................................... Malaprabha
Mahi ...........................................................................Mahi
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&
Neighbouring Countries
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2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
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Golden Quadrilateral - Links Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai
North-South Corridor - Sreenagar to Kanyakumari
East West Corridors - Porbandhar to Silchur
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BC
c. 9000 : The development of agriculture.
c. 3500 : A number of small cities, centres of the
worlds first civilisation, appeared
in Sumer, the lower part of the Tigris-
Euphrates Valley (present Iraq).
c. 3500 : The Sumerians invented the first form of
writing. It was later simplified to produce
wedge-shaped cuneiform writing, which
spread throughout the Middle East.
c. 2500 : The Pyramids and Great Sphinx were built
in Giza, Egypt.
c. 2500 : The Indus Valley civilisation began to
flourish in the cities of Mohenjo-Daro and
Harappa in what is now Pakistan.
c. 2500 : The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Epic of
Creation, the oldest epic poems in world
literature, were written in Mesopotamia.
c. 2500-1100: The Minoan civilisation on the island
of Crete rose and fell.
2300s : Sargon of Akkad conquered the Sumerians
and united all Mesopotamia under his rule,
creating the worlds first empire.
c. 1792-1750 : Babylonia flourished under King
Hammurabi.
c. 1700 : Code of Hammurabi, one of the first law
codes, was drawn up.
c.1500-1000:The Aryans of central Asia came to In-
dia.
c. 1400 : The making of iron began.
776 : The first recorded Olympic Games were
held in Greece.
c. 550 : Cyrus the Great established the Persian
Empire.
509 : The people of Rome revolted against their
Etruscan rulers and established a repub-
lic.
500 : The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were
built.
400 : Hippocrates, the father of Medicine
showed that diseases have natural
causes.
399 : Socrates was forced to commit suicide by
drinking hemlock, a poison.
44 : Julius Caesar of Rome was assassinated.
27 : Augustus became the first Roman em-
peror.
4 : Birth of Jesus Christ.
AD
1 : The Chinese invented paper.
250 : The Mayans developed an advanced civi-
lization in Central America and Mexico.
313 : Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which
granted freedom of worship to Christians of
the Roman Empire.
395 : The Roman Empire split into the East Ro-
man, or Byzantine Empire and the West
Roman Empire.
300 : The Ghana Empire, the first great black
empire in Western Africa, existed as a trad-
ing state.
570 : Birth of Prophet Muhammad, the founder
of Islam.
610 : Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, began
preaching.
622 : Muhammad, prophet of Islam, fled from
Mecca to Medina. His flight, called the
Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic
calendar.
750 : The Abbasids became the Caliphs of
the Islamic world.
800 : Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne, ruler
of the Franks, emperor of the Romans.
TIMELINE: WORLD HISTORY
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988 : Vladimir I converted the Russians to
Christianity.
1054 : Rivalries between the church in Rome and
the church in Constantinople resulted in
their separation as the Roman Catholic
Church and Eastern Orthodox Churches,
respectively.
1110 : The Chinese invented the magnetic com-
pass.
1279 : The Mongols gained control of all China.
1300s : The Renaissance began in Italy.
1400-1450s : The first book printed in Europe with
movable type appeared in the mid-1400s.
1453 : The Ottoman Turks captured Constanti-
nople (Istanbul) and overthrew the Byz-
antine Empire.
1492 : Columbus discovered America.
1498 : Vasco da Gama discovered sea route to
India.
1500s : The Reformation led to the birth of
Protestantism.
1519-1521: Ferdinand Magellan commanded the first
globe-circling voyage, completed in 1522
after his death.
1526 : Babar, a Muslim prince, invaded India and
founded the Mughal Empire.
1543 : Nicolas Copernicus proposed that the sun
was the centre of the universe.
1588 : The Royal Navy of England defeated the
Spanish Armada, establishing England as
a great naval power.
1776 : The 13 American colonies adopted the Dec-
laration of Independence, establishing the
United States of America.
1789 : The French Revolution began.
1815 : Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated in the
Battle of Waterloo, ending his attempt to rule
Europe.
1858 : Great Britain took over the rule of India
from the East India Company after the In-
dian Revolt.
1869 : The Suez Canal opened.
1871 : Germany became united under the Prus-
sian king, who ruled the new empire as
Kaiser Wilhelm I.
1901 : Trans-Siberian Railway opened. Marconi
sends first wireless message. Sweden
awards first Nobel Prizes.
1902 : First Siamese twins Barnam and Bailey cir-
cus twins separated. Thomas Alva Edison
invents a new electrical storage battery. Lon-
don School of Economics and Political Sci-
ence opened. Cedric, the world largest ship
(21,000 tons) built. First Trans-Atlantic tel-
egraph message sent.
1903 : Marie Curie becomes the first woman to
win a Nobel Prize (Physics). Wilber and
Orville Wright fly their Flyer at Kitty
Hawk, North Carolina.
1904 : Henry Royce produces first motor car, a
10hp 2-cylinder model.
1905 : Frenchman Alfred Binet invents intelli-
gence tests. Albert Einstein says time and
speed are relative. Norwegian explorer
Roald Amundsen lands at Alaska and
finds magnetic pole.
1906 : HMS Dreadnought, worlds most pow-
erful ship, built. SOS (Save our Souls)
adopted as international distress signal. First
submarine, UI, enters service.
1907 : Finland becomes the first to elect women
as MPs. Robert Baden Powell forms Boy
Scout Movement. Establishment of
Kuomintang by Sun Yat-sen. Worlds first
working helicopter made.
1908 : Solid helium developed by Dutch scien-
tists. Professor Albert Einstein presents
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his Quantum theory of light. Jack
Jackson (USA) is the first Negro to be-
come world heavyweight champion.
1909 : Londons new direct 7,000 mile telegraphic
link with India opened. Colour films are
screened in public for the first time in
Brighton. North Pole conquered by US
Commander Robert E. Peary.
1910 : First pure sample of radium isolated by
Marie Curie. Death of Leo Tolstoy.
1911 : First wireless messages from the air. King
George V crowned King of the United
Kingdom and Emperor of India. Worlds
first official airmail flight between Bamrauli
and Naini (India). Beginning of the the
Chinese Revolution that ended 1000
years of imperial rule. Sun Yat-sen be-
comes the first president of the Chinese
Republic. Second Nobel Prize awarded to
Marie Curie. Ronald Amundsen reaches
South Pole.
1912 : Titanic, worlds biggest ship sinks in
North Atlantic.
1913 : Grand Central Station, New York, worlds
largest railway station, opened. Neil Bo-
hrs quantum theory of the structure of
atoms published. Thomas Edison invents
a telephone recorder. Noguchi isolates the
virus of rabies.
1914 : Cancer treated with radium successful.
Heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, the
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife
shot and killed in Sarajevo by a student,
Garvilo Princip. It served as a catalyst for
World War I.
1917 : Russian Revolution. Russia became a re-
public. Bolsheviks came to power in Rus-
sia.
1918 : US President Wilson enumerates his 14
points. Moscow is made the new capital
of Russia. Bolsheviks become the Russian
Communist Party. Tzar Nicholas II and his
family massacred.
1919 : Atoms split by artificial means for the first
time by Professor Ernest Rutherford. First
nonstop flight across the Atlantic by
Alcock and Brown. Treaty of Versailles
signed. First World War ends. Germany de-
clared a republic (Weimar).
1920 : League of Nations inaugurated. The Inter-
national Court of Justice set up at Hague.
1921 : First BCG vaccine given in France.
1922 : Arms conference in Washington agrees
to outlaw the use of gas in warfare. BBC
formed. Free state of Ireland created.
1923 : Turkey declared a Republic.
1924 : Bacillus causing rabies isolated by the Pas-
teur Institute, Paris. Edwin Hubble discov-
ers the unknown boundaries of the Milky
Way.
1925 : John Logie Baird perfects television.
1926 : Abdul Aziz ibn Saud proclaimed King of the
Hejaz who named his country Saudi Arabia.
1927 : The Jazz Singer, the first talkie, made. First
solo non-stop flight between New York
and Paris made by Charles Lindbergh.
1928 : Germ killing mould discovered by Alex-
ander Fleming, London. Stalins First Five
Year Plan.
1929 : Wall Street crash, the biggest financial
crisis of the century.
1930 : Pluto, the 9th planet, discovered by
Claude Tombaugh. First modern compu-
ter designed by Vannevar Bush and his
team.
1931 : Thomas Alva Edison dies.
1932 : Chadvick discovers the neutron.
1933 : Adolf Hitler, Nazi leader, becomes Chancel-
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lor of Germany.
1936 : Spanish Civil War begins. Germanys
Peoples Car Volkswagen launched.
1938 : Walt Disneys first feature-length cartoon,
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs.
1939 : Spanish Civil War comes to an end. Pact of
Steel between Italy and Germany. World
War II begins.
1941 : Birth of modern commercial television.
The Japanese attack Pearl Harbour,
bringing USA into World War II.
1944 : DNA discovered. Bretton Woods Confer-
ence.
1945 : Mussolini killed by Italian partisans Hit-
ler commits suicide. 50 nations sign the
World Security Charger to establish UN.
UN Charter signed by 50 countries.
Postdam Conference. Little Boy, a Ura-
nium-235 fission bomb, dropped over
Japanese city Hiroshima, explodes, 570
mts. above ground, instantly killing over
70,000. A 22-kiloton plutonium 239 bomb,
Fat Man, dropped over Nagasaki, ex-
plodes 510 mts above ground, killing
40,000 immediately. The International
Monetary Fund and the World Bank are
founded.
1946 : Paris Peace Conference.
1947 : IMF begins operations.
1948 : GATT enters into force. New state of Is-
rael proclaimed.
1952 : King George VI of UK dies and Elizabeth
II becomes Queen. Artificial heart used
for the first time in USA. A non-violent
campaign against apartheid begins in
South Africa.
1953 : Chinas five-year plan begins. Hammarskjld
sworn in as UN Secretary- General. Mount
Everest conquered by Edmund Hillary and
Tensing Norway.
1956 : Non Alignment Movement founded.
1957 : Agatha Christies Mousetrap performs its
1,998th performance. Russia launches a
man-made satellite, Sputnik-1.
1958 : US enters space arena, launching Ex-
plorer-1.
1959 : Dalai Lama, fleeing from Tibet reaches In-
dia and finds sanctuary. Pictures of the dark
side of the moon sent back by Lunik III.
1960 : Sirimavo Bandaranaike sworn in as the
worlds first woman Prime Minister in Sri
Lanka. John F. Kennedy elected president
of USA youngest man and first Roman
Catholic to be elected.
1961 : Inter-planetary space station launched by
USSR. Soviet Unions Yuri Gagarin, be-
comes the first man to fly in space. Alan
Shephard Jr. becomes the first American
in Space. East Germans erect a five foot
wall (Berlin Wall). UN Secretary-General
Dag Hammarskjld killed in an aircrash.
1962 : John Glenn becomes the first American
to orbit Earth in Mercury.
1963 : Valentina Tereshkova (USSR) becomes
first woman in space. Martin Luther
Kings immortal I have a dream speech.
US President John F.Kennedy assassi-
nated.
1965 : Singapore recedes from Malaysia to be-
come an independent state.
1966 : Luna 9 of USSR makes the first soft lunar
landing.
1967 : Apollo I cabin bursts at the Kennedy
Space Centre launch pad killing three.
1968 : Martin Luther King assassinated.
1969 : Arafat head of PLO. Anglo-French super-
sonic airline Concorde introduced. Neil
Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin become the
first men to set foot on the moon.
1970 : Kingdom of Cambodia becomes the
Khmer Republic.
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1971 : Vietnam War comes to an end (57,000
Americans lost their lives). Mujibur
Rehman declares Bangladesh indepen-
dent. Marines-9 orbits Mars (first space-
craft to do so).
1973 : Agreement ending Vietnam War signed.
1974 : U.S President Nixon resigns following the
Watergate Scandal. Gerald Ford takes over.
1975 : Japans Junko Tabei becomes first women
to scale Everest. Army coup in Bangla-
desh. Mujibur Rehman killed.
1977 : Coup in Pakistan; Bhutto deposed; Gen.
Zia-ul-Haq takes over.
1978 : Louise Brown, the first test tube baby, born
in UK.
1979 : Z.A. Bhutto executed. Margaret Thatcher
becomes first woman Prime Minister of Brit-
ain. SALT II agreement signed by Jimmy
Carter and the Soviet leaders.
1981 : The reusable Space Shuttle Columbia
launched. TGV, worlds fastest train, makes
its inaugural run from Paris to Lyons.
1982 : Russias Venus-13 lands on Venus.
1984 : Dorjei conquers the Everest without oxy-
gen.
1985 : The Rainbow Warrior, flagship of ecological
group Greenpeace, sinks after explosion in
Auckland.
1986 : US Space Shuttle Challenger explodes af-
ter takeoff, killing seven astronaut. Soviet
Unions Mir Space Station launched.
Nuclear leak in Chernobyl power station.
Ann Bancroft becomes first woman to
reach North Pole.
1988 : Pakistan President General Zia-ul-Haq
killed in an air crash. India quells inva-
sion of Maldives by sea-borne group.
George Bush elected President of USA.
1989 : Ranasinghe Premadasa becomes Presi-
dent of Sri Lanka. Students in Beijing dem-
onstrate for democratic rights. Chinese
troops storm Tienanmen Square and
crush the pro-democracy campaign. Aya-
tollah Khomeini dies. Demolition of Ber-
lin Wall. Velvet Revolution in Czechoslo-
vakia.
1990 : New Zealander, Richard Hadlee, becomes
the first cricketer to take 400 test wickets.
Nelson Mandela freed after 27 years in
prison. Iraq invades Kuwait. UN imposes
embargo on Iraq. Unification of Germany.
Formal end of Cold War.
1991 : Gulf War. Warsaw Pact disbanded. Ku-
wait fully liberated. Khaleeda Zia ap-
pointed first woman Prime Minister of
Bangladesh. Formal end to the Soviet
Union. Commonwealth of Independent
states formed.
1992 : Earth Summit in Rio.
1993 : Bill Clinton new US President. Netherlands
becomes the first country to sanction
mercy killings. Allan Border betters
Gavaskars record (10,122 runs). Sri Lankan
President Ranasinghe Premadasa assassi-
nated. USAs Strategic Defense Initiative
(SDI) stopped. Maastricht Treaty on Eu-
ropean Union comes into effect.
1994 : End of Apartheid in South Africa. The
comet Shoemaker Levy 9 smashes into Ju-
piter.
1995 : WTO comes into effect. Austria, Finland
and Sweden become new members of EU.
Kobe earthquake in Japan kills 4,700
people. DNA code of living organisms deci-
phered.
1996 : Gary Kasparov wins chess series against
IBM computer Deep Blue. Arafat be-
comes President of Palestinian Author-
ity.
1997 : British scientists clone a sheep (Polly). Hale
Bopp comet comes closest to earth (200
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m.km). Labour Party wins polls in Britain;
Tony Blair becomes Prime Minister. Chemi-
cal weapons convention takes effect. Brit-
ain hands back Hong Kong to China. Mars
Pathfinder sends pictures of Mars. Diana,
Princess of Wales killed in a car accident.
1998 : Myanmar celebrates its 50th anniversary
of independence. Pope John Paul II visits
Cuba.
: Sri Lanka celebrates its 50th anniversary
of independence. Communist Manifesto
completes 150 years of publication. US
scientists produce the worlds first cloned
Calf named Mr. Jefferson.
: James Camerons Titanic wins 11 Oscar
awards.
: India conducts five nuclear tests (three on
11th May and two on 13th May 1998).
Pakistan conducts six nuclear test (5 on
28th May and one on 30th May 1998).
: France win World Cup Football.
: Jose Saramago, the Portuguese novelist
win 1998 Nobel prize for literature.
Amartya Sen of India wins 1998 Nobel
Prize for Economics. John Glenn, 77, the
oldest man in space.
1999 : Twelve European countries launch single
currency, the Euro.
: The South African Parliament elects
Thabo Mbeki, the countrys new Presi-
dent.
: The US space shuttle, Columbia, blasts
off under the first woman commander
Eileen Collins, after two failed attempts.
: The former New Zealand Prime Minister,
Mike Moore, takes over as the head of the
World Trade Organisation.
: S.R. Nathan, sworn in as Singapores sixth
president.
: The 1999 Nobel Prize for Literature goes to
the German Novelist, Gnter Grass.
: China celebrates the 50th anniversary of
Communist rule
: Army takes over in Pakistan, Nawaz Sharif
sacked and confined to House.
: World population turns 6 billion.
: The US formally transfers the control over
the Panama Canal to Panama.
2000 : Ananova, the worlds first virtual news-
reader, makes her debut on the internet at
www.ananova.com.
: At the NPT conference in the United Na-
tions, USA, Russia, France, Britain and
China pledge to eliminate atomic weap-
ons, without setting a time table.
: An e-mail virus I Love You created by a
Filipino creates wide spread damage to
computer systems across the world.
: Fijis President declares a state of emer-
gency after a group of gunmen led by
George Speight seize the nations first eth-
nic Indian Prime Minister, Mahendra Pal
Chaudhry and his Cabinet colleagues and
MPs as hostages.
: The North Korean leader, Kim Jong Il and
the South Korean President, Kim Dae
Jung meet at the North Korean capital
Pyongyang. They decide to work for the
unification of the Korean Peninsula.
: The two-day G-15 summit begins in Cairo
(Egypt). It has now 19 members with the
inclusion of Columbia and Iran.
: The International Space Station linked up
smoothly with the Russian-made Zvezda
control module. Zvezda is the first mod-
ule built solely by Russians.
: George Speight, the leader of the coup
in Fiji, is arrested.
: The US astronomers announce that they
have detected 10 new planets outside the
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solar system. It brings the total number of
planets circling other stars, so-called
exoplanets, to 50.
: British Airways suspends Concorde
operations.
: Carl Banks, the Disney Illustrator and crea-
tor of Donald Duck passes away.
: Tuvalu, a Pacific island state admitted to
the United Nations as its 189th member in
its first session of the New Millennium in
New York (USA).
: French voters approve a referendum on
shortening the Presidential term to five
years.
: Russia recognises Yugoslav opposition
leader, Vojislav Kostunicas, historic presi-
dential election victory over Slobodan
Milosevic.
: Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the worlds first
elected woman Prime Minister, passes
away.
: Gao Xingjian, a dissident Chinese novel-
ist and playwright settled in France who
left China in 1987 to settle in France, wins
the Nobel Prize for Literature for 2000 for
his work that has opened new paths for
the Chinese novel and drama.
: Kim Dae Jung, South Korean President,
selected for the 2000 Nobel Peace Prize
for his work towards peace and reconcili-
ation with North Korea that led to a
ground breaking summit with his North
Korean counterpart.
: The Guinness Book of World Records,
sets a new record of its own selling seven
million copies of its first edition of the
new century.
: Hillary Clinton, wife of US President Bill
Clinton, wins the US Senate seat from New
York. Thus, she becomes the first wife of
a President in American history to be
elected to the Senate.
: Margaret Atwood of Canada wins the
coveted Booker Prize 2000 for her novel,
The Blind Assassin.
: Netherlands becomes the first country to
legalise euthanasia, (the mercy killing).
: Nawaz Sharif pardoned off and exiled to
Saudi Arabia.
: George W. Bush declared elected as the 43rd
President of United States.
2001 : The 15-year-old Mir Space Station aban-
doned
: ANDi the worlds first genetically modi-
fied monkey, created.
: The radical Islamic Taliban regime in Af-
ghanistan demolishes two huge statues
of the Buddha at Bamiyan.
: Dennis Tito of the United States becomes
the first person to tour the space.
: Denise Quinones August chosen as the
50th Miss Universe at a function in
Bayamon in Puerto Rico.
: The Organisation of African Union (OAU)
becomes African Union (AU).
: Gen. Pervez Musharraf takes over as the
President of Pakistan.
: United Nations (UN) Secretary General
and V.S. Naipaul win the Nobel Prize For
peace and Literature respectively for 2001.
2002 : Euthanasia or mercy killing comes into
force in Netherlands.
: Robert Mugabe elected President of
Zimbabwe.
: Xanana Gusmao, the independence leader
of East Timor, elected President of the is-
land nation.
: Mark Shuttleworth of South Africa be-
comes the second space tourist.
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: Switzerland becomes the 190th member
of UNO.
: Hamid Karzai elected President of Af-
ghanistan.
: The International criminal Court (ICC)
starts functioning in the Hague (Nether-
lands)
: The UN Earth Summit held in Johannes-
burg (South Africa)
: East Timor joins as the 191st member of
the United Nations.
: The 17th Commonwealth Games held in
Manchester (U.K)
: The 14th Asian Games held in Busan
(South Korea)
: Miss Asra Akin crowned as Miss World.
: SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory
Syndrome) outbreak in China and spreads
all over world killing thousands.
2003 : The space shuttle Columbia perished in
space. Seven astronauts including
Dr. Kalpana Chawla died (February).
: The USA and Britain jointly launch
Operation Iraqi Freedom to liberate Iraq
from Sadam Hussain, who build up weap-
ons of mass destruction.
2004 : Spirit and Opportunity land on Mars.
: 28th Summer Olympics was held in Ath-
ens in Greece. The USA secured first
place, China stood at second. India won
only one silver.
: Bomb attacks on four Madrid commuter
trains kill 191 and injure hundreds more
: Photos of US soldiers allegedly abusing
Iraqi detainees in Abu Gharaib prison
emerge.
: A team of Russian scientists and another
of US scientists report the discovery of
two new chemical elements. These are el-
ements 113, given the temporary name
Ununtrium (Uut) and element 115 desig-
nated Ununpentium (Uup)
: The Iraqi special Tribunal holds the first
hearing in the trial of Saddham Hussian.
: Afghanistan holds its first ever presiden-
tial election.
: Scientists discover a new tiny species of
human that lived in Indonesia.
: Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat dies in
Paris.
2005 : NASAs unmanned. Probe Deep Impact
collided with the comet Tempel-1 on June
3, 2005.
G-8 Summit was held at Gleneagles, Re-
sort, Scotland on July 6-8, 2005
: Muhammed Abbas is sworn in as Pales-
tinian Authority President.
: Taiwan and China agree Temporarily lift
Taipes five - decade ban on direct flights
between the two rivals.
: Former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafikal-
Hariri is assassinated in a car bombing in
central Beirut close to the harbour.
: The trial of pop star Michael Joseph
Jackson gets underway in Santa Maria
over a year since his arrest on charges of
child molestation.
: American aviator Steve Fosset completes
the first solo fight around the world with-
out refuelling and lands his jet plane in
Salina Kansas.
: Israel open the worlds largest Holocast
museum on Mount Herzi in Jerusalem to
commemorate the six million Jews exter-
minated by the Nazis.
: Jalal Talabani is sworn in Iraqi President
making him the first non-Arab head of an
Arab nation. Shia leader Irabhim Jaafari
is nominated as the Prime Minister.
: Pope John Paul II, the Peoples Pope or
the Travelling Pope is laid to rest in
the cryst of St. Peters Baslica in Vatican.
: Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger of Germany is
elected 265 th Pope and is to be known as
Benedict XVI.
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: Albanian poet and novelist Ismail Kadare
is named the winner of the Man Booker
International Prize, a brand new laurel for
the worlds finest writers.
: Kuwaits first woman Prime Minister
Maasuma al Mubarak, takes out in Parlia-
ment.
: Junichiro Koizumi is re-elected as Japa-
nese Primier by the new House of Repre-
sentatives at a special session in Tokyo.
: The IAEA and its chief Muhammed El
Baradei get the Nobel Peace Prize for their
work in Stopping the spread of nuclear
weapons.
: The Dhaka Declaration decides to set up
a SAARC Poverty Alleviation Fund and
to declare 2006 - 2015 the SAARC decade
of Poverty Alleviation.
: The worlds first facial transplantation is
done on a French woman Isabella Dinoire
in Amiens.
2006 : US space probe Stardust returns to
earth carrying precious samples of dust
from stars and comets.
: Chile elects Michaelle Bachelet to be its
first woman President.
: NASA launches the first space mission
to Pluto, as the New Horizons spacecraft
is hurled on a 9-year 4.5 b - KM journey.
: 35th summit of World Economic Forum
opens, in Davos, Switzerland.
: French actress Eva Green chosen as the
new James Bond girl.
: Jamaica to have Portia Simpson Miller as
Prime Minister, the first woman head of
the state.
: Oscar award announced : Crush is the
best film, Philip Seymour Hoffman - best
actor, Reese Witherspoon - best actress
and Ang Lee - Best Director.
: Lakshmi Mittals 18.6 billion euro takeo-
ver bid for Arcelor is blocked by a change
in Luxemburg corporate law.
: Solar eclipse observe in Turkey.
: Kavya Vishwanathans novel How Opal
Mehta Got kissed, Got wild and got a Life
being recalled from store shelves, after
she admits copying passages fr om
another book.
: Britain replaces US as the publisher of
most new books in English.
: Earthquake measuring 6.2 rocks
Yogyakarta in Java killing about three
thousand as per first reports.
: J.K. Rowling voted the greatest living
British writer in a survey, followed by
Terry Pratchett, Ian Mcewan, Salman
Rushdie, Kazuo Ishiguro and Philip Pull-
man.
: Worlds oldest tortoise Harriet dies at 176
years in Australia.
: Montenegro becomes the 192th member
of United Nations
: Qinghai - Tibet railway the worlds high-
est and longest highland railway becomes
operational.
: First world summit of religious leaders in
Moscow is attended by 200 representa-
tives from 40 countries.
: Italy beats France 5-3 to win World Cup
Football.
: Kiran Desai wins the Booker Prize.
: Bhutans king Jigme Singye Wangchuk
abdicates the throne after a 34 year reign
in favour of his son crown prince Jigme
Khesar Namgyel Wangchuk.
: The former Iraqi President Saddam
Hussein is hanged to death in Baghdad
for the 1982 killing of 148 persons of Dujail
town, three years after being captured by
the US forces.
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Pre-Historic Period
The Pre-historic period is divided into four dis-
tinct periods.
Paleololithic Period (Old Stone Age) 5,000,000 -
10,000 BC
Mesolithic Period (Late Stone Age) 10,000 4000
BC
Neolithic period (New stone Age) 6000 1000 BC
Chalcolithic Period (Metal Age)
The earliest known primate (Plesiandapis) ap-
peared on the earth towads 70,000,000 BC.
The possible ancestor of hominids (Proconsul)
appeared in East Africa towards 20,000,00 BC
Australopithecus was the first hominids on the
earth, which appeared in East Africa towards
3,700,000 BC.
Homohabilis was the first hominid tool maker,
which appeared in Africa towards 2,100,000 BC.
Zinjanthropus, which was found in the Great
Rift Valley of Central Africa, is considered to be
the earliest in the human species.
Java Man existed some seven lakh years ago in
Java and Peking Man who existed some three
lakh years ago excavated from Peking in China
are some humans of the Paleolithic Period.
Most famous Paleolithic man was the
Neandarthal Man who was discovered from
Germany.
Cromagnan (France) and Grimaldi (Itali) men be-
longed to the Middle Stone Age.
Paleolithic people used tools and implements
made of rough stone.
They ate raw flesh and wild fruits and vegetables.
They had no idea of agriculture. They belonged
to the Negrito race.
Paleolithic men led a nomadic life, ie, wandering
from one place to another.
Neolithic Age means the New Stone Age.
People learnt the art of cultivation and the
Neolithic Age was the food producing stage.
They started using polished and sharp stone
implements.
Man began to domesticate animals during the
Neolithic Age. Dog was the first animal domesti-
cated by man.
Wheat and Barley were the earliest cereals grown
by man.
Potters Wheel was invented in the Neolithic Age.
Paleolithic Age is known as the Age of Hunters
while the Neolithic Age is known as the Age of
Farmers.
Most polished weapon of the Neolithic Age was
the Stone axe.
Man discovered the use of jute and began to use
cloth made of jute during the Neolithic period.
Early men started the settled life in the Neolithic
period.
Earliest human villages appeared towards 6000BC
in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
The Barter system of exchange came into prac-
tice during the Neolithic period.
Family life also began during the Neolithic Age.
The concept of State also originated during the
Neolithic period.
Chalcolithic Age is known as the Metal Age.
First metal used by man was copper
World History
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Copper was first used to make ornaments and
tools.
The period when man began to use Bronze tools
and weapons is known as Bronze Age.
The period when man began to use iron is known
as Iron Age.
MAJOR HUMAN RACES OF THE WORLD
People living in Africa, Arabia, India, Malaysia,
Australia and Tansania belonged to the Negroid
Race.
Pigmies seen in Africa, South East Asia and
Indonesia is a subgroup of the Negroids.
Majority of modern Human race belonged to the
Mongloid race.
People living in Japan, China, Indonesia, Formosa
Tibet etc belonged to the Mongloid race.
People lived in Ancient Egypt belonged to the
Hemitic race.
Ancient Babilonians, Hebrews, Phoenesians,
Arabs etc belonged to the Semitic race.
Semitic, Hemitic and Indo-Europeans are the sub-
groups of the Caucasoid race.
ORIGIN OF LANGUAGES AND WRITING
Man began to speak meaningfully during the
Neolithic Period.
English, French, German, Spanish, Italian, Greek,
Russian, Persian, Sanskrit and American lan-
guages belonged to the Indo-European or Aryan
language group
Hebrew, Arabic, Abyssenian early Assirian and
Phoenesian languages belonged to the Semitic
group of languages.
Languages spoken by the people lived around
Mediterranean sea were of the Hemitic group.
Lapis, Finnish, Magyar,Tartar, Manchu, Mongol
etc, belonged to the Turanean group of lan-
guages.
Egyptians were the first to use Phonetic writing.
The early writing of the Egyptians were known as
Hieroglyphics.
Phoeniseans were considered as the originators
of the modern pattern of writing.
SUMERIAN OR MESOPOTAMIAN
CIVILIZATION (3000 -1600 BC)
Sumerian civilisation flourished on the banks of
rivers Euphrates and Tigris later came to be
known as Mesopotamian civilisation
The word Mesopotamia means land between riv-
ers.
The name Mesopotamia was given by the Greeks.
The area where Mesopotamian civilisation existed
belonged to modern Iraq.
The northern part of Mesopotamia was known as
Assiria and southern part was known as
Babilonia.
The first dynasty in the world was established at
Ur in Sumeria in 3000 BC.
CUNIEFORM WRITING
The Sumerians are credited with the invention
of a distinctive system of writing known as
Cunieform. They wrote on clay tablets using
wedge shaped letters. The name Cunieform was
originated from the Latin word cuneus which
means wedge. The Cunieform script was
desciphered by Henry Rawlinson.
Hieroglyphics
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Ur, Urukh, Lagash, Uma, Nippor were the major
cities of the Sumerians.
The Sumerian Empire declined towards BC 2650
due to the attack of the Accadians.
The chief architect of the Acadian empire was
Sargon.
Dungi was the most important ruler of the
Sumerians.
The writing system of the Sumerians was known
as Cunieform.
Mesosoptamian seals throw light on the trade
relation between the Indus people and the
Sumerians.
The Mesopotamians invented wheel and glass-
ware.
Mesopotamian civilization is considered to be the
worlds first urban civilisation.
Mesopotamians discovered the system of Geom-
etry. It was later called Pythagorus Theorem.
A Lunar Calendar based on the Moon was one
of the major achievements of the Sumerians.
Mesopotamians were worshippers of multi Gods.
Their major God was the Sky God Anu.
Mesopotamians were the first to invent the sys-
tem of Multiplication.
Empires, water supply system, use of gold and
silver for transaction, code of laws, libraries, edu-
cational centres, poetry, literature, sculpture, pal-
aces, arches, pillars, domes, slavery, autocracy
imperialism etc first originated in Sumeria.
Hammurabi is known as the founder of Early
Babi l oni an
Empire.
Hammur abi
was respon-
sible for the in-
troduction of a
code of conduct
to the
Mesopotamians.
It was based
on the prin-
ciple of an eye for eye and tooth for a tooth.
Babilonian people invented water clock and sun-
dial to know the time.
Assirians were credited for the invention of the
system of dividing a circle into 360 degrees.
Mesopotamian civilisation is also known as the
melting pot of civilisation.
Egyptian Civilisation (3000 BC -
1750 BC)
Egyptian civilisation flourished on the banks of
Nile river.
Egyptian kings were known as Pharoh
Pharoh means one who lives in a mansion.
Hyksus were a semetic group of people who
captured Egypt towards BC 1750.
Egyptian Queen Hatsheput is considered as the
first women ruler of the world.
Ramses III is considered as the last of great
Pharohs of Egypt.
Egyptians were the first to invent a solar calen-
dar having 365 days with 12 months of 30 days
each.
Egyptian Sun God
was known as
Ra or Re.
Osiris was the
Goddess of truth
worshipped by the
Egyptians.
Preserved dead
bodies of the
Egyptians were
known as mummies. Mummification shows their
belief in life after death.
Egyptians were responsible for the invention of
Addition, Subtraction and Division.
The word Chemistry was originated from the
Egyptian language.
Egyptian script was pictographic in nature. It was
known as Hierogliphics.
Hammurabi
Mummies
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The word Hierogliphic means sacred writing. It
consisted of 24 signs. Vowels were not used. The
Egyptian alphabets were deciphered by
Champollion.
The Great Temple of Abu Simbel is known as
the Temple of the Rising Sun, since the rays
of the rising sun get into the temple.
Pyramids were the Tombs of Egyptian Pharohs.
First Pyramid was built about 2700 BC.
Greatest of the Pyramids was the Great Pyramid
at Giza built by Pharoh Khufu.
Biggest of the temples built by the Egyptians was
the temple at Karnak.
Great Pyramid at Giza is the only survivor of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
Earliest coins were believed to have used by the
Egyptians.
Indus Valley Civilisation
Indus Valley Civilisation was discovered as a re-
sult of the archaeological excavations carried out
in 1920-22 at Mohenjodaro and Harappa (Both in
Pakistan) by R D Banarjee and Dayaram Sahni.
John Marshall was the Director General of the
Archaeological Survey of India at that time (more
details are given in the Indian History part).
Chinese Civilisation
Chinese Civilisation originated on the banks of
river Hwang Ho.
Shang dynasty was the first dynasty to rule China
from BC 1750-1125.
The Qin dynasty established Chinas first strong
central government.
Chin ruler Shih Hwangti was responsible for the
construction of the Great Wall of China to pre-
vent the Huna invasion.
Shih Hwangti was the founder of Chin dynasty.
The Great Wall is 1500 mile long and having 20
feet breadth and 20 feet height.
Early communication of the Chinese was done by
Sphinx
Sphinx was a mythological animal of the
ancient Egyptians. It was
the largest of the Egyp-
tian statues. It has a hu-
man head and the body
of a lion. It has 100 feet
length and 70 feet height.
knots made in strings.
Paper was invented by the Chinese.
Lao-Tse, Confucious and Mencious were the three
major Philosophers of ancient China.
Lao-Tse was the founder of the most important
religion of China known as Taoism.
Lao-Tse is considered as the Chinese Buddha
Confucianism was the new religion founded by
Confucious.
Siesmograph and Gun Powder were also invented
by the Chinese.
Tea was invented by the Chinese.
Persian Civilisation
Persian Civilisation existed in modern Iran
Persians belonged to the Indo-European race.
Cyrus was the strongest of the Persian rulers.
Cyrus is considered as the founder of the Per-
sian Empire.
Greatest of the Persian rulers was Darius I.
Darius I was responsible for the foundation of
the ever largest empires of the world.
The Greeco- Persian conflict began during the
period of Darius I.
The Battle of Marathon (BC 490) between the
Persians and Athenians was led by Darius I.
The writing of the Persians was Cunieform,
adopted from the Mesopotamians.
The Persian priests were known as Maji.
The English word Magician was originated from
the Persian word Maji.
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Zorastrianism (Persian religion) was founded by
Zorathushtrar.
The Parsies of India believe in Zorastrianism.
Ahuramazda is the God of the Zorastrian religion.
Ahriman was considered as the evil spirit by
the Persians.
Avesta (Zend Avesta) is the sacred book of
Zorastrianism.
Avesta is known as Persian Bible
Greek Civilisation
Greek Civilisation dates back to 800 BC
Greece is in the European continent.
Greece is on the coast of Mediterranean sea.
The civilisation existed in Greece, before the
Greeks was known as Aegean Civilization.
Early Greek immigrants were known as Ionians.
Greeks were collectively known as Hellenes.
Hence their civilization was known as Hellenis-
tic Civilization.
Homer, a blind poet, composed Greek epics Illiad
and Odyssey.
Homer lived in the 9th century BC.
Democracy was originated in Greece. Greek De-
mocracy was direct democracy.
Greek Civilisation reached the Zenith of its
progress during the period of Pericles, a ruler of
Athens. His Age is considered as the Golden
Age of Athens. Under Pericles the city of Athens
got the name the School of Hellas.
The civilisation of Greek city states is known as
Classical Civilisation.
Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Mascedonia etc
were the major city states in Greece.
Pindar was a famous Greek Lyric Poet.
Aesceles was the greatest of the Greek drama-
tists, who wrote famous tragedies.
Greeks were the first to introduce Vowels in the
alphabet.
Euripides and Aristophenes were the other fa-
mous Greek dramatists.
Herodotus who, wrote
about the Persian war
was a Greek historian.
He is considered as
the Father of History.
Demosthenese was a
world famous Greek
orator
Thales of Meletus is
considered as the fa-
ther of Greek Math-
ematics
Pythagoras who made
great contributions in
Geometry was a Greek.
Anaxagoras, Euclid etc were famous Greek Math-
ematicians.
Hippocrates, who is considered as the father of
Medical Science was a Greek.
Leopold Van Ranke, a German historian is con-
sidered as the father of Modern History.
Thucydides another great Greek historian wrote
the history of the Peloponnesian war between
Athens and Sparta.
Socrates the Greatest of the Greek philosphers
was forced to commit suicide by drinking Hem-
lock a poison, in 399 BC.
Zantippee was the wife of Socrates.
Plato was the student of Socrates.
Platos original name was Aristocles.
Plato founded a university named Academy in
Athens.
Republic was the famous work of Plato.
Aristotle was the famous student of Plato.
Aristotle was the tutor of Alexander the Great.
Aristotle founded a school named Lycium in Ath-
ens.
Aristotle is considered as the father of Biology,
Politics and the Science of Reasoning.
Aristotle was considered as a Walking Univer-
sity.
Herodotus
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Hipparchus calculated the diameter of the Moon.
Erathosthenes calculated the circumference of the
Earth.
The first Olympic Games were held at Olympia in
Greece in 776 BC.
The Roman Emperor Theo-dosius banned Olym-
pics in 394 BC. (more details about Olypics could
be seen in sports and games portion)
Macedonian Empire
Mascedonia was a Greek city state. It became a
prominent empire under its king Philip II (359 -
336 BC)
Alexander the Great, the son and successor of
Philip II, was born in 350 BC and became the ruler
in 337 BC.
Alexander defeated the Persian ruler Darius III.
Alexander captured Egypt and founded the city
of Alexandria there.
Alexander invaded India in 326 BC and defeated
Porus, the ruler of Taxila.
He died at the age of 33 in 323 BC at Babilonia.
Ptolemy, a commander of Alexander is consid-
ered as the Father of Cartography.
Archemedes the originator of the law of specific
gravity lived in the Hellenistic Age.
Roman Civilisation
Roman Civilisation developed on the banks of
river Tiber in Italy.
City of Rome was known as City of Seven Hills.
City of Rome was founded in BC 753 by two broth-
ers Romulas
and Romus.
The idea of
Republic origi-
nated in Rome.
Senate was
the Roman
Assembly of
Elders
Punic Wars were fought between Rome and
Carthage.
Julius Caesar one of the prominent rulers of Rome
was born in 102BC.
Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44BC by Casius,
Brutus and other senators.
I came, I saw, I conquered His famous saying
Caesar modified the Old Calendar which had only
355 days, New Calendar came to be known as
Julian Calendar.
Later this calendar was modified by Pope Grigory
XIII and came to be known as Grigorian Calen-
dar.
Caesarism means autocracy or imperial
supermacy.
Constantine was the first Roman king who ac-
cepted Christianity.
The city of Constantinople was founded by
Constantine.
Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople in 1453.
The Greatest contribution of Romans to the world
is their code laws.
Vergil the author of Aenid was famous Roman
poet.
Lucricius the author of On the Nature of
Things was famous Epicurian Philosopher.
Pliny wrote the famous book Historia Naturalis
Romans were the inventors of concrete and the
technique of binding stone and bricks.
The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is a
famous book written by Edward Gibbon.
Major Religions of the World
Judaism- Christianity - Islam
Judaism is one of the oldest religions of the world.
Abraham is considered as the father of the Jews.
Jews are the believers of one God, Jehovah.
Jews are the selected people of Jehovah
Mosses is considered as the founder of Judaism.
Mosses freed Egypt from slavery and gave the
Ten Commandments at the Mount of Senai.
Rome
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Judaism is considered as the mother religion of
Christianity and Islam.
Thorah is the Sacred text of the Jews
Thorah is included in the Old Testament of Bible.
The Hebrew word Thorah means to lead .
Synagogue is the worshipping centre of the Jews.
The White Jews Synagogue at Mattanchery in
Cochin is a worshipping centre of Jews in Kerala.
Jarusalem was the famous pilgrim centre of the
Jews.
The worshipping centre in Jerusalem was con-
structed by King Solomon in BC 1000.
It was destructed by the Babilonian king
Nebukanisar in 587 BC.
Jarusalem is an equally holy place for the Jews,
the Christians and the Muslims.
Christianity
Christianity was originated from Judaism.
Jesus Christ was born in 4 BC at Bethlahem in
the small town of Nasreth in Galeleo.
King Herodos of Yuda was a contemporary of
Jesus Christ.
Roman emperors Augustus and Thiberius Cae-
sar had direct contact to Jesus Christ.
Those who believe in the life, death and resurrec-
tion of Jesus Christ came to be known as Chris-
tians.
Christianity was spread to Kerala by St. Thomas
Aposthel in 52 AD (Crangannore).
Bible has four Gospels. They are the Gospels of
Mathews, Markose, Yohannan and Luckose.
Christ was crusified by the Jews in 29 AD.
Christ spoke in the Aramic Language which was
a mixture of Cyriac and Hebrew.
Roman Emperor Constantine gave freedom to the
Roman Christians through his Milan Proclama-
tion (AD 313)
Theodosius proclaimed Christianity as state reli-
gion.
The word Bible means book.
Bible is divided into two - Old Testament and New
testament.
Revelation is the last book of Bible.
Tamil was the first Asian language in which Bible
was printed (1715)
Ponthios Pelathos was the Roman Governor who
tried Jesus Christ.
Crusification of Christ was on a Friday, now it is
observed as Good Friday.
Islam
Hijas is known as the birthplace of Islam. The
Island which includes Hijas is known as the Is-
land of Arabs.
Ka aba was the ancient worshipping centre in
Mecca.
Muhammed Nabi was born in AD 570 in the
Khuraisi tribe in Mecca. His father was Abdulla
and mother was Amina.
The Word Islam was originated from the root of
Aslama.
Invisible forces which acts as per the directions
of the god are known as Malakku.
Khadeeja was the first to receive the message of
Muhammed.
Muhammed Nabi fled from the Mecca to Medina
to escape from the Khuraisis on 24th September
AD 622. This day is known as Hijra.
The followers who accompanied Muhammed to
Medina are known as Muhajirs.
He died on 8th June 632 AD at Medina.
Ka aba was the first centre established in the
world worship Allah.
Koran, Hadis and Ijmah are the basis of Islamic
law.
Khalifa became the head of Islam after the death
of Muhammed.
Abu Beker, Umar, Usman and Ali were the
Khalifas.
In 1924 Mustafa Kamal Pasha of Turkey abol-
ished the title of Khalifa.
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Koran is the codification of revelations given
through the Gabriel Angel to Muhammed.
It contains 114 chapters. It took 22 years to have
the complete revelations to Nabi.
Koran was codified in AD 633 during the period
of Khalifa Abu Beker.
There are two divisions in Islam - Shias and
Sunnis.
Shias are the followers of Ali.
Iran is the only Shia majority nation in the world.
American Civilisation
Mayan, Inca and Aztec are the main native Ameri-
can civilisations flourished before the European
colonization of America.
First American Civilisation developed between
1000BC and 1000 AD.
Mayan books written on the bark of trees were
known as Codid.
Mayan Civilisation declined in the 15th century
due to Spanish invasion.
Toltecs were another Amarindian people who
developed their civilisation to the south of Mexi-
can plateau. They constructed pyramids like the
Egyptians.
Floating Gardens built by the Aztecs were known
as Chinambus.
Aztecs believed in the worships of serpents
(Snakes)
The capital of Aztec was Tinochtitlans it was cap-
tured by Spanish conquerors in 1519 AD, thus
ended the Aztec Civilisation.
Most civilised of the Amarindian civilizations
was the Inca, which developed in Peru (South
America)
Inca was politically the most developed
Amarindian tribes.
Maize, Potato, Tomato, Pumpkin, Pineapple,
Ground nuts, Guava, Tobacco, Cocaine etc were
made to use for the first time by the Inca people
of Peru.
The Sun Temple at Cusco was a contribution of
the Inca Civilization.
Red Indians were the aborginals of America. They
were named so by Columbus.
Christopher Columbus discovered America in
1492.
America derived its name from Americo Vespuci,
an Italian explorer.
Copper was the first metal used by Americans.
Maize cultivation was the base of American
Civilisation.
African Civilisation
It is believed that human beings evolved in Af-
rica.
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach
Africa.
City of Moro in Central Africa is known as
Berminhatam of Central Africa.
First country formed in the western part of Africa
is Ghana. Ghana is also known as the Gold
Coast.
Islam spread to Africa in the 8th Century.
Vasco-da-Gama was the first European to reach
the Cape of Good Hope, the southern most tip of
Africa.
Bandus are the Negroes of Central and South
Africa. Bandu means humans.
The dark skinned race of Africa are called Ne-
groes.
Swahilis are the people living in the parts of Kenya
and Tanzania. Zulus are the people living in South
Africa, belonging to the Bandu family.
Middle Ages
The attack of Roman Empire and its destruction
by the Barbarians in 455 AD marks the end of the
ancient world and the beginning of Middle Ages.
The word Barbarian means uncultured.
Early Middle Ages is known as Dark Ages. It
ended up to the 11th century.
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Monasticism originated in Europe in the Middle
Ages.
In the 12th and 13th centuries there occurred sev-
eral wars between Christians and Muslims in Pal-
estine. These battles are known as Crusades.
Muslims became religiously intolerant due to the
Crusades.
Crusades resulted in the spread of Islam to Eu-
rope.
Feudal System was first emerged in Europe.
The early name of feudalism was Clientage.
The word feudalism was originated from the word
fief or fued which means land given to peas-
ant.
The structure of feudal relationship was like a
pyramid. King was on top of the pyramid and
slaves were at the bottom.
Feudalism came to an end towards AD 1000 by
the influence of christianity.
Feudalism helped to control the autocratic rule of
kings in the Middle Ages
Guilds were th merchant organisations of Europe
in the Middle Ages.
The University of Italy founded in 825 was the
first University in Europe.
Paris University was the first University in France.
Oxford University was founded in 1163 AD and
Cambridge in 1284.
Aleson Richard was the first woman to become
the Vice Chancellor of Cambridge University.
Christianity was responsibile for making the Bar-
barians a civilised people.
The Monastry of Monte Casino was founded by
St. Benedict.
The word Catholic means
Omnipresent.
Pope was the head of Me-
dieval Christian Church.
The silver jubilee celebra-
tions of the Pope John Paul
IIs Pontification has been
one of the longest in the
history of the Papacy cel-
ebrated in 2003.
Pope John Paul II died on 2 April 2005.
He belonged to Poland.
Pope Pius IX was the Pope who ruled the longest
term (31 years)
John Paul II is the Pope with second longest term
(26 years).
John Paul II was the first Pope to accept the
Theory of Evolution by Charles Darwin.
John Paul II visited India twice (1986, 1999)
Crossing the Threshold of Hope Gift and Mys-
tery Roman Tryptych Meditations
Rise up Let us Go, Memory and Identity are
the books written by Pope John Paul II.
Joseph Ratzinger of Germany who came to be
known as Benedict XVI became the 265th Pope
after the death of John Paul II.
Benedict XVI is the second oldest pesson (78) to
become the Pope.
Oldest person to become the Pope was Clemant
XII.
Benedict XVI was the Second German to become
the Pope.
Latin Language is considered as theVehicle of
Medieval Culture.
Geofery Chaucer is considered as the father of
English Poetry.
Canterbury Tales is the famous work of Chaucer.
Joan of Arc
The Middle Age was a period of superstitions. It
was common among the orthodox to accuse some-
one, especially young, beautiful and enterprising
girls as witch and initiate legal proceding against
them.
The Court of Inquisition was meant for the trial
of those who are accused of as such.
Heresy or the denial of religious principles was one of
the most severe offences of the Middle Ages.
In the Hundred Years War which started in 1338
between England and France, France was losing
Pope John Paul II
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frequently. There was nobody to lead France.
Then Joan a shephered girl, with gods revelation
met the king of France and got the permission to
lead the French army. She started her victorious
Journey by crashing the barricade of English
Army in Orleans, in France. Thus she got the name
Maid of Orleans. The orthodox church authori-
ties accused her a witch and trialed at the court of
inquisition. The verdict was to burn her alive. In
1431 Joan was burnt at the stake. But later the
church authorities realized their mistake and in
1921 Vathican proclaimed her a beatified person.
Now Joan of Arc is known as St. Joan.
Modern Age
The Renaissance
The literal meaning of Renaissance is rebirth.
The capture of Constantinople by the Turks in
1453 was the cause of Renaissance in Europe.
The new name of Constantinople is Istambul.
During the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries there
was a great revival in Europe in the field of art,
literature and learning. This marked the transition
from the Medieval to the Modern period. This is
known as the Renaissance. The birth place of
Renaissance movement was Italy.
Renaissance was actually the rebirth of Classical
Grecco-Roman literature and learning.
The Renaissance emerged in Italy roughly be-
tween AD 1300 and AD 1550.
Italy is known as the Cradle of Renaissance
Divine Comedy written by Dante was a classical
work of the Renaissance period.
Humanism is considered as the heart and soul of
Renaissance. Petrarc, an Itaian poet is consid-
ered as the, father of Humanism.
Niccolo Machiavelli wrote a book on politics
named The Prince
Machiavelli is known as Italian Kautilya and
Kautilya is known as Indian Machiavelli.
The Renaissance painters painted directly on plas-
ter walls called frescoes.
The Last Sup-
per a fresco in
Milan, The
Mona Lisa and
the Virgin and
the Child were
the famous paint-
ings of Leonardo
Da Vinci.
Da Vinci was the
first person to
identify the mod-
els of aeroplanes,
submarines and
cars.
Madona and
The School of Athens are the famous paintings
of Raphael.
Michelangelo was another Italian painter who was
the author of famous painting Last Judgement
and Sculpture David and Moses.
St. Peters Basilica in Rome was built under the
patronage of Pope Julius II and Pope Leo X It
was designed by Michelangelo.
The Praise of Folly was a satiristic work written
by Erasmus.
Erasmus was known as the prince among the
humanists.
Utopia was a famous work of Sir Thomas More
portraying an ideal community on an imaginary
island indicating the glaring abuses of his time.
The technique of printing was first developed by
the Chinese.
John Guttenburg of Germany is considered as
the father of printing. He published Bible in 1456.
William Caxton established the first printing
press in England in 1477.
Copernicus a Polish astronomer developed the
theory of universe through his book Six Books
concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres.
Mona Lisa
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His theory of universe was later supported by
Galileo.
Kepler wrote a book titled On the Motion of
Mars to establish the heliocentric theory.
Galileo Galilei an Italian scientist invented tele-
scope in 1609.
Isaac Newton was born in England in 1642. He
published his work The Mathematical Prin-
ciples of Natural Philosophy.
The great dramatist Shakespeare who is popu-
larly known as the Bard of Avon was born in
AD 1564 and died in AD 1616. His great tragedies
are Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello and KingLear.
He wrote altogether 37 plays.
Reformation and Counter Reforma-
tion
The name Protestant was first applied by Mar-
tin Luther.
Reformation was started in Germany by Martin
Luther in 1517. This resulted in the formation of
Protestant Religion.
Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin were the leaders
of reformation in Switzerland.
Reformation in Switzerland was known as Cal-
vinism.
Reformation movement in England was known as
Anglicanism it was led by King Henry VIII and
Queen Elizabeth I.
Counter-Reformation was a reformist movement
within the Catholic Church to restore its univer-
sal authority.
John Wycliffe is known as the Morning Star of
the Reformation. He was responsible for giving
inspiration to translate Bible into English for the
first time.
Ignatius Layola formed a society of monks known
as Jesut order in Spain.
Jesute missionaries reached India for the first
time during the period of Akbar the Great in 1580.
Geographical Discoveries
Portugal was the first European country to en-
courage geographical discoveries.
Prince Henry, the Navigator of Portugal encour-
aged sailors by making maps.
Bartholomew Diaz sailed down the west coast of
Africa in 1487, which came to be known as Cape
of Good Hope.
Vasco-da Gama followed Diazs route, rounded
the Cape of Good Hope and landed at Kappad in
Calicut in the Spring of 1498.
Vasco-da-Gama was sent to India by the Portu-
guese king Dom Manual.
He reached India in a ship named St. Gabriel.
Christopher Columbus discovered West Indies
and thought that it was India in 1492 and called
its people Red Indians.
Later, Amerigo Vespucci reached the South
American coast in 1499 and America was named
after him.
Ferdinant Megallan of Por-
tugal who started his Voy-
age in 1519 was the first
circum navigator (who
sailed around the world). His
circum navigation exclu-
sively proved that the Earth
is round.
The name Pacific was
given to the ocean by Megallan.
He reached Phillipines in 1521 and died there fight-
ing its aborgins.
The coast of Venezuela was explored by Amerigo
Vespucci.
John Cabbot discovered New Foundland in 1497.
Peru was discovered by Francisco Pizzaro.
Kabral discovered Brazil in 1500. He was a Portu-
guese.
Portugal was the first country in the field of colo-
nialism.
Megallan
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England
United Kingdom includes the Islands of England,
Scotland and Ireland
The inhabitance of England in the Neolithic Age
were known as Iberians.
Julius Caesar captured England in BC 55 and the
Romans ruled England for 367 years.
After the Romans England came in the hands of
Anglo-Saxons.
First priest to rule England was Dunston.
Christianity reached England for the first time by
the coming of Romans.
Ceadmon was the first English poet and Bede was
the first English historian.
The Magna Carta was signed by King John of
England in AD 1215 at Runnymede. The
Magnacarta is described as the Bible of the En-
glish Constitution. It is also known as the Bible
of English Liberty.
Innocent III was the Pope when the Magna Carta
was signed.
The Hundred years war (1338-1453) fought be-
tween England and France started during the pe-
riod of King Edward III.
The Peasants Revolt in England was in 1381.
Battle of Roses were the civil wars in England.
The Great Plague in London broke out in 1665.
The system of Parliament originated in England
during the period of Henry I.
The Stuart king of England believed in the
Divine Right Theory of Kingship.
James I, the Stuart king wrote a book The Law of
Free Monarchies.
Stuart king Charles I dissolved the Parliament in
1629 and did not summoned it till 1640.
He resummoned the Parliament in 1640 and ended
in 1660. It is known as Long Parliament.
Civil War in England started in 1642. Oliver
Cromwell led England after the Civil War. He ruled
with the little Lord Protector.
Charles first was beheaded publically in 1649.
The Petition of Rights was accepted by the Brit-
ish Parliament in 1628.
The Bloodless revolution or Glorious Revolution
occurred in England in 1688.
Through the Bloodless Revolution English king
JamesII was dethroned and Mary, the daughter
of Charles I and her husband William of Orange
came to power in England.
Whigs and Torys the political parties of En-
gland originated during the period of Charles II.
Habeas Corpus Act was passed in England in
1679 during the period of Charles II.
The Bill of Rights was accepted in England after
the Glorious Revolution in 1689.
In 1707 by the Act of Union England and Scot-
land joined together and became Great Britain.
By the Act of Union of 1801 Great Britain and
Northern Ireland joined together and it became
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
But Ireland was delinked in 1921 and Northern
Ireland became part of England.
The official name of England is United kingdom
of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
Pound Sterling is the Currency of England.
Robert Walpole was
the first Prime Minister
of England and the first
in the world to hold the
post of Prime Minister.
He laid the foundation
of Cabinet system. He
became the Prime Min-
ister in 1721.
The Industrial Revo-
lution first started in
England in the second
half of the 18th century
with the rapid growth of applied sciences, power
driven machines replaced handwork.
The Agrarian Revolution also took place in Brit-
ain.
The Commonwealth of Nations is an associa-
tion of those free nations which were previously
the part of British Empire.
Robert Walpole
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The delegates send each other by Common Wealth
Countries are known as High Commissioners and
delegates send by Common Wealth nations to other
countries are known as Ambassadors.
The Falklands War was fought between England
and Argentina in 1982.
Stanley is the capital of Falkland Island. Britain
came out victorious in the battle. It is a British
colony even today.
10 Dowining Street is the official residence of
the British Prime Ministers.
Tony Blair of Labour Party is the Prime Minister
of England.
Princess Diana died in a car accident along with
Dodi Al Fayed in Paris.
Buckingham Palace is the residence of British
Monarch.
United States of America
America was discovered by Christopher Colum-
bus in 12th October 1492.
In the first quarter of the 17th century some
protestants from England migrated to the south-
ern part of North America to escape from the reli-
gious persecution of James I. They came to be
known as pilgrim fathers. They sailed to
America in a ship named, The May Flower.
Britain established its first colony in Jamestown
in Virginia in 1607.
American War of Independence
The American war of independence was fought
between the American colonies and the Britain.
The leader of colonies was George Washington.
The Stamp Act was passed in 1765.
The Navigation Act was passed in 1651.
The Town Shent Act was passed in 1767. These
Acts were passed to control and exploit the colo-
nies.
The Boston Tea Party of 1773 was associated
with the American Revolution. To protest against
the tax on tea, the revolutionaries threw tea boxes
from the ship anchored in the Boston Port. This
incident is known as Boston Tea Party.
No taxation without representation was the fa-
mous slogan associated with the American Revo-
lution.
The representatives of the 13 colonies met at the
First Continental Congress at Philadelphia in
1774.
Second Philadelphia Congress was met in 1776
and it adopted the Declaration of Independence
on 4 July 1776.
The Declaration of American Independence was
drafted by Thomas Jefferson.
By the Treaty of Paris in 1783, the United States
of America came to being.
The Constitution of America was adopted in 1789.
The Civil War in America was during 1861-65
Abraham Lincoln was the
President during Civil War.
The city of Chicago in
America has the largest
number of rail roads.
Uncle Toms Cabin of
Harriet Beechstowe pub-
lished for the first time in
1852.
Statue of Liberty is situated
in the Liberty Island in the Newyork Port. It has
91 meter height.
Eagle is the National bird of America.
American women got voting right in 1920.
John Jai (1789-95) was the first Chief Justice of
America.
Baseball is the National game of America.
Golden Rod is the National Symbol of America
The Boston Tea Part
Abraham Lincoln
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The residence of American President got the
name White House during the period of Theodor
Roosevelt.
George Washington is the father of America.
He became the President of America in 1789.
Thomas Jefferson was the third President of
America.
President who abolished slavery in America was
Abraham Lincoln. He was the 16th President of
America. He worked as storekeeper and village
postmaster. He abolished slavery in 1862. He was
assassinated in 1865 while watching a drama,
Our American Cousin in the Fords Theatre
alongwith his wife. He was assassinated by John
Wilksbooth. Lincoln is known as Great
Immancipator.
First modern census was held in America in 1790.
49th Parallel separates America and Canada.
William Henry Harrison was the President who
ruled the least term.
James Madison is known as the father of Ameri-
can Constitution.
Ronald Reagan was the only filmstar who became
American President.
Chicago International Airport is the worlds busi-
est airport.
Gand Canyon in the Colarado river in America is
the biggest Gorge in the world.
United States Library of Congress is the largest
library in the world.
American Museum of Natural History is the larg-
est museum in the world.
Port of New-York and New Jersy is the largest
port in the world.
Grant Central Terminal in Newyork city is the big-
gest railway station in the world.
Yerkis Observatory of Illinois University has the
largest refractor telescope.
General Sherman in California is the biggest
tree in the world.
Coast Redwood in the Redwood National Park in
California is the tallest tree in the world.
The first American President to be assassinated
was Abraham Lincoln.
Other American Presidents who were assassi-
nated
James A Garfield in 1881
William McKinley in 1901
John F Kennedy in 1963
USA has two political parties - Republicans and
Democrates.
Great Depression striked America in 1930s
There are 50 states and one district in the U.S.A
District of Columbia (Washington DC) on the
banks of Potomak river is Americas capital dis-
trict.
New York is the largest city in America.
Chicago is known as the City of Winds.
Newyork city is situated on the banks of Hudson
river.
Important Battles
Hundred Years War (1337-1453) : England and
France
Seven Years War (1756-1763) : French were
defeated by the English
Battle of Trafalgar (1805) : British fleet (under
Nelson) defeated the combined fleet of France
and Spain.
Battle of Water Loo (1815) : British force led
by Duke of Wellington defeated French force
led by Napolean Bonaparte.
Opium War (1839-1842) : China and Britain
Crimean War (1853-1856) : War between Rus-
sia and the alliance of England, France, Tur-
key and Sardinia.
Boer War (1899 - 1902) : Fought in South Af-
rica between the British and the Boers (set-
tlers of Dutch descent in South Africa)
World War I (1914 - 1918) : Germany (with
Austria, Hungary) against Britain (with Rus-
sia, France, Japan, Canada and Belgium)
World War II (1935 - 1945) : Axis powers (Ger-
many, Italy and Japan) against the Allies (Great
Britain, U.S.A., U.S.S.R, China) Axis powers
were defeated.
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American Presidents
The figures of four American Presidents are en-
graved on the Mount Rushmor.
The term of American President is four years.
Only American president who got all the elec-
toral votes - George Washington.
The birth place of George Washington -Virginia
George Washington died on 1799 December 14.
First Vice President of America - John Adams
First American Lady
who advocated for the
rights of women -
Abey Gale Smith
(Wife of John Adams)
American President
who was entrusted to
prepare American
Constitution - Tho-
mas Jefferson
James Madison is
known as the Father of American Constitution.
Last military officer of the American revolution to
become the President of America - James Munroe
First American President who was the son of a
former president - John Kwinsy Adams
Kitchen Cabinet prevailed during the period of
Andrew Jackson.
First American President to die in harness -
Wilham Henry Harrison
First American President who was subjected to
impeachment - John Tailor
American President who is known as Black
Horse - James K. Polk
First American President who was ousted from
his party while in Office - John Tailor
American President who chose the site for White
House - Herbert Hover
American President who worked as the Chairman
of UN Human Rights Committee - Elenar
Roosevelt
American President who gave orders to drop atom
bomb in Hiroshima and Nagasaki - Harry S.
Truman
American President who was known as Smiling
President - Eisonhower
First Roman Catholican born in 20th century to
become the President of America - John
F.Kennedy
Who shot dead John F. Kennedy - Lee Harvey
Oswald.
John F. Kennedys assassination was the first live
broadcast murder in the world.
First Vice President to become President while
the President was alive - Jerald R. Ford.
Watergate incident (1972) is related to - Richard
Nixon
Oldest President of America - Ronald Reagon
The agreement to give back Panama canal to the
nation of Panamas was signed during the term of
Jimmy Carter as President.
American Presidents who got Nobel Prize for
Peace - Theodor Roosevelt, Jimmy Carter,
Wudrow Wilson.
First Bachelor President of America - James
Buccanan.
Tallest American President - Abraham Lincoln
First to be elected for a second term as President
- George Washington
First to get married while he was president -Grover
Cleavelend
Which American President is known as Human
Chain - Benjamin Harrison
First American to win Nobel Prize for Peace -
Theodor Rousevelt (1906)
First American President who later became Chief
Justice - William Haward Daft
Which American President said The Chief busi-
ness of America is business. - Kalvin Koolinch
First American Citizen to become American Presi-
dent - Martin Von Buran
He was born after the declaration of American
independence in 1776.
French Revolution (1789)
The century from 1750 to 1850 is known as the
Age of Revolutions
Thomas Jefferson
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18th century is known as the Age of Enlighten-
ment
18th century is also known as Age of Reason
Voltaire, Rousseau and Montesquieu were the
prominent philosophers who gave inspiration to
the French people.
French society on the eve of Revolution was di-
vided into three Estates - Clergy, Nobles and Com-
mons.
Louis XVI was the king of France when the revo-
lution broke out (1774-1792)
His wife was beautiful but Empty Headed lady
Mary Antoinette.
Like the Stuart kings of England, the Bourbons of
France also ruled by the Divine Right Theory of
Kingship. Louis XIV (1643 - 1715) who fully ex-
ploited the theory said I am the state He also
said flood after me
The French Parliament was known as Estates
General.
The Bastile Prison which was the symbol of
monarchs cruelty was broken by the Third Es-
tate on 14th July 1789. Thus began the French
Revolution.
July 14th is observed as a national holiday in
France every year in memory of this incident.
Liberty, Equality and Fraternity the slogan of the
French Revolution was given by Rousseau the
French Philosopher and the author of The So-
cial Contract.
The Eiffel Tower is
situated on the banks
of river Science in
Paris. It was built in
1888 by Gaustave
Eiffel.
His famous saying is
Man is born free but
everywhere he is in
chains.
Louise Phillippe was
the Emperor of France from 1830 - 1848 AD. He
shunned the traditional symbols of monarchy and
came to be known as the Citizen King.
Napolean Bonaparte (1769-1821) is known as the
Child of the French Revolution.
Napolean Bonaparte was bornin Corsica, an is-
land in the Meditteranean sea in 1769. He pro-
claimed himself the emperor of France in 1804. He
was defeated by the English in 1813 and deported
to Elba. But later he
recaptured power.
But after his final de-
feat in the Battle of
Water Loo he was
deported to St. Hel-
ena Island. There he
died in 1821. The gov-
ernment formed by
Nepolean in France
was known as Con-
sulate. The Bank of France was established by
Napolean.
French Philosopher Rousseau is the author of
books such as Emile, Confessions, Social Con-
tract etc.
The most important work of Montesquieu is The
Spirit of Laws
French Revolution resulted in the destruction of
feudalism in France.
French Revolution gave the term nation, its mod-
ern meaning.
Elysee Palace is the official residence of French
President.
Now the term of French President is five years,
earlier it was seven years.
Franc is French currency
Jacqueous Shirak is the President of France.
In 2006 there was a racial conflict between the
African immigrants and natives.
The Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution is the name given to a
series of changes that brought about a transition
from production by hand to production by ma-
Rousseau
Eiffel Tower
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chine from small scale production to large scale
production, hand made goods to machine made
goods.
Industrial Revolution started in England in the
second part of the 18th century and in the first
part of the 19th century.
Industrial Revolution first influenced the Cotton
Textile Industry.
In 1733, John Kay invented the Flying Shuttle
for weaving cloth.
James Hargreaves invented the Spinnng Jenny
in 1764 (Jenny was the name of his wife)
Water Frame was invented by Richard
Archwright.
Samuel Crompton invented Mule in 1779.
Power Loom was invented by Edmund Cartwright
in 1785.
James Watt invented Steam Engine in 1769.
Safety Lamp or Davis Lamp was invented by
Humphrey Davy in 1816.
Elias Home invented sewing machine in 1846.
The Warrior was the first warship built with
iron plates.
Abraham Derby invented the method of smelting
iron with coke in 1709.
Bersemer invented the steel furnace in 1856.
First Steam Locomotive was invented by
Trevithick in 1800.
In 1814 George Stephenson invented an improved
steam locomotive called Rocket. It was finally
used in opening the first passenger railway from
Liverpool to Manchester. That is why
Stephenson is called the father of Steam Loco-
motive.
Steam Boat was invented by Robert Fulton in
1807.
First steam ship sailed from Glasgow to Liverpool
in 1857. A ship first crossed the Atlantic in 1833.
The method of sending message by wire was in-
vented by Morse in 1835.
Bloody Sunday
On the 22nd of 1905 thousands of unarmed Rus-
sian workers marched to the Winter Palace of Czar
in St.Peterburg. Their demand was to have ad-
ministrative reforms. But the army fired at the mob
Hundereds of workers died, thousands wounded.
This incident is known as Bloody Sunday, that is
related to the Revolution of 1905 in Russia.
Electric Telegraph was invented by Graham Bell
in 1876.
John Macadam, an engineer of Scotland made
the first strong roads in England with the help of
small stones.
First important Trade Union Movement in the
world was Chartist Movement originated in En-
gland as a result of the Industrial Revolution.
Japan was the first Asian country to be
indsutrialised.
The Steam Engine invented by Jameswatt was
called Beelzebub.
Industrial Revolution gave rise to Capitalism.
A little before the Industrial Revolution the Agrar-
ian Revolution broke out in England.
Russian Revolution
Russia was united into an empire in the 9th cen-
tury AD. Russia was unified by the Rurichs.
Russians belonged to the Salvonic race.
Mongols captured Russia in the 13th century.
The Romanoff Dynasty of Russia was founded
by Michael Romanoff in 1613.
Romanoff Emperors were known as Czars. They
ruled Russia from 1613 to 1917.
Peter the Great is considered as the father of
modern Russia.
Peters foreign policy was known as warm water
policy
Russian Revolution was started in 1917 and it
was led by Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov Lenin.
Lenin was the leader of the Russian Social
Democractic Labour Party.
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Lenin is known as the
arichitect of Soviet Union.
Lenin was born in 1870
April 10. in Simbrisk,
Russia.
He received the name
Lenin in 1901.
He was led to Communism
by his elder brother
Alexander.
Lenin started a newspaper known as Iskara in
1900.
Lenin was the leader of the Bolshevic section of
the party.
He died in 21st January 1924 of cerebral stroke.
Bolsheviks, the majority party and Menshiviks,
the minority party were the two division of the
Russian Social Democractic Labour Party.
USSR came into existence in 1922 December
Czar Nicholas II was the reigning Czar of Russia
when the Revolution occurred.
Russian Parliament is known as Duma.
The new form of workers organisation formed on
the eve of the Revolution was known as Soviet.
February Revolution was on 12 March 1917.
Provisional Government which formed after the
February Revolution was led by Alexander
Kerensky.
The October Revolution happened on 7 Novem-
ber 1917 (because old Russian Calendar was 14
days backward).
After the October Revolution Trotsky came to
power
Stalin is known as the Iron Man of Communism.
Stalin became the head of Soviet Union in 1924.
He introduced Five Year Plans (1928) for the eco-
nomic progress of Russia.
In 1991 the Communist rule in Russia came to an
end and the USSR collapsed. Russia and other
Soviet Republics became independent nations.
St. Petersburg is the largest city in Russia sec-
ond only to Moscow.
The city of St. Petersburg was founded by Peter
the Great in 1703. The city was known as
Petrograd from 1914 to 1924. Later it came to be
known as Leningrad. Gorbachov renamed it St.
Petersburg again.
Grand Cremlin Palace was the Residence of
Czars.
Rasputin was a crooked witch, who had an influ-
ence over the Czarina.
The economic and political reforms started by
Gorbachev in 1985 was known as Peristroika
which means restructuring. For freedom of press
and freedom of expression he also introduced
Glasnost which means open approach.
The Crimean War (1854-56)
The Crimean War was fought between Russia on
the one side and Turkey, France and England on
the other.
Florence Nightingale established the first nurs-
ing school.
Florence Nightingale is known as Lady with the
Lamp
Chinese Revolution (1911)
The Chinese Revolution tookplace in 1911.
Ching dynasty or the Manchus were the last rul-
ing dynasty of China.
Puyi, a six year old boy was the last Manchu
Emperor.
The Republic of China was formed in 1912 and
Sun Yat-Sen became the first Chairman and first
President of the Chinese Republic.
Sun-Yat-Sen was a leader of the Comintang Party
MilitaryHead Yuan Shikai assumed power replac-
ing Sun-Yat-Sen in 1912 march 10.
In 1949 the Chinese Communist Party defeated
the nationalists and formed the Peoples Repub-
lic of China.
The Opium Wars were fought between Britain
and China.
Lenin
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The first Opium War, was fought during 1839-42
and the second was during 1856-60.
Opium Wars were fought to get open the ports of
China to trade opium from British India.
As a result of the first Opium War the Chinese
province of Hongkong came under the control of
Britain in 1844.
Hong Kong became a special administrative re-
gion of China on July 1, 1997 when the colony
was handed over by Britain to China.
Macao, which was a colony of the Portugal was
restored to China on 20th December 1999.
Shanghai is the biggest city in China. Beijing is
in the second place.
China was admitted to the UN in 1971. Now she is
a Permanent Member of the UN Security Council.
92% of the Chinese people belonged to the Han
race.
The Tianen Square in Beijing is described as the
Naval of China. The name means the gate of
heavenly peace.
The highest Court in China is the Supreme
Peoples Court.
Chinas leading newspaper is Renin Ribao
(Peoples Daily) of Beijing, which is the official
newspaper of Chinese Communist Party.
China is the first Asian country to launch a space
shuttle. Zhenshou V was the Chinese space
shuttle and Yang Liwei was its first space travel-
ler.
China is the worlds most populous country. It
has about a fifths of the worlds population.
China has the oldest living civilisation.
Chinese were the first to make compasses, paper,
pottery, and silk.
Chinese Mandarin is the most widely spoken lan-
guage of the world and it is the mother tongue of
the largest number of people. Chinese call this
language Putoghua (Common language)
China has the worlds largest fishing industry.
The Grand Canal worlds longest artificially cre-
ated water way extends more than 1600 Kilome-
ters from Hangzhou in the south to Beijing in the
north.
Chinese Peoples Liberation Army is the worlds
largest Army in number.
China is the largest producer of paddy, silk and
coal in the world.
China has the largest Communist Party in the
world.
Worlds largest dam Three Gorges Dam is built
across the Yangtse river in China.
China opened worlds highest and longest high-
land railway on 1st July 2006 The Qinghai-Tibet
Railway (1, 1142 Km)
Karakkoram highway is the only overland con-
nection between China and Pakistan.
Communist Chinas first international religious
gathering was conducted in April 2006.
In that World Buddhist Forum, Buddhists from
more than 30 countries participated.
2012 Olympics will be held in China.
Wenjiabo became the President of China.
It is for the first time the posts of President and
General Secretary of the Communist Party of China
held by two persons.
The present General Secretary of Communist
Party of China is the former President JiangZemin
Den-Sia-O-Ping brought liberalist policies in
China in 1970.
First World War (1914-1918)
The murder of Arch Duke Ferdinant of Austria
by a Serbian student Gavle Prince on June 28,
1914 was the immediate cause of the outbreak of
the First World War (1914-1918). The war was
started by the declaration of war against Serbia
by Austria - Hungry. The main combatants in the
war were the Central Powers (Germany, Austria,
Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria) and the Allied
Powers (England, France, Belgium, Serbia and
Russia). The Central Powers lost the war. The war
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ended with the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.
(Versailles is a city near Paris)
Submarine warboat (U-boat) used by Germany in
the war was a great menace.
Wudrow Wilson was the President of America
during the First World War.
Lloyd George was the British Prime Minister and
Clemenceace was the French Prime Minister dur-
ing the War.
The Treaty of Versailles was signed between the
Allies and Germany on 28th June 1919.
The Treaty of St. Germain was signed by the
Allies with Austria- Hungary in 1919.
An armistice (Peace Agreement) was signed on
November 11, 1918 to end the war. It was followed
by a peace conference at Paris and the Treaty of
Versailles in 1920.
The Treaty of Versailes resulted in the founda-
tion of League of Nations in 1919.
League of Nations was formed on the basis of the
Fourteen Points put forward by Wudrow Wil-
son in 1918.
League of Nations was the predescessor of the
UNO.
League of Nations was disbanded in 1945 and
even before that it lost its importance in 1939
when the Second World War broke out.
The First World War was fought as a war to end
all wars.
One of the most important results of the First
World War was the Great Depression which
started in USA in 1929.
Only one European country which was not af-
fected by great depression was Russia.
Three major powers during the interwar period
were USA, USSR and Japan.
Ku Klux Klan was a white terrorist gang working
in America during the period of Great Depres-
sion.
Franklin D. Roosevelt became American president
during the great depression in 1932.
Unification of Italy, and Fascism
After the decline of the Roman Empire Italy was
divided into a number of small independent states.
Joseph Massini is known as the Prophet of Ital-
ian Nationalism
Massini founded Young Italy in 1821.
Garibaldi was another famous leader of Italian
Nationalism. He founded an organisation known
as Red Shirts.
The unification of Germany was completed in
1870.
Political organisations which originated in Europe
after the First World War were collectively known
as Fascist Movements.
The word Fascism was originated from the Ital-
ian word fasces which means a bundle of rods
and an axe.
Benitto Mussolini, the worlds first fascist dicta-
tor who came to power in Italy in 1922, is known
as the father of Fascism.
Mussolini organised his followers into the Black
shirts
In October 1922 he organised a March to Rome
and took over as Prime Minister.
Mussolini was against Socialism and Communism
and formed an organisation known Fasci di
Combattiment.
When Italy surrendered after the Second World War
in 1945 Mussolini was captured and executed at Como.
Italy was the first Axis Power to surrender in the
First World War.
After 2000 Medea Tycoon Silvio Berlysconi won
the election and became the PM. In 2006 he was
defeated by the former President of EU
Romano Prodi.
Italy won the World Cup Football title held in
Germany by defeating France.
Unification Germany, and Nazism
Germany was known as Prussia in olden times.
The process of German Unification began when
King William I appointed Otto Von Bismark as his
Prime Minister in 1862.
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Bismark is known as the Iron man of Germany
His policy was known as Blood and Iron Policy.
Customs Union was an organisation which sup-
ported German unification indirectly.
Bismark is known as Iron Chancellor.
Nazism in Germany
was a German form of
Fascism in Italy.
Adolf Hitler (1889-
1945) was the leader
of the Nazi Party in
Germany. He was
known as the Fuehrer
(Leader). Hittler was
born in Austria in
1889.
National Socialist German Workers Party founded
in 1920 was known as Nazi Party.
Nazi Party wanted the exclusion of Jews from
German citizenship.
The supporters of Nazi Party were known as Sturn
Abteilung or Brown Shirts.
Hitler became the head of Nazi Party in 1923.
Hitler wrote his autobiography Mein Kampf
(My Struggle) while he was in Jail.
Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany on 30
January 1933.
In 1935 under the Nuremberg Law German Jews
were deprived of their citizenship.
Hitler became the President of Germany in 1934
when Hindenburg died.
Secret Police force of Hitler was known as
Gustapo.
Hitler committed suicide along with his wife Iva
Brown after the failure of Second World War in
1945.
Bismark is known as the father of German integra-
tion and Helmet Kohl is known as father of Ger-
man Unity. It was under Helmet Kohl that two
Germanies united in 1991.
In 2005 Angela Merckel became the first woman
Titles Persons
Fuehrer ...................................... Adolf Hitler
II Duke .......................................... Mussolini
Lady with the Lamp ..... Florence Nightingale
Maid of Orleans ......................... Joan of Arc
Maiden Queen ............................. Elizabeth I
Man of Blood and Iron .................... Bismark
Man of Destinig Little Corporal ..... Napolean
Chancellor of Germany.
In 2006 June Germany decided to open up a huge
archive of Nazi records on Concentration camp
inmates.
Second World War (1939-45)
The Treaty of Versailles and the rise of the Nazi
Party in Germany were the main causes of the
war.
The Soviet German Non Aggression Pact was
signed on August 23, 1939.
Hitlers armies invaded Polland on 1 September
1939.
On 3 Septmber 1939 Britain and France declared
war on Germany, thus began the Second World
War.
The Second World War was between The Axis
Powers (Germany, Italy and Japan) and the Al-
lied Powers (Britain, France, Russia, USA etc)
The German plan of conquering Britain during
the Second World War was known as Sea -
Lion.
German attack on Russia during the war was
known as Operation Barbosa
When the Second World War broke out, the US
announced her neutrality.
In 7 December 1941, the Japanese bombers at-
tacked the US naval base at Pearl Harbour in
Hawai.
On 8 December 1941 US declared war on Japan.
Thus US formally entered the Second World War.
Adolf Hitler
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Second World War became a Global war in 1941.
The first Atom Bomb was dropped in Hiroshima
on August 6, 1945 by America. This bomb is
known as Little boy.
The second Atom Bomb was dropped in Nagasaki
on August 9, 1945 it is known as fat man.
The first country to surrender in the war was Italy
and last to surrender was Japan.
On 2 September 1945 Japan surrendered and the
Second World War ended.
The Axis powers lost the Second World War. This
war led to the foundation of UNO in 1945.
The UN Charter was signed at San Francisco on
26th June 1945 by fifty nations and UN came into
force on 24 October 1945.
The Nuremberg Trials were the trials of the major
war criminals of the Second World War. It began
on November 20, 1945.
Big Powers and Cold War
The United States of America, the Soviet Union,
Britain, France and China were regarded as the
big powers since the end of the Second World
War (1945). Among them, the United States and
the Soviet Union were the Super Powers.
There was much co-operation among the Big Pow-
ers during the War. But later there aroused mu-
tual suspicion among them and Cold War began.
The Cold War was a war of words or ideologies
and of nerves. This Cold War created great inter-
national tension. The Cold War was announced
by Winston Churchill in his famous iron cur-
tain speech at Fulton, Missourie in 1946.
The word Cold War was first coined by
Bernard Baruch 1946.
The years 1945-47 are generally taken to mark the
beginning of the Cold War.
The first shot of Cold War was fired by Winston
Churchill.
The US decision to intervene in the Greek Civil
War may be considered as formally ushering in of
the Cold War.
Revolutions
American war of Independence.................... 1776
Russian Revolution ...................................... 1917
French Revolution ....................................... 1789
Chinese Revolution ...................................... 1911
Communist Revolution in China................... 1949
Industrial Revolution .......... 1750-1850 (England)
Green Revolution in India ............................ 1964
The biggest crisis of the early stage of Cold War
was the Berlin Blockade which began in 1948.
The formation of North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation (NATO) in April 1949 was one of
the most important aspects of Cold War.
In 1954 the US brought most of the South East
Asian Countries under a common framework mod-
elled on NATO called SEATO.
The Arab states formed CENTO in 1955. (Central
Treaty Oganisation)
The Cold War continued upto the collapse of So-
viet Union in 1990.
HOTLINE is a telecommunication link established
since 1963 between the Kremlin (Moscow) and
White House (Washington DC, USA) to avoid
misunderstanding. Now hotline means a direct
exclusive line of communication especially for an
emergency.
Warsaw Pact was a military alliance formed un-
der the Soviet Union against NATO in 1955.
Now Russia is in a more or less stable condition
under the Presidentship of Vladimir Putin.
Middle East Conflict
Israel Palestine conflict is popularly called
Middle-East Conflict. The conflict became worse
by the formation of Israel in Palestine in 1948. In
the battle that occured in 1948, Israel came out
victorious.
Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) was
formed in 1964 to defeat Israel.
In the 1967 Arab-Israel battle which lasted for six
days, Israel came out victorious.
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The Israel - Palestine Peace Treaty was signed
in 1994 and PLO supremo sworn in as the head of
PalestineNational Authority.
The historic Israel-PLO agreement was signed in
Washington on September 28, 1995. River Wye
Agreement was signed by Israel and Palestine
for solving the crisis.
Golan Height was a place captured by Israel from
Cyria in 1967
West Bank : This place was captured by Israel
from Jordan. As per the peace treaty of 1994 the
administrative authority of this place was given
to Palestine National Authority.
Gaza Strip is in the Egypt. It was captured by
Israel in the 1967 battle and as per the treaty of
1994 it was handed over to Palestine National
Authority.
Sinai Peninsula : This place was also captured
from Egypt in the 1967 war and handed over to
Palestine in 1982.
The official name of Israel is Medinat Israel.
Hebrew and Arabic are the official languages of
Israel.
The conflict reached a turning point with the elec-
tion (January 2005) of
Mahmud Abbas as the new
Palestinian leader following
the death of Yassar Arafat.
In 2006 July-August Israel
invaded Labanon and tried to
destroy the so called extrem-
ist organisation Hisbulla led
by Sheik Hassan Nasrulla.
The Hamas lead coalition
won the general election in Palestine. But the Is-
rael and EU blocked their financial assistance to
this country. Now it is in great financial crisis.
LATIN AMERICAN NATIONALISM
Countries to the south of USA are collectively
called Latin America.
Mexico, Central America, South America and the
Islands of West Indies are the major parts of Latin
America.
There are altogether 46 countries in Latin
America. 33 independent nations and 13 depen-
dent countries.
Brazil is the largest Latin American country in
area and Population.
Spanish is the most widely spoken language in
Latin America.
Guarani is the language of Indian origin spoken
in Paragua.
Quechua is the Indian language in Peru.
Aymara is the Indian language Spoken in Bolivia.
Christopher Columbus was the first European to
a reach Latin America.
Francisco De Miranda (1750-1816) was one of
the most important leaders of Latin America. He
fought for the liberation of Venezuela and came
out victorious in 1910 and it proclaimed its inde-
pendence in 1911.
Simon Bolivor (1783-1830) worked for the libera-
tion of Columbia, Venezuela, Equador, Peru and
Bolivia. He is considered as the father of their
nation by all these countries. He is known as the
Liberator or the Washington of South.
San Martin (1778 - 1850) another famous Latin
American leader worked for the liberation of Ar-
gentina, Chili and Peru.
Brazil got independence from Spain in 1822.
Fidel Castro came to power in Cuba in 1959.
Due to health reason Cuban
President Fidel Castro
transferred his power tem-
porarily to his brother Raul
Castro in September 2006.
Panama got the Panama Ca-
nal from US in 1999.
Panama Canal was opened
in 1914. Panama Canal con-
nects the Pacific and Atlan-
tic Oceans.
Soccer (Football) is the most important game of
Latin American countries.
Yassar Arafat
Fidel Castro
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Aguaretiente is a liquor obtained from sugarcane
used in Latin America
Latin American Tea is known as Mate.
Most of the Latin American countries follow
Christianity.
Brazilian dance is known as Samba
Cuba - Conga
Argentina - Tango
Bolivia & Chile - Cueca
Mexico - Jarabe Tapatio
Japan
Japan is an Island nation of the North Pacific.
The name Japan was originated from the name
Zipangu used by Marco Polo in Italian language.
The official name of Japan is Nippon or Nihon,
which means the source of the Sun.
Japan is known as the Land of Rising Sun or
Britain of the East.
Iasu Tokugama who ruled Japan the 16th Cen-
tury is known as Napolean of Japan.
Tokyo became the capital of Japan during enlight-
ened rule (Meiji Age) which is known as the
Golden Age of Japan.
First constitution of Japan came to force in 1889
and the Japanese Parliament Diet was formed.
Geographically Japan is situated in the Ring of
fire which is in the coast the Pacific ocean with
lot of volcanoes.
Mount Fujiyama is the highest mount in Japan.
In the first World War Japan was in the part of
Allied Powers.
Japan joined the Second World War in 1940 on
the part of Italy and Germany.
On 7 December 1941 Japan attacked Pearl Harbour.
This resulted in the entry of USA into the Second
World War.
America dropped an Atom Bomb named Little
boy in Hiroshima from an aircraft named Inola
Gay on 6, August 1945. Later another bomb
Fatman was dropped in Nagasaki from an air-
craft named Box car on 9 August 1945. Follwed
by the Japan surrendered before the Axis Powers
on 2 September 1945. The treaty of surrender was
signed in a ship named USS Missourie in the Bay
of Tokyo.
Kabuki is a form of stage drama in Japan.
Bunraku - a puppet theatre
Sumo is a Japanese form of Wrestling.
Ikebana - Japanese style of flower arranging
Sake - Rice wine made in Japan
Cloisonne - A Japanese type of decorative enam-
eling
Origami - The Japanese art of folding paper into
decorative objects.
Kawabata Yasunari is the first Japanese to win
the Nobel Prize (1968) for literature. Snow Coun-
try is the book authored by him.
Yuichiro Miura : 70 year old man who became
the oldest to conquer Mt Everest in May 22, 2003.
Junko Tabei First woman to climb mount Everest.
Manasobu Fukuvoka is the author of the famous
book One Straw Revolution. He was a famous
agricultural scientist.
Jimmu Tenno : He was supposedly the first em-
peror of Japan. In 660 BC he became the Emperor.
Hirohito became the first Japanese emperor who
travelled outside Japan in 1971.
Worlds longest suspension bridge, the Akasi
Kaikyo Bridge (1990 metres) is in Japan. It con-
nects the Island of Honshee and the Island of
Shikoku.
Japans largest single export is Crude Oil.
Yomeeyerie shimbon a News paper in Japan has
the largest circulation in the world. It is also pub-
lished in English with the name Daily Yomiyurie.
The Japans economy ranks second only to USA
in terms of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
Japan has the largest fishing industry in the world.
New PM of Japan is Shinzo Abe (Liberal Demo-
cratic Party)
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INDIA AND PAKISTAN
Muhammed Ali Jinna was the founder of Paki-
stan. He was the first Governor General of the
Dominion of Pakistan.
Jinna house is in Mumbai.
Pakistan observes its independence day on Au-
gust 14
Jinna is called the father of Pakistan.
Pakistan proclaimed itself an Islamic Republic in
1956.
Poet - Philosopher Muhammed Iqbal, first articu-
lated the concept of Pakistan in 1931.
Pakistans first free elections were held in Decem-
ber 1970.
Bangladesh was separated from Pakistan in march
26, 1971.
On 28 and 30 may 1998 Pakistan carried out five
nuclear tests in the desert of Baluchistan at the
Chagai Hills in response to Indias test.
On 12 Octber 1999, General Pervez Musharraf in
a military coup deposed the Premier Nawaz
Sherif and suspended the constitution.
In 2001 he became the President of Pakistan.
Musharrafs presidency was extended by five
more years till 2007.
The Tashkent Agreement was signed on Janu-
ary 10, 1966. This Agreement was signed by Lal
Bahadur Shastri and Ayub Khan just after the
1965 Indo - Pak War. On January 11, Shastri died
at Tashkent.
Now Tashkent is the capital of Uzbekisthan.
The Shimla Agreement of 1972 was signed be-
tween India and Pakistan after the 1971 battles.
The Lahore Declaration was signed between In-
dia and Pakistan just before the Operation Vijay
of 1999 in Kargil to expel the ussurpers.
Th Radcliff line separates India from Pakistan,
the Durand Line is between Pakistan and
Afghanisthan and the McMohan Line is between
India and China.
Siachin Glacier which lies between India and Pa-
kistan is referred as the highest and the coldest
battle field in the world.
The Agra Summit (2002) between Musharaff
and AB Vajpayee ended in failure. Aim-solving
bilateral problems.
Pak conspirations attacked Indian Parliament in
2001 that led to the verge of a war.
Relation worsened due to the Mumbai blasts in
July 2006
In the side line NAM summit in Havana (2006
September) both agreed to continue to the peace
process
THE SOUTH AFRICAN STORY
The Union of South Africa was formed in 1910.
It became a Republic in 31 May 1961.
Nelson Mandela was re-
leased from prison in 1990
after 27 years of imprison-
ment. He was imprisoned at
Robert Islands In 1994 he
sworn in as the first black
President of South Africa.
His term ended in 1999.
First Democratic President
of South Africa is Nelson
Mandela. Thabo Mbeki, the President of ANC
(Africa National Congress) succeeded Nelson
Mandela as the President of South Africa in 1999.
Nelson Mandela was the second foreigner to re-
ceive the Bharat Ratna.
The first foregner to receive Bharat Ratna was
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, the Frontier Gandhi
South Africa is the leading producer of gold in
the World.
African Development Bank (ADB) was formally es-
tablished in 1964 and began its operation in 1966.
Organization of African Unity (OAU/ OUA) was
formed in 1963, with its headquarters at Addis
Ababa (Ethiopia)
Gulf War I and II
The Gulf War (1991) was fought between the
US led multinational forces and Iraq to expel Iraqi
troops from Kuwait. Its code name was Opera-
tion Desert Storm.
Operation Desert Fox was the continuation of
operation Desert storm.
Nelson Mandela
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On 11 March 2006 Michelle Bachlet is sworn in
as Chiles first woman president.
Now there is a trend in South America that sev-
eral of its countries moving to the communist side
of political ideology.
Australia
Harriet a 178 year old giant tortoise credited with
helping Charles Darwin pioneer the theory of evo-
lution dies in Australia in 2006 June 22.
Australian Crocodile hunter Steve Irwin (44) died
on September 4, 2006 following a stingray blow
to the chest while filming a documentary on the
Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Port Douglas in
Queenland state.
Marsupial lions, Kangaroos as tall as trucks and
wombats the size of a rhinoceros roamed
Australias outback before being killed off by fires
it by arriving humans. The giant animals lived in
the arid Nullarbor Desert around 400,000 years
ago, but died out around 50,000 year ago, rela-
tively shortly after the arrival of human settlers,
according to new fossil skeletons found in Caves.
Selected Questions
from World History
Father of History
Herodotus
Iron was accidently discovered by
Neanderthal man
Humans with similarity to the Neanderthal man
Cromagnans
Mesopotamian ruler who gave a famous code of
laws
Hammurabi
The Cunieform script was discovered by
Sumerians
Largest Pyramid of Egypt
Khufu
Large temple in ancient Egypt dedicated to Sun
God
Temple of Abusimbel
Three states of China existed in the 300 BC
Chin, Chu, Ehi
Siesmograph was discovered by
Ancient Chinese
Most important Persian ruler who lived in BC 600
Cyrus
God of Parsies or Zorastrians
Ahuramazda
Most famous ruler of ancient Athens
Pericles
Olygarchy is a form of government led by .
a group of rich people
Greek poetess who sung about love, nature and
beauty
Sappho
Greek poet who wrote poems in honour of victo-
rious athletes
Pindar
Father of tragic dramas
Aeschilus
Father of Comic dramas
Sophocles
Most important example of Greek architecture
Temple of Parthenon
The word Heirogliphic means
Sacred Writing
Philosopher king of Rome
Marcus Areleus
Famous Orator of Greece
Cesero
The Roman Governor who gave the verdict to
crucify christ
Pontheos Pelathose
The birth place of Prophet Muhammed
Mecca
Who as the wife of Prophet Muhammed
Khadeija
Which place is known as the Bermingham of Cen-
tral Africa
Sinja - Trophus
Most famous ruler of Mali in Africa
Manga Kangan Muza
Time taken to complete the construction of the
Great Pyramid in Egypt
20 years
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Who was the commander of Carthage in the Pu-
nic wars
Hannibal
Who became the ruler of Rome after Julius Caeser
Octavian (Augustus Caesar)
Country known as the nest of singing birds
England
Perceolis was the capital of the ancient Empire
Persia
The hanging gardens of Babilona was built in
the name of
Nebuchandnessar
Only South East Asian country never occupied
by any European powers
Thailand
Famous chinese king Shihuangti belonged to
Chin dynasty
Which ancient civilisation was famous for secu-
lar architecture
Persian
The tutelary diety of the city UR in Mesopotamia
Nannar
The Mayan calendar had
18 months
Buddhism reached China from India during the
period of
Han dynasty
Golden Age of Rome is the period of Augustus
Caesar
Most cultured civilisation of Middle Ages was of
Arabs
Which was the language of learning of the Middle
Ages
Latin
First university in the world was started in Paris
Which subject was known as Queen of Sciences
during the Middle Ages
Theology
Who was the immediate successor of prophet
Muhammed or first Khalifa
Abubekker
Capital of Arab Empire during th Abbsasid rule
Baghdad
Frist Industrially developed country in Asia
Japan
The Capital of Japan in the 8th Century
Nara
Ancient religion of Japan
Shintoism
Architectural style developed in France
Goethic
The mount where Saint Benedict founded his
monastery
Monte Cassino
Holy Ka aba was built by
Prophet Ebrahim
The capture of constantinople by the Suljek
Turks resulted in the decline of
Byzantine Empire
The prophet of French Revolution
Rasseau
Nationalisation of Suez Canal was done by
Col. Gamal Abdul Nazar of Egypt
Japanese Parliament is known as
Diet
Battle in which Napolean was defeated in 1815
Battle of Trafalgar
Unification of Germany was done by
Bismark
Pakistan President who was hanged to death in
1979
Sulfiker Ali Bhuto
English king who was trialed and executed
publically in 1649
Charles I
English king who signed the Magnacarta in 1215
John
Treaty which ended the Ruso-Japanese battle of
1905
Treaty of Portsmouth
Co-operative movement was started in England
in 1821 by
Robert Oven
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Small Island where Columbus landed in 1492
Wattlings Island
Amerigo Vespucci who identified America be-
longed to
Italy
The petition submitted American colonists be-
fore king George III of England in 1774
Olive Branch Petition
The Queen who was known as Madam Deficit
Mary Antoinet (France)
Oath of Tennis Court is related to
French Revolution
Water Loo where Napoleon was defeated is situ-
ated in
Near Brussels in Belgium
Nepoleon Bonapparte was died in the year
1821
Who is considered as the father of Scientific So-
cialism
Karl Marx
Work which is considered as the birth cry of mod-
ern socialism
Communist Manfesto
Open Door Policy was introduced by
USA
The rebellion led by the peasants of Keniya
against the British
Mau-Mau-Rebellion
Russian Parliament was known as
Duma
Spy organisation formed by Germany during the
second world war
Fifth Columists
The policy of USA which helped Britain and
France during the Second World War
Cash and Carry Policy
Party which became prominent in Britain after the
Second World War
Labour Party
Trojan horse tactics was the policy adopted dur-
ing the Second World War by
Germany
Leader of Indonesian Nationalism
Dr. Sukarno
Vietnamis freedom struggle was led by
Ho Chimin
Who banned Shake Hand in Italy in 1930
Benitto Mussolini
Saudi Arabian king who gave the name to the
country in 1925
Abdul Aziz Sand
Persia came to be known as Iran from
9th March 1935
Symbol accepted by Hitler for German national
flag
Swastika
Lover of Hitler
Iva Brown
Country ousted from League of Nations in 1939
U.S.S.R
Hitler and his wife Iva Brown committed suicide
in
30 April 1945
Mussolini and his wife Claretta were killed by the
Italian Guerillas in
28 April 1945
Which city is called by its natives as The Big
Apple
New York
Who questioned the Sale of Indulgence
Martin Luther
Founder of Salvation Army
William Booth
Who killed Abraham Lincoln in 1865
Wilks Booth
Princess Diana was killed in a car accident in Paris
on 31 August 1997.
Communist leader who proclaimed war with Cu-
ban ruler Batista in 1958
Fidel Castro
The Great fire of London was in the year 1666.
Chinese President who adopted christianity in
1980
Chiang Kaishek
Mussolini was captured and killed at
Como
Founder of Comintang Party -
Dr. Sunyat Sen
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Fill in the Blanks
1. The temperature at which the
air is fully saturated is called
.............
2. The type of soil typically
formed under tropical mon-
soon condition is .............
3. The bottom of a river is called
.............
4. The waves which pass
through the core of the earth
is .............
5. Ocean covers ............. part of
the earths surface
6. A vent in the ground of a
volcanic area which gives off
volcanic hot gases is known
as .............
7. The narrow contact zone of
land, water and air which
contains all forms of life is
called .............
8. Maps showing different
countries and states of the
world with their boundaries
are called .............
9. Virunga National Park in
Congo is famous for .............
10. ............. is the largest island in
the world.
11. The Trans-Siberian Railway
(8960 km) connects ......... in
the west to .......... in the east.
12. Humbolt ocean current is in
............. ocean.
13. The leeward side of a
mountain which does not
receive rain is known as the
.............
14. The study of fossils is .............
15. ............. is the propounder of
the continental drift theory.
16. The rainfall caused due to the
presence of mountains in the
way of winds is called .............
17. Isochrones are lines joining
places with equal .............
18. Leading producer of cement
is .............
19. Cadiz, in Spain, is famous for
.............
20. Trees shed their leaves in
winter season to .............
21. ............. is the technique
applied to measure the depth
of the sea.
22. Winter rains in north-western
India are caused by ..............
23. The western disturbances
causing winter rains in
northern India originate in
.............
24. Johns disease affects .............
25. The disease, green ear,
affects .............
26. ............. are nodules on the sea
bed containing a variety of
minerals.
27. The Thar Desert believed to be
expanding. The most suitable
way to check it would be by
.............
28. ............. consists of masses of
ice in layers one above the
other.
29. ............. Canal lies on the
worlds largest of trade routes
connecting Europe and Far -
East.
30. Strait of Malacca separates
............ and ..........
31. ............. grasses are known as
elephant grasses.
32. The river Tsangpo (River
Brahmaputra) flows through
............. before entering India.
33. The most valuable cashcrop
of Brazil is .............
34. The country in which the
greatest waterfall is situated
.............
Answers
1. Dew Point
2. Alluvial
3. Bed
4. P-waves (Primary Waves)
5. 2/3rd
6. Fumarole
7. Biosphere
8. Political maps
9. Mountain Gorillas
10. Green land
11. Leningrad, Omsk
12. Pacific
13. rain - shadow area
14. Paleontology
15. Alfred Wegner
16. Orographic rain
17. travelling time from a point
18. USA
19. Cork
20. conserve water
21. Echo-sounding
22. western disturbances
23. The Mediterranean region
24. cattles
25. bajra
26. Potato ores
27. afforestation
28. Hail
29. The Suez
30. Sumatra and Malaysia
31. Savanna
32. Tibet
33. Coffee
34. Zaire (Boyomar falls)
Answer in a Word or
Sentence
1. What is called the study of
lakes and ponds?
2. Which gas in the atmosphere
absorbs ultraviolet rays?
3. Which is the longest river of
Asia?
4. Name the lowest point in
Europe?
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WORLD GEOGRAPHY
5. The highest peak in Hindu-
kush mountain range is
6. Which is the largest reef in the
world?
7. Which is the longest fresh
water lake in the world?
8. Ferrels Law is concerned
with
9. Which is the largest inland
sea in the world?
10. In which country is Kalahari
desert located?
11. Which is the worlds largest
River Barrage?
12. Which is the largest river
island in the world?
13. Which river flows into the
Dead Sea?
14. Which is the deepest lake in
the world?
15. In which ocean is the island
Diego Garcia situated?
16. Worlds largest concrete dam
17. Which is the only place in the
world where Browantlered
Deer is found?
18. Which famous volcano is
known as the Bonfire of
Europe?
19. Which is the highest peak in
Aravalli range?
20. Which is the largest country
in South America?
21. What is the difference
between the ocean and the
sea?
22. Who discovered Hawai
Island?
23. Which is the highest
mountain in Australia?
24. Which port is known as the
Coffee Pot in the world?
25. Which is the deepest spot in
the Indian Ocean?
26. Where is Maxwell mountain
range situated?
27. Where is Patagonia Desert
situated?
28. Which is the worlds first
National Park?
Answers
1. Limnology
2. Ozone
3. Yangtze Kiang
4. Caspian Sea
5. Trich Mir (7,699 m)
6. Queensland Coast of Australia.
7. Lake Tanganyika (East Africa)
8. Direction of winds
9. Mediterranean Sea
10. Botswana
11. Farakka Barrage
12. Majuli (Assam)
13. River Jordan
14. Lake Baikal
15. Indian Ocean (South west of
Sri Lanka)
16. Grand Coulee Dam (Washi-
ngton)
17. Keibul Lamjao National Park
(Manipur)
18. Mount Etna
19. Gurushikhar (1772 m)
20. Brazil
21. The ocean surrounds the
continents where as the sea
is an arm of the ocean
22. Captain james Cook
23. Mt. Kosciusko (2226 m)
24. Santos (Brazil)
25. Wharton Trench (South of
Java)
26. Venus
27. In Southern Argentina
28. Yellow Stone National Park
(U.S.A)
Short Notes
1. What are the rocks? How
would you classify them?
2. Write short notes on:
(i) Weathering
(ii) Denudation &
(iii) Springs
3. Write short notes on
(i) Canyon (ii) Delta
(iii) Geyser (iv) Rift Valley
4. What are earthquakes? How
are they caused?
5. Write short notes on
(i) Continental Shelf
(ii) Coral Reefs
Farakka Barrage
Completed in 1990, the Farakka Barrage is a dam located 10 km
from the Indian side of the border between India and Bangladesh,
in the state of West Bengal. India uses it to control the flow of the
Ganges river. The dam was built to divert the Ganges River water
into the Hooghly River during the dry season, from January to June,
in order to flush out the accumulating silt which in the 1950s and
1960s was a problem at the major port of Calcutta on the Hooghly
River. Bangladesh and India have not had many debates about
how the Farakka Barrage cuts off Bangladeshs water supply. Also
in Bangladesh, the diversion has raised salinity levels,
contaminated fisheries, hindered navigation, and posed a threat to
water quality and public health. Lower levels of soil moisture along
with increased salinity have also led to desertification
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6. What are tides?
7. What are Trade Winds?
8. Write short notes on
(i) Roaring Forties
(ii) Horse Latitudes.
9. What is the difference
between Sea Breeze and Land
Breeze?
10. Write a short note on
Monsoons?
11. What is the difference
between Cyclones and Anti-
Cyclones?
12. What is a rain shadow
region?
13. What is the difference between
weather and climate?
14. Distinguish between Tributary
and distributary.
15. Write short notes on El Nino
& La Nino
16. What are Aurora?
17. Water Harvesting
18. Artesian Well
19 What is Condensation?
20. Relief (or Orographic) Rain:
21. What is soil and what are its
main constituents?
22. What is soil erosion and how
is it caused? What are the
consequences of soil erosion?
23. What is The International
Date line?
24. Write notes on the Pressure
Gradient Force and the
Coriolis Force. ?
25. Define the following terms:
Typhoon, Hurricane and
Tornado.
26. What are Ocean Currents ?
What are their causes?
27. What causes the change of
seasons? Also explain the
terms summer solstice, winter
solstice and equinoxes and
how are they caused?
28. What is an equator, latitude,
meridian, prime meridian,
local or sun time and
standard time?
Answers
1. Rocks are the main materials
composing the earths crust.
Rocks are composed of
minerals. Minerals are
natural inorganic substances
each with a fairly definite
chemical composition and
recognisable crystal form,
colour, hardness, lustre,
fracture and other physical
characteristics. Rocks of the
earths crust are grouped in
three principle classes.
(i) Igneous Rocks: Rocks
which are solidified directly
from molten materials are
called igneous rocks. To a
certain extent, all other rocks
originate from igneous rocks.
Therefore, these rocks are
commonly referred to as
primary rocks. These are
divided into extrusive rocks,
viz., lava and pumice, or
intrusive rocks, such as some
granites which is high in
calcium and magnesium and
low in silicon. The intrusive
rocks are solidified beneath
the surface while extrusive
rocks are solidified at the
surface.
(ii) Sedimentary Rocks:
These rocks are formed from
materials which have
accumulated as the result of
various processes, viz, by the
build - up of particles derived
from other rocks, or from the
remains of organically formed
matter (from living or once
living things), or from
deposits created by chemical
action. The rocks formed by
the deposition of sediment in
water are conglomerates (e.g.,
gravel, shingle, pebbles),
sandstones and shales
(layered clay and claystone).
Peat, lignite, bituminous coal
and anthracite are the result
of the deposition of organic
matter. Gypsum, chalk and
limestone are examples of
chemical sedimentation.
(iii) Metamorphic Rocks:
These rocks were originally
igneous or sedimentary but
Lake Baikal
Lake Baikal is in Southern Siberia in Russia, located between Irkutsk
Oblast to the northwest and the Buryat Republic to the southeast,
near the city of Irkutsk. The name Baikal comes from Baigal or 0930;
which in the Mongolian language means nature. It is also known
as the Blue Eye of Siberia. In Buryat language and Mongol
language it is called Dalai-Nor, which means sea lake.
At 1,637 meters (5,371 ft), Lake Baikal is the deepest lake in the
world and is the largest freshwater lake by volume (23,000 km),
containing approximately twenty percent of the worlds total surface
fresh water. Like Lake Tanganyika, Lake Baikal was formed on an
ancient rift valley and is therefore long and crescent-shaped with a
surface area (31,500 km) less than half that of Lake Superior or
Lake Victoria.
Olkhon, the largest island in Lake Baikal, is the second largest lake-
bound island in the world after Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron.
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have been changed by
pressure, heat or action of
water. When individual
grains tend to deform and
interlock from existing rocks,
they are then called meta-
morphic rocks. For example,
granite, an igneous rock, may
be metamorphosed into
gneiss. Limestone, a
sedimentary rock, may
become marble. Sandstone
may be metamorphosed into
quartzite and shale when
greatly compressed into slate.
2. (i) Weathering: It means the
breaking up or disintegration
of rocks. The chief agents of
weathering are temperature,
frost, air and rain.
(ii) Denudation: It means
laying bare of a rock which
was previously covered. The
chief agents of denudation are
temperature, water in its
various forms, air and wind,
plant life and animal life.
(iii) Springs: A spring is a
place where water issues out
of the ground spontan -
eously.
3. (i) Canyon: A deep and
narrow river valley with steep
bank is called a canyon. The
most famous canyon in the
world is that of the Grand
Canyon, Colorado (U.S.A).
For about 480 kms, the river
flows through a gorge or a
canyon the banks of which
are, at some places, more -
than one and a half kilometre
high.
(ii) Delta: An alluvial deposit
shaped like the Greek letter D
(delta) formed at mouth of
river is called delta. Nile delta
is well known in the world
and so is the Sunderbans delta
in India and Bangladesh.
(iii) Geyser: It is a fountain of
hot water; issuing from a hole
which extends deep into the
earths crust. The water is
hurled high into the air by the
force of steam formed low in
the hole. It contains minerals
in solution and they get
deposited around the hole
from which the water gushes
out.
(iv) Rift Valley: A long and
narrow valley formed by the
sinking of a portion of the
earth is called a Rift Valley.
dolomite, accumulated by
lime secreting organisms
known a coral polyps. Coral
polyps secrete calcareous
matter to form shells around
their body. A colony of corals
comprises a very large
number of animals living in
shells sticking to each other.
As the corals die, the shells
remain deposited and new
corals attach their shells to
the existing deposits. In this
manner corals produce large
rock formations. These rock
formations made by corals are
called coral reefs. Eg. Barrier
reef, Atoll etc.
6. Alternative rise and fall of the
surface of the sea, approx-
imately twice a day, are called
tides. These are caused by the
difference of attraction
between water and the earth.
These are of two types:
(i) Spring Tide: At new moon
and full moon, the sun and the
moon are in the same line as
the earth and both exert their
influence together on earth. So
the tide produced by the sum
of their force is consequently
higher than usual. This is
called spring tide.
(ii) Neap Tide: At the first and
third quarters of moon, as the
sun and the moon are at right
angles to each other; the tide
produced by the difference of
their force is consequently
lower than usual. This is
called Neap Tide.
7. These are the winds which
blow towards equator. They
blow between 5 degrees to 30
degrees north and 5 degrees
and 30 degrees south latitude.
8. (i) Roaring Forties: These are
steady north-west anti-trade
winds between latitude 45 to
50 degrees south.
African Rift Valley. From left to right:
Lake Upemba, Lake Mweru, Lake
Tanganyika (largest), and Lake
Rukwa.
4. An earth quake is a sudden
temporary motion or a series
of motions which originate in
a limited region and then
spread out from the place of
origin in all directions. It
continues for a while and
then gradually dies out -
Earth quakes are caused
either by volcanic eruptions
or by sudden movement of
rock along fault planes.
5. (i) Continental Shelf: It is that
part of a country or continent
which is submerged under
the sea and where the water
is not more than 200 metres
in depth.
(ii) Coral Reefs: Coral reefs are
masses of limestone and
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(ii) Horse Latitudes: The
tropical Belts of Calms, i.e.,
regions between 30 degrees and
35 degrees, are known as Horse
Latitudes. The origin of this term
is obscure. It is said that the
sailing ships carrying horses to
the west Indies were often
becalmed between 30 degrees
north and 35 degrees north and
the sailors were obliged to
throw all the horses overboard
and then the ships could move.
This part, therefore, came to be
called Horse Latitudes. But now
both tropics of calm are known
by this name.
9. (i) Sea Breeze: These are the
winds blowing during the
day from sea towards land
which is comparatively hotter
than sea. This is due to the fact
that during the day there is
high pressure on sea and low
pressure on the land and the
wind blows from high
pressure to low pressure.
(ii) Land Breeze: These are the
winds, which blow during the
night from land to sea, during
which sea is hotter than the
land.
10. These are the seasonal winds,
which blow during the six
months of summer from
ocean to land and for the six
months of winter from land
to sea. This is due to the fact
that during summer, when
rays of the sun fall vertically
over the Tropic of Cancer, the
land becomes comparatively
hotter than the sea. Therefore,
the winds blows from the sea.
Reverse is the case in winter.
They blow over S.E. Asia, East
Asia, Australia, New
Zealand etc.
11. Cyclones: These are the
winds, which blow in a spiral
form round a centre of
minimum pressure. They
move anti-clockwise in the
northern hemisphere. They
cause wind, storm, rains and
other changes in the weather.
The winter rainfall in punjab
and Tamil Nadu is due to
cyclones. They occur in the
regions of the Indian Ocean.
Anti-Cyclones: They are also
winds, which blow in a spiral
form. They move when
pressure at the centre is
maximum and it decreases
towards the edges. They do
not bring any rain.
12. Rain shadow region is just on
the opposite of windward
side of the mountain and
hence receives little or no rain,
e.g., western coast receives
heavy rainfall, while the
Deccan Plateau receives little
rainfall as the latter is in the
rain shadow region.
13. Weather: It is the condition of
atmosphere at a certain time
or period showing pressure,
temperature, humidity and
rainfall for a shorter duration.
Climate: It is the average
weather condition of a place
for a longer period, say, for a
year.
14. A tributary is a small river
which confluences a major
river and increases its volume
of water. It losses its existence
after meeting the main river.
A distributary is a branch of
main river which comes into
existence due to the blockade
of the main channel by the
deposition of silt and mud on
its bed. It establishes its
existence after it originates
from the main channel.
15. El Nino is a warm current in
the Pacific Ocean that flows
southward along the west
coast of South America. It
warms the normally cold
waters of the coast of Ecuador
Alfred Lothar Wegener
Alfred Lothar Wegener (Berlin, November 1, 1880
Greenland, November 2 or 3, 1930) was a
German interdisciplinary scientist and
meteorologist, who became famous for his theory
of continental drift (Kontinentalverschiebung
or die Verschiebung der Kontinente in his
words).
Wegener had early training in astronomy (Ph.D.,
University of Berlin, 1904). He became very interested in the new
discipline of meteorology (he married the daughter of famous
meteorologist and climatologist Wladimir Kppen) and as a record-
holding balloonist himself, pioneered the use of weather balloons
to track air masses. His lectures became a standard textbook in
meteorology, The Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere. Wegener
was part of several expeditions to Greenland to study polar air
circulation, when the existence of a jet stream itself was highly
controversial. On his last expedition, Alfred Wegener and his
companion Rasmus Villumsen went missing in November 1930.
Wegener's body was found on May 12, 1931. His suspected cause
of death was heart failure through overexertion.
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and Peru. El Nino, a spanish
term meaning the child,
usually occurs around
Christmas, and its name
refers to the Christ child.
The unusual warmth kills
many fish and birds and the
rain accompanied by it
causes disastrous floods in
neighbouring coastal area.
La Nino is an another
unusual weather pattern that
brings unusually cold
temperature to the eastern
pacific.
16. Auroras are glows of light,
hundred of kilometres above
the Earths surface. They are
seen when electrically
charged atomic particles,
sprayed off the Suns surface,
collide with atoms in the
earths atmosphere and make
them release energy in the
form of flashes of light.
Auroras are the most visible
effect of the suns activity on
the earths atmosphere. The
auroras in the northern
hemisphere are called the
aurora boralis and those in
the southern hemisphere
aurora australis. The most
common colour in an aurora
is green. Auroral displays are
associated with the solar
wind, a continuous flow of
electrically charged particles
from the sun. Most auroras
occur in far northern and
southern regions.
17. Water Harvesting refers to
allowing rain water to sweep
into ground rather than just
letting it flow on the ground.
This can help in arresting the
decreasing trend of ground
water level besides meeting
the tremendous need of
drinking water. It can be done
by connecting the roof top rain
water to the ground water
through a pipe so that water
table rises by recharging of
ground water.
18. Artesian Well: In an artesian
well, underground water is
reached by sinking a shaft
from the surface and water
rises up to the surface by
hydraulic pressure. It works
upon the principle that water
keeps its surface level. The
Green Artesian basin of
Australia is the biggest area
of artesian water. In India,
these wells are found in
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and
Pondicherry.
19 Condensation is the process
in which water vapour in the
atmosphere changes into
minute droplets of water or icy
crystals. Rapid condensation
produces rain, drizzle, snow,
hail, frost and dew. When
small droplets donot come
down, they remain suspe-
nded in the air and are known
as clouds.
of loose fragments which
covers most of the earths land
area. It contains both deca-
yed plants and animal
substances. The four main
constituents of soils, present
in varying proportion, are:
1. Silica, present in soil in
small crystalline grains
form, is the chief consti-
tuent of sand.
2. Clay is a mixture of
silicates and contains
several minerals such as
iron, potassium, calcium,
sodium and aluminium.
3. Chalk (calcium carb-
onate) provides calcium,
the most important
element for the growth of
plants.
4. Humus is not a mineral,
it is an organic matter. It
is formed by decomposed
plant remains, animal
manure and dead anim-
als and is the most
important element in the
fertility of the soil.
22. Soil erosion is the removal of
soil particles by natural
agencies such as water and
wind and also as a result of
human and animal interfe-
rence. Human and animal
interference in a variety of
ways leads to soil erosion.
Deforestation, over-grazing of
pastures, shifting cultivation,
faulty method of cultivation,
cultivation of dry crops,
diversion of natural drainage
courses, ruts in roads,
ditches, improperly constr-
ucted terrace outlets (along
which running water is
concentrated) etc. , are
responsible for soil erosion.
Consequences of Soil Erosion:
Soil erosion leads to loss of
soil and badly affects the
Example: Dew on a spider web
20. Relief (or Orographic) Rain:
When moist winds strike
against mountains, they rise
up, expand, cool down and
bring rain. Such rain, as
caused by winds striking
against mountains, is called
relief rain.
21. Soil is the loose material
which forms the upper layer
of the mantle rock; i.e. the layer
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runoff. It causes: (1) heavy
floods in rivers; (2) lowering
down of subsoil water level;
(3) reduction of soil fertility;
(4) silting of streams and
water courses; (5) disappea-
rance and downfall of
civilizations.
23. The International Date line is
a zig-zag line that roughly
coincides with the 180th
meridian. When the date line
is crossed from East to the
West, the date must be
advanced by one day, when
the line is crossed from the
West to the East, the date must
be set back by one day. The
International Date line (the
meridian 180) was chosen
because it passes through the
mid-Pacific, where there are
no land masses. It goes zig-
zag in some places to avoid
land and leaves some island
groups wholly on the same
side of the line.
24. The force that drives the
winds, results from horiz-
ontal pressure differences,
which is produced from the
region of higher pressure
towards the area of lower
pressure is known as the
pressure gradient force. The
greater the difference in
pressure between two points,
the steeper is the pressure
gradient and the higher is the
wind speed. Since the
direction of the force is from
higher to lower pressure area
and perpendicular to the
isobars, the initial tendency of
the wind is to blow parallel
to the gradient and at right
angles to the isobars.
Due to rotation of the earth,
winds do not cross the isobars
at right angles as the pressure
gradient force directs but get
deflected from their original
path. This deviation is the
result of the earths rotation
and is called the Coriolis
effect or Coriolis force. Due to
this effect winds in the
Northern Hemisphere get
deflected to the right of their
path. It is known as the
Ferrels Law. The coriolis
force changes wind direction
but not its speed. It is
noteworthy that this
deflection force does not seem
to exist until the air is set in
motion and it increases as the
wind speed increases.
25. Typhoon is the name given
for a tropical cyclone in the
Far East.
Hurricane: is a tropical storm
in the Caribbean or West
Pacific Ocean, with extremely
strong winds. The wind force
reaches 12 on the Beaufort
Scale.
Tornado is a type of
whirlwind which is formed
by rising air currents
associated with large
cumulonimbus clouds. It
rotates in anticlockwise
direction in the Northern
Hemisphere and in clockwise
direction in the Southern
Hemisphere.
26. Currents: Ocean currents is
the movement of a sizeable
body of water as a current for
fairly long distances along a
specific path. They occur as
seasonal and permanent
streams flowing horizontally
at the surface and at deep
levels, they also occur as
vertical upswellings of water.
Best understood are the
surface currents, many of
which have long been studied
and used, especially in
navigation.
Causes of Currents: Currents
are caused by several
interacting forces. One of the
prime causes, particularly of
surface currents, is wind. As
the wind blows over the sea,
part of its energy is transferred
to the water, which is thus
dragged along as a current.
Unequal heating of the sea by
the Sun is another major
cause of the oceanss
circulation, particularly in the
deep layers. In polar regions,
especially during winter,
extremely cold, salty, and
dense water sinks far below
the surface and moves
towards the Equator in very
slowly moving layers. At the
same time, warm and less
dense tropical water in the
oceans upper layers moves
towards the poles.
Other factors that influence the
oceans circulation are the
shape and relative positions
of the continents; the presence
of barrier-like island chains;
and local winds. The currents
wax and wane with the
seasons, mainly because of the
shifting of the winds. Currents
also meander and shift their
courses from year to year.
A tornado in central Oklahoma. The
tornado itself is the thin tube reaching
from the cloud to the ground. The
lower part of this tornado is
surrounded by a translucent dust
cloud, kicked up by the tornados
strong winds at the surface
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27. The change of seasons is
mainly due to the revolution
of the earth. The earths axis
is inclined to the plane of its
orbit and always points in
the same direction.
(1) 21 st June: At this time it
is summer in the
Northern Hemisphere
because (a) The North
Pole is inclined towards
the sun; so days are
longer than nights. Near
the North pole there is a
day of 24 hours. (b) The
suns rays fall vertically
on the Tropic of Cancer.
This position of the Earth
is called Summer
Solstice. In the Southern
Hemisphere there will be
winter season because (a)
the South Pole is inclined
away from the sun. So
days are shorter than
nights, the South Pole
have continuous nights
for 24 hours. (b) the Suns
rays are oblique.
(2) 22nd December: At this
time it is winter in the
Northern Hemisphere
and summer in the
Southern Hemisphere
because (a) the North Pole
is inclined away from the
sun while the South Pole
is towards the sun, so
days are shorter in the
Northern Hemisphere
and longer in the
Southern Hemisphere. (b)
the Suns rays are vertical
in the South at the Tropic
of Capricorn and oblique
in the North. This
position of the Earth is
called Winter Solstice.
(3) Equinoxes: On 21st
March and 23rd Septem-
ber the season is either
Spring or Autumn because
(a) both the North Pole
and the South Pole are
inclined equally towards
the sun; days and nights
are equal everywhere; all
points on earth have a 12
hour day and 12 hour
night. (b) Suns rays fall
vertically on the equator.
These two positions of
the earth are called
equinoxes due to the
equal length of the days
and nights.
28. Equator is an imaginary circle
on the surface of the earth
midway between the poles.
latitude is the angular dista-
nce measured North or South
of the Equator from the plane
of the Equator.
Meridian means Midday
line. It is imaginary line
joining North and South
Poles, which when any place
come directly below the sun,
it has its midday everywhere
on it. Prime Meridian is the
meridian which passes
through Greenwich, a place
near London. It is the zero
degree longitude.
Local Time or Sun Time of a
place is the time which is
reckoned according to the
time when the suns altitude
is the highest at that place. At
this time the shadow of a
vertical rod fixed in the
ground is the shortest. If at
this time we set our watch at
12 Oclock, it will indicate
local time.
Standard Time: If every place
were to use its own local time
that would cause confusion in
administration and other
activities; so the local time of a
place generally in the middle of
the country, is used everywhere
in that country as the Standard
Time of that country and is taken
to be uniform throughout.
Standard Time of India is the
local time of a place near
Allahabad situated at 82
o
E
longitude. Some countries on
account of their distances have
more than one standard time.
Russia has 11 such different
timings.
Savanna
A savanna or savannah is a tropical or subtropical woodland
ecosystem. Savannas are characterised by the trees being sufficiently
small or widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. It is often
believed that savannas are characterized by widely spaced, scattered
trees, however in many savanna communities tree densities are
higher and trees are more regularly spaced than in forest
communities.
The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to
support an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of C4
grasses. Savannas are also characterised by seasonal water
availability, with the majority of rainfall being confined to one season
of the year. Savannas can be associated with several types of biomes.
Savannas are frequently seen as a transitional zone, occurring
between forest regions and desert regions.
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Important Terms in
Geography
Anticlines and Synclines: An
anticline is a fold with strata
sloping downwards on both
sides from a common crest to
form an arch. The top of the
arch, being pressed upward
is the loosest and weakest
part and as such is quickly
eroded. A syncline is a low
trough like area in bedrock
with rocks inclined together
from opposite sides. the rocks
at the lowest part are under
great pressure from all sides;
they become compact and
hard and erode slowly.
Atoll: A coral reef in the shape
of a horse shoe or ring with a
lagoon in the centre, e.g.
Murora Atoll in the Pacific
Ocean.
Asthenosphere: Soft
semifluid layer of rock on
which the earths continents
and ocean floor float. The
asthenosphere is a part of the
earths mantle, the rest of
which is solid both above and
below.
Attrition: The constant
wearing down of pieces of
rock into even finer particles
as they are carried of along by
wind, water or ice.
Bog: An area of water-logged,
spongy ground with rotting
vegetation lying on the
surface. Eventually the layer
turns into a layer of peat.
Bora: A cold and dry wind
which blows along the
eastern coast of the Adriatic
Sea and northern Italy in
winter.
Cloud Burst: A phenomenon
in which a huge mass of
moisture-carrying clouds
bursts into a heavy
downpour on account of
condensation of its entire
volume of water vapour at the
same time.
Coriolis Force: The force
exerted on the atmosphere by
earths rotation.
Crater: Is the small mouth of
a volcano. It is usually cup-
shaped and serves as a vent
for lava to flow out of the
volcano.
Creek: A small stream; a
smaller inlet or tidal estuary
of a river.
Escarpment: A steep inland
cliff. An escarpment is found
where layers of hard rock
slope upwards to the surface
over softer rocks below.
Estuary: A channel formed by
mixing of sea and river water,
e.g., Thames Estuary.
Foehn: A warm dry wind
which blows down the ice-
ward slope of a mountain, best
known in the valleys of the
northern alps.
Gale: A strong wind that
blows at a speed of 62-101
kmph.
Isogonic lines: Contour lines
of magnetic declination.
Isohyte: A line drawn on a
map joining places receiving
equal amount of rainfall over
a certain period.
Isoneph: A line on a map
joining places having equal
average cloudiness over a
certain period.
Isostasy: The state of balance
or equilibrium that is said to
exist between highlands and
lowlands of the earth due to
difference in the density of
their respective rock material.
Khamsin: The hot, dry wind
experienced in Egypt
corresponding to the Sirocco
of North Africa. Khamsin in
the Arabic word for 50; the
wind is said to blow during
the period of 50 days from
April to June.
Kurosiwo: Warm oceanic
current of the Pacific Ocean
which flows near the east
coast of Japan and ultimately
drifts along the west coast of
Canada. It raises the
temperature of Canada and
Japan.
Smoke Screens: Smoke clouds
formed by firing smoke shells,
dropping smoking bombs,
burning smoke pots or
operating mechanical smoke
generators in war to conceal
their movements from
enemies.
Sirocco: A hot, normally dry
and dust - laden wind that
blows from the deserts of
North Africa across the
Mediterranean into South
Europe. It occurs only in
spring. The name Sirocco is
also applied to any hot
oppressive wind.
Stratus clouds: Clouds which
are like a dark grey sheet
extending from one side of
horizon to the other and have
uniform base.
Terrain: The physical
characteristics and features of
any stretch of country.
Troposphere: Troposphere is
the lower most layer of the
atmosphere. It extends upto 8
km at the equator and 16 km
at the poles. The word
Tropo means change.
This layer acts as a warm
blanket to moderate the
extremes of outer space. The
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thickness is greater at the
equator, because the heated
air rises to greater heights.
Stratosphere: Stratosphere
lies above the troposphere. It
is a region of uniform
temperature extending from
an altitude of about 11 km
above the earth to a height of
nearly 50 km. It is free from
water vapour, clouds and
dust. The upper part of this
layer has plenty of ozone
which affords protection to
human beings on the earth
against the fatal effects of UV
radiations. It also provides
ideal conditions for flying
aeroplanes.
Ionosphere: It extends from 65
km to nearly 400 km above the
earths surface. It is an
electrically charged layer
characterised by the
ionisation of atoms. Due to the
presence of electric charge in
this layer, radio waves
transmitted from the earth are
reflected back to the earth by
this layer. Its also benefits
man by absorbing the suns
deadly rays. Aurora are
produced by charged
particles from the sun
captured by the earths
magnetic field at a height of
about 100 km.
Longtitudes are equi-distant
lines drawn east and west of
the Greenwich meridian.
They denote the angular
distances of a place due east
or west of the Greenwich
meridian. There are 360
meridians of longtitudes. One
hour is equal to 15
o
of
longtitude. Longtitude is an
important factor in
determining the time in all
parts of the world. Local time
of a place is calculated with
respect to the mid day
position of the sun at that
place.
Torrid Zone: which is the
hottest zone lies between 23
o
north and 23
o
south. ie.,
between the Tropic of Cancer
and Tropic of Capricorn.
Temperate Zone : lies
between 23
o
N and 66
o
N
is the North Temperate zone
and South Temperate zone
lies between 23
o
S and
66
o
S. This zone has a
marked annual range of
temperature.
Frigid zone lies between 66
o
N and 90
o
N in the case of
north frigid zone and 66
o
S
and 90
o
S in the case of south
frigid zone. They are
extremely cold regions.
Hurricane Ivan: The
Hurricane Ivan is a tropical
cyclone. The winds are more
violent and cause severe
damage to life and property.
Recently, it occured in the
Carribean Sea, and moved
forward to the Gulf of Mexico.
Further it went upward and
made vast destruction in the
U.S.A.
Tropic of Cancer: Tropic of
cancer is an imaginary line of
latitude of 23
o
N. It marks
the limit of that portion of the
earth where the suns rays fall
vertically on June 21st.
Tropic of Capricorn: In the
southern hemisphere, an
imaginary line of latitude of
23
o
S is termed as tropic of
capricorn. This line marks the
limit of that portion of the
earth where the suns rays fall
vertically on December 21st.
Chinook: A very warm, dry
wind that descends the
mountain slopes causing
rapid melting of snow.
Sometimes, during spring
season, it triggers avalanches.
It is developed when warm,
moist air is drawn towards a
mountain range from an area
of relative high pressure. This
wind blows in Andes and
Rockies mountains.
Equatorial Regions: The
equatorial region is found
between 5
o
and 10
o
north and
south of the equator. The mid-
day sun is always near the
vertical and it is overhead
twice a year, at the equinoxes.
Uniformity of temperature
throughout the year is the
most outstanding feature of
the region. The relative
humidity is very high. Here,
annual rainfall is between
160 and 350 cm. It is of the
convectional type. Squalls
and thunderstorms occur
frequently, followed by
brilliant sunshine. The four
seasons of the temperature
zone are unknown.
Tsunamis: It is the Japanese
name given to the huge waves
caused by an earthquake.
Tsunamis are quite common
along the coasts of Japan and
other regions in the pacific
ocean.
Fold mountains: Mountains
which have been thrown into
massive folds or ridges by the
earth movements are known
as fold mountains. They are
characterised by ruggedness
of relief. The higher and more
pointed the peaks, the more
recently the mountain was
formed. Some young fold
mountains are the
Himalayas, the Alps, the
Rockies and the Andes and
some old fold mountains are
the Pennines, Applachians,
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Cape Ranges of South Africa
and the Great Dividing
Range of Australia.
Block mountains: Block
mountains are formed when
a mass of land was pushed
up between parallel cracks or
faults in the earths crust or
by sinking of the land around
them. They are usually very
steep-sided and are flat-
topped. Black forest; Meseta
are examples of block
mountains.
Rift Valley Lakes: Lakes
formed by the movements of
the earth cause subsidence in
the earths crust and the
hollows lying in the bed of the
Rift Valley is termed as Rift
Valley lake. Lake Baikal in
Siberia, the Dead Sea are
examples of this type of lakes.
Lava Dam Lakes: Sometimes,
a lava stream may flow across
a valley and form a natural
dam. It is called lava dam
lakes. The sea of Galilee in
Palestine was formed by lava
which flowed across the
Jordan Valley.
Crater Lakes: Crater lakes
occur on the extinct
volcanoes. They are circular
and steep-sided. Mars
mission space craft spirit
landed on Gustav Crater.
Temperate Grasslands: The
temperate grasslands are
found between latitudes 40
o
and 55
o
N and S. They lie far
away from the influence of the
sea in the heart of the
continents, and most of them
are interior lowlands
consisting of level, generally
treeless, plains. The temperate
grasslands are known by
different names in different
countries. They are known as
prairies in North America,
pampas in South America,
veldt in Southern Africa,
downs in Australia, pustaz
in Hungary and steppes in
Russia.
There is no typical
temperature for any one
priarie type region. However,
as all the grasslands in the
northern hemisphere lie in
the interior of the large
continents the climate is very
extreme. Summers are short
and quite warm. There is
abundant sunshine and the
skies are clear. The region
falls in the zone of the
westerlies. The rainfall in the
grasslands are of convectional
type, but very light.
Savannah is a region which
lies on both sides of the
equator roughly between 5
degrees and the tropics. Here
summers are hot and moist
and winters are warm and
dry. Characteristic vegetation
is tall grass.
Taiga: This region lies
between 55
o
and 70
o
C in
northern hemisphere only. It
stretches as an almost
continuous belt across
southern Canada, Northern
Europe and Russia. The
Tundra region lies on the
north and the temperate
grasslands on the south. In the
Taiga region, summers are
short, lasting for 3 or 4
months and winters are cold
and severe. For 6 to 7 months,
this region has temperatures
below freezing point. In this
region lies Verkhoyansk, the
cold pole, colder than Arctic
region. Rainfall varies from
25 to 100 cm. Most of the rain
comes from cyclonic weather.
Richter Scale: It is a scale used
for measuring the magnitude
of the earthquake at its focus.
According to it, the
magnitude ranging 7 is
severe and 8 is devastating.
Seismograph: It is used to
measure the intensity and
location of earthquake.
Norwesters: Norwesters are
violent thunderstorms which
occur on the passages of a
strong wind that approaches
from the west or north-west,
hence the name norwesters.
They occur in the Bengal and
Assam region during the hot
season before the onset of the
south-west monsoon.
Rainbows: Rainbows are
caused by refraction and
internal reflection of light
from the sun in raindrops.
Each raindrop acts like a tiny
prism which breaks up the
white light into the primary
colours. In the main rainbow
the colours are: violet, indigo,
blue, green, yellow, orange
and red (VIBGYOR). We are
able to see a rainbow only
when we are facing the falling
raindrops with the sun
behind us.
Greenland
Greenland is a self-governing
Danish province located
between the Arctic and Atlantic
Oceans. Though geographi-
cally and ethnically an Arctic
island nation associated with
the continent of North
America, politically and
historically Greenland is
closely tied to Europe,
specifically Iceland, Norway
and Denmark. It is the largest
island in the world that is not
also considered a continent.
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Fill in the Blanks
1. Deforestation has an
alarming effect on ............
2. Sharbati Sonora refers to
............
3. Kisan-Khad is an example of
fertilizer ............
4. Commercial Cork is obtained
from the bark of ............
5. The National Bureau of Plant
Genetic Resource is located
at ............
6. Blood-Pressure is measured
by using ............
7. Origin of species was
published by ............
8. The deficiency of ............ in the
body leads to diabetis.
9. Botany is the study of ............
10. Neurology is the study of
............
11. Genes are located in ............
12. The total number of bones in
human body is ............
13. Deficiency of Vitamin E
results in ............
14. Antibiotics are ............
15. A gas which is atmospheric
pollutant and most fatal for
man ............
16. An instrument to hear and
analyse movements of heart
and lungs ............
17. Largest reptile is ............
18. Life span of RBC is ............
19. An adult person will have
............ liters of blood.
20. In GM food, GM stands for
............
Answers
1. Soil erosion,
2. A variety of wheat
3. N-P-K
4. Oak,
5. New Delhi
6. Sphygmomanometer
7. Charles Darwin
8. Insulin
9. Plants
10. The nervous system
11. chromosomes
12. 206,
13. in fertility
14. drugs prepared from moulds
and mould like organisms
15. Carbon Monoxide
16. Stethescope
17. Crocodile
18. 120 days
19. 5-6
20. Genetically modified
Answer in a Word
1. Vaccine for influenza has
been discovered by:
2. Penicillin was discovered by:
3. Oncology is the study of :
4. The number of chromosomes
in a normal human body cell is:
5. Who is known as the father
of Genetics?
6. The average length of human
pregnancy is:
7. Colour vision is made
possible by the cells in the
retina called:
8. The naturally occuring
anticoagulant in the human
body is:
9. The cellular energy is made
available in the form of:
10. Osteomalacia symptomised
by bone softening is due to the
deficiency of:
11. 1 gm of carbohydrate food
gives energy which is about :
Answers
1. Salk,
2. Alexander Fleming
3. Cancer
4. 46
5. Gregor Johann Mendel
6. 36-38 weeks
7. cone cells
8. Heparin
9. ATP
10. Vitamin D
11. 4.2 k.cal.
The nervous system is a highly
specialized tissue network
whose principal component
are neurons. These cells are
interconnected to each other in
a complex arrange, and have
the property of conducting,
using electrochemical signals,
a great variety of stimuli within
the nervous tissue as well as
from and towards most of the
other tissues. Thus, neurons
coordinate multiple functions
in organisms. The classif-
ication of the nervous system
is mostly similar in humans as
in other vertebrates.
Nervous system
brian
Cerebellum
Spinal cord
Intercostal
Nerves
Subcostal nerve
Lumbar
plexus
Sacral
plexus
Formal nerve
Pudendal nerve
Sciatic nerve
Muscular branches
of femoral nerve
Saphenousnerve
Tibial nerve
Superficial peroneal
nerve
Deep peroneal nerve
Common peroneal
nerve
Ulnar nerve
Obturator
nerve
Genitofernoral
nerve
Median nerve
liohypogastic
nerve
Musculocutaneous
nerve
Brachial plexus
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GENERAL SCIENCE
Name the Following
1. Who is the father of cloning?
2. Who invented oral polio
vaccine?
3. Name the disease which
created panic in Asian
countries in 2003.
4. Name the first transgenic
crop sown in India.
5. What is exobiology?
6. Write the scientific name of
coconut.
7. Name the largest flower in the
world?
8. World Environment Day is
observed on
9. National Institute of
Communicable diseases is
located at
10. Name the inventor of mercury
thermometer.
11. Name the scientist who
prepared smallpox vaccine
first.
12. The shortest bone in the
human body is
13. Name the disease caused by
the deficiency of vitamin C.
14. Name the instrument used to
determine altitude.
Answers
1. Ian Wilmut
2. Albert Sabin
3. Avian Flu
4. Bt. Cotton
5. Study of life in outerspace
6. Cocus nucifera
7. Rufflesia
8. June 5
9. New Delhi
10. Fahrenheit
11. Edward Jenner
12. Stapes
13. Scurvy
14. Altimeter.
Short Answer Questions
1. What is Tissue Culture?
2. What are infectious diseases?
3. What is Cloning?
4. What are anaesthetics ?
5. It is dangerous to sleep in a
closed room with coal fire in
it. Why ?
6. How are identical twins born ?
7. How is acid rain caused ?
8. What do you mean by test
tube baby?
9. Why blood group O is
called a universal donor?
10. Why do we perspire on a hot
day ?
11. Describe briefly the functions
of liver.
12. What is Mutation?
13. What is a greenhouse ?
14. What is inoculation ?
15. What are contagious diseases?
16. Mitochondria are called
Power house of the cell.
Why?
17. What is fertilizer?
18. What is field capacity of
water?
19. What is Photosynthesis?
20. What is Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD)
21. Why are earthworms
regarded as a great friend of
the farmers?
22. What is soil profile?
23. What is food chain?
24. Pituitary gland is also called
master gland. Why?
25. Why are chromosomes called
heriditary vehicles?
26. What is a gene?
27. What is Balanced Diet?
28. What is pace maker?
29. What is blood pressure?
30. Why excess water must be
removed from the body by any
means?
31. What is leukemia?
32. What is meningitis?
33. What is Metabolism?
34. What is neurosis?
35. What is haemoglobin?
36. What is hibernation?
37. What are hormones?
38. What is autopsy?
39. What is B.C.G.?
40. What is Bile?
41. What is Biological Warfare
42. What is colour blindness?
43. What is disinfectant?
44. What are proteins?
45. Give the three main
constituents of blood.
46. What is aspirin?
47. What is protoplasm?
48. What are the functions of
pituitary gland?
Days to remember
World Environment day - 5th June
Hroshima Day - August 6
Nagasaki Day - August 9
Ozone day - September 16
National Pollution Prevention Day - December 2
Bhopal Gas Disaster Day - December 3 1984
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49. What is carbon cycle in
biology?
50. What are fossils?
51. What is Gene Therapy?
52. What is Noise Pollution?
53. Amniocentesis
54. Biodegradation
55. Endoscopes
56. Transgenic Organism
57. Biochips
58. Hepatitis - B
59. Acquired Immuno Deficiency
Syndrome (AIDS)
60. Blood Group
61. Food Chain
62. Pasteurization
63. Blood count
64. Bonsai
65. How is a pearl formed?
66. First-aid
67. Plastic surgery
68. Hydrophobia
69. What is Radiocarbon dating?
70. What are Bio-Fertilizers?
71. What is GM Crop?
72. What is National Rural
Health Missionb
73. What is Chikunguniya? How
it can be Prevented?
74. What is Germ theory of
disease?
75. What is Japanese Encepha-
litis (JE)?
76. What is Insulin?
77. Why should a certain amount
of calcium be a necessary
content of our food?
Answers
1. A branch of biology in which
living tissues or cells are
grown artificially in suitably
controlled environments. The
cells or tissues may be grown
on solid substrates such as
glass or cellophane, or in
liquid suspension. The
necessary nutrient medium is
provided from outside to
create ideal conditions for
growth. Tissue culture is used
to study cell growth,
multiplication and differenti-
ation.
2. Diseases which are caused by
the attack of diseases causing
germs are called infection
diseases. Infectious diseases
are also communicable.ie. it
can be spread from one
person to another. The
common disease causing
microbes are viruses, bacteria,
fungus, worms and so on. The
common infectious diseases
in India are measles, chicken
pox, cholera, enteric fever, TB,
leprosy etc. Treatment and
remedial measures are
available for most of the
infectious diseases.
3. Cloning is the production of
copies that are genetically
identical to the parent. It
occurs naturally in asexually
reproducing lower organism
and vegitatively reproducing
plants. Naturally it is not
possible in higher animals.
Artificial cloning can be
achieved in such cases. Dolly
is the first cloned animal.
Cloning generally involves
transplantation of a nucleus
from body cells or embryonic
cells into nucleated infertil-
ized egg in the laboratory. In
cloning nucleus of egg is
replaced with a nucleus of a
body cell which contain the
full compliment of chromo-
somes to tick the host egg
cytoplasm to initiate mitosis.
4. Anaesthetics are drugs
administrated to patient by
surgeons during an
operation, so that the patient
cannot feel any kind of pain.
A prominent anaesthetic
used is chloroform.
5. When coal is burnt, carbon
monoxide is produced. It is
poisonous and injurious to
health. Moreover, the fire
consume oxygen in the room,
so the person sleeping there
get suffocated.
6. One sperm fertilises with the
ovum and then the zygote
divides into two separate
cells developing independ-
ently. They grow into the
identical twins.
7. Acid rain is caused by large
scale emission of acidic gases
into the atmosphere from
thermal power plants,
industries and automobiles.
The gases mainly respon-
sible for acid rain are sulphur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides and
hydrogen chloride. Sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides
are changed in the
atmosphere into sulphuric
acid and nitric acid
respectively by combining
with oxygen and water.
The effect of acid rain on
plants are chlorosis, necrosis,
defoliation, dieback etc. It also
deposits same toxic minerals
in soil which kill the plants.
Acid rain has also ruined
fresh water reservoirs of most
industrialised countries. Acid
Green muffler - Growth of
green plants along road sides
to reduce noise pollution.
ODP: Ozone Depleting Potential
C P C B: Central Pollution
Control Board
U N E P: United National
Environment Programme.
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rain corrodes metals, marble,
painted surfaces, slate, stone
etc. This phenomenon is
called stone leprosy.
8. If a woman is unable to
conceive and bear children an
ovum is taken from the
woman and fertilized by the
sperm of the male inside a test
tube containing nutrient
medium. The zygote thus
formed is allowed to develop
inside test tube until it
reaches the 32 cell state. Then
it is implanted in the utreus
of the female for further
development. The babies
produced by this technique
are called test tube babies.
9. Blood group O do not
contains both the antigen (A
& B). So there is no
possibilities to agglutinate
and it is safe to transfuse
into persons of any blood
group.
10. Human body is physio-
logically conditioned to
maintain uniform tempera-
ture. When the heat produced
in the body becomes excessive
and not dissipated properly,
the sweat glands inside the
body are stimulated to secrete
sweat. When sweat evaporates
from the body it produces a
cooling effect, and temperature
is brought down. So sweating
on a hot day is bodys natural
way of keeping the body
temperature normal.
11. Liver is the largest gland in
human body. The main
functions of liver are
1. It secretes bile which
helps in digestion.
2. It synthesis aminoacids,
plasma proteins, choles-
terol etc.
3. It synthesis blood clotting
factors
4. It stores glycogen, fats
and fat soluble vitamin.
5. Destruction of worn-out
RBC is taking place in the
liver.
6. Detoxification of toxins
and elimination of
foreign bodies.
7. Production of RBC in the
foetal stage.
8. Liver produces heparin,
the natural anticoagu-
lant.
9. It synthesis urea from
ammonia through or-
nithin cycle.
12. Mutations are sudden stable
heritable changes that occur
in the genotype of an
organism. Genotype can
change due to changes in the
chromosome number, chrom-
osome structure and gene
mutation. Those mutations
that affect at the negetative
cells are called somatic
mutations. They are not
heritable and disappear with
the death of that individual.
Mutations occur in the sex
cells are called germinal
mutations. The genes which
mutate frequently are called
mutable genes.
The physical and chemical
factors which bring about
new mutations and increase
the frequency of spontaneous
mutations is called
mutagens. The main physical
mutagenes are temperature,
UV radiations, and ionising
radiation. Nitrous acid,
alkylating agents etc are
chemical mutagen.
13. It is a glass structure of
variable size, shape and
complexity in which plants
are grown under artificially
created environment as is
necessary for the production
of fruits, vegetables or flowers
of market value.
Liver
The adult human liver
normally weighs between
1.4 - 1.6 kilograms (3.1 - 3.5
pounds), and it is a soft,
pinkish-brown "boomerang
shaped" organ. It is the
second largest organ (the
largest organ being the skin)
and the largest gland within
the human body. It is located
on the right side of the upper
abdomen below the
diaphragm. The liver lies to
the right of the stomach and
overlies the gallbladder
(which stores bile).
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14. Introduction of germs of the
some disease below the skin,
so as to produce the disease
in a mild form and thus give
immunity from a severe attack
of the same disease is called
inoculation. inoculation is
done to control diseases like
plague, cholera etc.
15. These are diseases which are
caused when a healthy
person comes into actual
contact with the sick. Eg:
Small pox, tuberculosis are
examples for contagious
diseases.
16. The energy released during
the biological oxidation of
carbohydrates and fats is
utilised by the mitochondria
and synthesize the energy
rich compound known as
ATP (adenosine triphos-
phate). Thus mitochondria
mainly concerned with the
production of ATP and hence
they are called power house
or batteries of cell.
17. Any material which when
added to the soil, increases
the quantity of mineral
elements in it, is called a
fertilizer.
18. The amount of water retained
by the soil after the drainage
of gravitational water is
called field capacity or the
water-holding capacity of the
soil.
19. Photosynthesis is a process by
which the green plants
synthesise organic matter in
the presence of sunlight with
the help of chlorophyll.
During photosynthesis light
is converted into chemical
energy.
20. Degree of impurity of water
due to organic matter is
measured in terms of B.O.D.
BOD is the oxygen in
milligrams required for five
days in one litre of water at
20C for the microorganisms
to metabolise organic waste.
BOD is high in highly
polluted water.
21. Earthworms increase the
fertility of the soil by taking
dead decaying leaves in their
burrows which ultimately
form the humus content of the
soil. Thus they are regarded
as a great friend of farmers.
22. Soil profile is a term used to
show different layers or
horizons of soil for their study
in undisturbed state. The
horizons may differ in
thickness, colour, texture,
structure, porosity, activity
and composition.
23. A food chain can be defined
as a group of organisms in
which there is a transfer of
food energy through a series
of repeated eating and being
eaten.
24. Pituitary gland is also called
the master gland because of
the multiplicity of its function
and also of its control over
other endocrine glands.
25. The chromosomes are
capable of replication and
maintaining the morphol-
ogical and physiological
properties in successive
generations. They transmit
the contained hereditary
material to the next
generation and hence are
known as hereditary vehicles.
26. The heredirary unit which is
transmitted from one
generation to the next is
called gene. A gene is the
fundamental biological unit.
27. A balanced diet is the food
stuff which supplies the
various constituents needed
by the body in proper
proportion for its functioning.
It consists of (1) proteins - the
tissue and flesh building
substance of the body. It is
found in cheese, milk etc. (2)
Carbohydrates - which form
the fuel of the body, found in
starchy food, sugar and
sweets. (3) Fats - the warmth
Internation Initiative for mitigating
Global changs
Under the control of UNEP (United Nations Environment
Programme) various efforts have been made to find solution for
ozone depletion and global warming.
1. Monetreal Protocol (16 September 1987) 27 industrialised
countries agreed to limit production of chlorofluoro carbons to
half the level of 1986.
2. Helsinki Declaration: (May 1989) montrial protocol was ratified
by 82 national Helsinki. They pledged to phase out CFCs by
2000.
3. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Changes (IPCC, 1988)
prepared a world climate programme (WCP)
4. Convention on Climate Changes (CCC):- under UN framework
the 1991.
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producing and protecting
food, found in buffer and
animal fat. (4) Vitamins -
which exert a necessary
influence on digestive
processes and help in the
absorption of food; found in
fresh fruits and vegetables.
An average person requires
daily 12 to 16 oz. of
carbohydrates; 3 to 3.5 oz. of
proteins and 2.25 to 3 oz. of
fat.
28. Pace maker is the region which
controls the heart beat which
is located in the right auricle.
SA node(sinu-atrial node) is
the natural pace maker. It has
a rich capillary blood supply
and is found at the point
where superior venacava
empties into the right auricle.
If the activity of the existing
Pacemaker system is disru-
pted due to any reason leads
to heart failure. Such persons
are provided with an artificial
electronic device which
regularly sends small
amount of electrical charge
for maintaining the rhyth-
micity of the heart. This
device is known as artificial
pace maker.
29. The pressure exerted by
blood on the walls of blood
vessels is known as blood
pressure or arterial blood
pressure. It is in high in aorta
near the heart. It is low in the
capillaries and veins. The
maximum blood pressure is
known as systolic pressure
and minimum is known as
diastolic pressure. In man the
systolic pressure is 120 mm
Hg and diastolic pressure is
80 mm Hg. It is generally
expressed as 120/80 mm Hg.
The pressure can be
measured by an instrument
known as sphygmomano
meter.
30. Excess water must be
removed from the body by any
means of excretion because it
may result in a serious
condition of oedema
(swelling of tissue through
increase of its fluid content).
Over secretion of Antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) results more
reabsorption of water and less
output of water.
31. Leukemia is a malignant
condition of blood in which
there is proliferative,
purposeless increase of white
blood cells in the blood, along
with premature cells. The
condition usually ends
fatally. The total lecucocyte
count in a normal man ranges
from 5000-9000. A mere
increase in lecucyte count ie
upto 11, 000/cc is known as
leucocytosis where as
abnormal increase ie above
25,000/cc is leukemia or blood
cancer. A decrease in WBC
count is called leucopenia.
32. Meningitis is the inflam-
mation of the meninges, the
covering which lies over the
brain and the spinal cord, due
to viral or bacterial infection.
33. Metabolism is the chemical
change where by, food is
changed into living matter
and also the transformation
by which energy is made
available for the use of
organism.
Illustration of blood cells maturing from stem cells
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34. Neurosis is a nervous
disorder affecting the action
but not the structure of the
nervous system, specially
caused by mental influences
and not traceable to physical
injury.
35. Haemoglobin is the red
pigment present in the blood
of man and other vertebrate
animals which contains iron
and protein. It plays an
important part in taking up
oxygen from air in the lungs
and carries it to various parts
of the body where oxygen is
required. Haemoglobin also
carries CO
2
from all the cells
to the lungs.
36. Animals like frog, lizards etc.
undergo a kind of inactivity
during winter as a short-term
adaptation. A very low rate of
metabolism is maintained just
for survival until favourable
conditions of the environment
return. This phenomenon is
called hibernation. During
this period the energy for life
activities is derived from
stored fat.
37. Hormones are the internal
secretions of the ductless
(endocrine) glands like
pituitary, pancreas,
suprarenal and thyroid
which are passed directly
into the blood inside vessels
within the gland itself. These
hormones exert a great
influence upon health and
development of the body.
Pancreas manufacture a
hormone called insulin,
which assists in the
assimilation of sugar, and
thus prevents diabetes.
Adrenalin, a secretion of
suprarenal glands control
blood pressure and tones the
nerves. Thyroxine produced
by the thyroid gland controls
the growth as a whole where
as the secretion of the
pituitary gland exerts a
powerful influence on the
development of skeletal
structures.
38. Autopsy is a post-mortem
examination of the body. It is
done to find out the reason of
death.
39. B.C.G. (Bacillus Calmette
Guerin) is a vaccine against
tuberculosis. Proper and timely
treatment with B.C.G. vaccine
can control tuberculosis.
40. Secretion of the liver is called
bile. It contains two types of
pigments, bilirubin and
biliverdin. Bile emulsifies
fats, prevents food from
decomposing and forming
gas. It helps the digested food
to pass smoothly along the
digestive canal. It is partly
absorbed by the intestines, get
into the blood and helps to
keep up the heat of the body.
A high level of bile pigments
in the blood causes jaundice.
41. Biological Warfare is the use
of living organisms such as
deadly bacteria or viruses or
of infectious materials
derived from them as
weapons to bring about death
or diseases in humans,
animals or plants. Most of the
advanced countries inclu-
ding the USA have biological
weapons ready in their
arsenal. The use of anthrax by
the terrorists against USA is
an example for biological
warfare.
42. Colour blindness is an inborn
condition in which the
individual is unable to
distinguish between particu-
lar colours of red and green.
The person suffering from
colour blindness has a
normal ordinary vision. It is
a herditary diseases
43. Disinfectant or germicide is
an agent which kills
infectious organisms out side
the body by direct exposure to
chemical or physical agent.
They are too corrosive or toxic
to be applied to tissues. They are
used on inanimate surface. eg.
phenol, bleaching powder etc.
44. Proteins are the main
chemical substances of living
matter, composed of
aminoacids. They are a part
of every living cell and are
found in all animals and
plants. It is very essential for
growth and maintanance of
the body. Lean meat, fish and
eggs are almost entirely
proteins. Proteins occur in
structural matter as bones,
tendons, skin, hair and hoof,
and in some vitamins and
hormones. All enzymes are
proteins. Their composition
varies with the source, but all
proteins are basically
constructed of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen and some contain
Environmental Laws
for controlling
pollution
Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986:
Insecticide Act 1968
Water (Prevention and
control of pollution) Act
1974.
Air (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act,
1981.
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sulphur, phosphorous and
iron (haemoglobin).
45. Red blood corpuscles (RBC or
erythrocytes), white blood
corpuscles (WBC or leuco-
cytes) and blood platelets
(thrombocytes).
46. Aspirin is a sedative drug
used for relieving rheumatic
pains, neuralgia, etc. It is a
synthetic drug. It is
acetylsalicylic acid.
47. Protoplasm is the living matter
present in the cells of animal
and, plants. It includes both
the nucleus and the
cytoplasm of the cell.
48. Pituitary is a small Pea
shaped gland attached to the
hypothalamus by pitutary
stalk. Pituitary gland plays
an important role in the
regulation of many other
endocrine glands and
influence the physiological
functions of the body directly
or indirectly. Hence it is also
called master gland. But the
activities of pitutary gland is
regulated by hypothalamus.
The important hormones
produced by the anterior lobe
of pitutary gland is growth
bormone (GH), thyroid
stimulating hormone (TSH),
adrenocorticcotropic hor-
mone (ACTH), and Gonad
stimulating hormones (GSH).
Dovarfism is a disorder of
children due to hyposecretion
(low production) of GH and
gigantism is a disorder due to
hyper secretion (excess
production) of GH. In an adult
person the excess secretion of
GH hormone leads to a
particular condition known
as acromegaly. The victims
have a gorilla like appear-
ance.
49. Carbon cycle is the circulation
of carbon (as carbon dioxide)
between living organisms
and the atmosphere. Carbon
dioxide is built into complex
carbon compounds by plants
during photosynthesis.
Animals obtain their carbon
atoms by feeding on plants or
other animals; during
respiration, and by decay and
death, some of this carbon is
returned to the atmosphere in
the form of carbon dioxide.
50. Fossils are the remains of an
organism preserved in rocks
in the earths crust. Usually
only hard parts (bones, shells
etc.) are so preserved, but
occasionally fossils of soft
organism have also been
recognised. fossils are
important to archeologists for
their usefulness in the study
of pre-historic forms of
organisms and subsequent
changes with time.
51. It is a potential approach to
the treatment of genetic
disorders in man. Removal of
defective genes and their
replacement with normal
healthy functional genes is
called gene therapy. For eg
genetic disorders such as
sickle cell anaemia, SCID etc
can be cured by gene therapy
Currently, its use is restricted
to the treatment of somatic
cells (which include all the
cells of the body), except the
reproductive or germ cells -
the egg and the sperm cells.
52. Any unwanted form of
sound, such as noise of
vehicles, machinery, jet
planes, indiscriminate use of
loud speakers, are examples
of noise pollution. Just as we
measure temperature on
celsius scale, the level of noise
is measured on the decibel
scale (dB). The main sources of
noise pollution are industrial
machinery, transportation, and
community activities and
entertainment.
Constant exposure to noise
levels above 75 decibels can
damage the ear and impair
hearing. Exposure to noise
levels above 120 decibels
causes pain in the ear, and
continuous exposure to noise
levels above 180 decibels may
even cause death. Road traffic
noise is usually of moderate
intensity, but being of
continuous nature can be
irritating people living along
busy streets. Badly mainta-
ined vehicle engines and
indiscriminate use of horns
often make the situation worse
leading to various types of
physiological disorders such
as high blood pressure and
heart problems. Loud noise is
even known to affect unborn
babies. Sudden loud noise
such as gunfire or crackers
can cause irreversible
damage to ear-drums.
53. Amniocentesis is a technique
used to determine chromo-
some abnormalities of the
foetus. In this tehcnique, a
small sample of amniotic fluid
is taken from the mothers
womb (uterus) using a
surgical needle without
causing any damage to the
foetus. The foetus cells
obtained from this fluid are
examined for chromosomal
abnormalities and bichemical
defects.
54. It is a process by which living
organisms break down
complex matter into its
simpler constituents. The
agents of the process, mainly
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bacteria and moulds, are
known as decomposers. Any
matter that can be acted upon
by these decomposers is
known as biodegradable. All
organic matter can be
decomposed and hence is
biodegradable. Biodegrad-
ation helps in recycling
essential nutrients in a
natural way. Non-biodegra-
dable materials are those
which cannot be broken
down by biological agents.
Plastic and other synthetic
materials are examples of
non-biodegradable matter.
55. Instruments made of optical
fibres used to look at the
bodys internal organs.
Endoscopes are inserted in
the body to produce images
of the organs that can be
viewed on a TV monitor or
captured by a camera. This
painless method of diagn-
osis is known as endoscopy.
56.Transgenics or transgenic
organisms are Genetically
Modified Organism (GMOs)
which have been made to
incorporate in their genetic
make up some useful foreign
genes. Transgenic animals
with additional gene for
increased growth rate can be
marked more quickly. Trans-
genic cattle produce more
milk and theuraptic human
proteins will secrete through
their milk. Transgenic pigs
with genes for human
antigens can provide various
organs for transplantation in
human beings without any
chance of rejection. Bt cotton
is transgenic cotton in which
gene for insecticidal protein
from Bacillus thurengensis
has been incorporated.
Transgenic tomato, Flavr
Sayr has long flavourful shelf
life.
57. Use of biotechnology for
producing microchips has
resulted in the invention of
biochips that promise to cope
better with the problems such
as electron tunneling seen in
the use of silicon chips.
Biochips have found a number
of applications and opened the
doors for development of
powerful miniscule comput-
ers or biological computers.
58. Hepatitis - B (Hepatitis means
inflammation of liver) is an
infectious viral disease
caused by Hepatitis - B virus.
It is a virus that is hundred
times more infectious than the
Human Immuno Deficiency
Virus (HIV). Like HIV,
Hepatitis - B is passed on
through sexual contact,
infected needles, blood
transfusion and from infected
mothers to the infants born.
However, unlike HIV,
Hepatitis - B can infect
another person merely
through exposure to body
secretions such as saliva,
tears, vomit, bleeding, cuts
and wounds.
59. Acquired Immuno Deficiency
Syndrome (AIDS) is the most
devastating and fatal disease
of the 20th century. It is a viral
disease caused by the Human
Immuno Deficiency Virus
(HIV). What makes it different
from other viruses is that it
strikes at the bodys own
defence machinery (the
immune system) that
constantly fights to the vast
array of microbial enemies
invading our bodies. The
virus may remain dormant
upto 10 years until some event
activates it. On awakening, it
disarms the immune system.
With its main line of defence
shattered, the body now falls
an easy prey to even the
common infecting agents that
it would otherwise ward off.
The patient usually dies of
these infections.
HIV spreads from an infected
person to a healthy person
through body fluids. Sexual
transmission of HIV is most
common. Contaminated
blood and blood products
and improperly sterlized
zyringes and needles besides
passage of the virus from
infected mother to unborn
baby are other ways through
which the virus spreads.
60. On the basis of the antigens,
human blood can be
classified into various types
or groups. The most common
blood group system is the
ABO blood group which was
discovered in 1900 by Karl
Landsteiner. Depending on
the presence or absence of the
two antigens called A and B,
this system divides human
blood into four types. Type A
blood group has erythrocytes
with antigen A on its
membrane. Type B has
antigen B, while type AB has
both antigen A and B. The
fourth type called blood group
O has neither antigen A nor B.
In 1940, Landsteiner and
Alexander Wiener discov-
ered another antigen called
the R
h
factor. Most human
beings bear the R
h
factor on
the surface of their red blood
cells and are said to have R
h
positive blood. Those who
lack this antigen have R
h
negative blood.
To avoid clumping of blood
cells after blood transfusions
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it is necessary to crossmatch
the donors blood type with
that of the recipients.
61. Food chain is a sequence of
organisms in a community
which is formed by eating
and being eaten. Plants are
base of the sequence. In other
words, food energy passes
from plants to animals in a
long chain called the food
chain.
Each step in the food chain
represents a trophic level. The
energy from the sun is fixed
by the producers and it is
then passed through the
various trophic levels in the
form of food.
62. Pasteurization is the
sterilization of food by
heating it to a temperature
below 100
0
C to reduce the
number of micro-organisms it
contains and so to protect it
from decay. For milk, the
method involved is heating it
to 161
0
F/72
0
C for 15 seconds
followed by rapid cooling to
50
0
F/10
0
C. The process kills
micro-organisms but retains
the taste, flavour and nutritive
value of milk.
63. Blood count is the counting
of the number of white blood
corpuscles in blood. In
normal state one cubic mm
blood contains 10,000 WBCs.
If the number exceeds, it will
cause leukaemia. Defensive
mechanism of the body is
affected by the fall in number
of WBCs.
64. It is the ancient Japaneese art
of growing dwarf trees. Trees
are kept small by pruning
roots and branches and by
restricting growth in pots.
65. Pearl is formed due to an
irritation by foreign matter
within the shell, the mantle
secretes calcium carbonate
around the irritant body over
several years. This encrusta-
tion forms the pearls.
66. Treatment that can be given
in an accident, injury and
sudden illnes, until more
skilled persons arrive or the
patient is transferred to a
hospital is called first aid.
67. It is a branch of surgery
devoted to reconstruction or
repair of deformity, surgical
defect, or the result of injury.
Plastic surgery is performed
using bone, cartilage and skin
from other parts of the body.
68. Hydrophobia is a disease
caused by a virus after the bite
by an infected animal.
Symptoms like headache,
fever, difficulty in drinking
water and food will be
developed 4 to 6 days after the
bite by an infected animal. So
the patient is extremely thirsty
and struggles to drink water.
Showing conclusive reaction
which may appear as fear of
water.
69. The method of finding out the
age of fossils by determining
the amount of radiocarbon
(C
14
) remaining in them. Since
the half life of C
14
is 5,720
years, its amount is reduced
to half after so many years
and, thus, the age of a fossil
can be determined.
70. Bio-fertilizers are those
fertilizers in which organic
matters are used.
Bio-Fertilizers are the most
advanced bio-technology
necessary to support develo-
ping organic agriculture,
sustainable agriculture, green
agriculture and non-
pollution agriculture. This
Bio-organic fertilizer can
increase the output, improve
the quality and it is
responsible for agriculture
environment. Today, it has
been widely used with
excellent results in all kinds of
plants and several countries.
71. These are the crops with
genetic material from another
organism. Genetic materials
are introduced in it for the
desired qualities Bt cotton
was the Indias first GM crop
with Bollworm resistant.
Genetic engineering allows
scientist to develop such
plants whch have resistance
towards diseases, pests and
stress like drought or heat. It
can also be used to keep
vegetables fresh for long
periods with increased
nutritive value.
72. The NRHM has following
objectives:
(a) The Mission adopts a
synergistic approach by
relating health to determi-
nants of good health viz.
segments of nutrition,
sanitation, hygiene and safe
drinking water.
(b) It also aims at main-
streaming the Indian systems
of medicine to facilitate health
care.
(c) To ensure community
participation and ownership
of assets, induction of
management and financial
personnel into district health
system, and operationalizing
community health centres
into functional hospitals,
meeting Indian Public Health
Standards in each Block of the
Country.
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(d) The Goal of the Mission is
to improve the availabilityof
and access to quality health
care by people, especially for
those residing in rural areas,
the poor, women and
children.
73. Chikungunya virus was first
isolated from human patients
and Aedes aegypti from
Tanzania in 1952. The name
chikungunya is derived from
a native word for the diseases
in the patient lies doubled up
due to sever joint pains. The
virus first appeared in India
in 1963. The disease appears
as a sudden onset of fever.
Crippling joint pains,
lymphadenopathy and
conjunctivities. The vector is
Aedes aegypti mosquito.
The incubation period is 1 to
12 days. They spread only
through mosquitoes. Spread
from one person to another
due to direct contact or touch
has yet never been repor-
ted.
There is no vaccine for
Chikunguniya. Symptoms
are treated rather than the
disease.
Following methods can be
adopted to prevent Chickun-
guniya.
1. It has to be ensured that
there is no stagnant
water.
2. Insect repellent should be
used over the exposed
parts of the body to avoid
mosquito bites.
3. Mosquito repellent or
mosquito nets should be
used in non-AC rooms.
4. Long sleeved shirts
should be worn.
74. The germ theory of
disease, also called the
pathogenic theory of
medicine, is a theory that
proposes that microor-
ganisms are the cause of
many diseases. Although
highly controversial
when first proposed, it is
now a cornerstone of
modern medicine and
clinical microbiology,
leading to such important
innovations as
antibiotics and hygienic
practices.
75. Japanese encephalitis is
caused by a virus belongs to
flavi virus family. This virus
occurs along the orient, from
korea and Japan in the north
and Malaysia in the south.
The disease has been
recognised in Japan since
1871. The virus was first
isolated in Japan in 1935. The
principal vector of this
disease is Culex mosquito.
The disease has an abrupt
onset with fever, headache
and vomiting. The fever is
high and continuous. In India
Japanese encephalitis was
first recognised in 1955. It
occurred mainly between
October and November.
Preventive measures include
mosquito control and
locating piggeries away from
human dwellings.
Maximum cases are reported
from A.P., West Bengal,
Assam, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Kerala, Manipur,
Haryana and U.P.
JE vaccine has been
indigenously developed by
Central Research Institue,
Kasauli.
76. It is a very useful drug for
diabetes and was discovered
by Dr.F.G. Banting in 1922. It
is a product of unknown
nature derived from the
pancreas of animals. It
regulates the percentage of
sugar in blood. If the
percentage is too high it
converts the excess into starch
and stores the starch in liver,
muscles and skin. With the
help of insulin a diabetic
patient leads a normal
healthy life. It is generally
injected into the patient.
77. Calcium is required for the
growth and maintenance of
bones and teeth. Calcium is
also needed for the activity of
the heart and muscles.
Hence, a certain amount of
calcium must be included in
our daily diet. It may be
worthwhile to mention here
that the daily intake of
calcium should be
approximately one gram. The
rich sources of calcium are
milk, milk products, green
leafy vegetables, fish, marine
products, cereals like millet,
ragi, etc.
Important Terms
Antibiotic : A drug derived
from living organisms such as
fungi or bacteria which kills
or inhibits the growth of
bacteria or fungi. Medical
science is greatly indebted to
antibiotic as the treatment of
wound and injury is easier
with the application of
antibiotics. The well known
antibiotics are penicillin,
streptomycin, terramycin,
neomycin, etc.
Antigen : A foreign
substance, usually protein in
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nature, which causes the
formation of specific
antibodies by the bodies
immune system. Antibodies
are produced to eliminate the
antigens by a number of
mechanisms.
Biomass : The total mass of
living organisms present in a
particular habitat. Measure-
ment of biomass can be used
for various purposes such as
interaction between organi-
sms, variations in population
numbers etc.
Biological clock : Biological
clock is the internal mecha-
nism by which living
organisms such as animals
and plants keep track of time.
It is this tracking mechanism
inside them help the clock to
announce the arrival of
morning and flowers to
bloom in spring.
Chromosomes : Chromosomes
are thread like structure
present in a cell nucleus that
carry the genes. They are
regarded today as the major
carrier of genetic material,
consisting of DNA and
various types of protein.
There are 46 chromosomes in
a normal human cell. It has
the ability to make duplicate
copy of its own.
Dehydration : Dehydration is
the excessive loss of water
and salt from the tissues of the
body. Excessive loss of salt-
containing fluids as a result
of severe vomiting, diarrhoea
or excessive urination can
affect the circulatary system,
pulse rate and blood pressure.
DNA : DNA is deoxyribo-
nucleic acid. It is the complex
giant molecule that contains,
in chemically coded form, all
the information needed to
build, control and maintain a
living organism. DNA is a
ladder like double-stranded
nucleic acid that forms the
basis of genetic inheritance in
almost all organisms. In
organisms other than
bacteria, it is organised into
chromosomes and contained
in the cell nucleus.
Diabetes Mellitus : Diabetes
is a common metabolic
disorder in which there is
failure of the pancreas to
produce insulin in amounts
needed to control sugar
metabolism. As a result the
blood sugar rises above the
normal values and spills over
into the urine, causing large
volumes to be produced.
Treatment is coupled with
strict dietary control and
application of insulin
depending on the type of
diabetes. It is estimated that
nearly 4% of world
population suffers from this
disease. To create the
awareness and take
precaution to prevent the
disease November 14 is
observed as world diabetes
day.
Dialysis : Technique for
removing waste products
from the blood in chronic or
acute kidney failure. The
scientific principle applied
here is diffusion. The
dissolved substances of
different molecular weight
can be separated by using
their rate of diffusion across
this layers of material.
RNA : RNA is ribonucleic
acid involved in the process
of translating DNA, the
genetic material into proteins.
It is usually single stranded,
unlike the double stranded
DNA and consists of a large
number of nucleotides stung
together, each of which
comprises the sugar ribose, a
phosphate group and one of
four bases (uracil, cytosine,
adenine and guanine).
Diffusion : The spontaneous
and random movement of
molecules or particles in a
fluid (gas or liquid) from areas
of higher concentration to
areas of lower concentration,
until a uniform concentration
is achieved throughout. For
instance, if a drop of ink is
added to water, its molecules
will diffuse until their colour
become evenly distributed
throughout.
Ecology : The study of plants
and animals in relation to
their environment. The term
was coined by the biologist
Ernest Haeckel in 1866.
Electro Cardio Gram(ECG) :
A recording of the electric
current produced by the
contraction of heart (cardiac)
muscles. ECG is used in the
diagnosis of heart disease.
Electro Encephalo Gram
(EEG) : A recording of the
electric currents developed in
the brain.
Enzyme : An organic catalyst
which accelerates a reaction
within a cell. All are wholly
or partially protein, with or
without a prosthetic group.
Most of them are highly
specific in their effects.
Fertilization : The process of
fusion of a male gamete
(sperm) with a female gamete
(an egg) resulting in the
formation of a zygote.
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Hereditary : Passing by
inheritance from one
generation to another.
Inflammation : The reactions
of tissues to injury, pain,
increased temperature,
redness and accumulation of
white blood cells.
Neoplasm : a new and
abnormal formation of tissue
as a cancer or tumour.
Obesity : Overweight of the
body due to excessive
accumulation of fat.
Parasite : An organism that
lives in (endo) or on (ecto)
another organism, at whose
expense it gains nourish-
ment, and, often protection.
Vaccine: A preparation of
pathogens or substances
derived from them
administered to a person in
order to establish resistance
to an infection. Vaccine is
available for most of the
diseases caused by bacteria.
BCG, triple antigen, polio
vaccine are some examples.
Bionics : The study of
functions, characteristics and
phenomena observed in the
living world and the
application of this knowledge
to the world of machines.
Hypermetropia: It is a defect
of eye in which near objects
are not distinctly visible. This
is also called long-
sightedness. It can be
corrected by using convex
lenses (converging lenses).
Hydroponics: The cultivation
of plants by placing the roots
in liquid nutrient solutions
without soil.
Osmosis: The flow of a
solvent through a membrane
that permits the passage of
the solvent but not of
dissolved substances.
Eugenics: The study of the
production of better offspr-
ings of human beings by the
careful selection of parents.
Astigmatism : It refers to a
defect of an optical image in
which rays passing through
the lens focus in different
planes. It can be rectified by
using cylindrical lenses.
Bile : Secretion from the liver. It
has a brownish - yellow colour
and is bitter to taste. It is
helpful in the digestion of food.
Blood sugar : Glucose
circulating in blood. its
normal level is 90-180 mg per
100 ml of blood in man.
Fermentation : The chemical
changes brought about by
living organisms (yeasts,
bacteria, etc)in which bigger
organic molecules are
converted into smaller
molecules, e.g., conversion of
glucose and sugar into
alcohol and carbon dioxide.
Genetic code : The code by
which inherited characteris-
tics are passed on from one
generation to another. The
deoxyribonucleic acids
(DNA) in the chromosomes
carry them forward during
reproduction.
Demography : It is the study
of all aspects of population
like number, birth rate, death
rate, age groups, sex relation,
occupation, education etc. in
human beings.
Morphine : White crystalline,
bitter narcotic principal
alkaloid of opium. It is used
in medicine as hydrochloride
or sulphate to dull pain,
sedation and induce sleep.
Plant breeding: It is the
science of producing impro-
ved varieties of crop plants by
changing their heridity for
one or more traits like higher
yield, better quality shorter
duration, resistance to
common diseases etc.
Quarantine: It is checking of
incoming plants, seeds,
fruits, tissues and other
organisms for any harmful
effect, which can cause
diseases in local plants,
animals and humans. Plant
quarantine is meant for
preventing introduction of
exotic pests, weeds, and
diseases into the country
under DIP Act 1914.
Germplasm: Germplasm is
the sum total of all alleles of
genes present in various
varieties of crop plant, its
related species and wild
relatives. Germ plasm is the
foundation over which all the
improved varieties are
constructed.
Hybridisation: It is crossing
of two or more types of plants
for bringing their traits
together in the progeny. The
individual used in hybrid-
isation are called parents.
Hybridisation is the most
common method of creating
genetic variation.
Animal breeding: It is the
science of producing impro-
ved breeds of domesticated
animal, by improving their
genotype through selective
mating. The main objectives
for animal breeding are
increased quantity and
improved quality of their
products and resistance to
diseases etc.
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Biopesticide: They are
biological agents and their
products which can be used as
pesticides against seeds, insects
and pathogens. Biopesticides
can be viruses, bacteria, fungi,
protozoa and mites.
Biopatent: It is an official
licence to use a particular
biological material for
commercial exploitations.
Biopiracy : It is exploitation
of bioresources of a country
by organisations and multin-
ationals for commercial
exploitation with or without
patent but without any access
and benefit sharing
agreement (ABA). Bioreso-
urce or biological sources are
all those organisms which
can provide commercial
benefits. They are abundant
in developing countries
which are poor in technology.
They are rich in traditional
knowledge related to
bioresources also. On the
other hand developed
countries are poor in bioreso-
urces. Based on traditional
knowledge institutions and
companies of industrialised
nations are collecting and
exploiting bioresources of
other nations by getting them
patented.
Eg: A patent granted in
U. S. A. for basmati rice
germplasm which has an
entire range located in India.
Bioethics: Bioethics is a set of
preceptions, standards and
principle which regulate our
activities in relation to
exploitation of biological
world particularly in view of
the latest break through in
biotechnology.
Explant: In tissue culture,
part of plant to be cultured.
Radon: A rare radio active
gaseous element now found
to be emitted from several
mineral ingredients causing
leukemia, brain tumours and
kidney cancers.
Biodegradable plastic: It is
being developed from low
density polyethylene mixed
with starch. The new plastic
takes only two months to
degrade inside the soil.
In the human body, the heart is usually situated in
the middle of the thorax with the largest part of the
heart slightly offset to the left (although sometimes
it is on the right, see dextrocardia), underneath the
Anterior (frontal) view of the opened heart.
superior vena cava
(blood from the body)
Pulmonary artery
to right lung
Pulmonary veins
from right lung
Right
atrium
Aortic
valve
Tricuspid
valve
Right ventricle
Inferior vena cava
(blood from the body)
Aorta
(blood to
the body)
Pulmonary artery
(to left lung)
Pulmonary veins
(from left lung)
left
atrium
Pulmonary
valve
Mitral
valve
Left
ventricle
Septum
breastbone. The heart is usually felt to be on the
left side because the left heart (left ventricle) is
stronger (it pumps to all body parts). The left
lung is smaller than the right lung because the
heart occupies more of the left hemithorax. The
heart is enclosed by a sac known as the
pericardium and is surrounded by the lungs.
The pericardium comprises two parts: the
fibrous pericardium, made of dense fibrous
connective tissue; and a double membrane
structure containing a serous fluid to reduce
friction during heart contractions (the serous
pericardium). The mediastinum, a subdivision
of the thoracic cavity, is the name of the heart
cavity.
The apex is the blunt point situated in an inferior
(pointing down and left) direction. A stethoscope
can be placed directly over the apex so that the
beats can be counted. It is located posterior to the
5th intercostal space in the left mid-clavicular line.
In normal adults, the mass of the heart is 250-350
g (9-12 oz), or about three quarters the size of a
clenched fist, but extremely diseased hearts can
be up to 1000 g (2 lb) in mass due to hypertrophy.
It consists of four chambers, the two upper atria
(singular: atrium ) and the two lower ventricles.
On the left is a picture of a fresh human heart
which was removed from a 64-year-old male.
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Fill in the Blanks
1. Heat engine converts heat in
to .........
2. Diamond is an allotropic form
of .............
3. ............. was the first space ship
to land on moon.
4. The atmospheric pressure at
sea level is .............
5. Indian Institute of
Astrophysics is in
6. Human eye contains .............
lens.
7. ............. is employed as a
moderator in a nuclear
reactor.
8. The hydrometer is an
instrument used to measure
............. of liquids
9. The laws of electrolysis were
propounded by .............
10. ............. is used to measure
angular distances between
two objects.
11. ............. is the apparatus for
measuring blood pressure.
12. ............. is used to measure the
speed of a moving vehicle.
13. ............. is used to determine
the concentration of salt
solutions by measuring their
densities.
14. Sonometer is used to study the
behaviour of .............
15. ............. is used to calculate the
curvature of spherical objects.
16. ............. is used to see two
dimensional pictures as
having depth and solidity.
17. ............. is to hear and analyse
beats of heart and lungs.
18. ............. is used to record small
intervals of time in the
laboratory, races etc.
19. ............. is used to convert a
photograph into a map.
20. ............. is an instrument used
to record speed of aeroplane
and motor boats.
21. Tangent galvanometer is
used for measuring the
strength of .............
22. ............. is an instrument used
to measure the speed and
direction of motion of cloud.
23. By winding a watch, we store
............. energy.
24. Beta rays are nothing but
speeding .............
25. The filament of an electric
bulb is made of .............
26. The element most
abundantly found in the
earths crust is .............
27. The element found on the
surface of the moon, which is
also described as strategic
metal is .............
28. Thermocouple is used to
convert heat energy into
............. energy.
29. .............. is an instrument to
measure the pressure of gases.
30. The quantities that have only
magnitude and not direction
are called .............
31. Rate of change of velocity is
called .............
32. The amount of water vapour
in the air is termed as .............
33. The density of water is
maximum at ............. temper-
ature.
34. Weight of a body at the centre
of earth is .............
35. The escape velocity of earth
is .............
36. The force of attraction
between like molecules is
called .............
37. The energy possessed by a
body due to its position is
called .............
38. Kinetic energy of a body is due
to its .............
39. ............. is the ability to do
work.
40. Fluids flow with zero
viscosity is called .............
41. ............. is used for measuring
flow of liquids.
42. As temperature increases
viscosity of liquids .............
43. Surface tension decreases
with ............. of temperature.
44. Liquid assumes spherical
shape due to .............
45. study of sound is known as
.............
46. The speed greater than speed
of sound is .............
47. ............. is used to reproduce
sound.
48. Rocket propulsion is based on
.............
49. ............. is used to measure
atomic distances. It is also the
unit of wavelength of light.
50. . .. . . .. . . .. . . is the distance
travelled by light in one year.
51. Nautical mile is used in
navigation. One nautical
mile is equal to ............. km.
52. One inch (in) is equal to
............. cm.
53. One yard (yd) is equal to
............. m.
54. One foot (ft) is equal to ............. m.
55. One mile is equal to ............. km.
56. ............. is the amount of heat
required to raise the
temperature of 1 gm of water
by 1
o
C.
57. One Acre (a) is equal to ............. m
2
58. 1 Hectare (ha) is equal to
............. acres.
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Answers to fill in the blanks
1. Mechanical energy
2. Carbon
3. Lunic-II
4. 1 bar
5. Kodai Canal (Tamil Nadu)
6. Convex lens
7. Graphite
8. Specific Gravity
9. Faraday
10. Sextant,
11. Sphygmomanometer
12. Speedometer
13. Salinometer
14. vibrating strings
15. Spherometer
16. Stereoscope
17. Stethescope
18. Stopwatch
19. Stereoplotter
20. Tachometer
21. direct current
22. Nephoscope
23. Potential
24. Electrons
25. Tungsten
26. Aluminium
27. Titanium
28. Electrical
29. Manometer
30. Scalar quantities
31. Acceleration
32. humidity
33. 4
o
C
34. zero
35. 11.2 km/s or 7 miles/s
36. cohesion
37. potential energy
38. motion
39. energy
40. Super fluids
41. Venturimeter
42. decreases
43. rise
44. surface tension
45. Acoustics
46. supersonic
47. phonogram
48. Newtons third law of motion.
49. Angstrom
50. Light year
51. 1.825
52. 2.54
53. 0.914
54. 0.3048
55. 1.609
56. Calorie
57. 100
58. 2.471
Answer in a Word
1. Name the instrument used to
measure the strength of an
electric current
2. Which metal is called the
metal of future?
3. Which is the first nuclear
research reactor of India?
4. Barometer was invented by -
5. Intensity of an earthquake is
measured by-
6. Raman effect is related with
the-
7. The instrument which is
used to measure very high
temperatures -
8. The instrument which detects
the presence of infrared rays
is -
9. Name the quantity which
remains same before and after
the immersion of two objects
of same weights.
10. Name the energy possessed
by the water when it is colle-
cted in the reservoir of a dam?
11. Which law states that stress
by strain is a constant?
12. Echo and reverberation is due
to which phenomenon?
13. Sound travels fastest in which
medium?
14. In a doctors stethescope, the
sound is intensified because
of which phenomenon?
15. Why does mercury is used as
the liquid in thermometers?
Michael Faraday
Michael Faraday, FRS (September 22, 1791
August 25, 1867) was an English chemist and
physicist (or natural philosopher, in the
terminology of that time) who contributed to
the fields of electromagnetism and
electrochemistry.
Faraday studied the magnetic field around a
conductor carrying a DC electric current, and
established the basis for the magnetic field
concept in physics. He discovered
electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis. He
established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there
was an underlying relationship between the two phenomena. His
inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation
of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts
that electricity became viable for use in technology.
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16. Adhesion is the force of
attraction between what type
of molecules?
17. Friction can be reduced by
changing over from which
friction?
18. When a man circles round the
earth in a spacecraft, what
happens to his mass and
weight?
Answers to the answer in a
word
1. Ammeter
2. Titanium
3. Apsara
4. Toricelli
5. Richter scale
6. Scattering of light
7. Pyrometer
8. Bolometer
9. density
10. potential energy
11. Hookes law
12. reflection of sound
13. Steel
14. reflection
15. Because it does not wet the
glass, high density and high
termal expansivity.
16. Unlike molecules
17. Sliding to rolling
18. mass remains constant but
weight becomes zero
Explain the following
in a sentence or two
1. light year
2. Radiography
3. Lactometer
4. Seismograph
5. Voltage
6. Lightning conductor
7. Rectifier
8. Short circuit
Answers to the
sententence or two
1. Light year is a unit of distance
in astronomical calculations.
It is the distance that light
travels in one year at the speed
of about 3 lakh km per second.
2. Radiography is the prod-
uction of photographs of the
internal structure of bodies
opaque to visible light, by the
radiation from X rays or by
gamma rays from radio active
substances
3. Lactometer is a scientific
instrument for testing the
purity of milk. It is based on
the principle of floatation.
4. Seismograph is an instrument
for recording the intensity
and origin of earthquakes.
5. Electric potential difference
measured in volts is known
as voltage.
6. A conductor of electricity
installed in a structure to save
it from lightning damage is
known as lightning condu-
ctor. It neutralises the electric
charge of the clouds coming
in its contact or carries it to
the earth.
7. Rectifier is a device for
converting an alternative
current into a direct one.
8. The direct flow of current
between two points of
different potential is known
as short circuit.
Write Short Notes
1. Laser
2. EDUSAT Programme
3. SRE
4. CARTOSAT-2
5. Fibre Optics
6. Direct to Home (DTH)
7. Resonance
8. Raman Effect
9. Teleprinter
10. Micro waves
11. Cohesion
12. Temperature scales
13. Buoyancy
14. Photo electric effect
15. Fluorescence
16. Super conductivity
17. Super fluidity
18. Piezoelectric effect
19. Remote Control System
20. Viscosity
21. Phosphorescence
22. Teflon
23. Ultrasonics
Tungsten
Tungsten also called wolfram is a chemical element that has the
symbol W (German: wolfram) and atomic number 74. A very hard,
heavy, steel-gray to white transition metal, tungsten is found in
several ores including wolframite and scheelite and is remarkable
for its robust physical properties, especially the fact that it has the
highest melting point of all the non-alloyed metals and the second
highest of all the elements after carbon. The pure form is used mainly
in electrical applications but its many compounds and alloys are
widely used in many applications, most notably in light bulb
filaments, in X-ray tubes (as both the filament and target), and in
superalloys. Tungsten is the only metal from the third transition
series that is known to occur in biomolecules.
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24. Black Box
25. Escape Velocity
26. Quautum Theory
Answers to the short notes
1. A Laser (Light Amplification
by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation) is an optical
source that emits photons in
a coherent beam. Laser light
is typically near-monochr-
omatic, i.e. consisting of a
single wavelength, and
emitted in a narrow beam.
This is in contrast to common
light sources, such as the
incandescent light bulb,
which emit incoherent
photons in almost all
directions, usually over a
wide spectrum of wave-
lengths.
In 1916, Albert Einstein laid
the foundation for the
invention of the laser, while
the first working laser was
made by Theodore H.
Maiman in 1960.
2. EDUSAT programme is
aimed to provide distance
education service using
advanced space technology
and ground technology of
convergence.
3. Space-capsule Recovery
Experiment (SRE) is intended
for demonstrating the
capability to recover an
orbiting space capsule.
SRE will be launched as a co-
passenger of CARTO-SAT-2
on board PSLV during the
second half of 2006-2007.
4. Cartosat-2, the twelfth in the
Indian Remote Sensing (IRS)
satellite series, is an
advanced remote sensing
satellite capable of providing
scene-specific spot imagery.
5. Fibre optics, also spelled Fiber
Optics, is the science of
transmitting data, voice, and
images by the passage of light
through thin, transparent
fibres or some other
transparent material of high
refractive index.
In telecommunications, fibre
optic technology has virtually
replaced copper wire in long-
distance telephone lines, and
it is used to link computers
within local area networks.
Fibre optics is also the basis
of the fibrescopes used in
examining internal parts of
the body (endoscopy) or
inspecting the interiors of
manufactured structural
products.
The principle on which this
transmission of light depends
is that of total internal
reflection.
6. It is a system of TV broad-
casting where TV signals are
transmitted directly to
viewers, side stepping the
cable operators. The viewer
needs decoder to synchronize
the signals with TV sets. The
DTH system has highest
quality visual and audio
signals. The system makes
use of advanced digital
communication and video
compression technique. It
functions on the basis of KU-
band transponders. This
implies that DTH providers
would be in the position to
offer value added service like
interactive media, tele-
shopping, etc.
7. Resonance is a phenomenon
of forced vibrations due to
which sound waves can be
produced with a large
amplitude or intensity. All
bodies have their natural
frequency of vibration. When
we apply a small signal of the
same frequency to the body,
the signal is greatly amplified
and this is called reonance.
8. When monochromatic light is
passed through a transparent
medium, it is scattered. The
scattered light contains
original wavelength as well
as lines of larger and shorter
wavelengths than the
original line, such wave
lengths are called Raman
lines and the effect is called
Raman Effect.
9. Teleprinter is a telegraph
transmitter with the help of
which we can send more than
50 words per minute to
several stations simultane-
ously without any strain to the
operator and none whatso-
ever to the receiver. The
person at the sending station
pressesr the key on the key
board which is just like that
of a typewriter, correspon-
ding to a particular letter. At
the receiving station the letter
is recorded automatically.
Light-year
A light-year or lightyear is a
unit of measurement of length,
specifically the distance that
light travels in a vacuum in one
year. While there is no
authoritative decision on which
year is used, the International
Astronomical Union (IAU)
recommends the Julian year.
Numerical value
A light-year is equal to:
9,460,730,472,580.8 km
(about 9.461 Pm)
5,878,625,373,183.61
statute miles
about 63,240 astronomical units
about 0.3066 parsecs
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10. High frequency radio waves
whose wavelength is less than
about one metre are usually
designated as microwaves.
These are electromagnetic
waves travelling with the
speed of light, i.e., 3 10
8
m/s.
11. The force of attraction
between the molecules of the
same substance is called
cohesive force and this
property is called cohesion.
Due to this property the
molecules of the substance
are held together. Cohesive
force is maximum in the case
of solids, less in liquids and
minimum in the case of gases.
The definite shape of a solid
body is due to cohession.
12. Three systems of temperature
measurement are now in use-
the Celsius scale, the
Fahrenheit scale and the Kelvin
Scale. The Celsius scale was
worked out by the Swedish
Physicist, Anders Celsius in
1742. The Fahrenheit scale was
devised by the German born
Physicist, Gabriel Daniel
Fahreinheit around 1715. The
Kelvin scale was devised by the
British Physicist, William
Thompson Kelvin.
Conversion Formula
Celsius to Kelvin
K = C + 273.16
Fahrenheit to Celsius
C = (F-32) x 5/9
Celsius to Fahrenheit
F = C x 9/5 + 32
13. A body seems to weigh less
when immersed in a liquid,
but the moment it comes out
of water, the same body
seems too heavy to be easily
lifted. We conclude that a
liquid exerts an upthrust on
a body immersed in it. The
tendency of a liquid to exert
an upthrust on a body
immersed in it is called
buoyancy and the upthrust is
called buoyant force.
14. When visible light, ultra violet
rays, X-rays etc., fall upon
certain metals (caesium,
rubidium, pottassium) elect-
rons are liberated from them.
This phenomenon is known
as photo electric effect.
15. The luminescence obtained
when certain substance
absorb radiation of one wave
length and emit light of
another wavelength is known
as fluorescence.
16. Super conductivity is a
phenomenon of complete
disappearance of electrical
resistance and appearance of
diamagnetism in certain
solids when they are cooled
to near absolute zero or very
low temperature.
17. All liquids have viscosity at
room temperatures. However,
as the temperature goes
down, helium, which is
available in gas form, gets
transformed into liquid form
and its viscosity becomes
zero. This means no aperture
is too narrow for it to flow
through. This property is
called super fluidity.
18. The production of current
when mechanical pressure is
applied on certain dielectric
(electrically non-conducting)
crystals such as quartz and
Rochelle salt. The application
of stress distorts the
arrangement of ions in these
crystals and an electric field
is built up. This effect is
known as direct piezoelectric
effect and is used in devices
like electronic gas lighters,
microphones, phonograph
pick-up needles, etc.
Conversely, application of an
electric field across certain
faces on the crystal results in
mechanical distortion of the
crystal. This effect is known
as reverse piezoelectric effect
and is used in devices which
convert electric signals into
mechanical vibrations.
19. A system in which the
operations of a unit are
controlled from a distance, in
other words, there is a substa-
ntial distance separating the
operating unit and the
controlling unit. The operating
unit may range from a
television set to guided missile
and the distance may vary
from a few meters to a few
hundred kilometres. There are
three essential components in
a remote control system - a
controlling quantity, a
transmission medium and a
Anders Celsius
Anders Celsius (November 27, 1701 April 25,
1744) was a Swedish astronomer. Celsius was
born in Uppsala in Sweden. He was professor
of astronomy at Uppsala University from 1730
to 1744, but traveled from 1732 to 1735 visiting
notable observatories in Germany, Italy and
France. Celsius founded the Uppsala
Astronomical Observatory in 1741, and in 1742
he proposed the Celsius temperature scale in a
paper to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. His thermometer
had 100 for the freezing point of water and 0 for the boiling point. The
scale was reversed by Carolus Linnaeus in 1745, to how it is today.
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controlled quantity. Most
controlling quantities send
signals to the controlled
quantity through infrared rays
or radio waves or lasers or ultra
sonic waves. The common
TV/VCR remote control
systems use infrared pulses.
20. The property of a liquid by virtue
of which it offers a resistance to
the flow is called viscosity.
Viscosity is internal friction of
a fluid. Viscosity is due to the
cohesive forces between the
molecules of the liquid. Greater
the cohesion or cohesive forces
between the molecules of a
liquid, larger is the opposition
of the liquid. Thus honey which
has more cohesive forces than
water displays greater viscosity
than water
21. It is the form of luminescence
in which a substance emits
light of higher wavelength
after absorbing an electrom-
agnetic radiation. Phosphore-
scence may continue even
after the source of light is cut
off.
22. An organic substance made
by the polymerisation of
tetrafluoroethane, CF
2

= CF
2
.
The chemical name of teflon
is polytetra fluoroethane.
Because of its properties high
resistance to heat, chemical
etc. It is used to coat non-stick
cooking materials, electrical
insulation etc.
23. The Science of sound waves
of frequency greater than the
audible range, i.e., greater
than 20,000 Hz (20 KHz). The
vibrations of certain crystals
(quartz, zinc oxide, barium
litanate etc) under the
influence of an applied
alternating voltage produces
ultrasound or ultrasonic
waves up to well above 20
KHz. In the medical field,
ultrasound is used to detect
and diagnose tumours,
gallstones, heart diseases,
distinguish between diseased
and healthy tissues, monitor
the development of the foetus,
destroy diseased tissue etc. In
industry, ultrasound is used
to measure the thickness of
pipes,detect cracks or leakea-
ges in pipes, flaws in metal
castings and in sonar devices.
24. The black box is a term used
for a self contained unit of
electronic circuit which is
orange in colour. In
aeronautics, this device is
known as flight recorder. It
records data on the
functioning of an aircraft and
its systems on a tape. The
recorder is contained in a
crash - proof, floatable box
which is ejected in case of an
accident and is usually fitted
with a homing radio beacon
and flashlight to reveal its
presence. In routine flights of
airliners it traces faults for
maintenance control. By
analysing the data stored in
the black box the cause of the
failure of the aircraft can be
known.
25. It is the velocity that a
projectile, space probe etc.,
must have in order to escape
the gravitational field of a
planet or the moon. It depends
on the mass and diameter of
the planet. The escape
velocity is about 11.2 km/s for
the earth and escape velocity
of moon is 2.37 km/s
26. According to this theory,
changes of energy in atoms
and molecules occur only in
discrete packets, each an
integral multiple of a
fundamental quantity (h)
generally referred to as
quantum. Light packet
having energy h is called
photon.
Scientific Reasons
Blotting paper absorbs ink.
Why ?
The blotting paper is porous
and has a number of
capillaries of very fine pores.
When a portion of the blotting
paper is brought in contact
with the ink, it enters the
capillaries due to the surface
tension.
. Why does carbon dioxide is
used in extinguishing fire?
Carbon dioxide being heavier
than oxygen acts as fire
extinguisher by cutting off its
oxygen supply to a burning
object.
Why do the stars twinkle ?
Stars appear to twinkle
because its light travels
through different layers of
space of varying densities. As
a result the light from the stars
bends and makes them
appear to blink on and off.
Why is it not possible to see
the stars in the day light ?
The blazing light of the sun
during daytime prevents the
less intense light of the stars
from being seen distinctly.
Why does the ice float on
water while it sinks in
alcohol?
The specific gravity of ice is
less than that of water but the
same is more than that of
alcohol, hence ice floats on
water but sinks in alcohol.
Why is mercury used in
thermometer ?
Mercury is the only metal
which is in liquid state even
at the ordinary room tempe-
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rature. Also, it uniformly
expands when heated and
does not stick to the walls of
thermometer. Its high boiling
point and low freezing point
is the main reason for using it
in ordinary thermometers.
How can bats fly in the dark
avoiding obstacles?
The ultrasonic waves produ-
ced by bats during flying are
reflected back when they hit
the obstacles. Hence, bats can
find their path without any
difficulty.
Why does water pipe often
burst in cold countries?
In winter, the water in the
pipes freezes. On freezing into
ice the water increases in
volume, which results in
bursting of water pipes.
Why is cooking quicker in
pressure cooker ?
In a pressure cooker, boiling
point of water is raised by
increasing pressure with
steam. Food gets high
temperature and so cooking
becomes quicker.
We bring our hands close to
mouth while shouting to
somebody at a distance.
Why?
By bringing the hands close
to our mouth, the sound
energy is not allowed to
spread in all directions,
rather being made unidirec-
tional (i. e. directed in a
particular direction). Hence
the sound produced becomes
louder.
Why do we lean forward
while climbing a hill ?
Leaning forward enables us
to keep the line passing
through the centre of gravity
vertically downward, within
our feet, and thus the
equilibrium is kept stable.
Why are lightning conduc-
tors fixed at the top of high
buildings ?
When an electric discharge
takes place from the cloud, the
lightning conductor provides
it an easy conducting path to
the earth without damaging
the building.
Why does a parachute must
have a hole ?
A hole in the centre of
parachute is made to avoid
oscillation of the parachute
while descending owing to
the changing currents of
wind. The hole allows the air
to run out of the parachute
regularly.
How does a flute produce
different sound notes?
A flute produces different
sound notes because air
particles passing through it
are vibrated with different
frequencies with the closing
and opening of the holes.
Why do we use a fuse in an
electric circuit?
A fuse is used in an electric
circuit because when excess
current flows through the
circuit the fuse melts and
breaks the circuit and
prevents the damage to any
of the electrical goods used.
What causes wind ?
Winds are caused by the
unequal heating of the earths
surface and rotation of earth.
Why does a drop of liquid
assume a spherical shape ?
A drop of liquid assumes a
spherical shape due to
surface tension. A sphere has
the least surface area for a
given volume.
What is a breeder reactor ?
A breeder reactor is such a
reactor which produces more
fissionable material than it
burns.
What does a moderator do in
a nuclear reactor?
The number of nuclei split by
the impact of neutrons is
regulated by a moderator in a
nuclear reactor.
Why is a small space left at the
joint between the two rails?
To permit the expansion of
rails due to heat generated by
friction of the moving train in
summer.
A glass tumbler is filled to the
brim with water and a piece
of ice is floating on it. As the
ice melts, will the water
overflow or not? Give reason
for your answer.
Level of water remains
unchanged because the
volume of water produced by
the melting of ice is exactly
the same as that of the piece
of ice. On melting, the water
will be equal to the volume of
water displaced by the ice.
When a moving train slows
down quickly, will a passen-
ger tend to fall backward or
forward? Explain why?
The passenger will tend to fall
forward because the lower
portion of his body which is
in contact with the seat will
come to rest quickly whereas
the upper portion of the body
continues to be in a state of
motion. Hence, the person is
thrown forward, due to inertia.
Explain why it takes more
time to cook meat and
vegetables at hill stations?
At higher altitudes, the
atmospheric pressure is low
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as compared to that in the
plains and, therefore water
boils below 100
0
C. Hence
sufficient heat is not supplied
for cooking the meat and
vegetables at hill stations.
When we drink soft drinks
through a straw, why does
the liquid go up into our
mouth?
When a person sucks air from
the straw, the pressure of the
air inside the straw is reduced
as compared to the atmosp-
heric pressure acting on the
surface of the liquid. Therefore,
the soft drink rushes up into
the straw and to the mouth.
Explain why the moisture
(water droplets) gathers on
the outer side of a glass
tumbler containing ice-cold
water?
The water vapour present in
air gets cooled and appear as
droplets of water on coming
in contact with the cold
surface of the glass tumbler.
Why does a metal seen colder
in winter and hotter in
summer compared with a
piece of wood?
Metals absorb and transmit
heat more rapidly than wood.
A thick glass tumbler often
cracks when a very hot liquid
is poured in it. Why?
The inner surface of the thick
glass tumbler coming in
contact with the hot liquid
expands more in comparison
to the outer surface which is
relatively at a lower
temperature. The uneven
expansion of inner and outer
surface may produce cracks.
How does a rainbow form?
Explain the phenomenon.
After rain, some clouds
continue to linger in the sky
and they contain water
droplets. Water droplets act
like prisms. Suns rays falling
on water droplets suffer
dispersion and produce a
spectrum. The different
colours are viewed in the form
of a rainbow.
What causes the rumbling
sound of thunder?
Air is heated instantly when
an electrical charge of
lightning passes through it.
The heat causes the
molecules of air to expand in
all the directions. As the
molecules seek more room,
they collide violently with
layers of cool air, and set up a
great air wave that has the
sound of thunder.
Why are mornings and
evenings less warm than noon?
In the mornings and
evenings, the rays of the sun
falling on earth are slanting
and their distance is more.
The earth gets heated up only
slightly. At noon, the rays of
the sun falling on the earth
are nearly vertical and the
distance is also less, with the
result that the earth gets
heated up considerably.
Hence mornings and eveni-
ngs are less warm than noon.
The sky appears blue. Give
reason.
Violet and blue light have short
wavelength and are scattered
more than red light waves.
While red light goes almost
straight through the atmos-
phere, blue and violet are sca-
ttered by particles in the atmo-
sphere. Thus we see a blue sky.
What is the difference
between a planet and a star?
Stars are self-luminous
celestial bodies and they have
a system of their own.
Planets, on the other hand, are
bodies which revolve around
a star and shine by the
reflected light of the stars.
What is the difference
between supersonic and
ultrasonic sounds?
Sounds of frequency higher
than 20,000 Hz are known as
ultrasonic and are inaudible.
The speed greater than the
speed of sound is referred to
as supersonic.
Copper wire cannot be used
as a heating element in
electric heaters. Why?
Copper has less melting point
and if we use it in electric
heater it cannot withstand
high temperature.
What would happen if the
force of gravity were to
disappear suddenly ?
In the absence of gravitational
force, all living objects on the
earth will be practically in a
floating condition. They will
be thrown away because of
the centrifugal force caused
by the rotation of earth. After
a certain time the whole earth
will disintegrate.
Radio reception improves
slightly during the night.
Why?
During day time due to
sunlight the radio broadc-
asting is affected to a certain
extend. Due to the absence of
sun during night radio
reception improves slightly.
We perspire on a hot day. why?
Human body is physiolo-
gically conditioned to main-
tain in form the temperature.
When the heat produced in
the body becomes excessive
and not dissipated properly,
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the sweat glands inside the
body are stimulated to secrete
sweat. Therefore, we perspire
on a hot day.
The gun kicks back when a
bullet is fired. Why?
According to Newtons third
law of motion, to every action,
there is an equal and opposite
reaction. So the gun kicks
back when a bullet is fired.
Scientific Instruments
& their Uses
Accelerometer : An instru-
ment that measures the rate
of which the velocity of a body
is changing.
Altimeter : The instrument
used in aircraft for measuring
altitudes.
Audiophone : Used to impr-
ove the imperfect sense of
hearing.
barograph : For continuous
recording of atmospheric
pressure.
Binocular : To see the distant
object.
Callipers : An apparatus for
measuring the inside or
outside diameter of bodies.
Chronometer : An instrument
kept on ships for measuring
accurate time.
Carburettor : An apparatus
for charging air with petrol
vapours, in an internal
combustion engine.
Clinical thermometer : For
measuring temperature of
human body.
Cardiogram : Instrument
used to trace the movements
of hearts.
Commutator : An instrument
to change or reverse the
direction of an electric current.
Cinematograph : Instrument
used to reflect the image of
picture on a screen.
Compass needle : For know-
ing approximately the north-
south direction of a place.
Drinkers apparatus : To help
breathing in infantile
paralysis.
Electro encephalo graph
(EEG) : It is a technique of
recording and interpreting
the electrical activity of brain.
Records of the electrical
activity of the brain, brain
waves are called electro
encephalograms.
Electroscope : To detect the
presence of electric charge.
Eudiometer : It is a glass tube
for measuring volume
changes in chemical reactions
between gases.
Galvanometer : For measuring
currents of small magnitude.
G.M. counter : For detecting
the presence of radiation and
counting certain atomic
particles.
Gravimeter : For recording
measurement under water
and to determine the
presence of oil deposits under
water.
Hydrometer : To calculate the
specific gravity of liquids.
Hydrophone : For recording
sound beneath water.
Hygrometer : For measuring
humidity in air.
Lactometer : To find out the
purity of milk.
Magnetometer : To measure
the intensity of earths
magnetic field.
Microphone : Used to convert
sound waves to electrical
vibrations.
Microtome : Used to cut an
object into thin parts for
microscopic inspection.
Periscope: It is used usually
by the crew of a submarine to
survey the ships etc., on the
surface of the sea while the
submarine is under water. It
also enables the sailors to
observe objects on the other
side of an obstacle without
exposing themselves.
Photometer : An apparatus
used to compare the
illuminative power of two
sources of light.
Pyrometer : Thermometers
used to measure high
temperature from great
distance by making use of the
law of radiation.
Quadrant : For measuring
altitudes and angles in
navigation and astronomy.
Quartz clock : A highly
accurate clock used in
astronomical observations
and other precision works.
Refractometer : To measure
refraction indices.
Resistant : Used for
determining the electrical
resistance of conductor.
Saccharimeter : Used for
determining the amount of
sugar in a solution.
Anemometer : It measures the
power and speed of air.
Audiometer : It measures the
intensityof sound.
Hygroscope : An instrument
to measure the height above
sea level.
Internal Combustion engine :
It is an engine in which heat
supplied to the working
substance is produced by
combustion taking place
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inside the cylinder. eg. petrol
engine, dieasel engine.
Odometer : An instrument
used to determine the distance
covered by wheeled vehicles.
Seismograph : An instrument
used to record the intensity
and distance of an earth-
quake.
Tachometer : An instrument
that determines speeds of
aeroplanes, motor boats etc.
Telex : It helps in direct
exchange of information
between two countries.
Thermocouple : An instru-
ment based on thermo
electricity used for measuring
temperatures.
Ultra sonoscope : It is an
instrument used to determine
the viscosity of liquids.
Venturimeter: It is a device
based on Bernoulli's theorm,
for measuring the quantity of
a liquid flowing through the
pipe.
Wireless : It is an instrument
which can send messages
from one place to another
without the use of wire.
Important Terms
Absolute Zero: It is the lowest
temperature theoretically
possible and is equal to (

273
o
C).
At absolute zero all molecular
motion comes to a stop.
Alternating current : It is an
electric current that perio-
dically reverses its direction
in the circuit, with a frequency
independent of the constants
of the circuit.
Boiling point : Boiling point
is the temperature of a liquid
at which visible evaporation
occurs throughout the bulk of
the liquid and at which the
vapour pressure of the liquid
equals the external atmos-
pheric pressure. It is the
temperature at which liquid
and vapour can exist together
in equilibrium at a given
pressure.
Centripetal force : The inward
force that keeps body, such
as a satellite, moving in a
circular path. The centripetal
force is directed towards the
centre.
Conduction : It is the process
in which heat or electrical
energy is transmitted from
one particle to another nearby
particles without actual
motion of the particles. In
solids, heat is transmitted by
conduction.
Convection : It is a process by
which heat is transferred by
actual motion of the particles
themselves. In liquid and
gases, heat is transmitted by
convection.
Critical Temperature : The
temperature above which a
gas cannot be liquefied, no
matter how great a pressure
is exerted.
Doppler effect : It is the
change in frequency of a wave
(sound or light) due to the
motion of the source or
observer. For example, the
pitch of a police car siren
appears higher when the car
approaches the listener but
lower as the car moves away
from listener. It was named
after the Australian physicist,
Christian Doppler (1803-55).
Friction : The force that
opposes the relative motion
and produces heat, when two
surfaces are rubbed together.
friction is greater between
rough surfaces than between
smooth or oiled surfaces.
Gamma Rays : They are
electromagnetic radiations
emitted spontaneously by
certain radioactive substan-
ces in the process of a nuclear
transition.
Horse power (Hp) : It is a
practical unit of power which
is equal to 550 foot-pounds
per second or 746 watts.
Hydrogen Bomb: Bomb that
works on the principle of
nuclear fusion. Large scale
explosion results from the
thermonuclear release of
energy when hydrogen nuclei
are fused to form helium
nuclei. The first hydrogen
bomb was exploded at
Eniwetok Atoll in the Pacific
ocean by the US 1952.
Inertia : It is a property of
matter by which it resists
change in its state of rest or in
its direction of motion.
Newtons first law gives the
definition for inertia.
Integrated circuit : An
integrated circuit can be
defined generally as an
arrangement of multifunction
semi conductor devices. It
consists of a single crystal
chip of silicon, nearly 1.5 mm
in cross section, contained
both active and passive
elements and their inter-
connections.
Kelvin temperature scale : It
is a scale used to measure
temperature. On the kelvin
scale absolute zero is 0K, ie.
in Kelvin scale 0
o
C corres-
ponds to 273.16 K and 100
o
C
corresponds to 373.16 K. It is
named after the British
Scientist, Lord Kelvin.
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Kinetic energy : It is the energy
possessed by the body by
virtue of its motion. A moving
bullet or a moving stone
possesses kinetic energy.
Latent heat : It is the quantity
of heat required to convert a
unit amount of a substance
from one state to another
without changing its tempe-
rature. Unit is calories per
gram.
Mariners Compass : It is a
device for determining
direction, graduated to
indicate 33 directions. The
N point on the dial
indicates north pole and the
S point, the south pole. It
helps the sailors to determine
the North-South direction.
Mirage : It is an optical
illusion often observed in
deserts due to total internal
reflection and atmospheric
refraction.
Nuclear fission : It is the
nuclear reaction in which a
heavy atomic nucleus disin-
tegrates into nearly two equal
fragments releasing a large
amount of energy. Atom bomb
is based on the principle
nuclear fission reaction.
Nuclear fusion : It is a nuclear
reaction in which two light
nuclei fuse together to form a
heavy nucleus releasing a
large amount of energy.
Stellar energy is due to fusion
reaction. The principle of
hydrogen bomb is nuclear
fusion.
Nuclear reactor : It is an
atomic pile in which nuclear
chain reaction is controlled
for the production of nuclear
energy. These are well
protected so that the
radiations they emit do not
harm living being. Nuclear
reactors are used to produce
electricity.
Potential energy : The energy
that an object has because of
its position. An object on a
high shelf has potential
energy that is released as it
falls to the ground. Water in
an elevated reservoir
possesses potential energy.
Quartz : It is a double
refracting crystal optically
uniaxial and positive and
rotating the plane of
polarization to the left or right
according to the variety, and
to a different extent for
different colours.
Radioactivity : It is the
spontaneous disintegration
of an unstable atomic nucleus
accompanied by the emission
of alpha, beta and gamma
radiations. Nucleus having
93 or more protons are
unstable and is radioactive.
Robot : It is a machine which
can do a job that is usually
done by a human being.
Robots are used on factory
assembly lines to do one
particular j ob that is
continually repeated.
Surface tension : It is the
property of a liquid that its
surface behaves like elastic
film and has a tendency to
contract. This causes small
droplets to become spherical.
Some insects like pond skater
can walk on water because
the surface tension holds
them up.
Commutator: It is an
instrument to change or
reverse the direction of an
electric current. In dynamo, it
is used to convert the
alternating current into direct
current.
Generator: It is a device by
which mechanical energy is
converted into electrical
energy. The electrical energy
received by us from the power
house is produced by the
generator.
Radar: Radio detection and
ranging employs high
frequency radiowaves for
detecting objects like ships
and aeroplanes. A rotating
aerial sends out pulses
which are reflected from
objects on which they fall. The
time interval between
transmission and reception
of pulses helps determine the
distance of the object.
Seismograph: An instrument
used for recording the
intensity and origin of
earthquake.
Soldering: It is a means of
joining together two pieces of
material usually metals, by
melting a third metal into the
joint.
Transformer: It is a device
which converts low A.C.
voltages to high or high A.C.
voltages to low. The
transformer which converts
high A.C. voltage to low is
called step-down transfo-
rmer. The transformer which
converts low A.C. voltage to
high is called step-up
transformer. The transformer
works on the principle of
mutual induction that is
electromagnetic induction.
Chain reaction: It is a series
of nuclear transformations
initiated by a single nuclear
fission. Chain reaction is
caused by neutrons.
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IMPORTANT SPORTS CHAMPIONSHIPS AND CUPS

Agha Khan Cup : Hockey, India
Ashes : Cricket, Australia and England
Augusta Masters: Golf, International
Australian Open: Lawn Tennis,
International(Hosted by Australia)
Azlan Cup: Hockey, International
Bama Belleck Cup: Table Tennis, India
Beighton Cup: Hockey, India
Bombay Gold Cup: Hockey, India
British Open: Golf, International
Burdwan Trophy: Weight Lifting, India
Calcutta Cup: Rugby, England and Scotland
Champions Trophy: Hockey, International
Colombo Cup: Football, International
Davis Cup: Tennis, International
DCM Trophy: Football, India
Derby: Horse Racing, International
Dhyanchand Trophy: Hockey, India
Dr. BC Roy Trophy: Football, India
Duleep Trophy: Cricket, India
Durand Cup: Football, India
European Champion Clubs'
Cup: Football, Europe
Ezra Cup: Polo, India
FIFA World Cup
Trophy: Football, International
French Open: Lawn
Tennis, International(Hosted by France)
Heineken Cup: Lawn Tennis, International
Hopman Cup: Lawn Tennis, International
IFA Shield: Football , India

Kings Cup: Air Races, England
Lady Ratan Tata Trophy: Hockey, India
Liners Open: Golf, International
Malaysian Open: Badminton, International
Meredka Cup: Football, Asia
MLS Cup: Soccer, America
Moinuddaulah Gold Cup: Cricket, India
Nehru Trophy: Hockey, India
Radha Mohan Cup: Polo, India
Ranji Trophy: Cricket, India
Rangeshwari Cup: Hockey, India
Rovers Cup: Football, India
Santosh Trophy: Football, India
Scindia Gold Cup: Hockey, India
Subrato Mukherjee Cup: Football, India
Swaythling Cup: Table Tennis, International
The Scottish Cup: Football, International
Thomas Cup: Badminton, International
U. Thant Cup: Tennis, International
Uber Cup: Badminton
(Women), International
UEFA Champions League: Football, Europe
US Maters: Golf, International
US Open: Lawn Tennis, International
Webb Ellis Cup: Rugby, World
Wellington Trophy: Rowing, India



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List of Important Books and
Authors
One Life is not enough - Kunwar Natwar
Singh
Munger through the Ages - Late Devendra
Prasad Yadav
Not Just an Accountant - Former CAG Vinod
Rai
Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi: An Inside Job?
- Faraz Ahmed
The Vijay Mallya Story - K Giriprakash
India Junction A Window to the Nation -
Arunendra Kumar, Chairman of Railway
Board
The Lives of Others - Neel Mukherjee
The Substance and the Shadow - Uday Tara
Nayar - Autobiography of Dilip Kumar
Train to Pakistan - Khuswant Singh
A Bend in the River - V.S Naipaul
What Young India Wants - Chetan Bhagat
My Unforgettable Memories-Mamata
Banerjee
Half Girlfriend - Chetan Bhagat - Unreleased
ModiNomics: Inclusive Economics, Inclusive
Governance - Sameer Kochhar.
God of Small things- Arundhati Rai

Cabinet Ministers and their
Constituency
Narendra Modi - Varanasi, Vadodara
Rajnath Singh - Lucknow
Sushma Swaraj - Vidisha
Arun Jaitley - Gurarat(Rajya Sabha)
Venkaiaha Naidu Karnataka (Rajya Sabha)
Nitin Gadkari - Nagpur
DV Sadananda Gowda - North Bangalore
Uma Bharti - Jhansi
Najma Heptullah - Madhya Pradesh (Only
Muslim in Cabinet)
Ram Vilas Paswan - Hajipur
Maneka Gandhi - Pilibhit, Uttar Pradesh
Ananth Kumar - Bangalore South
Ravi Shankar Prasad Bihar (Rajya Sabha)
Ashoke Gajapati Raju Pusapati -
Vizianagaram , Andhra Pradesh
Narendra Singh Tomar - Gwalior
Jual Oram - Sundargarh
Thawar Chand Gehlot - Shajapur, Madhya
Pradesh
Kalraj Mishra - Deoria, Uttar Pradesh
Radha Mohan Singh - Purvi Champaran,
Bihar
Harsh Vardhan - Chandni Chowk, Delhi
Harsimrat Kaur Badal - Bhatindha, Punjab
Anant Geete - Raigarh, Maharasthra
Smriti Irani - Amethi(lost to Rahul Gandhi)
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IMPORTANT NATIONAL DAYS

Pravasi Bharatiya Divas - January 9

National Youth Day - January 12

Army Day - January 15

Netaji Day - January 23

India Tourism Day/ National Voters Day -
January 25

Republic Day - January 26

Martyrs Day - January 30

Panchayat Day - February 19

Central Excise Day - February 24

National Science Day - February 28

National Security Day - March 4

Ordinance Factories Day (India) - March 18

Orissa Day - April 1

National Maritime Day - April 5

Jallianwala Bagh Day - April 13

National Technology Day - May 11

National Mother Security Day - April 11

Sikkim Day - May 16

Anti Terrorism Day (Death anniversary of
Rajiv Gandhi) - May 21

Everest Day- May 29

Doctors Day - July 1

Kargil Vijay Day - July 26

Quit India Day - August 9

Independence Day - August 15

Sadbhavana Day (Birth anniversary of
RajivGandhi)- August 20

National Sports Day (Dhyanchands
Brithday) - August 29

Teachers Day (Birth anniversary of Dr.
Radhakrishnan) - September 5

Hindi Day - September 14

Deaf Day - September 26

National Blood Donation Day - October 1

Gandhi Jayanti Day - October 2

Wild Life Week - October 1st to 7

Air Force Day - October 8

National Postal Day - October 10

Azad Hind Day - October 21

National Rededication Day (Death
anniversary of Mrs. Indira Gandhi, birth
anniversary of Sardar Vallabhai Patel) -
October 31

Legal Service Day - November 9

Transport Day - November 10

Childrens Day - November 14

National News Paper Day - November 16

Indian Citizen Day - November 19

NCC Day - November 24

National Law Day - November 26

Navy Day - December 4

Armed Force Flag Day - December 7

National Mental Disorder Day - December 8
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Conservation Day - December 14

National Energy Protect Day - December 14

Vijay Divas - December 16

National Minorities Rights Day - December 18

Kissan Day (Farmers Day) - December 23

National Consumer Day - December 24

IMPORTANT INTERNATIONAL
DAYS

January 26 International Customs Day

February 4 World Cancer Day

February 6 International Day of Zero
Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation

February 13 World Radio Day

February 20 World Day of Social Justice

February 21 International Mother Language
Day

March 1 Zero Discrimination Day

March 3 World Wildlife Day

March 8 International Women's Day

March 20 International Day of Happiness

March 21 International Day for the
Elimination of Racial Discrimination

March 21 World Poetry Day

March 21 World Down Syndrome Day

March 21 International Day of Forests and
the Tree

March 22 World Water Day

March 23 World Meteorological Day

March 24 World Tuberculosis Day

April 2 World Autism Awareness Day

April 6 International Day of Sport for
Development and Peace

April 7 World Health Day

April 12 International Day of Human Space
Flight

April 22 International Mother Earth Day

April 23 World Book and Copyright Day

April 23 English Language Day

April 25 World Malaria Day

April 26 World Intellectual Property Day

April 28 World Day for Safety and Health at
Work

April 29 Day of Remembrance for all Victims
of Chemical Warfare

April 30 International Jazz Day

May 1 May Day, International Workers' Day

May 3 World Press Freedom Day

May 15 International Day of Families

May 22 International Day for Biological
Diversity

May 23 World Turtle Day

May 29 International Day of UN
Peacekeepers

May 31 World No-Tobacco Day

First Tuesday of May World Asthma Day
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Second Saturday of May World Fair Trade
Day

Second Sunday of May Mother's Day

A weekend in May World Migratory Bird
Day

June 1 International Children's Day

June 5 World Environment Day

June 8 World Oceans Day

June 12 World Day Against Child Labour

June 14 World Blood Donor Day

June 17 World Day to Combat
Desertification and Drought

June 18 Autistic Pride Day

June 20 World Refugee Day

June 21 World Music Day

June 23 International Widow's Day

3rd Sunday of June Fathers' Day

July 11 World Population Day

July 12 Malala Yousafzai Day

July 17 - World Day for International Justice

July 18 Nelson Mandela International Day

July 28 World Hepatitis Day

July 29 International Tiger Day

July 30 International Day of Friendship

August 12 International Youth Day

August 13 International Lefthanders Day

August 19 World Humanitarian Day

August 29 International Day against Nuclear
Tests

September 8 International Literacy Day

September 15 International Day of
Democracy

September 16 International Day for the
Preservation of the Ozone Layer

September 21 International Day of Peace

September 27 World Tourism Day

September 28 World Rabies Day

September 29 World Heart Day

October 1 International Day of Older
Persons

October 1 World Vegetarian Day

October 2 International Day of Non-
Violence

October 2 World Cerebral Palsy Day

October 4 World Animal Day

October 5 World Teachers' Day

October 9 World Post Day

October 11 International Day of the Girl
Child

October 16 World Food Day

October 24 United Nations Day

November 12 World Pneumonia Day

November 14 World Diabetes Day

November 16 International Day for
Tolerance

November 17 International Students Day
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November 20 Universal Children's Day

November 21 World Television Day

November 29 International Day of Solidarity
with the Palestinian People

Third Thursday in November, November 15
World Philosophy Day

December 1 World AIDS Day

December 2 International Day for the
Abolition of Slavery

December 3 International Day of Persons
with Disabilities

December 7 International Civil Aviation Day

December 9 International Anti-Corruption
Day

December 10 Human Rights Day

December 11 International Mountain Day

INTERNATIONAL YEARS

1970 International Education Year

1974 World Population Year

1975 International Women's Year

1979 International Year of the Child

1981 International Year of Disabled Persons

1986 International Year of Peace

1990 International Literacy Year

1992 International Space Year

2004 International Year of Rice

2005 World Year of Physics

2007-08 Year of the Dolphin

2008 International Year of Languages

2008 International Year of the Potato

2008 International Year of Sanitation

2009 International Year of Astronomy

2009 International Year of Natural Fibres

2009 International Year of the Shark

2010 International Year of Biodiversity

2010 International Year of Youth

2011 International Year of Forests

2011 International Year of Chemistry

2014 International Year of Crystallography

2014 International Year of Solidarity with
the Palestinian People

2015 International Year of Soils

2015 International Year of Light and Light-
based Technologies

2016 International Year of Pulses

INTERNATIONAL DECADES

19761985 United Nations Decade for
Women

20012010 International Decade for a
Culture of Peace and Non-violence for the
Children of the World

20032012 United Nations Literacy Decade

20052014 United Nations Decade of
Education for Sustainable Development

20052015 Water for Life Decade
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20102020 United Nations Decade for
Deserts and the Fight Against Desertification

20112020 United Nations Decade on
Biodiversity

20112020 United Nations Decade of Action
for Road Safety

20142024 United Nations Decade of
Sustainable Energy for All

20152024 International Decade for People
of African Descent


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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION & HEADQUARTERS



A
African Development Bank ADB - Abidjan (Cote dIvoire)
Asian Clearing Union ACU - Tehran
Asian Development Bank ADB Manila
C
Commonwealth Foundation - London
E
European Council EU - Brussels, Belgium
F
Food and Agriculture Organization FAO - Rome
I
International Atomic Energy Authority IAEA - Vienna
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development IBRD - Washington
International Civil Aviation Organization ICAO - Montreal
International Court of Justice- Hague, Netherlands
International Chamber of Commerce - Paris
International Development Association IDA - Washington
International Finance Corporation IFC - Washington
International Fund for Agricultural Development IFAD - Rome
International Labor Organization ILO - Geneva
International Maritime Organization IMO - London
International Monetary Fund IMF - Washington
International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions (INTOSAI) - Vienna, Austria
International Criminal Police Organization InterPol - Lyon, France
International Telecommunications Union ITU - Geneva
N
North Atlantic Treaty Organization NATO - Brussels, Belgium
New Development Bank (BRICS Bank) Shanghai, China
S
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation SAARC Kathmandu (Nepal)
U
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO - Paris
Universal Postal Union UPU - Berne
United Nations UN - New York
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNCTAD - Geneva
United Nations International Childrens Emergency Fund UNICEF - New York
W
West African Economic Community WAEC - Ouagadougou
World Customs Organization (WCO) - Brussels, Belgium
World Health Organization WHO - Geneva
World Intellectual Property Organization WIPO Geneva

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Countries and Capital PDF by ExamPundit.in

A
Afghanistan - Kabul
Albania - Tirana
Algeria - Algiers
Andorra - Andorra la Vella
Angola - Luanda
Antigua & Barbuda - Saint
John's
Argentina - Buenos Aires
Armenia - Yerevan
Australia - Canberra
Austria - Vienna
Azerbaijan - Baku

B
Bahamas - Nassau
Bahrain - Al-Manamah
Bangladesh - Dhaka
Barbados - Bridgetown
Belarus - Minsk
Belgium - Brussels
Belize - Belmopan
Bhutan - Thimphu
Bosnia & Herzegovina -
Sarajevo
Botswana - Gaborone
Brazil - Brasilia
Brunei - Bandar Seri
Begawan
Bulgaria - Sofia
Burkina Faso -
Ouagadougou
Burundi Bujumbura
C
Cambodia - Phnom Penh
Cameroon - Yaounde
Canada - Ottawa
Cape Verde - Praia
Central African Republic -
Bangui
Chad - N'Djamena
Chile - Santiago
China - Beijing
Colombia - Bogota
Comoros - Moroni
Congo - Brazzaville
Costa Rica - San Jose
Cote d'Ivoire - Abidjan
Croatia - Zagreb
Cuba - Havana
Cyprus - Nicosia
Czech Republic - Prague
D
Denmark - Copenhagen
Djibouti - Djibouti City
Dominica - Roseau
Dominican Republic - Santo
Domingo
Democratic Republic of the
Congo - Kinshasa
E
East Timor - Dili
Ecuador - Quito
Egypt - Cairo
El Salvador - San Salvador
Equatorial Guinea - Malabo
Eritrea - Asmara
Estonia - Tallinn
Ethiopia - Addis Ababa
F
Fiji - Suva
Finland - Helsinki
France - Paris
G
Gabon - Libreville
Gambia - Banjul
Georgia - Tbilisi
Germany - Berlin
Ghana - Accra
Greece - Athens
Grenada - Saint George's
Guatemala - Guatemala City
Guinea - Conakry
Guyana - Georgetown
H
Haiti - Port-au-Prince
Honduras - Tegucigalpa
Hungary - Budapest
I
Iceland - Reykjavik
India - New Delhi
Indonesia - Jakarta
Iran - Tehran
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Countries and Capital PDF by ExamPundit.in

Iraq - Baghdad
Ireland - Dublin
Israel - Jerusalem
Italy Rome
J
Jamaica - Kingston
Japan - Tokyo
Jordan - Amman
K
Kazakhstan - Astana
Kenya - Nairobi
Kiribati - Tarawa Atoll
Korea North - Pyongyang
Korea South - Seoul
Kosovo - Pristina
Kuwait - Kuwait City
Kyrgyzstan - Bishkek
L
Laos - Vientiane
Latvia - Riga
Lebanon - Beirut
Lesotho - Maseru
Liberia - Monrovia
Libya - Tripoli
Liechtenstein - Vaduz
Lithuania - Vilnius
Luxembourg - Luxembourg
M
Macedonia - Skopje
Madagascar - Antananarivo
Malawi - Lilongwe
Malaysia - Kuala Lumpur
Maldives - Male
Mali - Bamako
Malta - Valletta
Marshall Islands - Majuro
Mauritania - Nouakchott
Mauritius - Port Louis
Mexico - Mexico City
Micronesia - Palikir
Moldova - Chisinau
Monaco - Monaco
Mongolia - Ulaanbaatar
Montenegro - Podgorica
Morocco - Rabat
Mozambique - Maputo
Myanmar (Burma) -
Rangoon (Yangon); Nay Pyi
Taw (Administrative)
N
Namibia - Windhoek
Nepal - Kathmandu
Netherlands - Amsterdam
New Zealand - Wellington
Nicaragua - Managua
Niger - Niamey
Nigeria - Abuja
Norway - Oslo
O
Oman - Muscat

P
Pakistan - Islamabad
Palau - Melekeok
Palestinian State
Ramallah(Administrative) &
Jerusalem(Claimed)
Panama - Panama City
Papua New Guinea - Port
Moresby
Paraguay - Asuncion
Peru - Lima
Philippines - Manila
Poland - Warsaw
Portugal - Lisbon
Q
Qatar - Doha
R
Romania - Bucharest
Russia - Moscow
Rwanda - Kigali
S
Saint Lucia - Castries
Saudi Arabia - Riyadh
Senegal - Dakar
Serbia - Belgrade
Seychelles - Victoria
Sierra Leone - Freetown
Singapore - Singapore
Slovakia - Bratislava
Slovenia - Ljubljana
Solomon Islands - Honiara
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Countries and Capital PDF by ExamPundit.in

Somalia - Mogadishu
South Africa Cape Town
South Sudan - Juba
Spain - Madrid
Sri Lanka - Colombo
Sudan - Khartoum
Sweden - Stockholm
Switzerland - Bern
Syria - Damascus
T
Taiwan - Taipei
Tajikistan - Dushanbe
Tanzania - Dodoma
Thailand - Bangkok
Trinidad and Tobago - Port
of Spain
Tunisia - Tunis
Turkey - Ankara
Turkmenistan - Ashgabat
U
Uganda - Kampala
Ukraine - Kyiv
United Arab Emirates Abu
Dhabi
United Kingdom - London
United States of America
Washington D.C.
Uruguay - Montevideo
Uzbekistan - Tashkent
V
Vanuatu - Port-Vila
Vatican City - Vatican City
Venezuela - Caracas
Vietnam - Hanoi
Y
Yemen - Sanaa
Z
Zambia - Lusaka
Zimbabwe Harare
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Important Currencies List by ExamPundit.in

A
Afghanistan : Afghan
Afghani
Argentina : Peso
Australia : Dollar
Austria : European euro
B
Bangladesh: Taka
Bhutan : Ngultrum
Brazil : Real
C
Canada : Dollar
Chile : Peso
China : Yuan
Cuba : Peso
D
Denmark : Krone
E
Egypt : Pound
F
France : Euro
G
Germany : Euro
H
Hong Kong : Dollar
I
India : Rupee
Indonesia : Rupiah
Iran : Rial
Iraq : Dinar
J
Japan : Yen
L
Lithuania : Euro
Libya : Dinar
M
Malaysia : Ringgit
Maldives : Rufiyaa
Mexico : Peso
N
Nepal : Rupee
Netherlands : Euro
Norway : Krone
North Korea : Won
P
Pakistan : Rupee
Philippines : Peso
Portugal : Euro
Q
Qatar : Riyal
R
Romania : Leu
Russia : Ruble
S
Saudi Arabia : Riyal
Singapore : Dollar
South Africa : Rand
South Korea : Won
Sri Lanka : Rupee
Switzerland : Franc
Syria : Pound
T
Thailand : Baht
Turkey : Lira
U
Ukraine : Hryvnia
UAE : Dirham
UK : Pound
USA : Dollar
V
Vatican City : Euro
Z
Zimbabwe : Dollar
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