Xử lý ảnh số

HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG
X L NH
(Dng cho sinh vin h o to i hc t xa)
Lu hnh ni b
H NI - 2006
HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG
X L NH
Bin son :
PGS.TS NGUYN QUANG HOAN
LI NI U
Trong cc trng i hc, cao ng, x l nh tr thnh mt mn hc chuyn ngnh
ca sinh vin cc ngnh Cng ngh Thng tin, Vin thng. Gio trnh v ti liu v lnh vc ny
nc ta cn ang hn ch. p ng kp thi cho o to t xa, Hc vin Cng ngh Bu chnh
Vin thng c gng kp thi bin son ti liu ny cho sinh vin, c bit h o to t xa hc
tp. Trong qu trnh bin son, chng ti c tham kho cc ti liu ca i hc Bch khoa H ni
[1] gio trnh gn gi v tnh cng ngh vi Hc vin. Mt s gio trnh khc ca i hc Quc
gia thnh ph H Ch Minh [2], ti liu trn mng v cc ti liu nc ngoi bng ting Anh [5, 6,
7] cng c tham kho v gii thiu sinh vin o to t xa c thm.
Ti liu ny nhm hng dn v gii thiu nhng kin thc c bn, cc khi nim, nh
ngha tm tt. Mt s thut ng c ch gii bng ting Anh hc vin c bng ting Anh d
dng, trnh hiu nhm khi chuyn sang ting Vit.
Ti liu gm cc chng sau:
-
Chng 1. Nhp mn x l nh
Chng 2. Thu nhn nh
Chng 3. X l nng cao cht lng nh
Chng 4. Cc phng php pht hin bin nh
Chng 5. Phn vng nh
Chng 6. Nhn dng nh
Chng 7. Nn d liu nh
Cn nhiu vn khc nh cc cng c ton hc, k thut bin i nh, truyn nh, cc
phn mm x l v.v cha cp c trong phm vi ti liu ny. ngh cc bn c tm hiu
thm sau khi c nhng kin thc c bn ny.
Tuy c tham gia ging dy mn x l nh cp i hc mt s nm, nhiu lp c trnh
khc nhau; ch nhim mt s ti nghin cu C bn Nh nc, ti cp B lin quan
nhng X l nh l mn hc c s kt hp nhiu gia nhiu lnh vc khoa hc v cng ngh
nn c th coi l mn hc kh. Nhiu c gng cp nht kin thc nhng thi gian, iu kin,
kh nng c hn nn ti liu chc chn cn nhiu thiu st. Chng ti mong nhn c nhiu
kin ng gp ti liu c hon thin hn cho cc ln ti bn sau.
H Ni, thng 12 nm 2006

Tc gi
Chng 1: Nhp mn x l nh
CHNG 1: NHP MN X L NH
Hc xong phn ny sinh vin c th nm c:
1. ngha, mc ch mn hc; cc ng dng ca x l nh trong cng nghip, i sng
2. Cc thnh phn: x l v phn tch nh. Cc khi chc nng, ngha ca n trong quy
trnh x l v phn tch nh.
3.
Cc khi nim, nh ngha nh s ha. Tng quan v biu din nh.
4. Mt s cng c x l nh. Cc vn t ra vi x l nh.
1.1 GII THIU V H THNG X L NH

X l nh l mt lnh vc mang tnh khoa hc v cng ngh. N l mt ngnh khoa hc
mi m so vi nhiu ngnh khoa hc khc nhng tc pht trin ca n rt nhanh, kch thch
cc trung tm nghin cu, ng dng, c bit l my tnh chuyn dng ring cho n.
X l nh c a vo ging dy bc i hc nc ta khong chc nm nay. N l
mn hc lin quan n nhiu lnh vc v cn nhiu kin thc c s khc. u tin phi k n X
l tn hiu s l mt mn hc ht sc c bn cho x l tn hiu chung, cc khi nim v tch chp,
cc bin i Fourier, bin i Laplace, cc b lc hu hn Th hai, cc cng c ton nh i s
tuyn tnh, Sc xut, thng k. Mt s kin th cn thit nh Tr tu nhn tao, Mng n ron nhn
to cng c cp trong qu trnh phn tch v nhn dng nh.
Cc phng php x l nh bt u t cc ng dng chnh: nng cao cht lng nh v
phn tch nh. ng dng u tin c bit n l nng cao cht lng nh bo c truyn qua
cp t Lun n n New York t nhng nm 1920. Vn nng cao cht lng nh c lin quan
ti phn b mc sng v phn gii ca nh. Vic nng cao cht lng nh c pht trin vo
khong nhng nm 1955. iu ny c th gii thch c v sau th chin th hai, my tnh pht
trin nhanh to iu kin cho qu trnh x l nh s thun li. Nm 1964, my tnh c kh nng
x l v nng cao cht lng nh t mt trng v v tinh Ranger 7 ca M bao gm: lm ni
ng bin, lu nh. T nm 1964 n nay, cc phng tin x l, nng cao cht lng, nhn
dng nh pht trin khng ngng. Cc phng php tri thc nhn to nh mng n ron nhn to,
cc thut ton x l hin i v ci tin, cc cng c nn nh ngy cng c p dng rng ri v
thu nhiu kt qu kh quan.
d tng tng, xt cc bc cn thit trong x l nh. u tin, nh t nhin t th
gii ngoi c thu nhn qua cc thit b thu (nh Camera, my chp nh). Trc y, nh thu
qua Camera l cc nh tng t (loi Camera ng kiu CCIR). Gn y, vi s pht trin ca
cng ngh, nh mu hoc en trng c ly ra t Camera, sau n c chuyn trc tip thnh
nh s to thun li cho x l tip theo. (My nh s hin nay l mt th d gn gi). Mt khc,
nh cng c th tip nhn t v tinh; c th qut t nh chp bng my qut nh. Hnh 1.1 di
y m t cc bc c bn trong x l nh.
Thu nhn
nh
Tin x
l nh
Phn
on nh
Biu din
v m t
Nhn dng
v ni suy
C s tri thc
Hnh 1.1 Cc bc c bn trong x l nh

S ny bao gm cc thnh phn sau:
a) Phn thu nhn nh (Image Acquisition)
nh c th nhn qua camera mu hoc en trng. Thng nh nhn qua camera l nh
tng t (loi camera ng chun CCIR vi tn s 1/25, mi nh 25 dng), cng c loi camera
s ho (nh loi CCD Change Coupled Device) l loi photodiot to cng sng ti mi
im nh.
Camera thng dng l loi qut dng ; nh to ra c dng hai chiu. Cht lng mt nh
thu nhn c ph thuc vo thit b thu, vo mi trng (nh sng, phong cnh)
b) Tin x l (Image Processing)
Sau b thu nhn, nh c th nhiu tng phn thp nn cn a vo b tin x l
nng cao cht lng. Chc nng chnh ca b tin x l l lc nhiu, nng tng phn lm
nh r hn, nt hn.
c) Phn on (Segmentation) hay phn vng nh
Phn vng nh l tch mt nh u vo thnh cc vng thnh phn biu din phn tch,
nhn dng nh. V d: nhn dng ch (hoc m vch) trn phong b th cho mc ch phn loi
bu phm, cn chia cc cu, ch v a ch hoc tn ngi thnh cc t, cc ch, cc s (hoc cc
vch) ring bit nhn dng. y l phn phc tp kh khn nht trong x l nh v cng d
gy li, lm mt chnh xc ca nh. Kt qu nhn dng nh ph thuc rt nhiu vo cng on
ny.
d) Biu din nh (Image Representation)
u ra nh sau phn on cha cc im nh ca vng nh (nh phn on) cng vi
m lin kt vi cc vng ln cn. Vic bin i cc s liu ny thnh dng thch hp l cn thit
cho x l tip theo bng my tnh. Vic chn cc tnh cht th hin nh gi l trch chn c
trng (Feature Selection) gn vi vic tch cc c tnh ca nh di dng cc thng tin nh
lng hoc lm c s phn bit lp i tng ny vi i tng khc trong phm vi nh nhn
c. V d: trong nhn dng k t trn phong b th, chng ta miu t cc c trng ca tng k
t gip phn bit k t ny vi k t khc.
e) Nhn dng v ni suy nh (Image Recognition and Interpretation)
Nhn dng nh l qu trnh xc nh nh. Qu trnh ny thng thu c bng cch so
snh vi mu chun c hc (hoc lu) t trc. Ni suy l phn on theo ngha trn c s
nhn dng. V d: mt lot ch s v nt gch ngang trn phong b th c th c ni suy thnh
m in thoi. C nhiu cch phn loai nh khc nhau v nh. Theo l thuyt v nhn dng, cc
m hnh ton hc v nh c phn theo hai loi nhn dng nh c bn:
-
Nhn dng theo tham s.
Nhn dng theo cu trc.
Mt s i tng nhn dng kh ph bin hin nay ang c p dng trong khoa hc v
cng ngh l: nhn dng k t (ch in, ch vit tay, ch k in t), nhn dng vn bn (Text),
nhn dng vn tay, nhn dng m vch, nhn dng mt ngi
f) C s tri thc (Knowledge Base)
Nh ni trn, nh l mt i tng kh phc tp v ng nt, sng ti, dung
lng im nh, mi trng thu nh phong ph ko theo nhiu. Trong nhiu khu x l v
phn tch nh ngoi vic n gin ha cc phng php ton hc m bo tin li cho x l,
ngi ta mong mun bt chc quy trnh tip nhn v x l nh theo cch ca con ngi. Trong
cc bc x l , nhiu khu hin nay x l theo cc phng php tr tu con ngi. V vy,
y cc c s tri thc c pht huy. Trong ti liu, chng 6 v nhn dng nh c nu mt vi
v d v cch s dng cc c s tri thc .
g) M t (biu din nh)
T Hnh 1.1, nh sau khi s ho s c lu vo b nh, hoc chuyn sang cc khu tip
theo phn tch. Nu lu tr nh trc tip t cc nh th, i hi dung lng b nh cc ln v
khng hiu qu theo quan im ng dng v cng ngh. Thng thng, cc nh th c c
t (biu din) li (hay n gin l m ho) theo cc c im ca nh c gi l cc c trng
nh (Image Features) nh: bin nh (Boundary), vng nh (Region). Mt s phng php biu
din thng dng:
Biu din bng m chy (Run-Length Code)
Biu din bng m xch (Chaine -Code)
Biu din bng m t phn (Quad-Tree Code)
Biu din bng m chy

Phng php ny thng biu din cho vng nh v p dng cho nh nh phn. Mt vng
nh R c th m ho n gin nh mt ma trn nh phn:
U(m, n) = 1 nu (m, n) thuc R
U( m, n) = 0 nu (m, n) khng thuc R
Trong : U(m, n) l hm m t mc xm nh ti ta (m, n). Vi cch biu din trn,
mt vng nh c m t bng mt tp cc chui s 0 hoc 1. Gi s chng ta m t nh nh phn
ca mt vng nh c th hin theo to (x, y) theo cc chiu v c t ch i vi gi tr 1
khi dng m t c th l: (x, y)r; trong (x, y) l to , r l s lng cc bit c gi tr 1
lin tc theo chiu ngang hoc dc.
Biu din bng m xch
Phng php ny thng dng biu din ng bin nh. Mt ng bt k c chia
thnh cc on nh. Ni cc im chia, ta c cc on thng k tip c gn hng cho on
thng to thnh mt dy xch gm cc on. Cc hng c th chn 4, 8, 12, 24, mi hng
c m ho theo s thp phn hoc s nh phn thnh m ca hng.
Biu din bng m t phn
Phng php m t phn c dng m ho cho vng nh. Vng nh u tin c
chia lm bn phn thng l bng nhau. Nu mi vng ng nht (cha ton im en (1) hay
trng (0)), th gn cho vng mt m v khng chia tip. Cc vng khng ng nht c chia
tip lm bn phn theo th tc trn cho n khi tt c cc vng u ng nht. Cc m phn chia
thnh cc vng con to thnh mt cy phn chia cc vng ng nht.
Trn y l cc thnh phn c bn trong cc khu x l nh. Trong thc t, cc qu trnh
s dng nh s khng nht thit phi qua ht cc khu ty theo c im ng dng. Hnh 1.2
cho s phn tch v x l nh v lu thng tin gia cc khi mt cch kh y . Anh sau
khi c s ha c nn, luuw lai truyn cho cc h thng khc s dng hoc x l tip
theo. Mt khc, nh sau khi s ha c th b qua cng on nng cao cht lng (khi nh cht
lng theo mt yu cu no ) chuyn ti khu phn on hoc b tip khu phn on
chuyn trc tip ti khu trch chn c trng. Hnh 1.2 cng chia cc nhnh song song nh: nng
cao cht lng nh c hai nhnh phn bit: nng cao cht lng nh (tng sng, tng phn,
lc nhiu) hoc khi phc nh (hi phc li nh tht khi nh nhn c b mo) v.v
Cnh quan
(Scene)
Nn
nh
Lu
nh
Truyn
nh
Nng cht
lng nh
Thu
nh
Phn
on
S
ha
nh tng t
nh c
ci tin
Trch
chn
c
trng
nh
s
Thu nhn nh
Khi phc
nh
Phn
tch
thng
k /
cu
trc
M t
v ni
suy
Trch
chn
quan
h
Hnh 1.2 S phn tch v x l nh v lu thng tin gia cc khi
1.2 NHNG VN C BN TRONG H THNG X L NH

1.2.1 im nh (Picture Element)
Gc ca nh (nh t nhin) l nh lin tc v khng gian v sng. x l bng my
tnh (s), nh cn phi c s ho. S ho nh l s bin i gn ng mt nh lin tc thnh
mt tp im ph hp vi nh tht v v tr (khng gian) v sng (mc xm). Khong cch
gia cc im nh c thit lp sao cho mt ngi khng phn bit c ranh gii gia
6
chng. Mi mt im nh vy gi l im nh (PEL: Picture Element) hay gi tt l Pixel. Trong
khun kh nh hai chiu, mi pixel ng vi cp ta (x, y).
nh ngha:
im nh (Pixel) l mt phn t ca nh s ti to (x, y) vi xm hoc mu nht
nh. Kch thc v khong cch gia cc im nh c chn thch hp sao cho mt ngi
cm nhn s lin tc v khng gian v mc xm (hoc mu) ca nh s gn nh nh tht. Mi
phn t trong ma trn c gi l mt phn t nh.
1.2.2 phn gii ca nh

nh ngha: phn gii (Resolution) ca nh l mt im nh c n nh trn mt
nh s c hin th.
Theo nh ngha, khong cch gia cc im nh phi c chn sao cho mt ngi vn
thy c s lin tc ca nh. Vic la chn khong cch thch hp to nn mt mt phn b,
chnh l phn gii v c phn b theo trc x v y trong khng gian hai chiu.
V d: phn gii ca nh trn mn hnh CGA (Color Graphic Adaptor) l mt li
im theo chiu ngang mn hnh: 320 im chiu dc * 200 im nh (320*200). R rng, cng
mn hnh CGA 12 ta nhn thy mn hn mn hnh CGA 17 phn gii 320*200. L do: cng
mt mt ( phn gii) nhng din tch mn hnh rng hn th mn (lin tc ca cc im)
km hn.
1.2.3 Mc xm ca nh
Mt im nh (pixel) c hai c trng c bn l v tr (x, y) ca im nh v xm ca
n. Di y chng ta xem xt mt s khi nim v thut ng thng dng trong x l nh.
a) nh ngha: Mc xm ca im nh l cng sng ca n c gn bng gi tr s
ti im .
b) Cc thang gi tr mc xm thng thng: 16, 32, 64, 128, 256 (Mc 256 l mc ph
dng. L do: t k thut my tnh dng 1 byte (8 bit) biu din mc xm: Mc xm dng 1
byte biu din: 28=256 mc, tc l t 0 n 255).
c) nh en trng: l nh c hai mu en, trng (khng cha mu khc) vi mc xm
cc im nh c th khc nhau.
d) nh nh phn: nh ch c 2 mc en trng phn bit tc dng 1 bit m t 21 mc khc
nhau. Ni cch khc: mi im nh ca nh nh phn ch c th l 0 hoc 1.
e) nh mu: trong khun kh l thuyt ba mu (Red, Blue, Green) to nn th gii
mu, ngi ta thng dng 3 byte m t mc mu, khi cc gi tr mu: 28*3=224 16,7 triu
mu.
Chng ta c c thm sch tham kho c thm thng tin v cc khi nim ny.
1.2.4 nh ngha nh s
nh s l tp hp cc im nh vi mc xm ph hp dng m t nh gn vi nh tht.
1.2.5 Quan h gia cc im nh
Mt nh s gi s c biu din bng hm f(x, y). Tp con cc im nh l S; cp im
nh c quan h vi nhau k hiu l p, q. Chng ta nu mt s cc khi nim sau.
a) Cc ln cn ca im nh (Image Neighbors)
* Gi s c im nh p ti to (x, y). p c 4 im ln cn gn nht theo chiu ng v
ngang (c th coi nh ln cn 4 hng chnh: ng, Ty, Nam, Bc).
{(x-1, y); (x, y-1); (x, y+1); (x+1, y)} = N4(p)
trong : s 1 l gi tr logic; N4(p) tp 4 im ln cn ca p.
ng
Ty
Nam
(x -1, y-1)
(x, y-1)
(x+1, y-1)
(x -1, y)
(x, y)
(x+1, y)
Bc
(x-1, y+1)
(x, y+1)
(x+1, y+1)
Hnh 1.3 Ln cn cc im nh ca ta (x,y)

* Cc ln cn cho: Cc im ln cn cho NP(p) (C th coi ln cn cho la 4 hng:
ng-Nam, ng-Bc, Ty-Nam, Ty-Bc)
Np(p) = { (x+1, y+1); (x+1, y-1); (x-1, y+1); (x-1, y-1)}
* Tp kt hp: N8(p) = N4(p) + NP(p) l tp hp 8 ln cn ca im nh p.
* Ch : Nu (x, y) nm bin (mp) nh; mt s im s nm ngoi nh.
b) Cc mi lin kt im nh.
Cc mi lin kt c s dng xc nh gii hn (Boundaries) ca i tng vt th
hoc xc nh vng trong mt nh. Mt lin kt c c trng bi tnh lin k gia cc im v
mc xm ca chng.
Gi s V l tp cc gi tr mc xm. Mt nh c cc gi tr cng sng t thang mc
xm t 32 n 64 c m t nh sau :
V={32, 33, , 63, 64}.
C 3 loi lin kt.
* Lin kt 4: Hai im nh p v q c ni l lin kt 4 vi cc gi tr cng sng V
nu q nm trong mt cc ln cn ca p, tc q thuc N4(p)
* Lin kt 8: Hai im nh p v q nm trong mt cc ln cn 8 ca p, tc q thuc N8(p)
* Lin kt m (lin kt hn hp): Hai im nh p v q vi cc gi tr cng sng V
c ni l lin kt m nu.
1. q thuc N4(p) hoc
2. q thuc NP(p)
c) o khong cch gia cc im nh.
nh ngha: Khong cch D(p, q) gia hai im nh p to (x, y), q to (s, t) l hm
khong cch (Distance) hoc Metric nu:
1. D(p,q) 0 (Vi D(p,q)=0 nu v ch nu p=q)
2. D(p,q) = D(q,p)
3. D(p,z) D(p,q) + D(q,z); z l mt im nh khc.
Khong cch Euclide: Khong cch Euclide gia hai im nh p(x, y) v q(s, t) c
nh ngha nh sau:
De(p, q) = [(x - s)2 + (y - t)2]1/2
Khong cch khi: Khong cch D4(p, q) c gi l khong cch khi th (CityBlock Distance) v c xc nh nh sau:
D4(p,q) = | x - s | + | y - t |
Gi tr khong cch gia cc im nh r: gi tr bn knh r gia im nh t tm im nh
n tm im nh q khc. V d: Mn hnh CGA 12 (12*2,54cm = 30,48cm=304,8mm) phn
gii 320*200; t l 4/3 (Chiu di/Chiu rng). Theo nh l Pitago v tam gic vung, ng
cho s ly t l 5 phn (5/4/3: ng cho/chiu di/chiu rng mn hnh); khi di tht l
(305/244/183) chiu rng mn hnh 183mm ng vi mn hnh CGA 200 im nh theo chiu dc.
Nh vy, khong cch im nh ln cn ca CGA 12 l 1mm.
Khong cch D8(p, q) cn gi l khong cch bn c (Chess-Board Distance) gia im
nh p, q c xc nh nh sau:
D8(p,q) = max (| x-s | , | y-t |)
1.2.6 Cc thnh phn c bn ca h thng x l nh

B nh
u o
B s ha
My tnh s
B hin th
Hnh 1.3 Cc thnh phn chnh ca h thng x l nh.
Theo quan im ca quy trnh x l, chng ta th hin cc khi c bn trn Hnh 1.1,
cc khi chi tit v lung thng tin trn Hnh 1.2. Theo quan im ca h thng x l trn my
tnh s, h thng gm cc u o (thu nhn nh); b s ha ; my tnh s; B hin th; B nh.
Cc thnh phn ny khng nhc li y (c thm gio trnh cu trc my tnh).
Mt h thng x l nh c bn c th gm: my tnh c nhn km theo v mch chuyn
i ho VGA hoc SVGA, a cha cc nh dng kim tra cc thut ton v mt mn hnh
c h tr VGA hoc SVGA. Nu iu kin cho php, nn c mt h thng nh Hnh 1.4. bao gm
9
mt my tnh PC km theo thit b x l nh. Ni vi cng vo ca thit b thu nhn nh l mt
video camera, v cng ra ni vi mt mn hnh. Thc t, phn ln cc nghin cu ca chng ta
c a ra trn nh mc xm (nh en trng). Bi vy, h thng s bao gm mt thit b x l
nh en trng v mt mn hnh en trng.
nh mc xm c p dng trong nhiu lnh vc nh sinh vt hc hoc trong cng
nghip. Thc t ch ra rng bt k ng dng no trn nh, mc xm cng ng dng c trn nh
mu. Vi l do , h thng ban u nn ch bao gm cc thit b thu nhn v hin th nh en
trng. Vi nh mu, nn s dng mt h thng mi nh Hnh 1.3, tr trng hp bn cn mt
camera TV mu v mt mn hnh a tn s (v d nh NEC MultiSync, Sony Multiscan, hoc
Mitsubishi Diamond Scan) hin th nh mu. Nu kh nng hn ch, c th dng PC km theo
v mch VGA v mn hnh VGA, dng nh c.
C a m e r a
truyn hnh
vi ng knh
c kh nng
phng to, thu
nh.
n thit b
nhn nh
Mn hnh
ho v
vn bn
n mn
hnh video
Thit b
nhn nh
Mn
hnh
video
My tnh c nhn
Hnh 1.4 Mt h thng x l nh.
1.3 NHNG VN KHC TRONG X L NH

1.3.1 Bin i nh (Image Transform)
Trong x l nh do s im nh ln cc tnh ton nhiu ( phc tp tnh ton cao) i hi
dung lng b nh ln, thi gian tnh ton lu. Cc phng php khoa hc kinh in p dng cho
x l nh hu ht kh kh thi. Ngi ta s dng cc php ton tng ng hoc bin i sang
min x l khc d tnh ton. Sau khi x l d dng hn c thc hin, dng bin i ngc
a v min xc nh ban u, cc bin i thng gp trong x l nh gm:
- Bin i Fourier, Cosin, Sin
- Bin i (m t) nh bng tch chp, tch Kronecker (theo x l s tn hiu [3])
- Cc bin i khc nh KL (Karhumen Loeve), Hadamard
Mt s cc cng c sc xut thng k cng c s dng trong x l nh. Do khun kh
ti liu hng dn c hn, sinh vin c thm cc ti liu [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] nm c cc phng
php bin i v mt s phng php khc c nu y.
10
1.3.2 Nn nh
nh d dng no vn chim khng gian nh rt ln. Khi m t nh ngi ta a k
thut nn nh vo. Cc giai on nn nh c th chia ra th h 1, th h 2. Hin nay, cc chun
MPEG c dng vi nh ang pht huy hiu qu. Mt s phng php, thut ton nn cp
cc chng 7.
CU HI N TP
1. Trnh by cc thnh phn v lu thng tin gia cc khi trong qu trnh x l nh.
2. Nu khi nim v nh ngha im nh.
3. Th no l phn gii nh, cho v d?
4. Trnh by nh ngha mc xm, cho v d.
5. Nu quan h gia cc im nh.
6. Trnh by v khong cch o v phn loi khong cch gia cc im nh.
7. Nu ngha ca cc php bin i nh, lit k mt s php bin i v cho v d.
11
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh
CHNG 2: THU NHN NH

1. Cc thit b thu nhn nh;
2. Ly mu v lng t ho
3. Mt s phng php biu din nh
4. Cc nh dng nh c bn
5. K thut ti nhn nh
6. Khi nim nh en trng v nh mu
2.1 CC THIT B THU NHN NH

Hai thnh phn cho cng on ny l linh kin nhy vi ph nng lng in t trng,
loi th nht to tn hiu in u ra t l vi mc nng lng m b cm bin (i din l
camera); loi th hai l b s ho.
2.1.1 B cm bin nh
My chp nh, camera c th ghi li hnh nh (phim trong my chp, vidicon trong
camera truyn hnh). C nhiu loi my cm bin (Sensor) lm vic vi nh sng nhn thy v
hng ngoi nh: Micro Densitometers, Image Dissector, Camera Divicon, linh kin quang in
bng bn dn. Cc loi cm bin bng chp nh phi s ho l phim m bn hoc chp nh.
Camera divicon v linh kin bn dn quang in c th cho nh ghi trn bng t c th s ho.
Trong Micro Densitometer phim v nh chp c gn trn mt phng hoc cun quang trng.
Vic qut nh thng qua tia sng (v d tia Laser) trn nh ng thi dch chuyn mt phim hoc
quang trng tng i theo tia sng. Trng hp dng phim, tia sng i qua phim.
By gi chng ta cp n tt c cc khi trong h thng.
Thit b nhn nh.
Chc nng ca thit b ny l s ha mt bng tn s c bn ca tn hiu truyn hnh cung
cp t mt camera, hoc t mt u my VCR. nh s sau c lu tr trong b m chnh.
B m ny c kh nng c a ch ha (nh mt PC) n tng im bng phn mm. Thng
thng thit b ny c nhiu chng trnh con iu khin c th lp trnh c thng qua ngn
ng C. Khi mua mt thit cn ch ccc im sau:
1. Thit b c kh nng s ha nh t nht 8 bit (256 mc xm) v nh thu c phi c
kch thc t nht l 512512 im hoc hn.
2. Thit b phi cha mt b m nh lu tr mt hoc nhiu nh c phn gii
512512 im nh.
3. Thit b phi c km mt b y th vin cc chng trnh con c kh nng giao
din vi cc chng trnh C vit bng Turbo C hoc Microsoft C.
4. S tay hng dn s dng phi c km theo, gm c dng cha trn a v khi in.
12
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

5. Mt s thit b cho php tu chn s dng c hai ch vn bn v ho trn cng
mt mn hnh hoc hai mn hnh ring bit. Mc d chi tit ny l khng cn thit,
nhng n s rt c gi tr trong trng hp b gii hn v khng gian lp t hoc kh
nng ti chnh.
Camera.
Tng qut c hai kiu camera: kiu camera dng n chn khng v kiu camera ch dng
bn dn. c bit l trong lnh vc ny, camera bn dn thng hay c dng hn camera n
chn khng. Camera bn dn cng c gi l CCD camera do dng cc thanh ghi dch c bit
gi l thit b gp (Charge-Coupled Devices- CCDs). Cc CCD ny chuyn cc tn hiu nh sang
t b cm nhn nh sng b tr pha trc camera thnh cc tn hiu in m sau c m
ha thnh tn hiu TV. Loi camera cht lng cao cho tn hiu t nhiu v c nhy cao vi nh
sng. Khi chn camera cn ch n cc thu knh t 18 n 108 mm. Sau y l danh sch cc
nh sn xut:
1. Pulnix America Inc, 770 Lucerne Drive, Sunnyvale, CA 84086. Tel. 408-773-1550; fax
408-737-2966.
2. Sony Corp. of America, Component Products Co., 10833 Valley View St., Cypress, CA
90630. Fax 714-737-4285.
3. Parasonic, industrial camera division: 201-329-6674.
4. JVC Professional: 1-800-JVC-5825.
Mn hnh video.
Mt s nh sn xut (nh Sony) sn xut cc loi mn hnh en trng cht lng cao. Nn
s dng loi mn hnh cht lng cao, v mn hnh cht lng thp c th lm bn nhm ln kt
qu. Mt mn hnh 9 inch l cho yu cu lm vic. hin th nh mu, nn dng mt mn
hnh a h.
My tnh.
Cn c mt my tnh P4 hoc cu hnh cao hn. chc chn, cc my ny phi c sn
cc khe cm cho phn x l nh. Cc chng trnh thit k v lc nh c th chy trn bt k h
thng no. Cc chng trnh con hin th nh dng v mch VGA v c sn trn a km theo.
Cc chng trnh con hin th nh cng h tr cho hu ht cc v mch SVGA.
2.1.2 H ta mu
a) Khi nim
T chc quc t v chun ha mu CIE (Commission Internationale dEclairage) a ra
mt s chun biu din mu. Cc h ny c cc chun ring. H chun mu CIE-RGB dng 3
mu c bn R, G, B v k hiu RGBCIE phn bit vi cc chun khc. Nh nu trn, mt
mu l t hp ca cc mu c bn theo mt t l no . Nh vy, mi pixel nh mu k hiu Px,
c vit: (T: trong cng thc d y l k hiu chuyn v)
Px = [red , green, blue]
Ngi ta dng h ta ba mu R-G-B (tng ng vi h ta x-y-z) biu din mu

nh sau:
13
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh
Blue (l)
(0,0,1) l
(1,0,1) tm
(0,1,1) tm xanh
(1,1,1) trng
(0,0,0) en
(0,1,0) lc
Green (lc)
Red ()
(1,0,0) (1,1,0) vng
Hnh 2.1 H ta RGB

Trong cch biu din ny ta c cng thc:
+ lc + l =1
Cng thc ny gi l cng thc Maxwell. Trong hnh trn, tam gic to bi ba ng t
on gi l tam gic Maxwell. Mu trng trong h ta ny c tnh bi:
trngCIE = (CIE + lcCIE + lCIE) = 1
b) Bin i h ta mu
H ta mu do CIE xut c tc dng nh mt h quy chiu v khng biu din ht
cc mu. Trn thc t, ph thuc vo cc ng dng khc nhau ngi ta a ra cc h biu din
mu khc nhau. Th d:
- H NTSC: dng 3 mu R, G, B p dng cho mn hnh mu, k hiu RGBNTSC;
- H CMY (Cyan Magenta Yellow): thng dng cho in nh mu;
- H YIQ: cho truyn hnh mu.
Vic chuyn i gia cc khng gian biu din mu c thc hin theo nguyn tc sau:
Nu gi l khng gian biu din cc mu ban u; khng gian biu din mu mi
A l ma trn biu din php bin i. Ta c quan h sau:
= A
V d, bin i h ta mu RGBCIE sang h ta mu RGBNTSC ta c cc vc t tng
ng:
RCIE
R NTSC
Px = GCIE v Px ' = G NTSC

BCIE
B NTSC
Cng thc chuyn i c vit di dng ma trn:
RCIE 1.167 0.146 0.151 R NTSC

G = 0.114
0.753
0.159 G NTSC
CIE
BCIE 0.001 0.059
1.128 B NTSC
14
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

Mt s cc bin i ca cc h ta mu khc, hc vin c th tham kho cc ti liu [1,
3, 7].
2.2 LY MU V LNG T HA
2.2.1 Gii thiu
Mt nh g(x, y) ghi c t Camera l nh lin tc to nn mt phng hai chiu. nh cn
chuyn sang dng thch hp x l bng my tnh. Phng php bin i mt nh (hay mt hm)
lin tc trong khng gian cng nh theo gi tr thnh dng s ri rc c gi l s ho nh. Vic
bin i ny c th gm hai bc:
Bc 1: o gi tr trn cc khong khng gian gi l ly mu
Bc 2: nh x cng (hoc gi tr) o c thnh mt s hu hn cc mc ri rc gi
l lng t ho.
2.2.2 Ly mu
Ly mu l mt qu trnh, qua nh c to nn trn mt vng c tnh lin tc c
chuyn thnh cc gi tr ri rc theo ta nguyn. Qu trnh ny gm 2 la chn:
- Mt l: khong ly mu.
- Hai l: cch th hin dng mu.
La chn th nht c m bo nh l thuyt ly mu ca Shannon. La chn th hai
lin quan n o (Metric) c dng trong min ri rc.
Khong ly mu (Sampling Interval)
nh ly mu c th c m t nh vic la chn mt tp cc v tr ly mu trong khng
gian hai chiu lin tc. u tin m t qua qu trnh ly mu mt chiu vi vic s dng hm
delta:
0 khi x 0
khi x = 0
(x x0 ) =
( x x 0 ) dx =
x0 +
x0
( x x 0 ) dx = 1
(2-1)
(2-2)
Tip theo chng ta nh ngha hm rng lc vi cc khong x nh sau:
Comb( x) =
( x rx)
(2-3)
r =
vi r l s nguyn, x : khong ly mu
Nh vy, hm rng lc l chui cc xung rng lc t (- n +). Gi s hm mt
chiu g(x) c m t (gn ng) bng g(r x ) tc l:
g ( x ) g (r x )
(2-4)
Khi tn hiu ly mu c m hnh ho
g s ( x) = g ( x)comb( x) = g ( x) ( x rx)
(2-5)
r =
15
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

hoc tng ng
g (rx) ( x rx)
g s ( x) =
(2-6)
r =
Trong thc t, r khng th tnh c trong khong v hn (t n + ) m l mt s

lng Nx mu ln c th. Nh vy, n gin c th ni hm lin tc g(x) c th biu din
trn mt min vi di Nx mu thnh chui nh sau:
g ( x) {g (0), g (x), g (2x),..., g (( N 1)x)
(2-7)
Ch 1: Khong ly mu (Sampling Interval) x l mt tham s cn phi c chn

nh, thch hp, nu khng tn hiu tht khng th khi phc li c t tn hiu ly mu.
Ch 2: T l thuyt v x l tn hiu s [5], (2-6) l tch chp trong min khng gian x.
Mt khc (2-6) tng ng vi tch chp trong min tn s tc l bin i Fourier ca gs(x) l
Gs ( x ) .
Gs ( x ) =
1
k
G ( x )
x K =
x
(2-8)
trong x l gi tr tn s ng vi gii tr x trong min khng gian.

iu kin khi phc nh ly mu v nh tht c pht biu t nh l ly mu ca
Shannon.
nh l ly mu ca Shannon [5]
Gi s g(x) l mt hm gii hn gii (Band Limited Function) v bin i Fourier ca n
l G ( x ) = 0 i vi cc gi tr x > Wx . Khi g(x) c th c khi phc li t cc mu c
to ti cc khong x u n. Tc l
(2-9)
2x
nh l ly mu ca Shannon c th m rng cho khng gian hai chiu. Hm rng lc

hai chiu khi c xc nh:
comb(x,y)=
( x nx)( y my)
(2-10)
n = m =
Hm ly mu hai chiu thu c:
g s ( x, y ) = g ( x, y )comb( x, y ) = g ( x, y )
( x nx, y my)
(2-11)
n = m =
v x, y c chn tho mn cc iu kin tng ng theo nh l ly mu ca Shannon khi

s:
1
2x
; y
1
2y
(2-12)
Tng t nh khng gian mt chiu, mt tn hiu nh hai chiu g(x,y) c th xp x trong

khong [N, M] c th c c lng nh sau :
g(x, y) g(nx, my) ={g(0,0),g(0,1),...,g(0, N 1),g(1,0),g(1,1),...,g(1, N 1),...,g(N 1, M 1) } (2-13)

16
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

Cc dng ly mu (Tesselation)
Dng ly mu (Tesselation) im nh l cch bi tr cc im mu trong khng gian hai
chiu. Mt s dng mu im nh c cho l dng ch nht, tam gic, lc gic. Mi mt mu,
ngoi vic th hin hnh dng cn cho bit c im lin thng ca chng. V d, mu ch nht c
lin thng 4 hoc 8 (ni v cc mu lin k); mu lc gic c lin thng 6; mu tam gic c lin
thng 3 hoc 6.
a) Mu im nh ch nht
b) Mu im nh tam gic
c) Mu im nh lc gic
Hnh 2.2 Cc dng mu im nh

Cn ch rng ti liu ny ch xt cc mu im nh hnh ch nht, c bit l dng hnh
vung. Nhiu trng hp ng dng c dng n cc cc mu tam gic hoc lc gic.
2.2.3 Lng t ha
Lng t ho l mt qu trnh lng ho tn hiu tht dng chung cho cc loi x l tn
hiu trn c s my tnh. Vn ny c nghin cu k lng v c nhiu li gii l thuyt
di nhiu gi nh ca cc nh nghin cu nh Panter v Dite (1951), Max (1960), Panter (1965)
[5].
Cc gi tr ly mu Z l mt tp cc s thc t gi tr Zmin n ln nht Zmax. Mi mt s
trong cc gi tr mu Z cn phi bin i thnh mt tp hu hn s bit my tnh lu tr hoc x
l.
nh ngha: Lng t ho l nh x t cc s thc m t gi tr ly mu thnh mt gii
hu hn cc s thc. Ni cch khc, l qu trnh s ho bin .
Zmin
l1
Zmax
l2
l3
l4
lN-1 lN
Hnh 2.3 Khung lng t theo L mc xm.
17
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

Gi s Z l mt gi tr ly mu (s thc) ti v tr no ca mt phng nh, v
Zmin<=Z<=Zmax v gi s chng ta mun lng ho gi tr thnh mt trong cc mc ri rc:
l1, l2,ln tng ng vi Zmin n Zmax (Hnh 2.3). Khi , qu trnh lng ho c th thc hin
bng cch chia ton b min vo (Zmax - Zmin) thnh L khong, mi khong l l v khong th i
c t ti im gia cc khong lin k li. h cc gi tr z c thc hin v m t bng li theo
qu trnh trn y, khi sai s ca qu trnh ly mu c th c xc nh theo :
eq=li Z.
(2.14)
Chi tit hn v sai s ly mu, hc vin cn xem thm [5].
2.3 MT S PHNG PHP BIU DIN NH

Sau bc s ha, nh s c lu tr hay chuyn sang giai on phn tch. Trc khi
cp n vn lu tr nh, cn xem xt nh s c biu din ra sao trong b nh my tnh.
Chng 1 gii thiu tng quan v cc phng php biu din nh. Di y gii thiu mt s
phng php biu din thng dng chi tit v tng minh hn:
- Biu din m lot di (Run-length Code)
- Biu din m xch (Chain Code)
- Biu din m t phn (Quad Tree Code)
2.3.1 M lot di
Phng php ny hay dng biu din cho vng nh hay nh nh phn. Mt vng nh R
c th biu din n gin nh mt ma trn nh phn:
1 khi (m, n) R
u (m, n) =
0 khc
(2.15)
Vi cc biu din trn, mt vng nh hay nh nh phn oc xem nh chui 0 hay 1 an

xen. Cc chui ny c gi l mch (run). Theo phng php ny, mi mch s c biu din
bi a ch bt u ca mch v chiu di mch theo dng {<hng,ct>, chiu di}.
2.3.2 M xch
M xch thng c dng biu din bin ca nh. Thay v lu tr ton b nh, ngi
ta lu tr dy cc im nh nh A, BM. Theo phng php ny, 8 hng ca vect ni 2 im
bin lin tc c m ha. Khi nh c biu din qua im nh bt u A cng vi chui cc
t m. iu ny c minh ha trong hnh di y:
3
2
1
0
5
1
A
2
0 1
18
7
6
5 4
Hnh 2.2. Hng cc im bin v m tng ng:

A11070110764545432
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh
2.3.3 M t phn
Theo phng php m t phn, mt vng nh coi nh bao kn mt hnh ch nht. Vng
ny c chia lm 4 vng con (Quadrant). Nu mt vng con gm ton im en (1) hay ton
im trng (0) th khng cn chia tip. Trong trng hp ngc li, vng con gm c im en v
trng gi l vng khng ng nht, ta tip tc chia thnh 4 vng con tip v kim tra tnh ng
nht ca cc vng con . Qu trnh chia dng li khi mi vng con ch cha thun nht im en
hoc im trng. Qu trnh to thnh mt cy chia theo bn phn gi l cy t phn. Nh vy,
cy biu din nh gm mt chui cc k hiu b (black), w (white) v g (grey) km theo k hiu
m ha 4 vng con. Biu din theo phng php ny u vit hn so vi cc phng php trn,
nht l so vi m lot di. Tuy nhin, tnh ton s o cc hnh nh chu vi, m men l tng i
kh khn.
2.4 CC NH DNG NH C BN
2.4.1 Khi nim chung
nh thu c sau qu trnh s ha thng c lu li cho cc qu trnh x l tip theo
hay truyn i (xem li Hnh 1.2). Trong qu trnh pht trin ca k thut x l nh, tn ti nhiu
nh dng nh khc nhau t nh en trng (vi nh dng IMG), nh a cp xm cho n nh
mu: (BMP, GIF, JPEG). Tuy cc nh dng ny khc nhau, song chng u tun theo mt cu
trc chung nht. Nhn chung, mt tp nh bt k thng bao gm 3 phn:
- Mo u tp (Header)
- D liu nn (Data Compression)
- Bng mu (Palette Color)
a) Mo u tp:
Mo u tp l phn cha cc thng tin v kiu nh, kch thc, phn gii, s bit dng
cho 1 pixel, cch m ha, v tr bng mu
b) D liu nn:
S liu nh c m ha bi kiu m ha ch ra trong phn Header.
c) Bng mu:
Bng mu khng nht thit phi c v d khi nh l en trng. Nu c, bng mu cho bit
s mu dng trong nh v bng mu c s dng hin th mu ca nh. Mt s cc nh dng
khc, cu hnh, c trng ca tng ng dng v cc tham s, hc vin c th tham kho thm ti
liu khc (v d [1]).
2.4.2 Quy trnh c mt tp nh

Trong qu trnh x l nh, u tin phi tin hnh c tp nh v chuyn vo b nh ca
my tnh di dng ma trn s liu nh. Khi lu tr di dng tp, nh l mt khi gm mt s
cc byte. c ng tp nh ta cn hiu ngha cc phn trong cu trc ca tp nh nh nu
trn. Trc tin, ta cn c phn mo u (Header) ly cc thng tin chung v thng tin iu
khin. Vic c ny s dng ngay khi ta khng gp c ch k (Ch k y thng c hiu
19
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

l mt m ch ra nh dng nh v i (version) ca n) mong mun. Da vo thng tin iu
khin, ta xc nh c v tr bng mu v c n vo b nh. Cui cng, ta c phn d liu nn.
Sau khi c xong cc khi d liu nh vo b nh ta tin hnh nn d liu nh. Cn c
vo phng php nn ch ra trong phn Header ta gii m c nh. Cui cng l khu hin nh.
Da vo s liu nh gii nn, v tr v kch thc nh, cng s tr gip ca bng mu nh c
hin ln trn mn hnh.
2.5 CC K THUT TI HIN NH

2.5.1 K thut chp nh
Phng php sao chp nh l phng php n gin, gi thnh thp, cht lng cao. Sau
bc chp l k thut phng ti nhm tng cng nh nh mong mun. V d k thut phng ti
nh: phng i nh, thu nh nh, ty theo ng dng. K thut chp nh mn hnh mu kh n
gin. N bao gm cc bc sau :
1) t camera trong phng ti, cch mn hnh khong 10 feet (1feet=0,3048m)
2) M ng knh phng mt cong mn hnh, do vy nh s dn u hn
3) Tt phm sang ti (Brightness) v phm tng phn (Contrast) ca mn hnh to
r cho nh. Cc mu chi, cng cao trn nh s gim i.
4) t tc ng knh t 1/8 n 1/2 giy.
2.5.2 K thut in nh
Ngi ta dng k thut na cng th hin nh trn sch bo, tp ch. Theo k thut
ny, mt nh to nn bi mt chui cc im in trn giy. Thc cht, mi im nh thng gm
mt hnh vung trng bao quanh mt chm en. Do vy, nu chm en cng ln nh s cng xm
mu. Mu xm c th coi nh chm en chim na vng trng. Vng trng l vng gm mt
chm cc im nh c rt t hoc khng c chm en.
T c im cm nhn ca mt ngi, s thay i cng chm en trong cc phn t
nh trng to nn m phng ca mt nh lin tc. Nh vy, mt ngi cm nhn t mt nh m
mu bin i t en qua xm ri n trng. Tng s cng duy nht hin din s xc nh cc
kch thc khc nhau ca chm en. Thng thng, bo nh to nh na cng vi phn
gii t 60 n 80 dpi (dot per inchs : s im nh trn mt inch), sch c th in n 150 dpi.
Tuy nhin, cc my in ghp ni vi my tnh khng c kh nng sp xp cc chm en c
kch thc khc nhau ca nh. Do , ngi ta dng mt s k thut bin i nh: phn ngng,
chn mu, dithering (dithering s nh ngha di y).
a) Phn ngng:
K thut ny t ngng hin th cc tng mu lin tc. Cc im trong nh c so
snh vi ngng nh trc. Gi tr ca ngng s quyt nh im c c hin th hay khng.
Do vy nh kt qu s mt i mt s chi tit. C nhiu k thut chn ngng p dng cho cc i
tng khc nhau :
- Hin th 2 mu: ch dng nh en trng c 256 mc xm. Bn cht ca phng php ny
l chn ngng da trn lc mc xm ca nh. n gin c th ly ngng vi gi tr l
127. Nh vy :
20
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh
1 khi h (m, n) < 127

u (m, n) =
khc
0
trong u(m, n) l mc xm ti ta i9m, n).
Nhn chung k thut ny kh chp nhn v nh mt kh nhiu chi tit.
- Hin th 4 mu: hin 4 mu khc phc nhc im ca k thut hin th 2 mu. Mt
v d ca Bng m 4 mu c cho Bng 1.1.
Bng 1.1 Bng m 4 mu
M
mu
Mn hnh monochrome
(n sc)
Mn hnh
mu
en
en
Xm m
Xm nht
Xanh
Trng
Vng
b) K thut chn theo mu

K thut ny s dng mt nhm cc phn t trn thit b ra (my in chng hn) biu
din mt pixel trn nh ngun. Cc phn t ca nhm quyt nh sng ti ca c nhm. Cc
phn t ny m phng cc chm en trong k thut na cng . Nhm thng c chn c
dng ma trn vung. Nhm n x n phn t s to nn n2+1 mc sng. Ma trn mu thng c
chn l ma trn Rylander. Ma trn Rylander cp 4 c dng nh Bng 1.2.
Bng 1.2. Ma trn Rylander cp 4
0
10
12
14
11
15
13
Vic chn kch thc ca nhm nh vy s lm gim mn ca nh. V vy k thut ny

ch p dng trong trng hp m phn gii ca thit b ra ln hn phn gii ca nh ngun.
Th d: thit b ra c phn gii 640x480 khi s dng nhm c kch thc 4x4 s ch cn
160x120.
c) K thut Dithering
Dithering l vic bin i mt nh a cp xm (nhiu mc sng ti) sang nh nh phn
(hai mc sng ti). K thut Dithering c p dng to ra nh a cp sng khi phn gii
ngun v ch l nh nhau. K thut ny s dng mt ma trn mu gi l ma trn Dither. Ma trn
ny gn ging nh ma trn Rylander.
21
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

to nh, mi phn t ca nh gc s c so snh vi phn t tng ng ca ma trn
Dither. Nu ln hn, phn t u ra s sng v ngc li. Hc vin c th c thm [1]
hiu chi tit hn v k thut ny.
2.6 KHI NIM NH EN TRNG V NH MU

nh c th biu din di dng tn hiu tng t hoc tn hiu s. Trong biu din s ca
cc nh a mc xm, mt nh c biu din di dng mt ma trn hai chiu. Mi phn t ca
ma trn biu din cho mc xm hay cng ca nh ti v tr .
Pixel
or PEL
sng trung bnh trong

mi hnh ch nht = gi tr
mt im nh.
Hnh 2.3 Biu din mc xm ca nh s.

Trong Hnh 2.3, mt li chia vung tng tng c t ln nh. ln mi vung
ca li xc nh kch thc ca mt im nh. Mc xm ca mt im c tnh bng cng
sng trung bnh ti mi vung ny. Mt li cng nh th cht lng nh cng cao. Trong k
thut truyn hnh tin tin, (mc ch l cung cp cho ngi xem), hnh nh cn cht lng cao
vi phn gii gp hai ln so vi cc chun hin nay.
Trong k thut tng t, mt bc nh thng c biu din di dng cc dng nm
ngang k tip nhau. Mi dng l mt tn hiu tng t mang theo cc thng tin v cng sng
dc theo mt ng nm ngang trong nh gc. nh trn mt chic TV c hin ln qua cc
dng qut ny. Mc d thut ng "tng t" c dng m t cho cc nh qut lin tip nhng
thc t nh ch tng t dc theo hng nm ngang. N l ri rc khi xt theo hng dc v chnh
v vy m tn hiu nh l tn hiu lai na tng t, na s.
Mt my truyn hnh c thit k thu tn hiu truyn hnh m ho theo tiu chun
NTSC ca M c kh nng hin th xp x 525 dng. Cng ngh truyn hnh tin b n lc
cung cp cho chng ta s lng cc dng gp hai ln, cho phn gii tt hn l TV mn nh
rng. Mt TV c mn nh ln hn 28 inch c coi l mt TV c mn nh rng. Mt iu cn
ch l TV c kh nng hin mt s dng nh nhau cho d n l 5 inch hay l 50 inch. Mn nh
ln nht ca loi TV dng qut xen k m mt ngi c kh nng phn bit c t khong cch
thng thng vo khong 3 mt.
2.6.1 nh en trng
22
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

nh en trng ch bao gm 2 mu: mu en v mu trng. Ngi ta phn mc en trng
thnh L mc Nu s dng s bit B=8 bt m ha mc en trng (hay mc xm) th L c
xc nh :
L=2B (trong v d ca ta L=28= 256 mc)
Nu L bng 2, B=1, ngha l ch c 2 mc: mc 0 v mc 1, cn gi l nh nh phn. Mc
1 ng vi mu sng, cn mc 0 ng vi mu ti. Nu L ln hn 2 ta c nh a cp xm.
Ni cch khc, vi nh nh phn mi im nh c m ha trn 1 bit, cn vi nh 256 mc, mi
im nh c m ha trn 8 bit. Nh vy, vi nh en trng: nu dng 8 bit (1 byte) biu din
mc xm, s cc mc xm c th biu din c l 256. Mi mc xm c biu din di dng
l mt s nguyn nm trong khong t 0 n 255, vi mc 0 biu din cho mc cng en
nht v 255 biu din cho mc cng sng nht.
nh nh phn kh n gin, cc phn t nh c th coi nh cc phn t logic. ng dng
chnh ca n c dng theo tnh logic phn bit i tng nh vi nn hay phn bit im
bin vi im khc.
2.6.2 nh mu
nh mu theo l thuyt ca Thomas l nh t hp t 3 mu c bn: (R), lc (G), l (B)
v thng thu nhn trn cc di bng tn khc nhau. Vi nh mu, cch biu din cng tng t
nh vi nh en trng, ch khc l cc s ti mi phn t ca ma trn biu din cho ba mu ring
r gm: (red), lc (green) v lam (blue). biu din cho mt im nh mu cn 24 bit. 24 bit
ny c chia thnh ba khong 8 bit. Mi mu cng phn thnh L cp mu khc nhau (thng
L=256). Mi khong ny biu din cho cng sng ca mt trong cc mu chnh.
Do , lu tr nh mu ngi ta c th lu tr tng mu ring bit, mi mu lu tr
nh mt nh a cp xm. Do , khng gian nh dnh cho mt nh mu ln gp 3 ln mt nh a
cp xm cng kch c.
CU HI N TP
1. Trnh by cc thit b thu nhn nh .
2. Th no l ly mu v lng t ha nh?
3. Trnh by phng php m ha lot di.
4. Trnh by cc phng php m ha m xch, m t phn.
5. Trnh by cc phng php m ha t phn.
6. Nu cc nh dng nh c bn.
7. Trnh by khi nim nh en trng v nh mu.
8. Mc xm l gi? K thut th hin mc xm vi nh a cp xm v nh mu ?
9. K thut ti hin nh l g? Trnh by cc k thut ti hin nh
23
Chng 3: X l nng cao cht lng nh
CHNG 3 : X L NNG CAO CHT LNG NH

1. Nhng vn v nng cao cht lng nh. Cc cng c, cc ton t c s dng
2. Phng php ci thin nh s dng cc ton t im
3. Mc ch vai tr ca bin nh. Phng php pht hin bin cc b
4. ngha v cc cng c c bit cc cng c ton hc dng trong khi phc nh.
5. Phn bit s khc bit gia khi phc v nng cao cht lng nh
3.1 CI THIN NH S DNG CC TON T IM

Nng cao cht lng l bc cn thit trong x l nh nhm hon thin mt s c tnh
ca nh. Nng cao cht lng nh gm hai cng on khc nhau: tng cng nh v khi phc
nh. Tng cng nh nhm hon thin cc c tnh ca nh nh :
- Lc nhiu, hay lm trn nh,
- Tng tng phn, iu chnh mc xm ca nh,
- Lm ni bin nh.
Cc thut ton trin khai vic nng cao cht lng nh hu ht da trn cc k thut trong
min im, khng gian v tn s. Ton t im l php bin i i vi tng im nh ang xt,
khng lin quan n cc im ln cn khc, trong khi , ton t khng gian s dng cc im ln
cn quy chiu ti im nh ang xt. Mt s php bin i c tnh ton phc tp c chuyn
sang min tn s thc hin, kt qu cui cng c chuyn tr li min khng gian nh cc
bin i ngc.
Khi nim v ton t im:
X l im nh thc cht l bin i gi tr mt im nh da vo gi tr ca chnh n m
khng h da vo cc im nh khc. C hai cch tim cn vi phng php ny. Cch th nht
dng mt hm bin i thch hp vi mc ch hoc yu cu t ra bin i gi tr mc xm
ca im nh sang mt gi tr mc xm khc. Cch th hai l dng lc mc xm (Gray
Histogram). V mt ton hc, ton t im l mt nh x t gi tr cng nh sng u(m, n) ti
to (m, n) sang gi tri cng nh sng khc v(m, n) thng qua hm f(.), tc l:
v(m,n) = f(u(m,n))
(3-1)
Ni mt cch khc, ton t im l ton t khng b nh, mt mc xc u [ 0 , N ]

c nh x sang mt mc xm v [ 0 , N ] : v = f ( u ) . ng dng chnh ca cc ton t im l
bin i tng phn ca nh. nh x f khc nhau ty theo cc ng dng. Cc dng ton t
im c gii thiu c th nh sau:
1) Tng tng phn.
24
u<a
u
f (u ) = (u a ) + v a a u < b
(u b) + v u < L
b
(3-2)
Cc cp , , xc nh tng phn tng i. L l s mc xm cc i.

2) Tch nhiu v phn ngng
f (u ) = u
L
0u<a
au<b
(3-3)
ub
Trong a = b = t gi l phn ngng.

3) Bin i m bn.
f (u ) = L u to m bn
(3-4)
4) Ct theo mc
L a u b
f (u ) =
0
5) Trch chn bit.
f (u ) = (in 2in 1 ) L
vi in = Int it / 2 n 1 , n=1, 2, , B
(3-5)
3.1.1 Tng tng phn (Stretching Contrast)

Trc tin cn lm r khi nim tng phn. nh s l tp hp cc im, mi im c
gi tr sng khc nhau. y, sng mt ngi d cm nhn nh song khng phi l quyt
nh. Thc t ch ra rng hai i tng c cng sng nhng t trn hai nn khc nhau s cho
cm nhn sng khc nhau. Nh vy, tng phn biu din s thay i sng ca i tng so
vi nn. Ni mt cch khc, tng phn l ni ca im nh hay vng nh so vi nn. Nh
vy, nu nh c tng phn km, ta c th thay i ty theo mun.
nh vi tng phn thp c th do iu kin sng khng hay khng u, hoc do tnh
khng tuyn tnh hay bin ng nh ca b cm nhn nh. iu chnh li tng phn ca
nh, cn iu chnh li bin trn ton di hay trn di c gii hn bng cch bin i tuyn tnh
bin u vo (dng hm bin i l hm tuyn tnh) hay phi tuyn (hm m hay hm lgarit).
Khi dng hm tuyn tnh cc dc , , phi chn ln hn mt trong min cn dn. Cc tham
s a v b (cc cn) c th chn khi xem xt lc xm ca nh. Ch , nu dn tng phn
bng hm tuyn tnh ta c:
= = =1
, , > 1
, , < 1
nh kt qu trng vi nh gc
dn tng phn.
co tng phn
25

v
Vb
va
Hnh 3.1. Dn tng phn.

Hm m thng c dng dn tng phn. Hm c dng:
f (u ) = ( X [m, n])
(3-6)
vi p l bc thay i, thng chn bng 2.
3.1.2 Tch nhiu v phn ngng

Tch nhiu l trng hp c bit ca dn tng phn khi h s gc = =0. Tch nhiu
c ng dng c hiu qu gim nhiu khi bit tn hiu vo trn khong [a, b].
Phn ngng l trng hp c bit ca tch nhiu khi a=b=const. Trong trng hp ny,
nh u vo l nh nh phn (c 2 mc). Phn ngng thng dng trong k thut in nh 2 mu v
nh gn nh phn khng cho nh nh phn khi qut nh do c nhiu t b cm bin v bin i ca
nn v d trng hp lc nhiu ca nh vn tay.
v
Lc xm
Hnh 3.2. Tch nhiu v phn ngng.
3.1.2 Bin i m bn (Digital Negative)

m bn nhn c bng php bin i m. Php bin i rt c nhiu hu ch trong cc
phim nh dng trong cc nh y hc.
f (u ) = L u
v
26
Hnh 3.3. Bin i m bn.
3.1.4 Ct theo mc (Intensity Level Slicing)

K thut ny dng 2 php nh s khc nhau cho trng hp c nn v khng nn
(3.7)
C nn:
Khng nn:
L
f (u ) =
u
khi a u b
L
f (u ) =
0
khi a u b
(3-8)
a) Khng nn
b) C nn
Hnh 3.4. K thut ct theo mc

Bin i ny cho php phn on mt s mc xm t phn cn li ca nh. N c tc dng
khi nhiu c tnh khc nhau ca nh nm trn nhiu min mc xm khc nhau.
3.1.5 Trch chn bit (Bit Extraction)

Nh trnh by trn, mi im nh thng c m ha trn B bit. Nu B=8 ta c nh
2 =256 mc xm (nh nh phn ng vi B=1). Trong cc bit m ha ny, ngi ta chia lm 2 loi:
bit bc thp v bit bc cao. Vi bit bc cao, bo ton thng tin cao hn so vi bit bc thp. Cc
bit bc thp thng biu din nhiu hay nn. Trong k thut ny, ta c:
8
u= k12B-1 + k22B-2 + + kB-12 + kB
(3-9)
trch chn bit c ngha nht: bit th n v hin th chng, dng bin i sau:
L
f (u ) =
0
khi k n = 1
(3-10)
27

D thy: kn = in - 2in-1.
3.1.6 Tr nh
Tr nh c dng tch nhiu khi nn. Ngi ta quan st nh 2 thi im khc nhau,
so snh chng tm ra s khc nhau. Ngi ta dng thng 2 nh ri tr i v thu c nh mi.
nh mi ny chnh l s khc nhau. K thut ny hay c dng trong d bo thoi tit, trong y
hc.
3.1.7 Nn di sng.
i khi do di ng ca nh ln, vic quan st nh khng thun tin. Cn phi thu nh di
sng li m ta gi l nn gii sng. Ngi ta dng php bin i logarit sau:
v(m,n) = c log10( + u(m,n))
(3-11)
vi c l hng s t l. c coi l nh so vi u(m, n). Thng c chn trong khong 3-10.
3.1.8 M hnh ha v bin i lc xm

V ngha ca lc xm v mt s php bin i lc c trnh by trong ti liu
ny. Xt n mt s bin i hay dng sau:
f (u ) =
P (x )
x1 = 0
(3-12)
h( xi )
vi Pu ( xi ) =
L 1
h( x
i =0
(3-13)
trong , h(xi) l lc mc xm xi.

Ngoi cc bin i trn, ngi ta cn dng mt s bin i khc. Trong cc bin i ny,
mc xm u vo u, trc tin c bin i phi tuyn bi mt trong cc hm sau:
u
f (u ) =
( x1 )
( x1 )
x1= 0
L 1
x1= 0
1/ n
u
1/ n
u
vi n = 2, 3,
f (u ) = log ( 1 + u ) ; u0
f(u) = u1/n
u 0, n = 2, 3,
(3-14)
(3-15)
(3-16)
Sau cc bin i , u ra c lng ho u. Ba php bin i ny c dng trong

lng ha nh. Ni chung, cc bin i lc nhm bin i lc t mt ng khng thun
nht sang ng nht tin cho phn tch nh.
3.2 CI THIN NH DNG TON T KHNG GIAN

Ci thin nh l lm cho nh c cht lng tt hn theo s dng. Thng l nh thu
nhn c nhiu cn phi loi b nhiu hay nh khng sc nt b m hoc cn lm t cc chi tit nh
ng bin nh. Cc ton t khng gian dng trong k thut tng cng nh c phn nhm
theo cng dng: lm trn nhiu, ni bin. lm trn nhiu hay tch nhiu, ngi ta s dng cc
28

b lc tuyn tnh (lc trung bnh, thng thp) hay lc phi tuyn (trung v, gi trung v, lc ng
hnh). T bn cht ca nhiu (thng tng ng vi tn s cao) v t c s l thuyt lc l: b lc
ch cho tn hiu c tn s no thng qua do , lc nhiu ngi ta thng dng lc thng
thp (theo quan im tn s khng gian) hay ly t hp tuyn tnh san bng (lc trung bnh).
lm ni cnh (ng vi tn s cao), ngi ta dng cc b lc thng cao, lc Laplace.
Trc khi xem xt chi tit cc k thut p dng, cn phn bit cc loi nhiu hay can thip
trong qu trnh x l nh. Trn thc t tn ti nhiu loi nhiu; tuy nhin ngi ta thng xem xt
3 loi nhiu chnh: nhiu cng, nhiu nhn v nhiu xung:
Nhiu cng
Nhiu cng thng phn b khp nh. Nu gi nh quan st (nh thu c) l Xqs, nh gc
l Xgc, nhiu l , nh thu c c th biu din bi:
Xqs = Xgc +
(3-17)
Nhiu nhn
Nhiu nhn thng phn b khp nh v nh thu c s biu din vi cng thc:
Xqs = Xgc *
(3-17)
Nhiu xung
Nhiu xung thng gy t bin ti mt s im nh.
3.2.1 Lm trn nhiu bng lc tuyn tnh: lc trung bnh v lc di thng thp
Do c nhiu loi nhiu can thip vo qu trnh x l nh nn cn c nhiu b lc thch hp.
Vi nhiu cng v nhiu nhn ta dng cc b lc thng thp, trung bnh v lc ng hnh
(Homomorphie); vi nhiu xung ta dng lc trung b, gi trung v, lc ngoi (Outlier).
a. Lc trung bnh khng gian
Vi lc trung bnh, mi im nh c thay th bng trung bnh trng s ca cc im ln
cn v c nh ngha nh sau:
v(m, n) =
a (k , l ) y (m k , n l )
(3-18)
( k ,l ) W
Nu trong k thut lc trn, ta dng cc trng s nh nhau, phng trnh trn s tr thnh:
v(m, n) =
1
N
y (m k , n l )
(3-19)
( k ,l ) W
vi : y(m, n): nh u vo,

v(m, n): nh u ra,
a(k, l) : l ca s lc.
vi a k ,l =
1
v Nw l s im nh trong ca s lc W.
Nw
Lc trung bnh c trng s chnh l thc hin chp nh u vo vi nhn chp H. Nhn chp
H trong trng hp ny c dng:
29
1 1 1
1
H = 1 1 1
9
1 1 1
Trong lc trung bnh, thng ngi ta u tin cho cc hng bo v bin ca nh khi b
m khi lm trn nh. Cc kiu mt n c s dng ty theo cc trng hp khc nhau. Cc b
lc trn l b lc tuyn tnh theo ngha l im nh tm ca s s c thay bi t hp cc im
ln cn chp vi mt n.
Gi s u vo biu din bi ma trn I:
4
5
I = 6
5
5
7 3 7 1
7 1 7 1
6 1 8 3
7 5 7 1
7 6 1 2
nh s thu c bi lc trung bnh Y=H I c dng:
23
35
1
Y = 36
9
36
24
26
39
43
48
35
31
46
49
48
33
19
31
34
34
22
16
27
27
22
11
Mt b lc trung bnh khng gian khc cng hay c s dng. Phng trnh ca b lc
c dng:
Y [m, n] =
1
1
X [m, n] + {X [m, n] + X [m 1, n] + X [m + 1, n] + X [m, n 1] + X [m, n + 1]} (3-20)
2
4
y, nhn chp H c kch thuc 2x2 v mi im nh kt qu c gi tr bng trung bnh

cng ca n vi trung bnh cng ca 4 ln cn gn nht.
Lc trung bnh trng s l mt trng hp ring ca lc thng thp.
b. Lc thng thp
Lc thng thp thng c s dng lm trn nhiu.V nguyn l ca b lc thng thp
ging nh trnh by trn. Trong k thut ny ngi ta hay dng mt s nhn chp c dng sau:
0 1 0
1
H t1 = 1 2 1
8
0 1 0
1 b
1
b b 2
Hb =
2
(b + 2)
1 b
1
b
1
Ta d dng nhn thy khi b =1, Hb chnh l nhn chp Ht1 (lc trung bnh). hiu r hn
bn cht kh nhiu cng ca cc b lc ny, ta vit li phng trnh thu nhn nh di dng:
30

Xqs[m,n] = Xgc[m,n] + [m,n]
Trong [m, n] l nhiu cng c phng sai
bnh ta c:
Y [m, n] =
1
Nw
X
k ,l W
1
hay: Y [m, n] =
Nw
qs
2n.
(3-21)
Nh vy, theo cch tnh ca lc trung
(m k , n l ) + [m, n]
X
k ,l W
qs
(m k , n l ) +
n2
Nw
(3-22)
(3-23)
Nh vy, nhiu cng trong nh gim i Nw ln.

c. Lc ng hnh hnh (Homomorphie Filter)
K thut lc ny hiu qu vi nh c nhiu nhn. Thc t, nh quan st c gm nh gc
nhn vi mt h s nhiu. Gi X (m, n) l nh thu c, X(m, n) l nh gc v (m, n) l nhiu,
nh vy:
X(m, n) = X (m, n) * (m, n).
(3-24)
Lc ng hnh thc hin ly logarit ca nh quan st. Do vy ta c kt qu sau:

Log(X(m, n)) = log( X (m, n) ) + log( (m, n))
(3-25)
R rng, nhiu nhn c trong nh s b gim. Sau qu trnh lc tuyn tnh, ta chuyn v nh
c bng php bin i hm e m.
3.2.2 Lm trn nhiu bng lc phi tuyn

Cc b lc phi tuyn cng hay c dng trong k thut tng cng nh. Trong k thut
ny, ngi ta dng b lc trung v, gi trung v, lc ngoi. Vi lc trung v, im nh u vo s
c thay th bi trung v cc im nh cn lc gi trung v s dng trung bnh cng ca 2 gi tr
trung v (trung bnh cng ca max v min).
a. Lc trung v
Trung v c vit vi cng thc:
v(m, n) = Trungvi ( y (m k , n l ) ) vi {k, l} W
(3-26)
K thut ny i hi gi tr cc im nh trong ca s phi xp theo th t tng hay gim

dn so vi gi tr trung v. Kch thc ca s thng c chn sao cho s im nh trong ca s
l l. Cc ca s hay dng l ca s c kch thc 3x3, hay 5x5 hay 7x7. Th d:
Nu y(m) = {2, 3, 8, 4, 2} v ca s W=(-1, 0, 1), nh thu c sau lc trung v s l:
v(m) = (2, 3, 4, 4, 2).
do :
v[0]= 2 <gi tr bin>;
v[1]=Trungvi(2,3,8)=3;
v[3]= Trungvi(8,4,2)=4;
v[4]= 2 <gi tr bin>.
v[2]=Trungvi(3,4,8)=4;
Tnh cht ca lc trung v:

Lc trung v l loi lc phi tuyn. iu ny d nhn thy t:
31

Trungvi(x(m)+y(m)) Trungvi(x(m)) + Trungvi(y(m)).
C li cho vic loi b cc im nh hay cc hng m vn bo tan phn gii.
Hiu qu gim khi s im trong ca s ln hay bng mt na s im trong ca s.
iu ny d gii thch v trung v l (Nw+1)/2 gi tr ln nht nu Nw l. Lc trung v cho
trng hp 2 chiu coi nh lc trung v tch c theo tng chiu.
b. Lc ngoi (Outlier Filter)
Gi thit c ngng no cho cc mc nhiu (c th da vo lc xm). Tin hnh
so snh gi tr xm ca mt im nh vi trung bnh s hc 8 ln cn ca n. Nu sai lch ln
hn ngng, im nh ny c coi nh nhiu. Trong trng hp , thay th gi tr ca im
nh bng gi tr trung bnh 8 ln cn va tnh c. B lc ngoi c th din t bng cng thc
sau:
( w )
Y (m , n) =
u ( m , n )
khi | u ( m , n ) ( w )
(3-27)
vi (w) l trung bnh cng cc im trong ln cn w; l ngng ngoi

Cc ca s tnh ton thng chn l 3x3. Tuy nhin, ca s c th m rng n 5x5 hay 7x7
m bo tnh tng quan gia cc im nh. Vn quan trng l xc nh ngng loi
nhiu m vn khng lm mt thng tin ca nh.
3.2.3 Mt n g sai phn v lm nhn

Mt n g sai phn dng kh ph bin trong cng ngh in nh lm p nh. Vi k thut
ny, tn hiu u ra thu c bng tn hiu ra ca b lc gradient hay lc di cao b sung thm
u vo:
v(m,n) = u(m,n) + g(m,n)
(3-28)
vi >0, g(m, n) l gradient ti im (m, n). Hm gradient dng l hm Laplace.

G(m,n) = u(m,n) {u(m-1,n) + u(m+1,n) + u(m,n+1)}/2
y chnh l mt n ch thp.
Tn hiu
Lc thng cao
Lc thng thp
Hnh 3.5. Cc ton t g sai phn.

32
(3-29)
3.2.4. Lc thng thp, thng cao v lc di thng

Ton t trung bnh khng gian l lc thng thp. Nu hLP(m, n) biu din b lc thng thp
FIR (Finite Impulse Response) th b lc thng cao hHP(m, n) c th c nh ngha:
hHP(m, n) = (m, n) - hLP(m, n)
(3-30)
Nh vy, b lc thng cao c th ci t mt cch n gin nh trn hnh 3.6.

B lc di thng c th nh ngha nh sau:
HHP(m, n)= hL1(m, n) hL2(m, n)
(3-31)
vi hL1 v hL2 l cc b lc thng thp.
u(m,n)
Lc thng thp
v(m,n)
Hnh 3.6. S b lc thng cao.

B lc thng thp thng dng lm trn nhiu v ni suy nh. B lc thng cao dng nhiu
trong trch chn bin v lm trn nh, cn b lc di thng c hiu qu lm ni cnh. V bin s
c trnh by k trong cc phn sau. Tuy nhin, d nhn thy, bin l im c bin thin
nhanh v gi tr mc xm theo quan im v tn s tn hiu. Nh vy, cc im bin ng vi cc
thnh phn tn s cao. T , c th dng b lc thng cao ci thin nhiu: ngha l c th lc
cc thnh phn tn s thp v gi li cc thnh phn tn s cao. V th, lc thng cao thng c
dng lm trn bin trc khi tin thnh cc thao tc vi bin nh. Di y l mt s mt n dng
trong lc thng cao:
1 1 1
(1) 1 9 1
1 1 1
0 1 0
( 2) 1 5 1
0 1 0
1 2 1
(3) 2 5 2
1 2 1
Hnh 3.7. Mt s nhn chp trong lc thng cao.

Cc nhn chp thng cao c c tnh chung l tng cc h s ca b lc bng 1. Nguyn
nhn chnh l ngn cn s tng qu gii hn ca cc gi tr mc xm (cc gi tr im nh vn gi
c gi tr ca n mt cch gn ng khng thay i qu nhiu vi gi tr thc).
3.2.5. Khuych i v ni suy nh

C nhiu ng dng cn thit phi phng i mt vng ca nh. C ngha l ly mt vng
ca nh cho v cho hin ln nh mt nh ln. C 2 phng php c dng l lp
(Replication) v ni suy tuyn tnh (Linear Interpolation).
Phng php lp
Ngi ta ly mt vng ca nh kch thc MxN v qut theo hng. Mi im nh nm trn
ng qut s c lp li 1 ln v hng qut cng c lp li 1 ln na. Nh vy, ta thu c
nh vi kch thc 2Nx2N. iu ny tng ng vi vic chn thm mt hng 0 v 1 ct 0 ri
chp vi mt n H. Mt n H
33
1 1
H =
1 1
Kt qu thu c : v(m,n) = u(k,l) vi k=[m/2] v l=[n/2]
Chn hng 0, ct
0
1 3 2
4 5 6
1
1
1
1
4
4
3
3
5
5
3
3
5
5
2
2
6
6
1
0
2
2
6
0
0
0
0
3
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
6
0
0
0
0
Chp H
Hnh 3.8 Khuych i bi lp 2x2.

Hnh 3.8 minh ha ni suy theo phng php lp. y php ton nu trn l php ton ly
phn nguyn ca mt s [1].
Phng php ni suy tuyn tnh
Gi s c mt ma trn im nh. Theo phng php ni suy tuyn tnh, trc tin, hng
c t vo gia cc im nh theo hng. Tip sau, mi im nh dc theo ct c ni suy theo
ng thng. Th d, vi m khuych i 2x2, ni suy tuyn tnh theo hng s c tnh theo
cng thc:
v1(m,n) = u(m,n)
(3-32)
v1(m,2n+1) = u(m,n) + u(m,n+1)
(3-33)
v ni suy tuyn tnh ca kt qu trn theo ct:

v1(2m,n) = v1(m,n)
(3-34)
v1(2m+1,n) = v1(m,n) + v1(m+1,n)
(3-35)
vi 0mM-1, 0nN-1,
Nu dng mt n dng:
1 / 4 1 / 4 1 / 4
H = 1 / 2 1 1 / 2
1 / 4 1 / 2 1 / 4
ta cng thu c kt qu trn.

Ni suy vi bc cao hn cng c th p dng cch trn. Th d, ni suy vi bc p (p
nguyn), ta chn p hng vi cc s 0, ri p ct vi cc s 0. Cui cng, tin hnh nhn chp p ln
nh vi mt n H trn.
3.2.6. Mt s k thut ci thin nh nh phn
34

Vi nh nh phn, mc xm ch c 2 gi tr l 0 hay 1, Do vy, ta xt mt phn t nh nh
mt phn t logic v c th p dng cc ton t hnh hc da trn khi nim bin i hnh hc ca
mt nh bi mt phn t cu trc.
Phn t cu trc l mt mt n dng bt k m cc phn t ca n to nn mt m-tp.
Ngi ta tin hnh r mt n i khp nh v tnh gi tr im nh bi cc im ln cn vi m-tp
ca mt n theo cch ly hi hay ly tuyn.
Da vo nguyn tc trn, ngi ta s dng 2 k thut: dn nh (Dilatation) v co nh
(Erosion).
a) Dn nh
Dn nh nhm loi b im en b vy bi cc im trng. Trong k thut ny, mt ca s
(N+1)x(N+1) c r i khp nh v thc hin i snh mt pexel ca nh vi (N+1)2-1 im ln
cn (khng tnh im tm). Php i snh y thc hin bi php tuyn logic. Thut ton bin
i c tm tt nh sau:
For all pixel I(x,y) do
Begin
tnh FOR(x, y)
{tnh OR logic}
if
then ImaOut(x,y)<-1
FOR(x, y)
Else ImaOut(x,y) < ImaIn(x,y)

end
b) Co nh
Co nh l thao tc i ngu ca dn nh nhm loi b im trng b vy bi cc im en.
Trong k thut ny, mt ca s (N+1)2 c r i khp nh v thc hin so snh mt pixel ca
nh vi (N+1)2-1 im ln cn. Vic so snh y thc hin bi php hi logic.
p dng: ngi ta thng vn dng k thut ny cho cc nh nh phn nh nh vn tay, ch
vit. khng nh hng n kch thc ca i tng trong nh, ngi ta tin hnh n ln dn v
n ln co.
3.3 KHI PHC NH

Khi nim: Khi phc nh l phc hi li nh gc so vi nh ghi c b bin dng. Ni
cch khc, khi phc nh l cc k thut ci thin cht lng nhng nh ghi m bo gn c
nh nh tht khi nh b mo.
khi phc c nh c kt qu, iu cn thit l phi bit c cc nguyn nhn, cc
hm (hay dng) gy ra bin dng nh. Cc nguyn nhn bin dng thng do:
Do camera, u thu nh cht lng km.
Do mi trng, nh sng, hin trng (scene), kh quyn, nhiu xung.
Do cht lng.
nh ngha: K thut khi phc nh c th c xc nh nh vic c lng li nh gc

hay nh l tng t nh quan st c bng cch o ngc li nhng hin tng gy bin dng,
qua nh c chp. Nh vy, k thut khi phc nh i hi kin thc v cc hin tng gy
bin dng nh.
35

M hnh chung: Hu ht cc m hnh xc nh nh gc (m hnh tuyn tnh, phi tuyn, kh
bin, bt bin trong khng gian) u da trn hm p ng xung hai chiu h(m, n) (hay cn gi l
hm tri im PSF (Point-Spread Function) nh sau:
v(m, n) =
N 1 M 1
u (m, n)h(m k , n l ) + (m, n)
(3-36)
k =0 l =0
trong :
u (m, n)
l nh gc;
v(m, n)
l nh ghi c;
h( m k , n l )
m [0, M 1]; n [0, N 1]
hm p ng xung hai chiu; k [0, N 1], l [0, M 1]
Vit (3-36) dng vct ma trn ta c:
V = Hu +
(3-37)
y u, v, l cc vct MxN chiu, H l ma trn khi vng MN MN chiu; hm h hoc

ma trn H m t qu trnh bin dng, nhng trong qu trnh to ( hay qu trnh hnh thnh:
formation) nh nn cn gi l ma trn bin dng trong qu trnh khi phc.
Cc ngun bin dng:
V mt phng php, cc ngun to bin dng c th nhm li theo cc x l nh sau:
- Bin dng im.
- Bin dng khng gian
- Bin dng thng (Temporal)
- Bin dng mu sc (Chromatic)
Do qu trnh to nh ghi c lin quan n im nh xung quanh, chng ta tp trung xt
cc bin dng trong khng gian. Mt s v d in hnh ca bin dng khng gian c xem xt
nh sau.
Nhiu lon ca kh quyn (thin vn) gia cc ng knh thu v i tng trong qu trnh
chp nh. Do sai s h thng (h phi tuyn).
Sai lch h thng c th biu din bng sai lch hm truyn (v d: s dch pha hm
truyn cohenent trong quang hc)
Cc k thut khi phc nh:
M hnh khi phc nh c: m hnh to nh, m hnh gy nhiu, m hnh quan st.
Lc tuyn tnh c: lc ngc, p ng xung, lc hu hn FIR.
Cc k thut khc: Entropy cc i, m hnh Bayes, gii chp.
3.3.1. Cc m hnh quan st v to nh

M hnh quan st nh.
u tin, cn xem xt nh c hnh thnh nh th no; sau bin i ngc (thc hin
lc ngc) kh nhiu thu li nh nguyn thy.
T phng trnh bin i tn hiu nh c nhiu, chng ta c th vit:
v(m, n) = g[ w(m, n)] + (m, n)

36
(3-38)

Vi w(m, n) l u ra ca h thng tuyn tnh vi p ng hai chiu h(m, n) ta c:
w(m, n) = u (m, n)h(m k , n l )
(3-39)
Nhiu (m, n) c th gm hai phn: nhiu tch 1(m, n) , nhiu cng 2 (m.n) u c gi
thit l nhiu trng Gauss c lp tng h vi trung bnh 0:
(m, n) = f [ g ( w(m, n))]1 (m, n) + 2 (m, n)
(3-40)
trong : cc hm g(.), f(.) l cc bin i (ni chung l phi tuyn) c trng cho qu trnh pht
hin v lu tr nh. T (3-40) m hnh c biu din theo hnh khi nh sau:
W(m,n)
U(m,n)
h(m,n)
g(.)
1(m,n)
f(.)
2(m,n)
v(m,n)
Hnh 3.9. Qu trnh pht hin v lu tr nh

a) M hnh nhiu.
M hnh nhiu l m hnh tng qut. Trong h thng c th nh quang in, m hnh nhiu
gy bin dng c biu din c th nh sau:
(m, n) = g (m, n)1 (m, n) + 2 (m, n)
(3-41)
Trong 1 (m, n) l nhiu ph thuc thit b, xy ra vic truyn in t ngu nhin.

Vic truyn in t ngu nhin thng c biu din bng phn b Poisson (mt s trng hp
phn b nhiu ny tim cn n phn b Gauss). Do phn b Poisson c trung bnh v sai lch
bng nhau nn nu 1 c sai lch l n v th thnh phn ph thuc gn vi nhiu 1 l
Thnh phn 2 (m, n) biu din nhiu gy ra do nhit v thng c m hnh ha theo nhiu
trng.
Mt s m hnh khng gian nh hng nhit mt cc ng k do nh h thng phim.
(m, n) = g (m, n) 1 (m, n)
(3-42)
(m, n) = e[ g (m, n)]2 1 (m, n)
(3-43)
M hnh phim khc:

Trong e [1 / 3;1 / 2] : h s chun ha.
Tnh ton gn ng: cc thnh phn b nhiu 1 (m, n) tc ng gy kh khn cho vic
khi phc nh. gii quyt theo phng php tng ng (hay gn ng) ngi ta dng gi tr
trung bnh khng gian w thay cho w tc l:
w = W (m, n)
(3-44)
37

khi :
(m, n) = f [ g ( w )]1 (m, n) + 2 (m, n)
(3-45)
v (m, n) tr thnh m hnh nhiu trng Gauss.

Nhiu m: ngoi 1 s m hnh trn, nh cn c th b bin dng bi nhiu m (Specke
Noise). Nhiu m xy ra nu b mt i tng c li lm dng bc sng v tng gp b nu
i tng c phn gii thp. M hnh nhiu m c th c m t nh sau:
v(m, n) = u (m, n) s (m, n) + (m, n)
(3-46)
Trong phm vi ti liu ny khng m t chi tit v dng nhiu ny. ngh tham kho cc
ti liu [1, 4, 5].
3.3.2 Cc b lc
a) K thut lc ngc (Inverse Filter)
U(m,n
)
h(.,.)
w(m,n
)
g(.,.)
v(m,n)
-1
g (.,.)
W(m,
n)
h-1(.,.)
u(m,n
)
Hnh 3.10. K thut lc ngc
g T ( x) = g 1 [ g ( x)] vi g 1 ( x) = x
h T ( x, y, k , l ) = h 1 ( x, y, k , l )
+
FT h T ( x, y, l )h(k ' , l ' ; k , l ) = ( x k , y l )

k ,l =
(3-47)
(3-48)
(3-49)
Vic thit k b lc ngc kh kh khn, do vy chuyn sang bin i Fourier 2 v (3-49)

Ch rng :
H ( w1 , w2 ) H T ( w1 , w2 ) = 1
do :
H T ( w1 , w2 ) = 1
H ( w1 , w2 )
(3-50)
trong : bin i ngc Fourier ca H ( w1 , w2 ) l h( x, y )

Nh vy tm c H T ( w1 , w2 ) . Tng t cng xc nh c G T ( w1 , w2 ) .
b) Khi phc nh bng phng php bnh phng ti thiu.
M hnh nhiu c th vit li theo dng vc t v ma trn nh sau:
v = Hu + hay = v Hu
(3-51)
trong : u, v , l cc vc t nh tht, vc t nh ghi c, vc t nhiu tng ng; H l ma

trn hm truyn ca h thng.
38

Nu khng nhiu ( = 0 ), cn chn u sao cho Hu xp x v theo ngha bnh phng ti
thiu. Vi cch lp lun nh vy chng ta c th xy dng hm mc tiu:
y (u ) =
= v Hu
min
(3-52)
trong , cc gi tr trn c c nh ngha nh sau:
= T ; v hu
= (v ' Hu ) T (v Hu )
(3-53)
y (u )
= 2 HT (v Hu ) = 0
(u )
Gi s ta c:
(3-54)
u = ( H T H ) 1 H T v
(3-55)
Chn M=N, khi H l ma trn vung. Gi thit H 1 tn ti, khi ta c
u = H 1 ( H T ) 1 H T v
(3-56)
D thy, ( H T ) 1 H T l ma trn n vi I; do u trong cng thc (3-56) c th tnh mt

cch n gin. Cn ch rng biu thc ny xc nh c vi mt s gi thit nu. Trong
thc t, nhiu iu kin rng buc khng chc chn m bo do chnh xc ca gi tri nh
c lng khng hon ton ging nh mong mun nhng s cho kt qu tt hn, gim mo
ca nh.
CU HI N TP CHNG 3
Cho nh s v cc nhn chp sau:
5
I = 6
5
5
7 2 7 1
7 1 7 13
6 30 8 3 ;
7 6 1 2
7 6 1 2
1 1 1
H tt = 1 9 1 ;
1 1 1
1 2 1
H tc = 2 4 2
1 2 1
1. nh trn c nhiu khng? l loi nhiu g?

2. Minh ha kh nhiu trn bng b lc thng thp Htt.
3. Hy tnh kt qu ca nhn chp nh vi nhn chp Htc.
4. Hy bin i nh sau khi kh nhiu v nh nh phn (dng k thut phn ngng hay
da vo lc xm).
5. Vit th tc dng k thut lc trung v s dng b lc ch thp kch thc 3x3 v 5x5.
Vic sp xp cc im theo thut ton ty chn (chn n gin, chn tuyn tnh hay i
ch).
6. Vit th tc ci thin nh dng k thut lc theo m hnh Gauss.
39
Chng 4: Cc phng php pht hin bin
CHNG 4: CC PHNG PHP PHT HIN BIN

1. Khi qut v bin. Cc k thut d bin
2. Phng php pht hin bin cc b
3. D bin theo quy hoch ng
4. D bin theo cc phng php khc
4.1 GII THIU BIN V K THUT PHT HIN BIN

4.1.1 Mt s khi nim
nh ngha v khi nim
im Bin: Mt im nh c coi l im bin nu c s thay i nhanh hoc t ngt
v mc xm (hoc mu). V d trong nh nh phn, im en gi l im bin nu ln cn n c t
nht mt im trng.
ng bin (ng bao: boundary): tp hp cc im bin lin tip to thnh mt ng
bin hay ng bao.
ngha ca ng bin trong x l: ngha u tin: ng bin l mt loi c trng
cc b tiu biu trong phn tch, nhn dng nh. Th hai, ngi ta s dng bin lm phn cch
cc vng xm (mu) cch bit. Ngc li, ngi ta cng s dng cc vng nh tm ng phn
cch.
Tm quan trng ca bin: thy r tm quan trng ca bin, xt v d sau: khi ngi ha
s mun v mt danh nhn, ha s ch cn v vi ng nt tc ha m khng cn v mt cch
y .
M hnh biu din ng bin, theo ton hc: im nh c s bin i mc xm u(x) mt
cch t ngt theo hnh di.
u
a, ng bin l tng
b, ng bin bc thang
c, ng bin thc
Hnh 4.1 ng bao ca nh

Cc khi nim v nh ngha tm tt trn l c s gip ta hiu v dng hiu cch xy
dng, thit k cc k thut pht hin bin nh.
40

Ch : Pht hin bin l mt phn trong phn tch nh, sau khi lc nh (hay tin x l
nh). Cc bc ca phn tch nh c th m t theo s di y. Vic d v tm bin nh l
mt trong cc c trng thuc khi trch chn c trng.
nh u ra
ca tin x l nh
Trch chn
c trng
Phn on
Phn loi
Gii thch
Hnh 4.2 Cc bc x l v phn tch nh
4.1.2 Phn loi cc k thut pht hin bin

T nh ngha ton hc ca bin ngi ta s dng hai phng php pht hin bin nh sau
(phng php chnh)
a, Phng php pht hin bin trc tip: phng php ny ch yu da vo s bin thin
sng ca im nh lm ni bin bng k thut o hm.
Nu ly o hm bc nht ca nh: ta c phng php Gradient
Nu ly o hm bc hai ca nh: ta c phng php Laplace.

Hai phng php ny c gi chung l phng php d bin cc b.
Ngoi ra, ngi ta cn s dng phng php i theo ng bao da vo cng c ton hc
l nguyn l quy hoch ng v ng gi l phng php d bin tng th. Phng php d bin
trc tip c hiu qu v t b tc ng ca nhiu.
b, Phng php pht hin bin gin tip: Nu bng cch no y, chng ta thu ng cc
vng nh khc nhau th ng phn cch gia cc vng chnh l bin. Ni cch khc, vic xc
nh ng bao ca nh c thc hin t nh c phn vng. Phng php d bin gin tip
kh ci t nhng p dng tt khi s bin thin sng nh.
Ch : K thut d bin v phn vng nh l hai bi ton i ngu ca nhau.
4.1.3 Quy trnh pht hin bin.

B1: Do nh ghi c thng c nhiu, bc mt l phi lc nhiu theo cc phng php
d tm hiu cc phn trc.
B2: Lm ni bin s dng cc ton t pht hin bin.
B3: nh v bin. Ch rng k thut ni bin gy tc dng ph l gy nhiu lm mt s
bin gi xut hin do vy cn loi b bin gi.
B4: Lin kt v trch chn bin.
41
4.2 PHNG PHP PHT HIN BIN CC B

4.2.1 Phng php Gradient
nh ngha: Gradient l mt vec t f(x, y) c cc thnh phn biu th tc thay i mc
xm ca im nh (theo hai hng x, y trong bi cnh x l nh hai chiu) tc:
f ( x, y )
f ( x + dx, y ) f ( x, y )
= f 'x
x
dx
(4-1)
f ( x, y )
f ( x, y + dy ) f ( x, y )
= f 'y
y
dy
(4-2)
Trong dx, dy l khong cch gia 2 im k cn theo hng x, y tng ng (thc t chn
dx= dy=1). y l phng php da theo o hm ring bc nht theo hng x, y.
Gradient trong ta gc (r,), vi r l vc t, : gc
df (r , ) f dx f dy
=
+
= f ' x cos + f ' y sin
dr
x dr y dr
f()
df (.)
f(.) t cc i khi
=0
dr
tc:
(4-3)
fy
f ' x cos + f ' y sin = 0 hay:

tg =
f 'x
sin
=
cos
f'y
f 'x
v f max =
f'y
r = arctg
fx
x
2
f 'x + f ' y
(4-4)
a. K thut Gradient. Theo nh ngha v Gradient, nu p dng n vo x l nh, vic tnh

ton s rt phc tp. n gin m khng mt tnh cht ca phng php Gradient, ngi ta s
dng k thut Gradient dng cp mt n H1, H2 trc giao (theo 2 hng vung gc). Nu nh
ngha g1, g2 l Gradient theo hai hng x, y tng ng th bin g(m,n) ti im (m,n) c tnh:
g (m, n) = g 12 (m, n) + g 22 (m, n) = A0
(4-5)
r (m, n) = artg ( g 2 (m, n))
(4-6)
gim phc tp tnh ton, A0 c tnh gn ng nh sau:

A0 = |g1(m,n)| + |g2(m,n)|
(4-7)
y
Xt mt s ton t Gradient tiu biu nh ton t Robert, Sobel,

Prewitt, ng hng (Isometric), 4-ln cn nh di y.
Ton t Robert (1965).
Robert p dng cng thc tnh Gradient ti im (x, y) nh hnh bn Wij

Vi mi im nh I(x,y) o hm theo x, y c k hiu tng ng:
gx, gy:
42
y+1
g x = I ( x + 1, y ) I ( x, y )
g y = I ( x, y + 1) I ( x, y )
(4-8)
Cc cng thc k trn c c th ha bng cc mt n theo chiu x v y tng ng nh

sau:
0 1
Hx =
1 0
1 0
Hy =
0 1
Hng ngang (x)
Hng dc (y)
Hnh 4.5. Mt n Robert.

A1 = |g1(m,n)+ g2(m,n)|
(4-9)
Ae = Max[ g1 (m, n) , g 2 (m, n) ]
(4-10)
Ton t (mt n) Sobel.

Ton t Sobel c Duda v Hart [5] t ra nm 1973 vi cc mt n tng t nh ca
Robert nhng cu hnh khc nh sau:
1 0 1
H x = 1 0 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
0
H y = 0 0
1
1
1
Hng ngang (x)
Hng dc (y)
Mt n Prewitt
Ton t c Prewitt a ra vo nm 1970 c dng:
1 0 1
H x = 2 0 2
1 0 1
1 2 1
0
0
H y = 0
1
2
1
Hng ngang (x)
Hng dc (y)
Mt n ng hng:
Mt mt nn khc cng c nu nh di y gi l mt n ng hng (Isometric).
1 0
H x = 2 0
1 0
2
1
Hng ngang (x)
1 2
Hy = 0
0
1
2
0
1
Hng dc (y)
43

Ton t 4-ln cn (4-Neighbour Operator).
Ton t 4-ln cn c Chaudhuri v Chandor (1984) nu ra, trong mt n c kch
thc 3x3 c thay cho mt n 2x2 ca ton t Robert. Cc mt ny ny c cho:
-1
-1
Theo hng x
Theo hng y
Hnh 4.6: Mt n 4-ln cn.

Bc
Ty-Bc
ng-Bc
Ty
ng
Ty-Nam
ng-Nam
Nam
Hnh 4.8 Mt n 8 hng theo Kirsh.

Mt vi nhn xt:
1. Ton t Prewitt c th tch sn ng tt hn ton t Sobel, trong khi ton t Sobel
tch cc sn trn cc im ng cho tt hn. Mt khc, cc ton t Robert v ton t 4-ln
cn c nhc im l nhy vi nhiu. Cc ton t Gradient v Sobel gim nhiu do tc dng ca
lc trung bnh cc im ln cn. Nh vy, t c kt qu mong mun cc ton t Gradient
thng c dng trc d lm sch nhiu.
2. Cc mt n ca cc ton t trn c kch thc 2x2 hoc 3x3 chiu. Cc mt n c s
chiu ln hn cng c s dng. V d trong k thut pht hin bin ngi ta dng mt n 5x5
cho ton t Sobel:
2
2
H x = 2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
Hy = 0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
Hnh 4.7 Ton t Sobel 5x5.
44

3. Cc ton t k trn u s dng cc mt n theo hai chiu (x,y) tc l bn hng (-x, y;
-y, y). Vi mc ch cho kt qu tinh v chnh xc hn (khi m tc v b nh my tnh tt).
b. Ton t la bn:
Kirsh xut cc mt n theo 8 hng nh 8 hng ca la bn (Compass). Hnh 4.8 l m
hnh 8 hng v c t tn theo hng a l v theo chiu kim ng h: ng, ng-Nam,
Nam, Nam-Ty, Ty, Ty-Nam, Ty-Bc, Bc, ng-Bc; mi hng lch nhau 45o.
Ton t la bn Kirsh:
C nhiu ton t la bn khc nhau. Trong phm vi ti liu ny, ta xem xt ton t la bn
Kirsh c trng bi tm mt n vi kch thc 3x3 nh sau:
H B
5
5
5
5
3 5
= 3 0 3 ; H ng B = 3 0
5 ;
3 3 3
3 3 3
H ng Nam
H Ty
H ng
3 3 5
= 3 0 5 ;
3 3 5
3 3 3
3 3 3
3 3 3
= 3 0
5 ; H Nam = 3 0 3 ; H Ty Nam = 5
0 3 ;
3 5
5
5
5
5
5
5 3
5 3 3
= 5 0 3 ;
5 3 3
H Ty B
5 3
5
=5
0 3
3 3 3
K hiu Ai; i= 1, 2, , 8 l Gradient theo 8 hng nh 8 mt n k trn, khi bin

Gradient ti im nh (x,y) c tnh theo
A(x, y) = Max (|gi(x,y)|)
i=1, 2, , 8.
(411)
Ton t la bn khc:
Ngoi ton t la bn Kirsh, mt s ton t la bn khc s dng b mt n 8 hng khc nh:
Bc
1
= 1
1
H ng Nam
H Ty
1
2
1
1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 ; H ng Bc = 1 2 1 ; H ng = 1 2 1 ;
1
1 1
1 1 1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1 1
1
1
= 1 2 1 ; H Nam = 1 2 1 ; H Ty Nam = 1 2 1 ;
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
= 1 2 1 ;
1 1 1
H Ty B
1 1 1
= 1 2 1
1
1 1
hoc:
45
H B
2
1
1 2
1
0
1 0 1
= 0
0
0 ; H ng B = 1 0 1 ; H ng = 2 0 2 ;
1 2 1
2 1 0
1 0 1
H ng Nam
H Ty
2 1 0
1 2 1
0 1 2
= 1 0 1 ; H Nam = 0
0
0 ; H Ty Nam = 1 0 1 ;
0
1
2 1
2
1
1 2
0
1 0 1
= 2 0 2 ;
1 0 1
H Ty B
0
2 1
= 1 0 1 .
0 1 2
Trng hp tng qut, ngi ta c th m rng cc mt n vi n hng cch u tng ng

vi cc mt Wi; i=1, 2, , n. Khi , bin ti hng th i vi mt n Wi c xc nh:
A( x, y ) = Max( Wi T I ( x, y ) ) vi i=1, 2, , n.
(4-12)
Tm li: Cc k thut s dng phng php Gradient kh tt khi sng c tc thay i

nhanh, kh n gin trn c s cc mt n theo cc hng. Nhc im ca cc k thut Gradient
l nhy cm vi nhiu v to cc bin kp lm cht lng bin thu c khng cao.
c. K thut Laplace
khc phc hn ch v nhc im ca phng php Gradient, trong s dng o hm
ring bc nht ngi ta ngh n vic s dng o hm ring bc hai hay ton t Laplace. Phng
php d bin theo ton t Laplace hiu qu hn phng php ton t Gradient trong trng hp
mc xm bin i chm, min chuyn i mc xm c tri rng.
Ton t Laplace c nh ngha nh sau:
2 f =
2 f 2 f
+
x 2 y 2
(4-13)
Ton t Laplace dng mt s kiu mt n khc nhau nhm tnh gn ng o h m ring bc

hai. Cc dng mt na theo ton t Laplace bc 3x3 c th:
0 1 0
H 1 = 1 4 1 ;
0 1 0
1 1 1
H 2 = 1 8 1 ;
1 1 1
1 2 1
H 3 = 2 5 1
1 2 1
Ghi ch: Mt n H1 cn ci bin bng vic ly gi tr tm bng 8 thay v gi tr 4. thy

r vic xp x o hm ring bc hai trong khng gian hai chiu vi mt n H1 lm v d, ta c th
tnh gn ng nh sau:
2 f
= 2 f ( x, y ) f ( x 1, y ) f ( x + 1, y )
x 2
2 f
= 2 f ( x, y ) f ( x, y 1) f ( x, y + 1)
y 2
do :
46
2 f =
2 f 2 f
+
= 4 f ( x, y ) f ( x 1, y ) f ( x, y 1) f ( x + 1, y ) f ( x, y + 1)
x 2 y 2
(4-14)
(Hc vin c th kim tra gi tr v du ca cng thc trn vi cc gi tr trong mt n H1).

Tm li: K thut theo ton t Laplace to ng bin mnh (c rng 1 pixel). Nhc
im ca k thut ny rt nhy vi nhiu, do vy ng bin thu c thng km n nh.
d. Tch sn nh theo phng php Canny.
B tc sn nh theo Canny (1986) da trn cp o hm ring bc nht vi vic lm sch
nhiu. Mc ny c ring v y l phng php tch ng bin kh ph bin c dng
theo ton t o hm. Nh ni, phng php o hm chu nh hng ln ca nhiu. Phng
php t hiu qu cao khi xp x o hm bc nht ca Gauss.
f = (G I ) = f x + f y
(4-15)
vi fx, fy l o hm ring theo x v y ca f.

do vy:
f = (G I ) x + (G I ) y = (G x I ) + (G y I )
(4-16)
Ly o hm ring theo x v y ca G ta c:
G x (x, y) =
G y (x, y) =
Gx(x)
x2+ y2
x
exp
2
2 2
x2 + y2
y
exp
2
2 2
(4-17)
(4-18)
G(y)
fx
Arctan fy / fx
I(x,y)
fy
Gy(x)
f x2 + f y2
G(x)
Hinh 4.9. M hnh tnh ca phng php Canny.

Do b lc Gauss l tch c, ta c th thc hin ring bit cc tch chp theo x v y:
G x ( x, y ) = G x ( x) G ( y ) v G y ( x, y ) = G y ( y ) G ( x)
(4-19)
f x ( x, y ) = G x ( x) G ( y ) I v f y ( x, y ) = G y ( y ) G ( x) I )
(4-20)
T ta c:
Vi bin v hng tnh theo cng thc trn, thut ton c minh ha trn Hnh 4.9.
4.2.2. D bin theo quy hoch ng
47

Nh trn ni, d bin theo phng php Gradient l xc nh cc tr cc b ca
Gradient theo cc hng; cn phng php Laplace da vo ct im khng ca o hm bc hai.
Phng php d bin theo quy hoch ng l phng php tm cc tr tng th theo nhiu bc.
N da vo nguyn l ti u ca Bellman. Nguyn l ny pht biu nh sau: Con ng ti u
gia 2 im cho trc cng l ti u gia 2 im bt k nm trn ng ti u .
Th d, nu C l mt im trn con ng ti u gia A v B th on CB cng l cn
ng ti u t C n B khng k n ta n C bng cch no (Hnh 4.10).
E
B
C
Hnh 4.10. Minh ha nguyn l Bellman.

Trong k thut ny, gi s bn bin c xc nh v c biu din di dng
th lin thng N chng. Gi s hm nh gi c tnh theo cng thc:
N
k =1
k =1
k =2
S (x1 ,..., x N , N ) = g ( x k ) ( x k ) ( x k 1 ) d ( x N , x N 1 )
(4-21)
vi:
xk, k=1, , N: biu din cc nh ca th trong chng th k;
d(x ,y): khong cch gia 2 nh x v y tnh theo cc nh ngha tng ng v khong
cch;
|g(xk)| v (xk) l Gradient bin v Gradient hng nh xk.
v l cc hng s khng m.
ng bao ti u s nhn c bng cch ni cc nh x k , k =1, , N no sao cho
S(x1,, xN, N ) t cc i.
nh ngha hm nh sau:
( x N , N ) = Max {s ( x1 ,..., x N , N )}
x1,..., xN 1
(4-22)
Vit li cng thc (4-21) mt cch quy ta c:
S (x1 ,..., x N , N ) = S ( x1 ,..., x N 1 , N 1) + g ( x N ) ( x k ) ( x k 1 ) d ( x N , x N 1 )
(4-23)
t f(xN-1, xN)=|g(xN)| - | (xk) - (xk-1) | - d(xN,xN-1) v thay vo ( 4-23) ta c:
S (x1 ,..., x N , N ) = S ( x1 ,..., x N 1 , N 1) + f ( x N 1 , x N )
(4-24)
Ly N = k theo (4-22) v (4-24) thc hin suy din ta c:
( x k , k ) = Max {S ( x1 ,..., x k , k ) + f ( x k 1 , x k )}
x1,..., xN 1
= Max { ( x k 1 , k 1) + f ( x k 1 , x k )}
x1,..., xN 1
48
(4-25)
Nh vy, S x1 ,..., x N , N = Max { ( x N , N )} vi ( x ,1 ) = g ( x 1 )

XN
Vi cch ny, thay v tm ti u ton cc phc tp ca S(x1, ,xN, N), ta tm ti ca N

chng theo ti u 2 bin. Trong mi chng, vi mi xk tm ti u ( x k , k ) . d hnh dung,
xt v d sau:
Gi s c bn biu din bi th lin thng (Hnh 4.11a). Theo phng php trn c
( A ,1) = 5 , vi k =2 c ( D , 2 ) = max(11,12) = 12 . iu c ngha l ng t A n D
i qua C v ACD l bin c chn vi k=2. Tng t, vi k=4, c hai ng c chn l
ACDEF v AGHJ. Tuy nhin, vi k=5 th on JB b loi v ch tn ti ng duy nht vi cc
i l 28. Nh vy, bin c xc nh l ADEFB.
( xk , k )
4 E 7
D
6
A5
5
C
A(5
I(8
)
2
2
F(23)
D(11,12 E(16
6
G(8)
3
1
a) th lin thng biu din bin
H(8,10)
J(13,10)
b) Qu trnh d bin theo quy hoch ng
Hnh 4.11. D bin theo phng php quy hoch ng.

Trn hnh 4.11b, nhng ng nt t on biu th cung b loi; ng nt lin c mi
tn biu th ng i hay bin ca nh.
4.2.3 Mt s phng php khc

Ngoi cc phng php trn, ngi ta cng p dng mt s phng php khc ci tin
nh tip cn bi m hnh mt, cch tip cn ti u ha.
Cch tip cn theo m hnh mt da vo vic thc hin xp x a thc trn nh gc hay
nh thc hin php lc Laplace. Cch tip cn ti u nhm xc nh mt hm (mt b lc), lm
gim phng sai 2 hoc gim mt s im cc tr cc b. Di y s trnh by mt cch tm tt
cc phng php .
a. Tip cn theo m hnh mt
T tng ca phng php ny l ti ln cn im ct khng (im bin), nh sau khi lc
Laplace c th c xp x bi mt a thc bc 3 theo hng v ct. a thc thng c dng l
a thc Trebchp vi kch thc 3x3. Cc a thc ny c nh ngha nh sau:
49

P0(x,y)=1; P1(x,y)=x; P2(x,y)=y; P3 ( x, y ) = x 2
P6(x,y)=xP5(x,y);
P7 (x,y)=yP3(x,y);
2
2
; P4(x,y)=xy;
P5 ( x, y ) = y 2 ;
3
3
P8(x,y)= P5(x,y)P3(x,y)
Vi mi im ct khng pht hin ti P(x, y) trong nh c lc bi ton t Laplace

Gauss, Huertas v Medioni cho c tnh theo cng thc tnh xp x:
N 1
I ( L G ) ( x, y ) = a n Pn ( x, y )
(4-26)
n =0
Vn l xc nh cc h s ai, i=1, 2, , N-1. Nu W l ca s lc ti im ct khng v x,

y, i, j trong ca s; cc h s ai c th c tnh ton nh mt t hp tuyn tnh:
P ( x, y) I ( x, y)
=
P (i, j )
L G
an
2
n
(4-27)
y, IL-G(x, y) l k hiu nh c lc bi ton t LaplaceGauss. Cc h s ny c th nhn

c bi chp nh IL-G(x, y) vi cc nhn chp nh trung bnh c trng s hay mt s nhn chp
khc.
Cc bc ci t phng php nhy c th m t nh sau:
1. Chp nh gc kch thc NxM vi ton t Laplac Gauss kch thc M2, nh thu
c gi l IL-G.
2. Trch chn cc im ct khng ca nh IL-G, nh kt qu k hiu l IZCR.
3. Vi mi im ct khng trong IZCR, thc hin mt xp x vi kch thc 3x3 suy ra
cc im ct khng theo cch gi tch.
4. To mt nh mi ca cc im ct khng kch thc nXxnY m cc ng bao c
xc nh vi phn gii n no .
b. Tip cn ti u ha
tng ca cch tip cn ny l nh v ng v tr bng cch cc tiu ha phng sai 2 v
tr cc im ct khng hoc hn ch s im cc tr cc b ch to ra mt ng bao. Canny
xut 3 rng buc ng vi 3 iu kin:
0
A h( x)dx
n0
(4-28)
( x)dx
A h' (0)
n0
50
( x)dx
(4-29)
x max = 2
h'
( x)dx
h' '
(4-30)
2
( x)dx
Rng buc u tin () nhm tm hm h(x) phn i xng sao cho t s gia tn hiu v
nhiu l cc i. Rng buc th hai ( ) nhm cc tiu ha phng sai. Rng buc th ba nhm
hn ch im cc tr cc b vi mc ch cung cp ch mt ng bao.
CU HI V BI N TP
1, Hy vit biu thc tnh o hm bc hai mt theo mt n.
2, Cho nh s I:
1
1
I = 11
2 1 1 2
5 5 7 3
5 5 7 3
5 7 7 6
8 7 6 8
Hy tnh G = |Gx| + |Gy| vi Gx=Hx I v Gy=Hy I, Hx, Hy l nhn chp Prewitt.

3, Xy dng thut ton pht hin bin nh dng ton t Robert.
4, Trnh by phng php pht hin bin nh dng ton t Sobel.
5, Trnh by phng php pht hin bin nh dng ton t Prewitt.
6, Trnh by phng php tnh Laplace ca nh cho vi kiu mt n t chn
7, Trnh by phng php d bin theo Canny.
8, Xy dng th tc d bin theo quy hoch ng da vo thut ton cho.
51
Chng 5: Phn vng nh
CHNG 5: PHN VNG NH

1. Mc ch, tm quan trng caphaan vng nh trong x l v phn tch nh s. Cc
phng php phn vng nh.
2. Phng php phn vng nh theo ngng bin
3. Phng php phn vng nh theo min ng nht
4. Phng php phn vng theo kt cu b mt v tng qut v mt vi phng php
khc.
5.1 GII THIU

Phn vng nh l bc then cht trong x l nh. Giai on ny nhm phn tch nh thnh
nhng thnh phn c cng tnh cht no da theo bin hay cc vng lin thng. Tiu chun
xc nh cc vng lin thng c th l cng mc xm, cng mu hay cng nhm... Trc ht
cn lm r khi nim "vng nh" (Segment) v c im vt l ca vng.
Vng nh l mt chi tit, mt thc th trng ton cnh. N l mt tp hp cc im c
cng hoc gn cng mt tnh cht no : mc xm, mc mu, nhm Vng nh l mt
trong hai thuc tnh ca nh. Ni n vng nh l ni n tnh cht b mt. ng bao quanh mt
vng nh (Boundary) l bin nh. Cc im trong mt vng nh c bin thin gi tr mc xm
tng i ng u hay tnh kt cu tng ng.
Da vo c tnh vt l ca nh, ngi ta c nhiu k thut phn vng : phn vng da
theo min lin thng gi l phn vng da theo min ng nht hay min k ; phn vng da vo
bin gi l phn vng bin. Ngoi ra cn c cc k thut phn vng khc da vo bin , phn
vng da theo kt cu.
5.2 PHN VNG NH THEO NGNG BIN

Cc c tnh n gin, cn thit nht ca nh l bin v cc tnh cht vt l nh :
tng phn, truyn sng, mu sc hoc p ng ph.
Nh vy, c th dng ngng bin phn vng khi bin ln c trng cho nh.
Th d, bin trong b cm bin nh hng ngoi c th phn nh vng c nhit thp hay vng
c nhit cao. K thut phn ngng theo bin rt c li i vi nh nh phn nh vn bn
in, ha, nh mu hay nh X-quang.
Vic chn ngng rt quan trng. N bao gm cc bc :
Xem xt lc xm ca nh xc nh cc nh v cc khe. Nu nh c dng
rn ln (nhiu nh v khe), cc khe c th dng chn ngng.
Chn ngng t sao cho mt phn xc nh trc ca ton b s mu l thp hn
t.
iu chnh ngng da trn lc xm ca cc im ln cn.
52
Chng 5: Phn vng nh

Chn ngng theo lc xm ca nhng im tha mn tiu chun chn. Th
d, vi nh c tng phn thp, lc ca nhng im c bin Laplace
g(m,n) ln hn gi tr t nh trc (sao cho t 5% n 10% s im nh vi
Gradient ln nht s coi nh bin) s cho php xc nh cc c tnh nh lng
cc tt hn nh gc.
Khi c m hnh phn lp xc sut, vic xc nh ngng da vo tiu chun xc
sut nhm cc tiu xc sut sai s hoc da vo mt s tnh cht khc ca lut
Bayes.
hiu r hn nguyn tc phn vng da vo ngng bin , xt th d sau:
H(k)
T0
T1
T2
T3
T4
L mc xm
Hnh 5.1 Lc rn ln v cch chn ngng

Gi s nh c lc xm nh Hnh 5.1, chn cc ngng nh hnh trn vi:
T0 =Lmin,,T4=Lmax. Ta c 5 ngng v phn nh thnh 4 vng, k hiu Ck l vng th k
ca nh, k=1,2,3,4. Cch phn vng theo nguyn tc :
P(m,n) Ck nu Tk-1 P(m,n) < Tk , k=1,2,3,4.
Khi phn vng xong, nu nh r nt th vic phn vng coi nh kt thc. Nu khng, cn
iu chnh ngng.
5.3 PHN VNG NH THEO MIN NG NHT

K thut phn vng nh thnh cc min ng nht da vo cc tnh cht quan trng no
ca min nh. Vic la chn cc tnh cht ca min s xc nh tiu chun phn vng. Tnh
ng nht ca mt min nh l im ch yu xc nh tnh hiu qu ca vic phn vng. Cc tiu
chun hay c dng l s thun nht v mc xm, mu sc i vi nh mu, kt cu si v
chuyn ng.
Cc phng php phn vng nh theo min ng nht thng p dng l :
Phng php tch cy t phn
Phng php cc b
Phng php tng hp
5.3.1 Phng php tch cy t phn

V nguyn tc, phng php ny kim tra tnh ng n ca tiu chun ra mt cch
tng th trn min ln ca nh. Nu tiu chun c tha mn, vic phn on coi nh kt thc.
Trong trng hp ngc li, chia min ang xt thnh 4 min nh hn. Vi mi min nh, p
53
Chng 5: Phn vng nh

dng mt cch quy phng php trn cho n khi tt c cc min u tha mn iu kin.
Phng php ny c th m t bng thut ton sau :
Procedure PhanDoan(Mien)
Begin
If min ang xt khng tha Then
Begin
Chia min ang xt thnh 4 min : Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4
For i=1 to 4 do
PhanDoan (Zi)
End
Else exit
End
Tiu chun xt min ng nht y c th da vo mc xm. Ngoi ra, c th da vo
lch chun hay chnh gia gi tr mc xm ln nht v gi tr mc xm nh nht. Gi s
Max v Min l gi tr mc xm ln nht v nh nht trong min ang xt. Nu :
|Max Min| < T (ngng)
ta coi min ang xt l ng nht. Trng hp ngc li, min ang xt khng l min ng nht
v s c chia lm 4 phn.
Thut ton kim tra tiu chun da vo chnh lch max, min c vit :
Function Examin_Criteria(I, N1, M1, N2, M2, T)
/* Gi thit nh c ti a 255 mc xm.
(N1, M1), (N2, M2) l ta im u v im cui ca min; T l ngng. */
Begin
1. Max=0 ; Min=255
2. For i = N1 to N2 do
If
Then
If
I[i,j] < Min

Min=I[i,j] ;
I[i,j]<Max
Then Max=I[i,j] ;
3. If
ABS(MaxMin)<T
Then Examin_Criteria=0
Else Examin_Criteria=1 ;
End
Nu hm tr v gi tr 0, c ngha vng ang xt l ng nht, nu khng th khng ng

nht. Trong gii thut trn, khi min l ng nht cn tnh li gi tr trung bnh v cp nht li nh
u ra. Gi tr trung bnh c tnh bi :
Tng gi tr mc xm / tng s im nh trong vng
Thut ton ny to nn mt cy m mi nt cha c 4 nt con mi mc tr mc ngoi
cng. V th, cy ny c tn l cy t phn. Cy cho ta hnh nh r nt v cu trc phn cp ca
cc vng tng ng vi tiu chun.
54
Chng 5: Phn vng nh

Mt vng tha mn iu kin s to nn mt nt l; nu khng n s to nn mt nt trong
v c 4 nt con tng ng. Tip tc nh vy cho n khi phn chia xong t cc vng ng
nht..
5.3.2 Phng php cc b

tng ca phng php l xt nh t cc min nh nht ri ni chng li nu tha mn
tiu chun c mt min ng nht ln hn. Tip tc vi cc min thu c cho n khi
khng th ni thm c na. S min cn li cho ta kt qu phn on. Nh vy, min nh nht
ca bc xut pht l im nh.
Phng php ny hon ton ngc vi phng php tch. Song iu quan trng y l
nguyn l ni 2 vng. Vic ni 2 vng c thc hin theo nguyn tc sau :
- Hai vng phi p ng tiu chun, th d nh cng mu hay cng mc xm.
- Hai vng phi k cn nhau.
Khi nim k cn: trong x l nh, ngi ta dng khi nim lin thng xc nh tnh
cht k cn. C hai khi nim v lin thng l 4 lin thng v 8 lin thng. Vi 4 lin thng mt
im nh I(x,y) s c 4 k cn theo 2 hng x v y ; trong khi vi 8 lin thng, im I(x,y) s
c 4 lin thng theo 2 hng x, y v 4 lin thng khc theo hng cho 45o.
a) 4 lin thng
b) 8 lin thng
Hnh 5.2 Khi nim 4 lin thng v 8 lin thng

Da theo nguyn l ca phng php ni, ta c 2 thut ton :
-
Thut ton t mu (Blob Coloring) : s dng khi nim 4 lin thng, dng mt ca
s di chuyn trn nh so snh vi tiu chun ni.
Thut ton quy cc b: s dng phng php tm kim trong mt cy lm

tng kch thc vng.
5.3.3 Phng php tng hp

Hai phng php ni (hp) v tch u c nhc im. Phng php tch s to nn mt
cu trc phn cp v thit lp mi quan h gia cc vng. Tuy nhin, n thc hin vic chia qu
chi tit. Phng php hp cho php lm gim s min lin thng xung ti thiu, nhng cu trc
hng ngang dn tri, khng cho ta thy r mi lin h gia cc min.
V nhc im ny, ngi ta ngh n phi hp c 2 phng php. Trc tin, dng
phng php tch to nn cy t phn, phn on theo hng t gc n l. Tip theo, tin
hnh duyt cy theo chiu ngc li v hp cc vng c cng tiu chun. Vi phng php ny ta
thu c mt cu trc nh vi cc min lin thng c kch thc ti a.
Gii thut tch hp gm mt s bc chnh sau:
55
Chng 5: Phn vng nh

1. Kim tra tiu chun ng nht.
a) Nu khng tha mn tiu chun ng nht v s im trong mt vng nhiu hn 1, tch
vng nh lm 4 min (trn, di, phi, tri) bng cch quy. Nu kt qu tch xong v khng
tch c na chuyn sang bc 2.
b) Nu tiu chun ng nht tha mn th tin hnh hp vng v cp nht li gi tr trung
bnh ca vng cho vng ny.
2. Hp vng
Kim tra 4 ln cn nh nu trn. C th c nhiu vng tha mn. Khi , chn vng
ti u nht ri tin hnh hp.
5.4 PHN VNG NH THEO KT CU B MT

Kt cu thng c nhn bit trn b mt ca cc i tng nh g, ct, vi vcKt
cu l thut ng phn nh s lp li ca cc phn t si (texel) c bn. S lp li ny c th ngu
nhin hay c tnh chu k hoc gn chu k. Mt texel cha rt nhiu im nh. Trong phn tch nh,
kt cu c chia lm hai loi chnh l: loi thng k v loi cu trc.
5.4.1 Phng php thng k

Tnh kt cu ngu nhin rt ph hp vi cc c trng thng k. V vy, ngi ta c th
dng cc c trng ngu nhin o n nh: Hm t tng quan (AutoCorrelation FunctionACF), cc bin i mt g, ma trn tng tranh,
Theo cch tip cn bng hm t tng quan, th ca kt cu si t l vi rng ca
ACF, c biu din bi khong cch x0, yo sao cho r(x0,0) = r(0, y0) = 1. Ngi ta cng dng
cch o nhnh ca ACF nh hm khi sinh moment :
M (k , l ) = (m 1 ) k (n 2 )r (m, n)
m
(5.1)
1 = mr (m, n) v 2 = nr (m, n)
vi :
Cc c trng ca kt cu si nh th, mn hay hng c th c lng nh cc

bin i nh bng k thut lc tuyn tnh. Mt m hnh n gin trong trng hp ngu nhin cho
vic phn tch tnh kt cu oc m t trong hnh di y :
ACF
u(m,n)
Trch chn c tnh
Lc di tng quan
Phn tch lc
c tnh si
Hnh 5.4 Phn tch kt cu si bng di tng quan
56
Chng 5: Phn vng nh

Trong m hnh ny, trng kt cu si trc tin c gii chp bi b lc ly t u ra
cu ACF. Nh vy, nu r(m,n) l ACF th :
u (m, n) a (m, n) = (m, n)
(5.2)
l trng ngu nhin khng tng quan.

Lu rng, b lc l khng duy nht, c th l nhn qu, bn nhn qu hay khng nhn
qu. Cc ACF hay dng nh M(0,2), M(2,0), M(1,1), M(2,2). Cc c trng ca lc bc mt
ca (m, n) chng hn nh trung bnh m1, phn tn 2 cng hay c s dng.
Ngoi cc c trng trn, c th a thm mt s khi nim v nh ngha cc i lng
da trn nh: lc mc xm (Histogram Grey Level Difference), ma trn xut hin mc
xm (Grey Level Occurrence Matrices).
Lc hiu mc xm:
Lc hiu mc xm dng m t cc thng tin mang tnh khng gian v c nh
ngha nh sau. Cho d=(d1, d2) l vecto dch chuyn gia 2 im nh v g(d) l hiu mc xm vi
khong cch d :
g(d) = |f(k,l) f(k+d1, l+d2)|
(5.3)
vi hm f(k, l) cho gi tr mc xm ti ta (k, l). Gi hg(g, d) l lc ca hiu mc xm

khong cch d. Vi mi khong cch d ta c mt lc mc xm ring.
Vi mt min nh c kt cu th, lc hg(g, d) c khuynh hng tp trung xung quanh
g=0 vi khong cch d nh. Tri li, vi mt min nh c kt cu mn, hg(g, d) s phn nhnh d
vi vecto dch chuyn d kh nh. Da trn lc ny, ngi ta nh ngha li mt s i lng :
N
Trung bnh :
d = g k hh ( g k , d )
(5.4)
k =1
Phng sai :
d2 = ( g k d ) 2 hg ( g k , d )
(5.5)
k =1
tng phn :
c d = g k2 hg ( g k , d )
(5.6)
k =1
Phng sai o tn mt ca hiu mc xm ti mt khong cch d no y. Kt cu tt

nh thng c phng sai d tng i nh. tng phn cd chnh l mmen ca lc
hg(g,d) xung quanh g=0 v o tng phn ca hiu mc xm.
Ngi ta s dng entropy o ng nht cu lc hg :
N
H g = hg ( g k , d ) ln(hg ( g k , d ))
(5.7)
k =1
u im c bn ca lc hiu mc xm l tnh ton n gin. Ngoi ra cn c kh

nng cho ta t chc kt cu khng gian.
Ma trn xut hin lin hip mc xm
Gi s P(k,l,d) l xc sut lin hip ca hai im nh fk v f1 vi cc mc xm k,l tng
ng cch nhau mt khong d. Xc sut ny d dng tnh c nh vic tnh s ln xut hin nk,l
ca cp im nh (fk, f1) c mc xm k v l vi khong cch d. Gi n l tng s cp lin hip c
57
Chng 5: Phn vng nh

th vi khong cch d trong nh. Cc phn t ck,l ca ma trn xut hin lin hip mc xm cd c
tnh nh sau : cd = (ck,l)
V
c k ,l = P ( k , l , d ) =
n k ,l
n
(5.8)
Ma trn xut hin lin hip mc xm Cd l ma trn vung NxN phn t (N l s mc xm

ca nh). Ma trn ny cha cc thng tin hu ch v t chc kt cu khng gian. Nu kt cu
tng i th th cc phn t ca ma trn tp trung xung quanh ng cho chnh. Ngc li, nu
kt cu b mt mn, gi tr cc phn t ca cd s phn ri tng i r.
Da trn khi nim ny ngi ta nh ngha v mt s o :
p d = max ( k ,l ) C k ,l
- Xc sut cc i :
(5.9)
Entropy :
N
H d = C k ,l ln(C k ,l )
(5.10)
k =1 l =1
D dng thy c entropy cc i khi xc sut lin hip P(k,l,d) c phn phi u.
M men bc m :
N
I d = k l C k ,l
m
(5.11)
k =1 l =1
Id cc tiu khi cc phn t ca ma trn C tp trung trn ng cho chnh v khong cch
|k-l| rt nh, Id nh c ngha l kt cu kh th. Ngi ta cng cn a vo mt s o khc
nh hm t tng quan, ph nng lng.
m
p dng cch tip cn ny, cn ci t cc gii thut tnh cc i lng o trn.
5.4.2 Phng php cu trc

Kt cu si c cu trc thun nht l nhng texels xc nh, m s xut hin lp i lp li
tun theo mt lut tt nh hay ngu nhin no y. Mt texel v thc t l mt nhm cc im
nh c cng mt s tnh cht bt bin lp trn nh. Mt texel cng c nh ngha theo mc xm,
theo b mt hay tnh ng nht i vi mt s cc tnh cht nh kch thc, hng, lc bc
hai (ma trn tng tranh).
Vi cc texel c phn b ngu nhin, tnh kt cu si tng ng ca n c coi l yu
(Weak) ngc vi qui lut phn b tt nh gi l khe (Strong). Khi tnh kt cu si l yu, lut
phn b c th o bi:
- Mt g
- Cc lot di ca cc texel lin thng ti a
- Mt cc tr tng i; s pixel trn mt n v din tch c mc xm cc tr a
phng so vi cc ln cn.
Ngoi hai cch tip cn trn, ngi ta cn dng cch tip cn khc bng cch ly t hp 2
cch trn v gi l k thut mosaic. M hnh ny biu din cc qu trnh hc ngu nhin, th d
nh khm ngu nhin hay u ca mt mt phng vo cc ng cong li s lm ni ln tnh kt
cu t bo.
58
Chng 5: Phn vng nh
5.4.3 Tip cn theo tnh kt cu

Khi i tng xut hin trn mt nn c tnh kt cu cao, vic phn on da vo tnh kt
cu tr nn quan trng. Nguyn nhn l kt cu si thng cha mt cao cc g (edge) lm cho
phn on theo bin km hiu qu, tr phi ta loi tnh kt cu. Vic phn on da vo min ng
nht cng c th p dng cho cc c trng kt cu v c th dng phn on cc min c tnh
kt cu.
Nhn chung, vic phn loi v phn vng da vo kt cu l mt vn phc tp. y,
ti liu ch mang tnh cht gii thiu. C th gii quyt vn ny trong thc t nu ta bit trc
cc loi kt cu (da vo quy lut hay cc phn b ca n).
CU HI N TP CHNG 5
1. Th no l vng nh ? Mc ch ca phn vng nh l g ?
2. Th no l phn vng nh theo ngng bin ? Cho v d ?
3. Th no l phn vng nh theo min ng nht ? Cho v d ?
4. Trnh by phng php tch cy t phn phn vng nh ?
5. Trnh by phng php hp phn vng nh ?
6. Trnh by phng php tng hp (tch v hp) phn vng nh ?
7. Th no l phn vng nh da vo kt cu?
59
Chng 6: X l nh
CHNG 6: NHN DNG NH

1. Mt s khi nim, thut ng, cc phng php nhn dng nh
2. Nhn dng da theo min khng gian
3. Nhn dng da theo cu trc
4. Nhn dng da theo mng Nron
6.1 GII THIU

Nhn dng nh l giai on cui ca cc h thng x l nh. Nhn dng nh da trn l
thuyt nhn dng (Pattern Recognition) c cp trong nhiu sch v nhn dng. Trong l
thuyt v nhn dng ni chung v nhn dng nh ni ring c ba cch tip cn khc nhau:
- Nhn dng da vo phn hoch khng gian.
- Nhn dng da vo cu trc.
- Nhn dng da vo k thut mng nron.
Hai cch tip cn u l cch tip cn kinh in. Cc i tng nh quan st v thu nhn
c phi tri qua giai on tin x l nhm tng cng cht lng, lm ni cc chi tit, tip theo
l trch chn v biu din cc c trng, cui cng mi l giai on nhn dng. Cch tip cn th
ba hon ton khc. N da vo c ch on nhn, lu tr v phn bit i tng m phng theo
hot ng ca h thn kinh con ngi. Do c ch c bit, cc i tng thu nhn bi th gic
ngi khng cn qua giai on ci thin m chuyn ngay sang giai on tng hp, i snh vi
cc mu lu tr nhn dng. y l cch tip cn y ha hn c trnh by c th trong
cc phn di y.
Khi nim nhn dng.
Nhn dng l qu trnh phn loi cc i tng c biu din theo mt m hnh no v
gn chng mt tn (gn cho i tng mt tn gi, tc l mt dng) da theo nhng quy lut v
mu chun. Qu trnh nhn dng da vo nhng mu hc bit trc gi l nhn dng c thy hay
hc c thy, trong nhng trng hp ngc li gi l hc khng c thy. Chng ta s ln lt gii
thiu cc khi nim ny.
6.1.1 Khng gian biu din i tng, khng gian din dch
a) Khng gian biu din i tng
Cc i tng khi quan st hay thu thp c thng c biu din bi tp cc c trng
hay c tnh. Gi s i tng nh X (nh, ch vit, du vn tay,) c biu din bi n thnh
phn (n c trng): X={x1,x2xn}; mi xi biu din mt c tnh. Khng gian biu din thng
c gi tt l khng gian i tng X c nh ngha:
X = { X1, X2,Xm}
60
Chng 6: X l nh
Trong mi Xi biu din mt i tng. Khng gian ny c th l v hn. tin xem
xt chng ta ch xt tp X l hu hn.
b) Khng gian din dch
Khng gian din dch l tp cc tn gi ca i tng. Kt thc qu trnh nhn dng ta xc
nh c tn gi cho cc i tng. Mt cch hnh thc gi l tp tn i tng:
={w1, w2, wk} vi wi, i=1,2k l tn cc i tng.
Qu trnh nhn dng i tng f l mt nh x f:
X vi
f l tp cc quy lut
nh mt phn t trong X ng vi mt phn t trong . Nu tp cc quy lut v tp tn cc i

tng l bit trc nh trong nhn dng ch vit (c 26 lp t A n Z), ngi ta gi l nhn dng
c thy. Trng hp th hai l nhn dng khng c thy.
6.1.2 M hnh v bn cht ca qu trnh nhn dng

a) M hnh
Trong nhn dng ngi ta chia thnh hai h ln:
- H m t theo tham s.
- H m t theo cu trc.
Cch m t c la chn s xc nh m hnh ca i tng. Nh vy, chng ta s c hai
loi m hnh: m hnh tham s v m hnh cu trc.
M hnh tham s: s dng mt vect c t i tng. Mi phn t ca vect m t
mt c tnh ca i tng. Th d nh trong cc c trng chc nng, ngi ta s dng cc hm
c s trc giao biu din.
Vic la chn phng php biu din s lm n gin cch xy dng. Tuy nhin vic la
chn c trng no l hon ton ph thuc vo ng dng. Th d, trong nhn dng ch, cc tham
s l cc du hiu:
- S im chc ba, chc t.
- S im chu trnh.
- S im ngot.
- S im kt thc.
M hnh cu trc: Cch tip cn trong m hnh ny da vo vic m t i tng nh
mt s khi nim biu th cc i tng c s trong ngn ng t nhin. m t i tng ngi
ta dng mt s dng nguyn thy nh on thng, cung Chng hn mt hnh ch nht c
nh ngha gm 4 on thng vung gc vi nhau tng i mt. Trong m hnh ny ngi ta s
dng mt b k hiu kt thc Vt, mt b k hiu khng kt thc gi l Vn. Ngoi ra c dng mt
tp cc lut sn xut m t cch xy dng cc i tng ph hp da trn cc i tng n
gin hn hoc i tng nguyn thy (tp Vt). Trong cch tip cn ny, ta chp nhn khng nh
l: cu trc mt dng l kt qu ca vic p dng lut sn xut theo nhng nguyn tc xc nh bt
u t mt dng gc ban u. Mt cch hnh thc, ta c th coi m hnh ny tng ng mt vn
phm G=(V, Vn, P, S) vi:
- Vt l b k hiu kt thc;
- Vn l b k hiu khng kt thc;
61
Chng 6: X l nh
- P l lut sn xut;
- S l dng (k hiu bt u).
Th d, i tng nh gm mi v tng, mi l mt tam gic gm 3 cnh l 3 on thng,
tng l mt hnh ch nht gm 4 cnh vung gc vi nhau tng i mt s c m t thng qua
cu trc m t da vo vn phm sinh nh ch trong hnh di y:
Nh
(1)
(3)
(6)
(2)
Mi
Tng
(4)
on 1 on 2 on 3 on 3 on 4 on 5 on 6
(5)
Hnh 6.1 M hnh cu trc ca i tng nh
b) Bn cht
Qu trnh nhn dng gm 3 giai on chnh:
- Chn m hnh biu din i tng.
- Chn lut ra quyt nh (phng php nhn dng) v suy din.
- Hc trong nhn dng.
Trong vic la chn biu din i tng, i tng c th c xc nh theo cch
nh lng (m hnh tham s) hay nh tnh (m hnh cu trc). Khi i tng c xc nh,
qu trnh nhn dng chuyn sang giai on th hai-giai on hc (Learning). Hc l giai on
cung cp tri thc cho h thng. Mc ch hc nhm ci thin, iu chnh vic phn loi tp i
tng thnh cc lp. Nhn dng l tm ra quy lut v cc thut ton c th gn i tng vo
mt lp hay ni mt cch khc gn cho i tng mt tn.
Hc c thy: k thut phn loi nh kin thc bit trc gi l hc c thy. c im c
bn ca k thut ny l ngi ta c mt th vin cc mu chun. Mu cn nhn dng s c em
so snh vi mu chun xem n thuc loi no. Vn ch yu l thit k mt h thng c
th i snh i tng trong nh vi mu chun v quyt nh gn cho chng vo mt lp. Vic
i snh nh vo cc th tc ra quyt nh da trn mt cng c gi l hm phn lp hay hm ra
quyt nh.
Hc khng c thy: k thut ny phi t nh ra cc lp khc nhau v xc nh cc tham
s c trng cho tng lp. Hc khng c thy ng nhin l gp kh khn hn. Mt mt, do s
lp khng c bit trc, mt khc nhng c trng ca lp cng khng c bit trc. K
thut ny nhm tin hnh mi cch gp nhm c th v chn la cch tt nht. Bt u t tp d
liu, nhiu th tc x l khc nhau nhm phn lp v nng cp dn t c mt phng n
phn loi.
Nhn chung, d l m hnh no v k thut nhn dng ra sao, mt h thng nhn dng c
th tm tt theo s sau:
62
Chng 6: X l nh
Trch chn c
trng
Phn lp
Qu trnh tin x l
nh gi
Khi nhn dng
Hnh 6.2 S tng qut h thng nhn dng nh
6.2 NHN DNG DA THEO MIN KHNG GIAN

Trong k thut ny, cc i tng nhn dng l cc i tng nh lng. Mi i tng
c biu din bi mt vect nhiu chiu. Trc tin, ta xem xt mt s khi nim nh: phn
hoch khng gian, hm phn bit sau s i vo mt s k thut c th.
6.2.1 Phn hoch khng gian

Gi s khng gian i tng X c nh ngha: X ={Xi, i=1,2m}, vi Xi l mt vect.
Ngi ta ni D l mt phn hoch ca khng gian X thnh cc lp Ci, Ci X nu:
C i C j = vi i j v C i =
y l trng hp l tng khi tp
(6-1)
X tch c hon ton. Trong thc t, thng gp
khng gian biu din tch c tng phn. Nh vy, phn loi l da vo vic xy dng mt nh
x f: X D. Cng c xy dng nh x ny l cc hm phn bit (Descriminant Functions).
6.2.2 Hm phn lp hay hm ra quyt nh

chia i tng thnh cc lp, cn xc nh s lp v ranh gii gia cc lp . Gi {gi}
l lp cc hm phn lp hay hm tch bit. Lp hm ny c nh ngha nh sau:
Nu i k , g k ( X ) > g i ( X ) th ta quyt nh X lp k.
Nh vy phn bit k lp ta cn k-1 hm phn bit. Hm phn bit g(.) ca mt lp no
thng c dng trong thc t do tnh n gin, d x l l hm tuyn tnh. Hm tuyn tnh
c dng:
g(X) = W0 + W1 X1 + W2 X2 + + Wk Xk
(6-2)
trong :
- Wi l trng s gn cho cc thnh phn Xi;
- W0 l trng s hng.
Trong trng hp hm g(.) l tuyn tnh, ngi ta ni vic phn lp l tuyn tnh (trong
trng hp mt hay hai chiu) hay siu phng (trong trng hp nhiu chiu). Cc hm phn bit
thng c xy dng da trn khi nim khong cch hay da vo xc sut c iu kin.
Phn lp da theo khong cch (Distance) l mt cng c tt xc nh i tng c
gn nhau v mt c trng no hay khng. Nu khong cch nh hn mt ngng no y
th ta coi hai i tng l ging nhau. Nu chng ging nhau ta gp gp chng, nu chng khc
nhau v ta tch thnh hai hoc nhiu lp phn bit.
63
Chng 6: X l nh
Phn lp da theo xc sut c iu kin (Conditional Probability). Trong mt s trng
hp, ngi ta da vo xc sut c iu kin phn lp cho i tng. L thuyt xc sut c iu
kin c Bayes nghin cu kh k lng v c dng phn bit i tng.
6.2.3 Nhn dng theo phng php thng k

Nu cc i tng nhn dng tun theo lut phn b Gauss, vi hm mt xc sut:
1
(x m)2
exp
2 2
2 2
f(x) =
(6-3)
trong m l k vng, l lch chun.

Ngi ta c dng phng php ra quyt nh da vo l thuyt Bayes. L thuyt Bayes
thuc loi l thuyt thng k nn phng php nhn dng da trn l thuyt Bayes c tn l
phng php thng k.
Quy tc Bayes:
Gi s cho: - khng gian i tng
X ={Xl, l=1,2,,L},
- khng gian din dch ={C1, C2Cr}, vi r l s lp

Gi s tn ti mt sai s trong kt qu nhn dng, khi quy tc Bayes c pht biu:
: X sao cho X Ck nu P(Ck /X) > P(Cl /X)
l <>k, l=1,2,,r.
y: P(Ck /X) l xc sut ca Ck trong iu kin X xy ra. Tng t i vi P(Cl /X).

Trng hp l tng l nhn dng ng (khng c sai s). Thc t, lun tn ti sai s
trong qu trnh nhn dng. Vn chnh y l xy dng quy tc nhn dng vi sai s l nh
nht.
Phng php ra quyt nh vi ti thiu:
Cn xc nh X C k nh xc sut P(Ck /X). Nu c sai s s c tnh bi 1-P(Ck /X).
nh gi sai s trung bnh, ngi ta xy dng mt ma trn L(r,r) vi gi thit c n lp.
Ma trn L c nh ngha nh sau:
l k , j > 0 khi k <> j
Lk , j =
l k , j 0 khi k = j
(6-4)
Nh vy, sai s trung bnh ca s phn lp s l:

rk ( X ) =
k , j P (C j
/ X)
(6-5)
j =1
sai s l nh nht ta cn c rk l nh nht (min). T l thuyt xc sut ta c cng thc

tnh xc sut c iu kin (Cng thc Beyes):
P (C j / X ) =
P ( X / C j ) P (C j )
P( X )
(6-6)
T cng thc (6-5) v (6-6) suy ra:

r
rk ( X ) = l k , j P( X / C j ) P(C j )
j =1
64
(6-7)
Chng 6: X l nh
Vy, quy tc ra quyt nh da trn l thuyt Bayes c tnh n sai s c pht biu nh
sau:
X C k nu pk<pp vi p<>k, p=1,2r
(6-8)
vi pk l rk(X) c xc ng theo (6.7). R rng, t iu kin pk<pp ta hon ton xc nh i

tng X thuc lp Ck no. y chnh l ni dung t tng ca phng php thng k.
6.2.4 Thut ton nhn dng da vo khong cch

C nhiu thut ton nhn dng hc khng c thy. y, chng ta xt thut ton hc
(Learning Algorithm) cn c vo khong cch ln nht.
a. Nguyn tc
Gi s c tp gm m i tng. Xc nh khong cch gia cc i tng v khong cch
ln nht ng vi phn t xa nht to nn lp i tng mi. Vic phn lp c to nn dn dn
da vo th tc xc nh khong cch gia cc i tng v cc lp. iu ny c th minh ha
bng thut ton sau:
b. Thut ton
Bc 1:
- Chn ht nhn ban u. Gi s X 1 C1 gi l lp g1.
Gi Z1 l phn t trung tm ca g1.
- Tnh tt c cc khong cch Dj1=D(Xj,Z1) vi j=1,2m
- Tm Dk1=maxj Djk, trong Xk l phn t xa nht ca nhm g1.
Nh vy, Xk l phn t trung tm ca lp mi g2. K hiu Z2.
- Tnh d1=D12=D(Z1,Z2).
Bc 2:
Tnh cc khong cch Dj1, Dj2 vi
Dj1=D(Xj,Z1); Dj2=D(Xj,Z2). t Dk( 2) = max j D j
Nguyn tc chn:
- Nu Dk( 2) < d k , vi l ngng cho trc.
Kt thc thut ton. Vic phn lp kt thc;
- Nu khng, to nhm th ba. Gi X3 l phn t trung tm ca g3, k hiu Z3 ;
- Tnh D3=(D12+D13+D23);
D13=D(Z1, Z3);
D23=D(Z2, Z3).
- Qu trnh lp li cho n khi phn xong.
Kt qu thu c cc lp i din Z1, Z2,,Zm.
6.3 NHN DNG DA THEO CU TRC

6.3.1 Biu din nh tnh
Ngoi cch biu din nh lng (theo tham s) nh m t trn, tn ti nhiu kiu i
tng mng tnh nh tnh (theo cu trc). Trong cch biu din ny, ngi ta quan tm n cc
dng v mi quan h gia chng. Gi thit rng, mi i tng c biu din bi mt dy k t,
cc c tnh biu din bi cng mt s k t. Phng php nhn dng y l nhn dng logic,
da vo hm phn bit l hm Bool. Cch nhn dng l nhn dng cc t c cng di.
65
Chng 6: X l nh
Gi s hm phn bit cho mi k hiu l ga(X), gb(X), tng ng vi cc k hiu a, b,
d dng hnh dung, ta gi s c t abcd c biu din bi mt dy k t X={x1, x2, x3,
x4}, khi hm phn bit tng ng nhn c l:
ga(x1)+ gb(x2) + gc(x3) + gd(x4)
Cc php cng y c th p dng ton t OR. Trn c s tnh gi tr cc i ca hm
phn bit, vic xc nh (quyt nh) X c thuc lp cc t abcd hay khng. Trong cch tip
cn ny, i tng ca ta c th xem l tng ng vi mt cu hay mt mnh .
Th tc phn loi v nhn dng y gm hai giai on:
Giai on 1: xc nh cc quy tc xy dng, tng ng vi vic nghin cu mt

vn phm trong mt ngn ng chnh thng
Giai on 2: xem xt tp cc dng trong khng gian mu c c sinh ra hon ton t

cc dng c bn khng. Nu n thuc tp th coi nh phn loi xong.
Tuy nhin, phng php ny, vn phm l mt vn ln kh phc tp v kh c th

tm c loi ph hp mt cch hon ho vi mi i tng. V vy, trong nhn dng d theo cu
trc, ta ch s dng c mt phn rt nh.
Nh trnh by trong phn cc m hnh biu din mu. M hnh cu trc tng ng
vi mt vn phm G: G={V1, Vn, P, S}. Ngoi ra cn c rt nhiu vn phm khc nhau t chnh
tc n phi ng cnh. Mt vn phm s c s dng trong nhn dng bi mt ngn ng hnh
thc, trong c mt ngn ng in hnh cho nhn dng cu trc l PLD (Picture Language
Description).
Trong ngn ng PLD, cc t vng l cc vch c hng. C bn t vng c bn:
a:
b:
c:
Hnh 6.3 Cc t vng c bn ca ngn ng hnh thc PLD

Cc php ton cho cc t vng trn c nh ngha nh sau:
+:a+b
-:a-b
x:axb
*:a*b
Hnh 6.4. Cc php ton trong ngn ng LCD
66
d:
Chng 6: X l nh
Vn phm sinh ra cc m t trong ngn ng PLD c nh ngha nh sau:
GA = {Vn, VT, P, S}
Vi Vn = {A, B, C, D, E} v VT = {a, b, c , d}. S l k hiu bt u v P l tp lut sn
xut.
6.3.2 Cc bc nhn dng

Cc i tng cn c nhn dng theo phng php nay fc biu din bi mt cu
strong ngn ng, gi l L(G). Kh i thao tc phn lp chnh l xem xet mt i tng c thuc
vn phm L(G) khng. Ni cch khc, n c c sinh ra bi cc lut ca vn phm G hay khng.
Nh vy cc bc cn phi thc hin l:
Xc nh tp V1 chung cho tt c mi i tng
Xc nh cc quy tc P sn sinh ra mt cu v chng khc nhau i vi mi lp
Thc hin qu trnh hc vi cc cu biu din cc i tng mu l nhm xc nh

vn phm G.
Ra quyt nh: xc nh mt i tng X c biu din bi mt cu lx. Nu lx

nhn bit bi L(Gk) th ta ni rng X l mt i tng thuc loi Ck.
Ni cch khc, vic ra quyt nh phn lp da vo phn tch cu Gk biu din lp Ck..
Vic nhn dng da theo cu trc vn cn l mt tng v cn nhiu iu cn nghin cu.
6.4 NHN DNG DA THEO MNG NRON

6.4.1 Gii thiu mng nron
Nghin cu v nron thn kinh t lu tr thnh ti c nhiu nh khoa hc quan
tm. Nhng k nguyn ca mng nron chnh thc c bt u vi bo co khoa hc ca Mc
Culloch v Pitts nm 1943 miu t mt php tnh logic ca mng nron. Bo co ny c cng
chng n nhn cho n nm 1949 hc thuyt v mng nron chnh thc ca Mc. Culloch v Pitts
c m t ch yu trong bi ging th hai trong bn bi ging m Von Neumann pht biu ti
trng i hc Illinois. S pht trin tip theo ca qu trnh nghin cu mng nron c nh
du vo nm 1949 vi vic xut bn cun sch The Organization of Behavior: A
neuropsychological Theory ca Donald Olding Hebb. n nm 1952, cun sch ca Ashby
Design for a Brain m t nhng iu kin cn v i vi mt h thng hot ng ging
nh b no l phi hc cn tn ti trong mi trng lun thay i v nhn c nhng ci
n cn. Tip , nm 1954, Minsky vit lun n tin s mang tn Theory of Neural-analog
Reinforcement Systems and Application to Brain-Model Problem ti trng i hc Princeton,
sau l bi bo ca ng Steps Toward Artificial Interligence nm 1961 v vic hc cng c
trong mng nron hin nay. Mt ch khc c nh gi cao l pht kin v b nh lin kt
ca Taylor vo nm 1956, m u mt lot cc kt qu pht trin to ln v sau. Cc kt qu c th
k n l s ra i ca mng Perceptron c Frank Rosenblatt cng b vo nm 1957 v c
coi l mng nron truyn thng n gin nht. Tip nm 1960, mng nron khc c
Bernard Widrow v Marcian Hoff gii thiu l ADALINE (ADAptive LINear Element). Vi
mng ADALINE ln u tin kiu hi t cc mch con cha trng s trc node tng c s
dng phn lp cc mu. Nm 1969, Minsky v Papert xut bn cun Perceptron, An
67
Chng 6: X l nh
Introduction to Computational Geometry ch ra nhng gii hn trong mng Perceptron mt lp
n v ngh khc phc trong mng Perceptron nhiu lp. Nhng nm 1970 ni bt vi cc s
kin: cc mng lin kt ca Kohonen v Anderson (1972), Cognitron mng t t chc nhiu lp
u tin do Kunihiko Fukushima ngi Nht gii thiu nm 1975. Thi k pht trin vt bc ca
qu trnh nghin cu mng nron l nhng nm 80 vi s ra i ca mt lot cc mng nron c
gi tr: mng Hopfied ca John Hopfield (1982), SOM (Self-Organization Map) ca Kohonen,
my Boltzmann ca Ackley, Hinton v Sejnowski. Tip theo l s ra i ca mng BackPropagation nm 1986 do D. Rumelhart, G. Hilton v R. Williams gii thiu, sau l mng ART
(Adaptive Resonance Networks) vo nm 1987 ca Gail Carpenter v Stephen Grossberg ti i
hc Boston. Trong nhng nm 1990 vic ng dng cc m hnh mng nron vo phc v cc lnh
vc trong cuc sng c pht trin mnh m.
NRON SINH HC V NRON NHN TO
Mng nron nhn to c thit k da trn m hnh mng nron thn kinh vi cc
phn t nron nhn to ca n l s m phng nron sinh hc. Cc mc t chc b no v cu
trc mng nron sinh vt c th c tham kho trong ti liu. Trong phn ny chng ta ch tp
trung tm hiu cu to ca nron sinh hc v nron nhn to thy c s tng quan gia
chng.
Cu trc nron sinh hc
Nron sinh vt c nhiu dng khc nhau nh dng hnh thp, dng t ong, dng r cy.
Tuy khc nhau v hnh dng, chng c cu trc v nguyn l hot ng chung. Mt t bo nron
gm bn phn c bn:
Cc nhnh v r: Cc nhnh v r l cc b phn nhn thng tin, cc u nhy hoc cc
u ra ca cc nron khc bm vo r hoc nhnh ca mt nron. Khi cc u vo t ngoi ny c
s chnh lch v nng K+ , Na+ hay Cl- so vi nng bn trong ca n th xy ra hin tng
thm t ngoi vo trong thng qua mt c ch mng thm c bit. Hin tng thm thu nh vy
to nn mt c ch truyn t thng tin vi hng ngn hng vn li vo trn mt nron sinh vt,
ng vi hng nghn hng vn lin kt khc nhau. Mc thm thu c c trng bi c ch
mng tng trng bng mt t l. T l c gi l t trng hay n gin gi l trng
(Weight).
Thn thn kinh (Soma): Thn thn kinh cha cc nhn v c quan tng hp protein. Cc
ion vo c tng hp v bin i. Khi nng cc ion t n mt gi tr nht nh, xy ra qu
trnh pht xung (hay kch thch). Xung c pht cc u ra ca nron. Dy dn u ra xung
c gi l dy thn kinh.
Dy thn kinh (Axon): Dy thn kinh l u ra. l phng tin truyn dn tn hiu.
Dy thn kinh c cu to gm cc t v c th di t micro mt n vi mt tu tng kt cu
c th. u ra ny c th truyn tn hiu n cc nron khc.
Khp thn kinh l b phn tip xc ca u ra nron vi r, nhnh ca cc nron khc.
Chng c cu trc mng c bit tip nhn cc tn hiu khi c s chnh lch v nng ion
gia bn trong v bn ngoi. Nu lch v nng cng ln th vic truyn cc ion cng nhiu
v ngc li. Mc thm thu ca cc ion c th coi l mt i lng thay i tu thuc vo
nng nh mt gi tr o thay i c gi l trng.
68
Chng 6: X l nh
Trong no ngi c khong 15 t nron, mi nron c ni vi nhiu nron khc bng
nhng khp thn kinh (synapses), mt nron c th c n hn nghn synapses, v s synapses
tng cng li c c lng khong 1 triu t. Tn hiu c truyn qua thn nron ti cc
synapses, v tu theo trng thi ca chng m mt hay nhiu nron khc s c kch thch
tip tc truyn tn hiu. l mc thp nht, nhng t t chc ln cc tng trn nh th no,
c th c c mt bn chi tit ca mt b no ti tng nron khng?
Mng nron sinh vt t chc thnh tng lp (layer). Ta c:
+ Mng mt lp: l tp hp cc phn t nron c u vo v u ra trn mi mt phn
t. Nu mng ni u ra ca cc phn t ny vi u vo ca phn t kia gi l mng t lin kt
(autoassociative).
+ Mng hai lp: gm mt lp u vo v mt lp u ra ring bit.
+ Mng nhiu lp: gm mt lp u vo v mt lp u ra ring bit. Cc lp nm gia
lp u vo v lp u ra gi l lp n (hidden layers).
+ Mng truyn thng: l mng hai hay nhiu lp m qu trnh truyn tn hiu t u ra
lp ny n u vo lp kia theo mt hng.
+ Mng truyn ngc: l mng m trong mt hoc nhiu u ra ca cc phn t lp
sau truyn ngc ti u vo ca lp trc.
+ Mng t t chc: l mng c kh nng s dng nhng kinh nghim ca qu kh
thch ng vi nhng bin i ca mi trng (khng d bo trc). Loi mng ny thuc nhm
h hc, thch nghi khng cn c tn hiu ch o t bn ngoi.
Bng sau y a ra nhng con s c th c th so snh nhng u vit ca b no con ngi so
vi mt my tnh c nhn mc trung bnh hin nay.
Bng 6.1: So snh kh nng lm vic ca b no v my tnh
My tnh
B no ngi
n v tnh ton
B x l trung tm vi 105 mch

logic
Mng 1011 nron
B nh
109 bit RAM
1011 nron
B nh ngoi
Trn 1010 bit b nh ngoi
Vi 1014 khp ni thn

kinh
Thi gian x l
10-8 giy
10-3 giy
Thng lng
109 bit/giy
1014 bit/giy
Cp nht thng
tin
105 bit/giy
1014 nron/giy
Nhng nghin cu trn y l c s m ng cho con ngi nghin cu phng php

m phng li mng nron sinh vt, chnh l mng nron nhn to
69
Chng 6: X l nh
Nron sinh hc c nhiu dng khc nhau nh dng hnh thp, dng t ong, dng r cy
tuy nhin chng c chung mt cu trc v nguyn l hot ng. Hnh sau y m phng mt
nron sinh hc:
Mt t bo nron gm cc phn c bn:
Nhnh v r: y l b phn tip nhn thng tin ca t bo nron. Cc u nhy hoc
cc u ra ca cc nron khc bm vo r hoc nhnh ca mt nron. Khi cc u vo t ngoi
ny c s chnh lch v nng K+, Na+ hay Cl- so vi nng bn trong ca n th xy ra hin
tng thm t ngoi vo trong thng qua c ch mng thm c bit. Hin tng thm thu nh
vy to nn mt c ch truyn t thng tin vi hng ngn hng vn li vo trn mt nron sinh
hc ng vi hng nghn hng vn lin kt khc nhau. Mc thm thu ca cc ion c th coi l
mt i lng thay i ty thuc vo nng gi l t trng hay n gin l trng (weight).
Hnh 6.1. Hnh minh ha nron sinh hc.

Thn thn kinh: Thn thn kinh cha cc nhn v c quan tng hp protein. Trong qu
trnh cc ion vo c tng hp v bin i khi nng cc ion t n mt gi tr nht nh, xy
ra qu trnh pht xung (hay kch thch). Xung c pht u ra ca nron . Dy dn u ra
xung c gi l dy thn kinh.
Dy thn kinh: y l phng tin truyn dn tn hiu ca gia cc nron. Dy thn
kinh c cu to gm cc t v c th di t vi micro mt n vi mt ty tng kt cu c th.
Khp thn kinh: L b phn tip xc ca u ra nron vi nhnh, r ca cc nron khc.
Chng c cu trc mng c bit tip nhn cc tn hiu khi c s chnh lch v nng ion
gia bn trong v bn ngoi. Nu lch cng ln th vic truyn cc ion cng nhiu v ngc li.
Cu trc nron nhn to
Trn c s cu trc ca nron sinh hc tng qut ngi ta xut m hnh nron nhn
to gm 3 phn chnh: B tng lin kt u vo, b ng hc tuyn tnh v b phi tuyn, c
minh ha c th qua hnh v di y: C th l:
70
Chng 6: X l nh
B tng lin kt u vo: L b tng hp cc lin kt ti u vo ca mt phn t nron,
m t nh sau:
m
v(t ) = wk x k (t )
(1.1)
k =1
x1
-1
1
w
x2
w2
v(t)
u(t)
H(.)
f(.)
y(t)
.
xm
wm
Hnh 1.2. M hnh nron nhn to.

trong :
v(t): Tng tt c cc u vo m t ton b th nng tc ng thn nron .
xk(t): Cc u vo ngoi; vi k l ch s chy, k=1,2m.
m: S lng u vo m t tn hiu vo t cc u nhy thn kinh hoc cc nron khc.
wk: Trng lin kt ngoi gia cc u vo k ti nron hin ti.
y(t): Tn hiu u ra nron .
: Ngng (l hng s), xc nh ngng kch thch hay c ch.
B ng hc tuyn tnh: u vo ca phn ng hc tuyn tnh l v(t), u ra ca n l
u(t) gi l u ra tng t. Hm truyn tng ng ca phn ng hc tuyn tnh c th m t di
dng:
H (s) =
hay
U ( s)
V (s)
U ( s ) = H ( s)V ( s )
(1.2)
Cc hm H(s) thng dng c lit k trong bng di y:

Bng 1.1. Cc hm truyn H(s) thng dng
H(s)
1
s
Quan h vo ra
u (t ) = v(t )
du (t )
= v(t )
dt
1
1 sT
Exp( sT )
du (t )
+ u (t ) = v(t )
dt
u (t ) = v(t T )
B phi tuyn: Phn ny s dng hm quan h phi tuyn f(.) cho u ra y, chn tnh hiu
u ra. Cc hm u ra thng thng l cc hm c gii hn ngng ph hp vi c im u
71
Chng 6: X l nh
ra ca nron sinh hc. Hm dng ny thng c gi l hm kch hot (activation) th hin c
im kch hot hay c ch ca mt nron.
m
y = f (u (t )) = f ( xi (t ) wi )
i 1
(1.3)
Hm phi tuyn y c th chia thnh hai nhm: Nhm hm bc nhy v nhm hm

lin tc. c im chung ca cc hm ny thng tin ti mt gi tr c nh vi cc gi tr c
gn [0,1] hoc [-1,1]. Bng di y lit k mt s hm phi tuyn thng c dng trong cc m
hnh nron:
Bng 1.2. Mt s hm phi tuyn thng dng trong m hnh nron
Tn hm
Cng thc
if x > 0
if x < 0
Bc nhy n v
1
f(x)=
0
Hm du (sgn)
if x 0
1
f(x)=
1 if x < 0
Hm tuyn tnh
Hm tuyn tnh
bo ha i xng
Hm Sigmoid lng cc
c tnh
f(x)= x
if x > 1
1
f(x)= x if 1 x 1
1 if x < 0
f(x)=
2
1
1 + e x
Ngoi ra cn mt s hm khc cng c s dng nh dng hm Gauss, hm logarit,

hm m, hm arctg.
MNG NRON NHN TO V LUT HC
Khi nim mng nron nhn to
72
Chng 6: X l nh
Cc nron sinh hc lin kt vi nhau thnh lp to thnh mng nron sinh hc. Nron
nhn to l s m phng nron sinh hc. C nhiu cch kt hp cc nron nhn to thnh mng,
mi cch kt hp to thnh mt lp mng nron nhn to khc nhau.
Phn loi mng nron nhn to
C nhiu cch phn loi mng nron nhn to, ty theo tiu ch ra:
- Da vo s lng lp c trong mng, ta phn thnh:
+ Mng mt lp
+ Mng nhiu lp
MNG NRON NHN TO
Truyn thng
Tuyn
tnh
Mng
Furie
Phn hi
Phi
tuyn
Brain
State in
Box
Mng
Gabor
My
Boltzman
Cohen
Grossberg
T t chc
Hopfield
nh x c
trng
ART
Mc
Culloch
Pitts
Hnh 1.3. Mt cch phn loi mng

- Da vo ng truyn tn hiu trong mng, ta phn thnh:
+ Mng truyn thng
+ Mng phn hi
+ Mng t t chc
Trong mi lp mng li c nhiu mng vi cc tn gi v c trng khc nhau, hnh v
trn y (Hnh 1.3. Phn loi mng) th hin mt kiu phn loi in hnh cc mng nron.
Khi qut lut hc trong mng nron
Khi nim hc trong mng nron c hiu theo hai ngha: Hc v cu trc v hc v
tham s.
Hc tham s (Parameter Learning)
Mc tiu ca vic hc tham s l thay i, cp nht cc trng lin kt. Hu ht cc lut
hc tn ti thuc kiu hc tham s. Cc kiu hc in hnh m chng ta s nghin cu trong phn
1.4 cng thuc dng hc tham s. Thng thng, lut hc tham s c chia thnh ba dng chnh,
l: Hc gim st, hc khng gim st v hc cng c.
73
Chng 6: X l nh
Hc c thy (Hc gim st: Supervised Learning): Vi kiu hc ny, ti mi thi im
c u vo mng nron th u ra mong mun ca h s c cho sn. C th c th ha nh sau:
Mng c cung cp mt tp cc mu (x(1),d(1)), (x(2),d(2)), (x(n),d(n)) l cc cp u vo
u ra mong mun. Khi mt u vo mng x(k) c a vo, u ra mong mun d(k) cng c
a vo mng. Sai khc gia gi tr u ra thc s y(k) v u ra mong mun d(k) s l c s to tn
hiu li mng sa li trng sao cho u ra thc s gn vi u ra mong mun hn.
Hc khng c thy (Hc khng gim st: Unsupervised Learning): Vi kiu hc ny,
khng c bt k mt thng tin phn hi t mi trng no. Mng phi t tm ra cc mu, c tnh,
tnh quy tc, s tng quan trong d liu u vo v tp hp li to u ra. Khi t tm ra cc
c im ny, mng tri qua cc thay i v tham s ca n. Qu trnh ny c gi l t t
chc.
Cc lut hc c th c khi qut thnh dng chung vi lng iu chnh trng nh
sau:
wij = rx j (t )
(1.4)
Trong : i l nron th i; j l nron th j; - l hng s hc (dng) xc nh tc

hc; r l tn hiu hc. Tn hiu hc tng qut l mt hm ca w, x v d tc l r=f(w,x,d).
i vi cc trng bin i lin tc ta c th s dng dng sau:
dwi (t )
= rx j (t )
dt
(1.5)
Hc cng c (reinforcement learning): i khi trong mt s trng hp, ta khng bit

ht c cc gi tr u ra chnh xc c th hc gim st m ch bit c mt s thng tin
nh gi. Khi lut hc da trn nhng thng tin nh gi ny gi l lut hc cng c v thng
tin phn hi c gi l thng tin cng c. Lut hc ny ch khc lut hc gim st ch, thng
tin phn hi t mi trng ch mang tnh cht nh gi ch khng mang tnh cht dy, c ngha l
ch nh gi u ra thc s l tt hay xu m khng a ra c u ra mong mun l g. Tn hiu
cng c c mng s dng vi hi vng l u ra thc s c nh gi phn hi tt hn trong ln
hc tip theo.
Hc cu trc (Structure Learning)
Mc tiu ca hc cu trc l thay i s nron, kiu lin kt lm cho cu trc mng
thay i. i vi hc tham s, chng ta gi s cu trc mng c sau a ra cc thut hc
thay i cc trng lin kt nhm lm cho u ra thc s gn vi u ra mong mun. Cn vic hc
mc cu trc c th s dng cc k thut lin quan n thut ton gen (Genetic Algorithm) v lp
trnh tin ha (Evolutionary Programming). Cc cch tm kim trong thut ton gen v lp trnh
tin ha kh tiu tn thi gian ngay c i vi mng c kch thc trung bnh. Do , cn c th
s dng cc k thut sa i hay xy dng mng dn dn t mt cu trc ban u. K thut
thng c s dng trong trng hp ny l k thut xn bt mng nron, pht trin mng
nron v kt hp c hai: Xn bt v pht trin mng nron.
MT S CU TRC, LUT HC MNG NRON IN HNH
Trong phn ny chng ta s gii thiu cu trc v lut hc ca ba mng nron in hnh:
Mng Perceptron mt lp n, mng Hopfield ri rc v mng nhiu lp lan truyn ngc Back
Propagation. Mt im c bit l trong s ba mng c gii thiu th mng Back
74
Chng 6: X l nh
Propagation l mng s c s dng gii quyt bi ton nhn dng m vch EAN-8 m n
t ra.
Mng Perceptron mt lp n
Cu trc
Cu trc ca mng Perceptron mt lp n c trng cho loi mng truyn thng c
m t trong hnh v di y:
x1
x2
w11
u ra thc
y1
e1
e2
y2
d1
d2
+
xm-1
u ra mong mun
em
yn
dm
+
Hnh 1.4. Mng Perceptron mt lp n

u vo ca mng c th c m t l vector X=[x1, x2,,xm]T, trong m l s lng
u vo. Gi tr ngng ca cc nron l cc trng lin kt vi u vo cui cng xm=-1. Vi n
nron, vector u ra thc t l Y=[y1,y2,,yn]. Mng Perceptron s dng lut hc c gim st. Do
tng ng vi mu u vo l vector X(k)=[x1(k),x2(k),,xm(k)]T, mu u ra mong mun l
vector d(k)=[d1(k),d2(k),,dn(k)]T. Vi k=1, 2p; p l s cp mu vo/ra; m l s u vo; n
l s u ra; T: l k hiu chuyn v. Chng ta mun u ra thc s y(k)=d(k) sau qu trnh hc
v c th c m t nh sau:
m
y i( k ) = f (WiT xi( k ) ) = f ( Wij x (jk ) ) = d i( k ) vi i=1,2n; k=1,2p
(1.6)
j =1
Trong mng Perceptron s dng hm phi tuyn l hm du nn phng trnh trn c th

vit thnh:
y i( k ) = Sign(Wi T xi( k ) ) = d i( k )
(1.7)
Lut hc
Nh ni trn mng Perceptron s dng lut hc Perceptron l lut hc c gim st,
dng chung ca lng iu chnh trng l (cng thc 1.4):
wij = rx j (t )
trong , tn hiu hc r = di yi. Do u ra mong mun ch gm hai gi tr 1 v -1 nn ta c:
75
Chng 6: X l nh
2d i xi
Wij = (d i y i ) x j = (d i Sign( wiT x)) x j =
0
if y i d i
else
(1.8)
Nh vy, cc trng ch c cp nht khi u ra thc s yi khc vi di. Cc trng c

khi to vi gi tr bt k v lut hc Perceptron s hi t sau mt s bc hu hn.
Mng Hopfield ri rc (1984)
Cu trc. Mng Hopfield mang tn mt nh vt l ngi M l mng phn hi mt lp.
Cu trc mng c ch ra trong hnh 1.5 di y.
w1n
xn
..
w2n
wn2
w12
x2
x1 wn1
w21
yn
y2
y1
Hnh 1.5. Cu trc mng Hopfield ri rc

Khi x l theo thi gian ri rc, n c gi l mt mng Hopfield ri rc hay cng c
th c gi l mng hi quy mt lp. Khi mng hi quy mt lp thc hin mt tin trnh cp
nht tun t, mt mu u vo trc tin c cung cp cho mng v theo u ra ca mng
c khi to. Sau , mu khi to c xa i, u ra c cp nht thng qua cc kt ni phn
hi. u vo c cp nht ln th nht s c u ra c cp nht ln th nht, hot ng ny ti
din, u vo c cp nht ln th hai thng qua cc lin kt phn hi v cung cp u ra c
cp nht ln th hai. Qu trnh chuyn tip tip tc cho n khi khng c s bin i, cc p ng
cp nht c cung cp v mng t c trng thi cn bng ca n.
Trong mng Hopfield, mi node c mt u vo bn ngoi x v mt ngng j, trong
j=1,2,,n. Mt iu rt quan trng l trong mng Hopfield khng c s t truyn ngc. u
ra node th j c kt ni ti u vo ca tt c cc node cn li sau khi nhn vi trng wij, vi
i,j=1,2,,n; ij v wij=wji.
Lut hc (Learning Rule)
Nguyn tc tin trin (nguyn tc cp nht) cho mi node trong mng Hopfield l:
y i( k +1) = sgn(
j =1, j i
ij
y (jk ) + x i i ) vi i=1,2,n
Trong , sgn(.) l hm du, k l ch s ca vic cp nht quy.
76
(1.9)
Chng 6: X l nh
Nguyn tc cp nht trn c p dng theo kiu khng ng b. Vic cp nht tip
theo trn mt node c chn ngu nhin s dng cc u ra va mi c cp nht. Ni cch
khc, do vic x l khng ng b ca mng, mi u ra ca node c cp nht mt cch ring
r, trong khi s dng cc gi tr mi nht m c cp nht. Phng php cp nht khng ng
b c ngh nh mt s quy ngu nhin khng ng b ca mng Hopfield ri rc.
Tnh n nh
Tnh n nh ca mng c m t thng qua hm nng lng:
E=
n
n
1 n n
w
y
y
x
y
+
i yi
ij i j
i i
2 i =1 j =1, j i
i =1
i =1
(1.10)
hoc ngn gn:
E = (net i )y i trong y i = y i( k +1) y i( k )
(1.11)
Bn cht ca cng thc trn ch ra thc t rng y i( k +1) y i( k ) vi ji v wij=wji v wii=0

(thuc tnh trng i xng).
Khi hm nng lng t c cc tiu ca n (c th l cc tiu a phng) th mng s n
nh. V th, bt u ti bt k trng thi khi to no, mt mng Hopfield lun lun hi t ti mt
trng thi n nh sau mt s hu hn cc bc cp nht node, trong tt c cc trng thi n
nh nm ti mt cc tiu a phng ca hm nng lng E. Nguyn tc ny vn dng l thuyt
cn bng Lyapunov ni ting m thc t c s dng cung cp tnh cn bng ca mt h
thng ng c nh ngha t nhiu phng trnh khc nhau phi hp cht ch vi nhau. V th
n cung cp mt cng c mnh trong nghin cu l thuyt ca cc mng nron.
Mng Lan truyn ngc
Thut hc lan truyn ngc l mt trong nhng pht trin quan trng trong mng nron.
Thut ton ny c p dng cho cc mng nhiu lp truyn thng (FeedForward) gm cc phn
t x l vi hm kch hot lin tc. Cc mng nh vy kt hp vi thut ton hc lan truyn
ngc c gi l mng lan truyn.
V mt l thuyt chng minh c rng: mng ba lp tr ln c th nhn bit c mi
hm bt k. Chnh v vy, lut hc truyn ngc c ngha rt quan trng trong vic cp nht
trng ca mng nhiu lp truyn thng. Nn tng ca thut ton cp nht trng ny cng l
phng php h Gradient. Tht vy, cho cp mu u vo - u ra (x(k), d(k)), thut ton lan truyn
ngc thc hin 2 pha. u tin, mu u vo x(k) c truyn t lp vo ti lp ra v kt qu ca
lung d liu tin (forward) ny l to u ra thc s y(k). Sau , tn hiu li to t sai khc gia
d(k) v y(k) s c lan truyn ngc t lp ra quay tr li cc lp trc chng cp nht
trng. minh ho chi tit thut ton lan truyn ngc, xt mt mng 3 lp: lp vo c m nron,
lp n c l nron v lp ra c n nron (hnh 6.6)
Cu trc
+ Lp n: vi tp mu u vo x, nron th q ca lp n nhn tng u vo l
77
Chng 6: X l nh
m
net q = v jq x j
j=1,2, ...,m ; q=1,2, ...,l
(6-14)
j =1
Wij
Wij
Wij
Wij
V
Wij
Wij
V
Wij
Wij
Vjq
Wij
Vjq
W
W
Wij
Wij
V
Wij
Vjq
Wij
Vjq
Wij
Vjq
Hnh 6.6. Mng nhiu lp lan truyn ngc

v to u ra ca lp n:
m
z q = f (net q ) = f ( v qj x j )
(6-15)
j =1
trong f(.) l hm tng tc u ra.

+ Lp ra: gi thit hm tng tc u ra ca lp ra ging cc lp khc, tc l f(.). Khi
tng u vo ca nron th i c th xc nh
l
l
m
net i = wiq z q = wiq f v qj x j
q =1
q =1
j =1
(6-16)
v to u ra:
y i = f (net i ) = f wiq z q =
q =1
l
m
f wiq f v qj x j
q =1
j =1
(6-17)
Lut hc lan truyn ngc (Backpropagation Learning Rule)

C s ca lut hc lan truyn ngc c xy dng trn phng php h Gradient. u
tin, xy dng hm chi ph (hay cn gi l hm sai s gia u ra mong mun di vi u ra thc t
yi)
1 n
1 n
1 n
2
E(w)= (d i y i ) 2 = [d i f (net i )] = d i f wiq z q
2 i =1
2 i =1
2 i =1
q =1
(6-18)
Theo phng php h Gradient, trng lin kt gia lp n v lp u ra c cp nht

bi:
78
Chng 6: X l nh
wiq =
E y i
E
=
wiq
y i net i
net i
wiq
= (d i y i ) f ' (net i ) z q = oi z q
(6-19)
vi oi l tn hiu li ti nron th i trong lp ra (o = out )
oi = (di -yi)f' (neti)
(6-20)
i vi trng lin kt gia nron th j ca lp vo v nron th q ca lp n s c cp

nht theo:
v qj =
E
E
=
net
v qi
q
net q
v
qj
= E
z q
net
q
net q
v
qj
(6-21)
= (d i yi ) f ' (net i ) wiq f ' (net q ) x j

i =1
T phng trnh (1-26) ta c:

n
v qj = [ oi w]f ' (net q ) x j = hq x j
(6-22)
i =1
vi hq l tn hiu li ca nron th q trong lp n (h = hidden)

n
hq = f ' (net q ) 0i wiq
(6-23)
i =1
Da vo cng thc (1-20) ta tnh ra c :

f (netq) = zq (1-zq)
(6-24)
Thay (1-29) vo 1-28) ta c cng thc cui cng cho tn hiu li ca lp n:

n
hq = z q (1 z q ) oi wiq
(6-25)
i =1
Nh vy vic cp nht trng cho lp ra v lp n c khc nhau mt cht, cng thc ca

M
lp ra n gin hn bi n khng cn tnh tng
k =1
pk
wkj t lp k sau n m ch n gin l hiu
gia u ra mong mun v u ra thc ti nron hin ti (dpj-Opj). iu ny cng d hiu bi lp

ra l lp cui cng nn khng c lp k sau.
Sau y chng ta nghin cu mt vi ng dng n gin ca mng n ron trong nhn dng
nh.
6.4.2 Nhn dng nh cc hnh khi

a) t vn
Bi ton t ra l : S dng mng Back-propagation d th nghim nhn dng cc hnh
khi. Bi ton ny c phm vi i tng mu rt rng, nhm xc nh c th hn cho min hnh
nh nhn dng ca n v vic phn tch bi ton c su hn, gii hn bi ton nhn dng
hnh khi trong ti liu ny nh sau:.
79
Chng 6: X l nh
1) Nhn dng cc hnh khi ring l khng lng nhau.
2) Hnh nh khng qu c bit, v d nh hnh tam gic khng qu t.
3) nh c nh dng BMP.
4) Mc xoay ca nh khng qu cao
Cc nh u vo c th l nhiu dng khc nhau: PCX, BMP, IMG, JPG, , nhng trong
h thng nhn dng hnh khi ny ch th nghim nhn dng nh u vo dng BMP. Tp d liu
nh khng qu c bit v khc ging nhau, cc trng hp nh cng c nh nhng nh thc
trong qu b so vi ton b nh cng c th dn n kt qu khng ng. Cc hnh khi u
vo ca h nhn dng:
Hnh 6.7. Cc hnh khi c bn.

b) Gii quyt bi ton nhn dng hnh khi trn c s mng nron nhn to
C hai cch c bn nhn dng nh u vo. Th nht l xy dng hm biu din cho
cc hnh khi, ri t hm biu din h thng nhn ra c im hm phn loi hnh. Ta
bit, mi hnh c bn u c hm c trng ring, v d hnh trn l hm: a.x2+b.y2 = R2, nu coi 2
bin lin k ca nh l mt h ta th ta hon ton c th tnh ton c ta cc im trong
hnh, t mt lot ta ca cc im nh, vi phng php ni suy gn ng ta c th a ra mt
hm gn ng ca hnh khi, t m nhn dng c chng.
Phng php th hai l tch ly cc c trng v cu trc cua nh nh: s chu trnh, s
im ni (chc 3, chc t), im kt thc, im ngot,. vi cc u vo l cc c trng trn,
sau mt qu trnh hun luyn, mng nron s nhn ra cc c trng ring ca mi i tng m
phn loi.
Trc ht l chn phng php nhn dng. trong bi ton ny, phng php nhn dng
theo hm l khng hp l, bi php ni suy v hm ph hp vi cc ng cong khng khp kn
v u ra l cc a thc. Cc hnh khi m chng ta nhn dng l cc ng khp kn v khng
lin tc nn hm u ra khng th l cc a thc m l nhng hm rt phc tp. Do chng ta s
chn phng php trch chn c trng gii quyt bi ton ca chng ta.
Tip n l vic chn tp cc c trng. c trng thng dng v n gin c nhiu
chng trnh ng dng v thnh cng chnh l cc gi tr im nh. u im ca c trng ny
l khu trch chn c trng s khng phc tp m c gim thiu thnh vic c cc gi tr cc
im nh ri m ha thnh gi tr u vo cho mng nron. nh s c nn li gim s nron
ca mng nhm tng tc tnh ton ca mng. Trong bi ton ny, kch c nh sau khi nn
c chn l: 16x12 im nh, do , u vo ca mng l mt lp gm 192 nron. Lp u ra c
7 nron ng vi 7 hnh phn loi. Lp n c 20 nron.
80
Chng 6: X l nh
c) Kt qu
Vi vic hun luyn trn tp mu gm 30 mu, mi mu 7 hnh khi, s ln lp hun
luyn l trn 2500 ln. Sau khi hun luyn xong mng c th nghim 10 ln vi kt qu nh
sau:
Nhn dng hnh tam gic: sau cc th nghim, kt qu cho thy hnh tam gic nhn dng
tt nhng hnh cn i cc gc khng qu lch nhau. Khi c mt gc qu t th vic nhn dng
s khng hiu qu. S hnh nhn dng sai l 3.
Nhn dng hnh t gic v hnh lc gic: hnh t gic l mt hnh c nhiu dng nn vc
nhn dng tt th phi tri qua qu trnh hun luyn mu phong ph. S hnh nhn dng sai ca c
hai loi t gic v lc gic l 7. Hnh t gic v hnh lc gic rt d nhm vi nhau khi hnh lc
gic c 2 gc i din vi nhau ln qu, dn n vic nhm thnh ng thng:
Hnh 6.8. Mt s hnh khi qu c bit.
Nhn dng hnh ng gic: kt qu kh tt, nhn dng sai 2 hnh.

Nhn dng hnh trn v hnh elip: khi nhn dng hnh in, kt qu cho kh tt, nhng nu
hnh elip c hai trc khng chnh lch nhiu s d b nhm vi hnh trn. Nhn dng sai 6 hnh
i vi c hai loi.
Nhn dng hnh tri tim: hnh tri tim cho kt qu nhn dng tt nht trong cc hnh co
bn bi v n c nhng c trng khc bit so vi cc hnh khc v s bin dng ca n l t hn.
S hnh nhn dng sai l 1.
6.4.3 Nhn dng nh m vch

a) t vn
Khi nim. M vch l s th hin thng tin trong cc dng nhn thy trn cc b mt m
my mc c th c c. Ni cch khc m vch l mt cng ngh nhn dng t ng cho php
d liu c lu tr mt cch chnh xc v nhanh chng. Trc kia, m vch lu tr d liu theo
b rng ca cc vch c in song song cng nh ca khong trng gia chng, nhng ngy nay
chng cn c in theo mu ca cc im, theo cc vng trn ng tm hay chng n trong cc
hnh nh. M vch c th c c bi cc thit b qut quang hc gi l my c m vch (my
qut m vch) hay c qut thnh nh bng cc phn mm chuyn bit.
ng dng. M vch c s dng nh s cc vt vi cc thng tin lin quan m
my tnh c th x l. Thay v vic phi nh mt chui d liu vo phn nhp liu ca my tnh
81
Chng 6: X l nh
th ngi ta ch cn qut m vch ca vt bi thit b c m vch. Chng c bit lm vic
tt trong iu kin t ng ha hon ton, chng hn nh trong lun chuyn hnh l cc sn
bay.
Wikipedia c m ha theo Code 128-B
V d v m vch 2D
Hnh 6.3 V d v cc hnh nh m vch

Cc d liu cha trong m vch thay i ty theo ng dng. Trong trng hp n gin
nht l mt chui s nh danh c s dng nh cc ch mc (entry) trong c s d liu lu ton
b cc thng tin khc. Cc m EAN v UPC tm thy ph bin trn hng bn l lm vic theo
phng thc ny.
Trong trng hp khc, m vch cha ton b thng tin v sn phm m khng cn c s
d liu ngoi. iu ny dn ti vic pht trin m vch tng trng c kh nng biu din nhiu
hn, khng phi ch l cc s thp phn m c th b sung thm cc k t hoa v thng ca bng
ch ci cho n ton b bng m k t ASCII v nhiu hn th. Vic lu tr nhiu thng tin hn
dn n vic pht trin cc ma trn m (mt dng m vch 2D), trong khng cha cc vch
m l mt li cc vng.
- Phng php nhn dng m vch:
S ra i ca m vch vo gia th k XX m ra mt k nguyn mi cho vn lu tr
thng tin sn phm trong cc lnh vc sn xut kinh doanh. Ngy nay ta c th d dng tm thy
m vch trong cc bao b sn phm trong cuc sng hng ngy. S xut hin ca m vch tr nn
ph bin v quen thuc vi ngi tiu dng chng t cc cng ngh h tr qu trnh c m vch
cng phi pht trin mnh c th p ng c yu cu s dng. M vch c th c c
bi cc my qut quang hc cng c th c qut t hnh nh bng cc phn mm x l chuyn
bit. Hin nay my qut quang hc (Barcode Scanner) c ng dng rng ri bi s ph hp ca
n vi mi trng lm vic cng nh loi sn phm s dng m vch.
Tuy nhin phng php s dng my qut m vch cng c nhng u nhc im ring.
u im ni bt ca phng php ny l tnh tin dng, nhn dng nhanh vi chnh xc cao.
Nhc im ca n l i hi v trang thit b cng cc ph kin i km thng khng gn nh v
khng mang tnh kh chuyn khong cch nh cc ch mc (entry) trong c s d liu lu ton
b cc thng tin khc. Cc m EAN v UPC tm thy ph bin trn hng bn l lm vic theo
phng thc ny.
Trong trng hp khc, m vch cha ton b thng tin v sn phm m khng cn c s
d liu ngoi. iu ny dn ti vic pht trin m vch tng trng c kh nng biu din nhiu
hn, khng phi ch l cc s thp phn m c th b sung thm cc k t hoa v thng ca bng
ch ci cho n ton b bng m k t ASCII v nhiu hn th. Vic lu tr nhiu thng tin hn
82
Chng 6: X l nh
dn n vic pht trin cc ma trn m (mt dng m vch 2D), trong khng cha cc vch
m l mt li cc vng.
- Phng php nhn dng m vch:
S ra i ca m vch vo gia th k XX m ra mt k nguyn mi cho vn lu tr
thng tin sn phm trong cc lnh vc sn xut kinh doanh. Ngy nay ta c th d dng tm thy
m vch trn cc bao b sn phm trong cuc sng hng ngy. S xut hin ca m vch tr nn
ph bin v quen thuc vi ngi tiu dng chng t cc cng ngh h tr qui trnh c m vch
cng phi pht trin mnh c th p ng c yu cu s dng. M vch c th c c
bi cc my qut quang hc cng c th c qut t hnh nh bng cc phn mm x l chuyn
bit. Hin nay my qut quang hc (Barcode Scanner) c ng dng rng ri bi s phc hp
ca n vi mi trng lm vic cng nh loi sn phm s dng m vch.
Tuy nhin phng php s dng my qut m vch cng c nhng u nhc im ring.
u im ni bt ca phng php ny l tnh tin dng, nhn dng nhanh vi chnh xc cao.
Nhc im ca n l i hi v trang thit b cng cc ph kin i km thng khng gn nh v
khng mang tnh kh chuyn khong cch ln cng nh yu cu v cht lng m vch phi
tng i tt.
Mt cu hi t ra l trong nhng trng hp ngi dng khng c sn cc thit b qut
m vch trong tay, h ch c th chp nh ca m vch m mun bit tt c cc thng tin lin
quan n sn phm c m vch th phi p ng yu cu ny nh th no? V liu phng
php no c kh nng nhn ra m vch khi m vch c chp thnh nh? Cu tr li c gi
m khi chng ta tm hiu v mng nron v th mnh nhn dng nh ca n.
Bi ton Nhn dng m vch EAN-8 trn c s mng nron nhn to l mt th nghim
tr li cho cu hi nu trn.
b) Gii quyt bi ton nhn dng m vch EAN-8 trn c s mng nron nhn to
- Cu trc m vch EAN-8: EAN-8 l phin bn EAN (h thng nh s sn phm chu
u European Article Numbering) c to ra vi mc ch s dng trn cc loi bao b hng
ha nh. ng nh tn gi ca n, EAN-8 m ha 8 s thp phn v c trng ca chui 8 s ny
l c cc t chc c thm quyn v m vch cung cp trc tip do chui 8 s ny phi c
lu tr trong mi c s d liu nh m cc sn phm ring bit.
Trong chui 8 s ca EAN-8 c hai hoc ba s l m nc, nm hay bn s cn li l m
sn phm (chiu di m sn phm ph thuc vo chiu di m nc), s cui cng trong chui l
s kim tra.
Hnh 6.4 M vch EAN-8 th hin chui 12345670

Quy c: cc bit c gi tr 1 c in bng mc en thnh mt ng thng ng, cc bit
c gi tr 0 khng c in (hoc c in bng mc trng) thnh mt ng thng c cng rng
vi bit c gi tr 1.
83
Chng 6: X l nh
Cu trc ca m vch theo th t nh sau:
+ Vch bo v tri c gi tr nh phn l 101.
+ Bn s u trong chui 8 s.
+ Vch bo v gia c gi tr nh phn l 01010.
+ Bn s sau trong chui 8 s.
+ Vch bo v phi c gi tr nh phn l 101.
- Cu trc mng Back-Propagation:
Mng BackPropagation c s dng trong bi ton nhn dng m vch EAN-8 u c ba
lp: lp vo, lp n v lp ra.
S nron ca lp vo chnh l s thnh phn ca vect c trng cho nh m vch. Do c
im ca m vch l nhng vch en v trng thng ng c rng xc nh nn ta ch cn ly
s im nh ca m vch qut theo chiu ngang ca ma trn nh. Xc nh theo th nghim trn
cc mu sinh ra t tin ch BarEAN, s im nh lun l 250 khng ph thuc vo chiu cao v
chiu rng m vch. Do , s nron lp vo ca h nhn dng m vch EAN-8 l 250.
S nron lp ra ty thuc vo cch m ha c trng xc nh tng mu u ra mong
mun. Theo cu trc ca EAN-8, mi mu EAN-8 s c c trng bi 67 bit (vch bo v tri
v phi gm 3 bit, vch bo v gia gm 5 bit, chui 8 s thp phn mi s c m ha bng 7
bit). Do s nron lp ra ca h nhn dng m vch EAN-8 l 67. Vi cch la chn ny th
mt mu u ra s c c trng bi tp 67 gi tr nh phn. Sau ta dng mt hm chuyn i
tm ra chui 8 s thp phn m 67 gi tr nh phn ny biu din, chui 8 s thp phn chnh
l m EAN-8 ca sn phm, t chui ny ta s tm ra cc thng tin lin quan n sn phm c
lu trong c s d liu (tn sn phm, gi sn phm, n v tnh).
V tnh phc tp cng tng ln khi s lp n tng ln, do vi bi ton t ra cho n,
hin ti mng BP c s dng xc nh cc tham s hc gm mt lp n. S nron lp n c
chn theo thc nghim. Trong h nhn dng m vch EAN-8 s nron lp n c chn l 50.
Hnh di y m t cu trc mng BP s dng trong h nhn dng:
0
1
0
50
67
250
Lp vo
Lp n
Lp ra
Hnh 6.5 Mng Back Propagation s dng trong h nhn dng EAN-8
84
Chng 6: X l nh
Vic tnh ton cc tham s khc dng trong qu trnh hun luyn mng nh trng khi to,
hng s hc, s dng hm kch hot no c xc nh theo th nghim.
c) Kt qu
H nhn dng m vch EAN-8 s dng mng nron BackPropagation c xy dng
bng ngn ng Java do nhng tin ch m ngn ng ny em li (ph lc 2: xy dng h nhn
dng m vch EAN-8 bng ngn ng Java). Java da trn C++ nhng n li n gin hn C++ (v
n lc b cc tnh nng kh nht ca C++) m vn thn thin vi ngi dng. Bn cnh Java
cng c tnh c lp vi cu trc ngha l khng ph thuc vo cc loi my, h iu hnh; cc
trnh ng dng vit bng Java c th dng c trn hu ht cc my tnh. Ngoi ra Java cng h
tr a lung ngha l cho php xy dng trnh ng dng c nhiu qu trnh c th xy ra ng
thi.
Th nghim dng mng nron BP nhn dng m vch EAN-8 c thc thi trn my
tnh Intel(R) Pentium(R) 4 CPU 1.80GHz, b nh 256 MB RAM.
Vi nhng iu kin trn th cc kt qu t c c th tng kt thng qua cc bng
sau:
Bng 6.6 Bng thng k hi t vi cc trng khi to khc nhau
Gi tr trng
khi to
S lng vng hc
(Li cc i: 0.01)
S lng vng hc
(Li cc i: 0.001)
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.19
0.18
0.17
0.16
275
265
210
201
313
299
321
757
1728
151
478
482
864
890
Bng 6.7 Bng thng k hi t vi cc hng s hc khc nhau

Cht lng hun luyn mng
Gi tr hng s hc
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.05
0.02
0.01
S vng hc
(Li cc i: 0.01)
Khng hi t
Khng hi t
Khng hi t
1123
185
778
634
Phn trm
nhn dng ng
0%
0%
4%
98%
100%
100%
100%
85
Chng 6: X l nh
Bng 6.8 Bng thng k hi t vi s nron lp n khc nhau
Cht lng hun luyn mng
S lng
nron lp n
S vng hc
(Li cc i: 0.01)
948
345
233
208
216
562
1348
30
40
45
50
55
60
70
Phn trm
nhn dng ng
88%
92%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
Bng 6.8 Thi gian hun luyn vi s lng mu khc nhau

S lng mu
hun luyn
1
10
25
S vng hc
11
138
199
Thi gian hun luyn

(gi:pht:giy)
0:0:7
0:0:20
0:0:27
Phn trm
nhn dng ng
100%
100%
100%
Kt lun: Ta xem xt cc v d nhn dng nh n gin. Nhiu ng dng mng n ron

khc nh nhn dng k t ting Vit, nhn dang ch vit tay, nhn dng mt ngi, nhn dng
tin xu Vit nam hin thi cng cho nhiu cc kt qu.
CU HI V BI TP
1. Th no l hc (Learning) ? Trnh by hc tham s v hc cu trc.
2. Trnh by cu trc v cc thnh phn ca mng n ron sinh hc.
3. Trnh by cu trc v cc thnh phn mng n ron sinh hc.
4. Trnh by cu trc v lut hc mng n ron Perceptron.
5. Trnh by cu trc v lut hc mng n ron ADALINE.
6. Trnh by cu trc v lut hc mng n ron Hopfield ri rc.
7. Trnh by cu trc mng n ron Lan truyn ngc.
8. Trnh by lut hc mng n ron Lan truyn ngc
9. Vit thut ton lut hc mng n ron Lan truyn ngc.
10. Trnh by phng php v tng ng dng mng n ron trong nhn dng nh.
11. Trnh by phng php v tng ng dng mng n ron trong nhn dng nh cc
khi hnh hc.
12. Trnh by phng php v tng ng dng mng n ron trong nhn dng nh m vch.
13. Trnh by phng php thng k trong nhn dng nh.
14. Trnh by thut ton nhn dng nh theo khong cch.
86
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
CHNG 7: NN D LIU NH
1. Mt s khi nim (thut ng) nh: nn, t l nn, cc tng dn n cc phng
php nn khc nhau v cch phn loi, nh gi cc phng php nn
2. Cc phng php nn nh th h th nht
3. M ha theo cc bin i ca th h th nht
7.1 TNG QUAN V NN D LIU NH

7.1.1 Mt s khi nim
Nn d liu (Data Compression)
Nn d liu nhm lm gim lng thng tin d tha trong d liu gc v do vy, lng
thng tin thu c sau khi nn thng nh hn d liu gc rt nhiu. Vi d liu nh, kt qu
thng l 10:1. Mt s phng php cn cho kt qu cao hn. Theo kt qu nghin cu c
cng b gn y ti Vin K thut Georfie, k thut nn fratal cho t s nn l 30 trn 1 [6] .
Ngoi thut ng nn d liu, do bn cht ca k thut ny n cn c mt s tn gi khc
nh : gim d tha, m ha nh gc.
T hn hai thp k nay, c rt nhiu k thut nn c cng b trn cc ti liu v nn
v cc phn mm nn d liu xut hin ngy cng nhiu trn thng trng. Tuy nhin, cha
c phng php nn no c coi l phng php vn nng (Universal) v n ph thuc vo nhiu
yu t v bn cht ca d liu gc. Trong chng ny, chng ta khng th hy vng xem xt tt c
cc phng php nn. Hn th na, cc k thut nn d liu chung c trnh by trong nhiu
ti liu chuyn ngnh. y, chng ta ch cp cc phng php nn c c th ring cho d
liu nh.
T l nn (Compression Rate)
T l nn l mt trong cc c trng quan trng nht ca mi phng php nn. Tuy
nhin, v cch nh gi v cc kt qu cng b trong cc ti liu cng cn quan tm xem xt.
Nhn chung, ngi ta nh ngha t l c bn ca phng php nn. Nhiu khi t l nn cao cng
cha th ni phng php hiu qu hn cc phng php khc, v cn cc chi ph nh thi
gian, khng gian v thm ch c phc tp tnh ton na. Th d nh nn phc v trong truyn
d liu: vn t ra l hiu qu nn c tng hp vi ng truyn khng.
Cng cn phn bit d liu vi nn bng truyn. Mc ch chnh ca nn l gim lng
thng tin d tha v dn ti gim kch thc d liu. Tuy vy, i khi qu trnh nn cng lm
gim bng truyn tn hiu s ha thp hn so vi truyn tn hiu tng t.
7.1.2 Cc loi d tha d liu

Nh trn ni, nn nhm mc ch gim kch thc d liu bng cch loi b d tha
d liu . Vic xc nh bn cht cc kiu d tha d liu rt c ch cho vic xy dng cc phng
87
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
php nn d liu khc nhau. Ni mt cch khc, cc phng php nn d liu khc nhau l do s
dng cc kiu d tha khc nhau. Ngi ta coi c 4 kiu d tha chnh :
- S phn b k t :
Trong mt dy k t,c mt s k t c tn sut xut hin nhiu hn so vi cc dy khc.
Do vy, ta c th m ha d liu mt cch c ng hn. Cc dy k t c tn sut cao c thay
bi mt t m nh phn vi s bt nh; ngc li cc dy c tn sut xut hin thp s c m
ha bi t m c nhiu bt hn. y chnh l bn cht ca phng php m ha t ha Huffman.
- S lp li ca cc k t :
K thut nn dng trong trng hp ny l thay dy lp bi dy mi gm hai thnh
phn: s ln lp v k hiu dng m. Phng php m ha kiu ny c tn l m ha lot di
RLC (Run Length Coding).
- Nhng mu s dng tn sut:
C th c dy k hiu no xut hin vi tn sut tng i cao. Do vy, c th m ha
bi t bt hn. y l c s ca phng php m ha kiu t in do Lempel-Ziv a ra v c ci
tin vo nm 1977, 1978 v do c tn gi l phng php nn LZ77,LZ78. Nm 1984, Tery
Welch ci tin hiu qu hn v t tn l LZW (Lempel-Ziv-Welch).
- d tha v tr:
Do s ph thuc ln nhau ca d liu, i khi bit c k hiu (gi tr) xut hin ti mt
v tr, ng thi c th on trc s xut hin ca cc gi tr cc v tr khc nhau mt cch ph
hp. Chng hn, nh biu din trong mt li hai chiu, mt s im hng dc trong mt khi
d liu li xut hin trong cng v tr cc hng khc nhau. Do vy, thay v lu tr d liu, ta ch
cn lu tr v tr hng v ct. Phng php nn da trn s d tha ny gi l phng php m
ha d on.
7.1.3 Phn loi phng php nn

C nhiu cch phn loi cc phng php nn khc nhau. Cch th nht da vo nguyn
l nn. Cch ny phn cc phng php nn thnh hai h ln:
- Nn chnh xc hay nn khng mt thng tin: h ny bao gm cc phng php nn m
sau khi gii nn ta thu c chnh xc d liu gc.
- Nn c mt thng tin: h ny bao gm cc phng php m sau khi gii nn ta khng
thu c d liu nh bn gc. Phng php ny li dng tnh cht ca mt ngi, chp nhn mt
s vn xon trong nh khi khi phc li. Tt nhin, cc phng php ny ch c hiu qu khi m
vn xon chp nhn c bng mt thng hay vi dung sai no y.
Cch phn loi th hai da vo cch thc thc hin nn. Theo cch ny, ngi ta cng
phn thnh hai h:
- Phng php khng gian (Spatial Data Compression): Cc phng php thuc h ny
thc hin nn bng cc tc ng trc tip ln vic ly mu ca nh trong min khng gian.
- Phng php s dng bin i (Transform Coding): gm cc phng php tc ng ln
s bin i ca nh gc m khng tc ng trc tip nh h trn.
C mt cch phn loi khc na, cch phn loi th ba, da vo trit l ca s m ha.
Cch ny cng phn cc phng php nn thnh hai h:
88
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
- Cc phng php nn th h th nht: Gm cc phng php m mc tnh ton l
n gin, th d vic ly mu, gn t m,.v.v.
- Cc phng php nn th h th hai: da vo bo ha ca t l nn.
Trong cch trnh by di y ta s theo cch phn loi ny.
7.2 CC PHNG PHP NN TH H TH NHT

Trong lp cc phng php ny, ta ln lt xem xt cc phng php:
- M ha lot di RLC (Run Length Coding)
- M ha Huffman
- M ha LZW (Lempel Ziv-Wench)
- M ha khi (Block Coding)
7.2.1 Phng php m ha lot di

Phng php m ha lot di lc u c pht trin dnh cho nh s 2 mc: mc en
(1), v mc trng (0) nh cc vn bn trn nn trng, trang in, cc bn v k thut.
Nguyn tc ca phng php l pht hin mt lot cc bt lp li, th d nh mt lot cc
bt 0 nm gia hai bt 1, hay ngc li, mt lot bt 1 nm gia hai bt 0. Phng php ny ch c
hiu qu khi chiu di dy lp ln hn mt ngng no . Dy cc bt lp gi l lot hay mch
(run). Tip theo, thay th chui bi mt chui mi gm 2 thng tin: chiu di chui v bt lp
(k t lp). Nh vy, chui thay th s c chiu di ngn hn chui cn thay.
Cn lu rng, i vi nh, chiu di ca chui lp c th ln hn 255. Nu ta dng 1
byte m ha th s khng . Gii php c dng l tch cc chui thnh hai chui: mt
chui c chiu di 255, chui kia l s bt cn li.
Phng php RLC c s dng trong vic m ha lu tr cc nh Bitmap theo dng
PCX, BMP.
Phng php RLC c th chia thnh 2 phng php nh: phng php dng chiu di t
m c nh v phng php thch nghi nh kiu m Huffman. Gi s cc mch gm M bits.
tin trnh by, t M = 2m 1. Nh vy mch c c thay bi mch mi gm m bits.
Vi cch thc ny, mi mch u c m ha bi t m c cng di. Ngi ta cng
tnh c, vi M = 15, p = 0,9, ta s c m = 4 v t s nn l 1,95.
Vi chiu di c nh, vic ci t thut ton l n gin. Tuy nhin, t l nn s khng tt
bng chiu di bin i hay gi l m RLC thch nghi.
7.2.2 Phng php m ha Huffman

Nguyn tc
Phng php m ha Huffman l phng php da vo m hnh thng k. Da vo d
liu gc, ngi ta tnh tn sut xut hin ca cc k t. Vic tnh tn sut c thc hin bi cch
duyt tun t tp gc t u n cui. Vic x l y tnh theo bit. Trong phng php ny
ngi ta gn cho cc k t c tn sut cao mt t m ngn, cc k t c tn sut thp t m di.
Ni mt cch khc, cc k t c tn sut cng cao c gn m cng ngn v ngc li. R rng
vi cch thc ny, ta lm gim chiu di trung bnh ca t m ha bng cch dng chiu di
89
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
bin i. Tuy nhin, trong mt s tnh hung khi tn sut l rt thp, ta c th khng c li mt
cht no, thm ch cn b thit mt t bit.
Thut ton
Thut ton bao gm 2 bc chnh:
- Giai on th nht: tnh tn sut ca cc k t trong d liu gc: duyt tp gc mt cch
tun t t u n cui xy dng bng m. Tip sau l sp xp li bng m theo th t tn
sut gim dn.
- Giai on th hai: m ha: duyt bng tn sut t cui ln u thc hin ghp 2 phn
t c tn sut xut hin thp nht thnh mt phn t duy nht. Phn t ny c tn sut bng tng 2
tn sut thnh phn. Tin hnh cp nht li bng v ng nhin loi b 2 phn t xt. Qu
trnh c lp li cho n khi bng ch c mt phn t. Qu trnh ny gi l qu trnh to cy m
Huffman v vic tp hp c tin hnh nh mt cy nh phn 2 nhnh. Phn t c tn sut thp
bn phi, phn t kia bn tri. Vi cch to cy ny, tt c cc bit d liu/k t l nt l; cc nt
trong l cc nt tng hp. Sau khi cy to xong, ngi ta tin hnh gn m cho cc nt l. Vic
m ha rt n gin: mi ln xung bn phi ta thm 1 bit 1 vo t m; mi ln xung bn tri
ta thm mt bit 0. Tt nhin c th lm ngc li, ch c gi trn m thay i cn tng chiu di
l khng i. Cng chnh do l do ny m cy c tn gi l cy m Huffman nh trn gi.
Qu trnh gii nn tin hnh theo chiu ngc li kh n gin. Ngi ta cng phi da
vo bng m to ra trong giai on nn (bng ny c gi li trong cu trc ca tp nn cng vi
d liu nn). Th d, vi mt tp d liu m tn sut cc k t cho bi.
K t
Tn sut
K t
Tn sut
Xc sut
152
1532
0.2770
323
602
0.1088
412
536
0.0969
226
535
0.0967
385
112
0.0746
602
385
0.0696
92
323
0.0585
112
315
0.0569
87
226
0.0409
1532
220
0.0396
536
152
0.0275
220
112
0.0203
315
92
0.0167
535
87
0.0158
Bng tn sut
90
Bng tn sut theo th t gim dn
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
Lu rng, trong phng php Huffman, m ca k t l duy nht v khng m no l
phn bt u ca m khc. V vy, khi c tp nn tng bit t u n cui ta c th duyt cy m
cho n mt l, tc l k t c gii nn.
Bng t m gn cho cc k t bi m Huffman
0
10
0110
010
11110
001
11011
000
111111
1110
111110
1100
110101
0111
110100
7.2.3 Phng php LZW

M u
Khi nim nn t in c Jacob Lempel v Abraham Ziv a ra ln u tin vo nm
1997, sau pht trin thnh mt h gii thut nn t in LZ. Nm 1984, Terry Welch ci
tin gii thut LZ thnh mt gii thut mi hiu qu hn v t tn l LZW. Phng php nn t
in da trn vic xy dng t in lu cc chui k t c tn sut lp li cao v thay th bng t
m tng ng mi khi gp li chng. Gii thut LZW hay hn cc gii thut trc n k thut
t chc t in cho php nng cao t l nn.
Gii thut nn LZW c s dng cho tt c cc loi file nh phn. N thng c dng
nn cc loi vn bn, nh en trng, nh mu, nh a mc xm v l chun nn cho cc dng
nh GIF v TIFF. Mc hiu qu ca LZW khng ph thuc vo s bt mu ca nh.
Phng php
Gii thut nn LZW xy dng mt t in lu cc mu c tn sut xut hin cao trong
nh. T in l tp hp nhng cp t vng v ngha ca n. Trong , t vng s l cc t m
c sp xp theo th t nht nh. Ngha l mt chui con trong d liu nh. T in c xy
dng ng thi vi qu trnh c d liu. S c mt ca mt chui con trong t in khng nh
rng chui tng xut hin trong phn d liu c. Thut ton lin tc tra cu v cp
nht t in sau mi ln c mt k t d liu u vo.
Do kch thc b nh khng phi v hn v m bo tc tm kim, t in ch gii
hn 4096 phn t dng lu ln nht l 4096 gi tr ca cc t m. Nh vy di ln nht
ca t m l 12 bits (4096 = 212). Cu trc t in nh sau:
91
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
0
0
1
255
255
256
256
257
257
258
Chui
259
4095
(Clear Code)
(End Of Information)
Chui
Chui
+ 256 t m u tin theo th t t 0255 cha cc s nguyn t 0255. y l m ca

256 k t c bn trong bng m ASCII.
+ T m th 256 cha mt m c bit l m xa (CC Clear Code). Mc ch vic
dng m xa nhm khc phc tnh trng s mu lp trong nh ln hn 4096. Khi mt nh c
quan nim l nhiu mnh nh, v t in l mt b t in gm nhiu t in con. C ht mt
mnh nh ngi ta li gi mt m xa bo hiu kt thc mnh nh c, bt u mnh nh mi
ng thi khi to li t in cho mnh nh mi. M xa c gi tr l 256.
+ T m th 257 cha m kt thc thng tin (EOI End Of Information). M ny c gi
tr l 257. Nh chng ta bit, mt file nh GIF c th cha nhiu nh. Mi mt nh s c m
ha ring. Chng trnh gii m s lp i lp li thao tc gii m tng nh cho n khi gp m kt
thc thng tin th dng li.
+ Cc t m cn li (t 258 n 4095) cha cc mu thng lp li trong nh. 512 phn t
u tin ca t in biu din bng 9 bit. Cc t m t 512 n 1023 biu din bi 10 bit, t 1024
n 2047 biu din bi 11 bit v t 2048 n 4095 biu din bi 12 bit.
V d minh ha c ch nn ca LZW
Cho chui u vo l ABCBCABCABCD (M ASCII ca A l 65, B l 66, C l 67)
T in ban u gm 256 k t c bn.
92
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
u vo
u ra
A(65)
Thc hin
A c trong t in => c tip
B(66)
65
Thm vo t in m 258 i din cho chui AB
C(67)
66
Thm vo t in m 259 i din cho chui BC
67
Thm vo t in m 260 di din cho chui CB
BC c trong t in => c tip
259
Thm vo t in m 261 i din cho chui BCA

AB c trong t in => c tip
258
Thm vo t in m 262 i din cho chui ABC
67
Thm vo t in m 263 i din cho chui CA
AB c trong t in => c tip
ABC c trong t in = > c tip
262
Thm vo t in m 263 i din cho chui ABCD
Chui u ra s l :
65 66 667 259 258 67 262
u vo c kch thc : 12x8 = 96 bits. u ra c kch thc l : 4x8 + 3x9 = 59 bits
T l nn l 96 : 59 1,63
Thut ton
- Gi tr c INPUT = TRUE khi vn cn d liu u vo v ngc li.
- Chc nng ca cc hm :
+ Hm InitDictionary(): hm ny c chc nng khi to t in. t gi tr cho 256 phn
t u tin. Gn m xa (Clear Code) cho phn t th 256 v m kt thc thng tin (End Of
Information) cho phn t th 257. Xa gi tr tt c cc phn t cn li.
+ Hm Output(): gi chui bit ra file. Chui ny c di l 9,10,11 hoc 12 ty thuc
vo v tr trong t in ca t m gi ra. Cc chui bit ny c ni tip vo vi nhau.
+ Hm GetNextChar(): tr v k t t chui k t u vo. Hm ny cp nht gi tr ca c
INPUT x nh xem cn d liu u vo na hay khng.
+ Hm AddtoDictionary(): s c gi khi c mt mu mi xut hin. Hm ny s cp
nht mu ny vo phn t tip theo trong t in. Nu t in y n s gi ra m xa (Clear
Code) v gi n hm InitDictionary() khi to li t in.
+ Hm Code(): tr v t m ng vi mt chui.
93
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
BEGIN
InitDictionary()
Output(Clear_Code)
OldStr = NULL
True
INPUT
Output(Code(OldStr))
OutPht(EOI)
False
NewChar = GetNextChar()
NewStr = OldStr + NewChar
InitDictionary
(NewStr)
False
OldStr = NewStr
END
True
Output(Code(OldStr))
AddtoDictionary(NewStr)
Hnh 7.3. S thut ton nn LZW.

T tng ca on m trn c th hiu nh sau: nu cn d liu u vo th tip tc c.
Mt chui mi s c to ra t chui c (chui ny ban u trng, chui ny phi l chui tn
ti trong t in) v k t va c vo. Sau kim tra xem chui mi c trong t in cha.
Mc ch ca cng vic ny l hi vng kim tra xem chui c s k t ln nht tn ti trong t
in. Nu tn ti ta li tip tc c mt k t tip theo v lp li cng vic. Nu cha c trong t
in, th gi chui c ra ngoi v thm chui mi vo t in. C th xem li phn v d hiu
r hn.
Gii nn d liu nn bng LZW
Gii thut gii nn gn nh ngc li vi gii thut nn. Vi gii thut nn, mt t m ng
vi mt chui s c ghi ra tp khi chui ghp bi chui trn vi k t va c cha c mt
trong t in. Ngi ta cng cp nht ngay vo t in t m ng vi chui to bi chui c vi
k t va c. K t ny ng thi l k t u tin trong chui tng ng vi t m s c ghi ra
tip theo. y l im mu cht cho php xy dng thut ton gii nn.
Thut ton c m t nh sau :
While(GetnextCode != EOI) do
Begin
if FIRST_CODE /*M u tin ca mi mnh nh*/
Then Begin
OutBuff(code);
94
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
OldStr := code;
End;
if code = CC /*M xa*/
Then Begin
InitDictionary();
FIST_CODE = TRUE;
End;
NewStr := DeCode(code);
OutBuff(NewStr);
OldString = OldStr + FirstChar(NewStr);
AddtoDictionary(OldStr);
OldString := NewStr;
End;
+ Gi tr c FIRST_CODE = TRUE ch m va c l m u tin ca mi mnh nh.
M u tin c cch x l hi khc so vi cc m tip theo.
+ M CC bo hiu ht mt mnh nh. M EOF bo hiu ht ton b thng tin nh.
+ Chc nng ca cc hm:
- GetNextCode(): hm ny c thng tin u vo (d liu nn) tr v m tng ng.
Chng ta nh li rng, d liu nn gm chui cc t m ni tip nhau. Ban u l 9
bit, sau tng ln 10 bit ri 11, 12 bit. Nhim v ca hm ny khng phi n gin.
bit c ti thi im hin thi, t m di bao nhiu bit ra phi lun theo di t
in v cp nht di t m ti cc phn t th 512,1024, 2048.
- OutBuff(): hm ny gi chui gi tr gii m ra vng nh m.
- DeCode(): hm ny tra cu t in v tr v chui k t tng ng vi t m.
- FirstChar(): ly k t u tin ca mt chui. K t va xc nh ni tip vo chui k
t c ( gii m bc trc) ta c chui k t c mt trong t in khi nn.
Chui ny s c thm vo t in gii nn.
- OutPut(): gi chui bt ra file. Chui bt ny c di l 9, 10, 11 hoc 12 ty thuc
vo v tr trong t in ca t m gi ra. Cc chui bit ny c ni tip vo vi nhau.
Trng hp ngoi l v cch x l
i vi gii thut LZW tn ti mt trng hp c sinh ra nhng chng trnh gii nn
c th khng gii m c. Gi s c l mt k t, S l mt chui c di ln hn 0. Nu m k
ca t in cha gi tr l cS. Ngay sau k c dng thay th cho cSc. Trong chng trnh gii
nn, k s xut hin trc khi n c nh ngha. Rt may l t m va c trong trng hp ny
bao gi cng c ni dung trng vi t hp ca t m c vi k t u tin ca n. iu ny gip
cho qu trnh ci t chng trnh khc phc c trng hp ngoi l mt cch d dng.
7.2.4 Phng php m ha khi

Nguyn tc
95
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
Phng php ny lc u c pht trin cho nh s 2 mc xm, sau hon thin thm
bi cc phng php thch nghi v m rng cho nh s a cp xm.
Cho mt nh s I(x, y) kch thc MxN. Ngi ta chia nh nh s thnh cc khi hnh ch nht
kch thc kx1, (k, 1) l rt nh so vi M, N. Nh vy nh gc coi nh gm cc khi con xp cnh
nhau v c N x M/(k x 1) khi con.
Ta c th dng phng php m ha Huffman cho tng khi ca nh gc, ngha l gn
cho mi t khi mt t m nh phn nh phn trn. Mt kh khn gp phi khi dng m ha ti
u Huffman l s lng khi qu ln. Gii php y l dng m ha gn ti u, n gin
hn thc hin m ha.
Gi thit cc khi l c lp nhau v s cu hnh l 2kl. Gi p(I, k, l) l xc sut xut hin
cu hnh I, entropy tng ng l:
2 kl
H (h, l ) = p (i, k , l ) log 2 p (i, k , l )

i =1
Gi tr H(k,l ) c th c din gii l s bit / khi .

Cc t m gn cho cc khi k x l c to bi cc im trng ( cu hnh tri ) l 0.
Cc t m gn cho cc khi k x l khc gm k x l mu ( 1 cho en , 0 cho trng ) i tip
sau bit 1 tin t 1.
Vic m ha theo s khi cng c s dng nhiu trong cc phng php khc nh
phng php dng bin i s trnh by trong mc 8.3 gim bt khng gian lu tr .
Thut ton
Gi s p(0, k, x) l xc sut ca khi ch to bi cc im trng bit , t s nn c th
tnh c d dng. Xc sut ny c th c thit lp bi m hnh l thuyt cho mt khi c bit.
Do vy, ta chia khi lm hai loi: khi mt chiu v khi hai chiu.
+Khi mt chiu:
Xc sut P(0, k, l) tnh c nh vo m hnh ca qu trnh Morkov bc mt. Qu trnh
ny c biu din nhiu ma trn dch chuyn trng thi :
p(t / t )
=
p(t / d )
p(d / t )
p (d / d )
(7.1)
Vi:
- p(t/t) l xc sut c in kin trng sang trng.
- p(d/d) l xc sut c iu kin en sang en. Cc xc sut khc c ngha tng t.
Nh vy:
p(0,k,1) = p(t)p(t/t)k-1
(7.2)
iu ny c th gii thch nh sau: xc sut xut hin mt khi k x 1 ch gm cc im

trng bng xc sut xut hin mt im trng tip theo k -1 dch chuyn trng sang trng.
Da vo cc quan h trn, ta tnh c t s nn Cr.
Cr =
+Khi hai chiu:
96
1
k 1
k (1 p(t )) p(t/t ) + 1
(7.3)
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
Xc sut p(0, k, l) ca cc khi ton trng cng tnh c mt cch tng t nh trn:
p(0,k,l) = p(t)p(t/t)k-1[p(t/t).p(t/X = t, Y = t)l-1]k-1
(7.4)
Mi quan h ny tng ng:

p(0,k,l) = p(t)p(t/t)k+l+2p(t/X = t, Y = t)(l1)(k-1)
(7.5)
V t s nn s cho bi cng thc:
Cr =
[(1 p(t )) p(t / t ) ]+ kl1

k +l 2
(7.6)
Thc t, khi ci t ngi ta hay chn khi vung v gi tr thch hp ca k t 4 n 5
7.2.5. Phng php thch nghi

Thut ng thch nghi thng dng ch s thch hp ca cc t m theo mt ngha no
y. Nh trong phng php RLC trn, thay v dng chiu di t m c nh m bit, ngi ta
dng chiu di bin i v trn c s c phng php RLC thch hp.
Trong phng php m ha khi, ngi ta s dng chiu di khi c nh gm k x l im
nh. Tuy nhin, vi nh khng thun nht, phng php m ha ny bc l nhiu nhc im. V
rng, vi nh khng ng nht, chnh s khng thun nht ca nh quyt nh s thch nghi vi
iu kin cc b.
Mt ci tin cho vn ny l c nh mt kch thc ca khi, cn kch thc kia coi
nh l hm ca mt tc ng trung bnh theo hng (vi l = 1) hay theo mt nhm hng (l > 1).
Tc ng c quan tm cng ging nh cc phng php l s dch chuyn cc im trng sang
en trn hng.
Mt cch l thuyt ngi ta cng tnh c gi tr ti u ca k(k0tp):
k opt
= T
1I
l =1
(7.7)
I >1
N l s im nh trn hng
[6]:
Trn c s ny, ngi ta p dng m ha khi t ng thch nghi cho mt s ng dng

- M on hay khi k x 1 t ng thch nghi vi tc ng cc b.
- M on hay khi k x 1 t ng thch nghi 1 chiu.
- M khi k x 1 t ng thch nghi 2 chiu.
7.3. PHNG PHP M HA DA VO BIN I TH H TH

NHT:
Tuy bn cht ca cc phng php nn da vo bin i rt khc vi cc phng php
trnh by trn, song theo phn loi nn, n vn c xp vo vo h th nht. V c cc c th
ring nn chng ta xp trong phn ny.
7.3.1 Nguyn tc chung

97
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
Cc phng php m ha da vo bin i lm gim lng thng tin d tha khng tc
ng ln min khng gian ca nh s m tc ng ln min bin i. Cc bin i c dng
y l cc bin i tuyn tnh nh: bin i KL, bin i Fourrier, bin i Hadamard, Sin, Cosin
vv
V nh s thng c kch thc rt ln, nn trong ci t ngi ta thng chia nh thnh
cc khi ch nht nh. Thc t, ngi ta dng khi vung kch thc c 16x16. sau bin i
tng khi mt cch c lp.
Chng ta bit, dng chung ca bin i tuyn tnh 2 chiu l:
N 1
X (m, n ) =
k =0
N 1
a(m, n, k ,1) x(k ,1)
l =0
- x(k,1) l tn hiu vo
- a(m,n,k,1) l cc h s ca bin i l phn t ca ma trn bin i A.
Ma trn ny gi l nhn ca bin i. Cch xc nh cc h s ny l ph thuc vo tng
loi bin i s dng. i vi phn ln cc bin i 2 chiu, nhn c tnh i xng v tch c :
A[m,n,k,1] = A[m,k] A[n,1]
Nu bin i l KL th cc h s chnh l cc phn t ca vct ring.
7.3.2 Thut ton m ha dng bin i 2 chiu

Cc phng php m ha dng bin i 2 chiu thng c 4 bc sau:
B1. Chia nh thnh khi
nh c chia thnh cc khi nh kch thc k x 1 v bin i cc khi mt cch c
lp thu c cc khi Vi, i=0,1,,B vi B = MxN/(k x1).
B2. Xc nh phn phi bit cho tng khi
Thng cc h s hip bin ca cc bin i l khc nhau. Mi h s yu cu lng ha
vi mt s lng bit khc nhau.
B3. Thit k b lng ha
Vi phn ln cc bit i, cc h s v(0, 0) l khng m. Cc h s cn li c trung bnh 0.
tnh cc h s, ta c th dng phn b Gauss hay Laplace. Cc h s c m ha bi s bit
khc nhau, thng t 1 n 8 bit. Do vy cn thit k 8 b lng ha. d ci t, tn hiu vo
v 1 (k, l) c chun ha c dng:
v 1 (k, l) = v 1 (k, l)/ k ,l (k, l) (0, 0)
Trc khi thit k b lng ha, ngi ta tm cch loi b mt s h s khng cn thit.
B4. M ha
Tn hiu u vo ca b lng ha s c m ha trn cc t bit truyn i hay lu tr
li. Qu trnh m ha da vo bin i c th c tm tt trn hnh 7.4 di y.
Nu ta chn php bin i KL, cho phng php s c mt s nhc im: khi lng
tnh ton s rt ln v phi tnh ma trn hip bin, tip sau l phi gii phng trnh tm tr ring
v vct ring xc nh cc h s. V l do ny, trn thc t ngi ta thch dng cc bin i
98
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
khc nh Hadamard, Haar, Sin v Cosin. Trong s bin i ny, bin i Cosin thng hay c
dng nhiu hn.
AUAt
Lng ha
Hnh 7.4. M ha v gii m bi m ha bin i.
7.3.3 M ha dng bin i Cosin v chun JPEG

a. Php bin i Cosin mt chiu
Php bin i Cosin ri rc (DCT) c Ahmed a ra vo nm 1974. K t n nay
n c ng dng rt rng ri trong nhiu phng php m ha nh khc nhau nh hiu sut gn
nh ti u ca n i vi cc nh c tng quan cao gia cc im nh ln cn. Bin i Cosin
ri rc c s dng trong chun nh nn JPEG v nh dng phim MPEG.
Php bin i Cosin mt chiu
Php bin i Cosin ri rc mt chiu c nh ngha bi:
X(k) =
2 k
N
x(n)cos
1
2
khi k = 0
N 1
n =0
(2n + 1)k
2N
(7.10)
Trong : k =
0
khi k = [1,N-1]
Khi dy u vo x(n) l thc th dy cc h s X(k) cng l s thc. Tnh ton trn trng
s thc gim i mt na thi gian so vi bin i Fourier. t c tc bin i tha mn
yu cu ca cc ng dng thc t, ngi ta ci tin k thut tnh ton v a ra nhiu thut ton
bin i nhanh Cosine. Mt trong nhng thut ton c gii thiu di y.
Php bin i Cosin nhanh
Php bin i Cosin nhanh vit tt l FCT (Fast Cosine Transform), da vo tng a
bi ton ban u v t hp cc bi ton bin i FCT trn cc dy con. Vic tin hnh bin i
trn cc dy con s n gin hn rt nhiu so vi dy gc. V th, ngi ta tip tc phn nh dy
tn hiu cho n khi ch cn mt phn t.
Gii thut bin i Cosin nhanh khng thc hin trc tip trn dy tn hiu u vo x(n)
m thc hin trn dy x(n) l mt hon v ca x(n). Gi thit s im cn tnh FCT l ly tha
ca 2: N=2M
D liu u vo s c sp xp li nh sau:
99
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
x(i) = x(2i) vi i = 0,1,,
N
1
2
x(N-i-1) = x(2i+1) vi i = 0,1,,
N
1
2
Nh vy, na u dy x(n) l cc phn t ch s chn ca x(n) xp theo chiu tng dn

ca ch s. Na sau ca x(n) l cc phn t ch s l ca x(n) xp theo chiu gim dn ca ch s.
Thay vo cng thc (7.10) ta c:
N
1
2
(4n + 3)k
(4n + 1)k 2
+ x(2n + 1)Cos
X(k) = x(2n)Cos
2N
2N
n =0
n =0
Rt gn biu thc:
X(k) =
N 1
x'(2n)Cos
n =0
(4n + 1)k
2N
Chia X(k) ra lm hai dy, mt dy bao hm cc ch s chn, cn dy kia gm cc ch s l.

Phn ch s chn
X(2k) =
N
1
2
(4n + 1)2k
N
) cos
N
)
2(
2
x'(n) + x'(n + 2
n =0
C th chuyn v dng:
N 1
X(2k) = x'(n)cos
n =0
(4n + 1)k
2N
(7.11)
Cc cng thc:
C th nhn ra ngay cc cng trn l cc php bin i Cosin N/2 im ca g(n) v h(n).
Nh vy, bi ton bin i Cosin ca dy x(n) c a v bin i Cosin ca hai dy l g(n)
v h(n) c kch thc bng mt na x(n). Hai dy g(n) v h(n) tnh ton c mt cch d dng,
g(n) l tng ca na u dy x(n) vi na sau ca n, h(n) l hiu ca na u dy x(n) vi na
sau ca n, sau em nhn vi 2C Nn . Ta lp li qu trnh chia i i vi cc dy con, dy con
ca dy con v c tip tc nh th. Ging nh bin i Fourier, mi bc lp cng c coi l
mt tng phn chia. Vi N = 2M th s tng phn chia l M.
d hnh dung, u ra ca mi tng c k hiu l Xm(n) vi m l tng hin thi. Ta
xem x(n) l bin i Cosin(0) tng ca x(n):
X0(n) = x(n)
(7.12)
XM(n) l bin i Cosin tng M ca x(n), n khng phi l X(k). Bi v c sau mi tng,
khng ch th t cc phn t trong X(k) b xo trn m cc X(2k+1) cn c cng vi X(2k-1).
u ra ca mt tng l u vo ca tng tip theo.
X1(n) = g(n)
100
vi
n = 0,1,,
N
1
2
(7.14)
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
X1(n+
N
) = h(n)
2
vi
n = 0,1,,
N
1
2
T cng thc tnh g(n) v h(n) ta c:

X1(i) = X0(i) + X0(i+
X1(i+
N
)=
2
N
)
2
N i
X 0 (i ) X 0 (i + 2 ) 2C N vi n = 0,1,,N-1
(7.15)
C sau mi tng, s dy con li c nhn i. Xt php bin i ca tng th m, chng ta

phi lp li cng vic bin i cho 2m-1 dy con. Mi dy con ng vai tr nh dy x(n) trong
N
tng th nht. S phn t trong mt dy l: m 1 . Cng on bin i trn mt dy con gi l mt
2
khi bin i. Mi dy con s tip tc c phn lm hai dy nh hn. Cng thc tng qut ca
mi khi l:
X m (i ) = X m 1 (i ) + X m 1 (i +
N
)
2m
(7.16)
) X m i(i) X m 1(i + m )2C'N/ m 1

2
X m(i +
N
2m
vi
i=k
N
N
N
,..., k m 1 + m , trong k=0,1,,2m 1
m 1
2
2
2
Phn xy dng cng thc tng qut trong php bin i nhanh Fourier c trnh by kh
chi tit trn, chng ta c th xem li phn ny hiu hn v cng thc tng qut cho mt khi
bin i nhanh Cosin.
Thut ton bin i nhanh Cosin c th m t bng cc bc sau:
Bc 1: Tnh dy h s C ij .
Xc nh s tng M = log 2 N
Tng hin thi m=1
Bc 2: Nu m M thc hin bc 5. Nu khng kt thc.
(Cha ht cc khi trong mt tng)
Bc 3: Khi hin thi k = 0.
Bc 4: Nu k<2m-1 Thc hin bc 5. Nu khng thc hin bc 6.
(Cha ht cc khi trong mt tng)
Bc 5: Tnh ton Xm(i) trong khi theo cng thc tng qut (8.16),(8.17).
Tng k ln 1. Quay v bc 4.
Bc 6: Tng m ln 1. Quay v bc 2
(Chuyn n tng tip theo)
Khc vi bin i Fourier nhanh, trong bin i Cosin, x(n) khng phi u vo trc tip
v X(k) khng phi l u ra trc tip. u vo, x(n) ch l cch sp xp li x(n). Chng ta bit
rng ti mi tng, i vi mi khi:
101
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
X(2i + 1) = X(2i +1) + X(2i -1)
Nn u ra, sau khi tnh c XM(n) chng ta phi thc hin vic tr truy hi t tng M
v tng 1 sau hon v li theo th t o bit mi thu c h s bin i X(k) cn tnh.
Bi ton sp xp li theo th t o bit cp trong phn bin i Fourier. Bi ton tr
truy hi ci t kh n gin.
Dy h s C ij c tnh trc mt ln. trong cc ng dng m s im tnh FCT khng
i hoc ch nhn mt s gi tr c th, ngi ta thng tnh trc C ij v ghi ra file. Khi thc hin
bin i th c t file ly thng tin ny. Trong ng dng ca chng ta, ta tnh trc C ij v lu
vo mt mng. Php bin i s truy cp bng ny ly h s cn thit.
Php bin i Cosin ngc
Php bin i Cosin ngc c nh ngha bng cng thc:
N 1
x(n) = X(k)k Cos

k =0
Vi k = 2
0
k(2n + 1)
2N
(7.18)
khi k = 0
khi k 0
Php bin i Cosin ngc s c thc hin theo chiu ngc li vi quy trnh tin
hnh trong php bin i nhanh. Tuy nhin, cng vic ny khng c thun li nh php bin
i FFT ngc. T X(k) chng ta phi khi phc li XM(k) bng cch thc hin cc php cng truy
hi v php hon v theo th t o bit. Cng thc tng qut cho mi khi bin i ngc c
xy dng da trn cng thc tng qut trong bin i xui:
Vi i = k
N
N
N
,...,k m 1 + m , trong
m 1
2
2
2
Xm-1(i+
Xm-1(i) =
k = 0,1,,2m 1
N
1
N
1
) = X m(i) X m(i + m ) i
m
2
2 2C N/2 m1
2
1
N
1
X m(i) + X m(i + m ) i
2 2C N/2 m1
2
(7.19)
(7.20)
Php bin i ngc phi ci t ring. Tuy vy, t tng chnh ca hai bi ton xui v
ngc v c bn ging nhau. u ra ca php bin i ngc s l x(n). Mun thu c x(n) ta
phi o v tr.
b. Php bin i Cosin ri rc hai chiu
Php bin i Cosin ri rc hai chiu c nh ngha bi:
X(k1,k 2 ) =
4k1k2
N1 N 2
N 1 1 N 2 1
x(n ,n
n1=0 n2 =0
)Cos
(2n2 + 1)k 2
(2n1 + 1)k1
Cos
2N 2
2N 1
Trong , k1 =0 khi k1 =0 v k1 =
102
1
khi k1 = 1,2,,N1 -1
2
(7.21)
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
1
khi k2 = 1,2,,N2 -1
2
k 2 =0 khi k2 =0 v k 2 =
Php bin i ngc c nh ngha bi cng thc:
x(n1,n2 ) =
N 1 1 N 2 1
X(k ,k
1
k1=0 k2 =0
)k1k2Cos
(2n2 + 1)k 2
(2n1 + 1)k1
Cos
2N 2
2N 1
(7.22)
trong , k1 , k 2 nhn cc gi tr nh trong cng thc bin i xui.

nng cao tc bin i ngi ta pht trin cc gii thut bin i nhanh Cosin hai
chiu. Cch lm ph bin nht l tn dng php bin i nhanh Cosin mt chiu. Ta bin i cng
thc (7.21) v dng:
X(k1,k 2 ) =
2k1
N1
2k2
n1=0 N 1
N 1 1
N 2 1
x(n ,n
1
n2 =0
)Cos
(2n1 + 1)k1
(2n2 + 1)k 2
Cos
2N 1
2N 2
(7.23)
t:
X(n1,k2) =
2k2
N1
N 2 1
x(n ,n
1
n2 =0
)Cos
(2n2 + 1)k 2
2N 2
(7.24)
Cng thc (7.23) tr thnh:
2
X(k1,k 2 ) = k1
N1
N 1 1
(2n + 1)k
[X'(n k )]Cos 2N
n1=0
1, 2
(7.25)
Cng thc (7.24) l php bin i Cosin ri rc mt chiu ca x(n1, n2 ) , trong n2 l

bin s, cn n1 ng vai tr l tham s thu c kt qu trung gian X(n1,k2). Cng thc (7.25) l
php bin i Cosin ri rc ca X(n1,k2) vi n1 l bin s cn k2 l tham s. n y t tng ca
thut ton r rng. Khi bin i nhanh Cosin hai chiu ca mt ma trn nh, ta s tin hnh
bin i nhanh mt chiu trn cc im nh theo hng, sau bin i nhanh mt hng theo ct
ca kt qu va thu c.
Bin i nhanh Cosin ngc hai chiu cng c xy dng da trn kt qu php bin i
nhanh Cosin ngc mt chiu. T cng thc (7.22) ta biu din li nh sau:
x(n1,n2 ) =
N 1 1 N 2 1
X(k ,k
k1=0
k2 =0
)k2Cos
(2n1 + 1)k1
(2n2 + 1)k 2
k1Cos
2N 1
2N 2
(7.26)
t:
x(n1,n2 ) =
N 1 1
[x'(k n )]
k1=0
1, 2
Cos
k1
(2n1 + 1)k1
2N 1
(7.27)
Khi cng thc (7.26) s tr thnh:
x' (k1, n2 ) =
N 2 1
X(k ,k
k2 =0
)k2Cos
(2n2 + 1)k 2
2N 2
(7.28)
Cng thc (7.27) l php bin i Cosin ngc ri rc mt chiu ca X (k1, k 2 ) , trong k2
l bin s, cn k1 ng vai tr l tham s thu c kt qu trung gian x' (k1, n2 ) . Cng thc (7.28)
103
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
l php bin i Cosin ngc ri rc ca x' (k1, n2 ) vi k1 l bin s cn n2 l tham s. Nh vy,
mun khi phc li nh ban u t ma trn h s bin i chng ta s bin i nhanh Cosin ngc
ri rc mt chiu cc h s theo hng, sau em bin i nhanh Cosin ri rc mt chiu theo ct
cc kt qu trung gian va tnh c.
c. Bin i Cosin v chun nn JPEG
JPEG l vit tt ca Joint Photographic Expert Group ( nhm cc chuyn gia pht trin
nh ny). Chun JPEG c cng nhn l chun nh quc t nm 1990 phc v cc ng dng
truyn nh cho cc lnh vc nh y hc, khoa hc, k thut, nh ngh thut
Chun JPEG c s dng m ha nh a mc xm, nh mu. N khng cho kt qu
n nh lm vi nh en trng. Chun JPEG cung cp gii thut cho c hai loi nn l nn khng
mt mt thng tin v nn mt mt thng tin. Trong phn di y, chng ti trnh by chi tit v
mt trong cc dng nn bin i chp nhn mt mt thng tin dng bin i Cosin ca chun
JPEG: Bin i Cosin tun t ( Sequential DTC - based). Bin i Cosin tun t l k thut n
gin nht nhng c dng ph bin nht v n p ng c hu ht cc c tnh cn thit cho
phn ln cc ng dng.
M ha JPEG bao gm nhiu cng , sS thut ton nn v gii nn c m t di
y.
P
h
n
nh
gc
8x8
DCT
Lng
t ha
M
ha
nh
nn
8x8
khi 8 x 8
k
h
i
8x8
Bng
lng
t
Bng
m
Hnh 7.5 S thut ton nn JPEG

Qu trnh gii nn s c lm ngc li, ngi ta gii m tng phn nh nn tng ng
vi phng php nn s dng trong phn nn nh cc thng tin lin quan ghi trong phn
header ca file nn. Kt qu thu c l h s lng t. Cc h s ny c khi phc v gi
tr trc khi lng t ha bng b tng t ha. Tip em bin i Cosin ngc ta c nh
ban u vi trung thc nht nh.
104
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
nh
nn
Gii
m
Tng
t ha
Bng
m
DCT
ngc
nh
gii
nn
Bng
lng
t
Hnh 7.5 S thut ton gii nn JPEG

Bng m v bng lng t trong s gii nn c dng ln nh nhng thng tin ghi
trong phn cu trc u tp ( Header) ca tp nh nn. Qu trnh nn chu trch nhim to ra v
ghi li nhng thng tin ny. Phn tip theo s phn tch tc dng ca tng khi trong s .
+ Phn khi
Chun nn JPEG phn nh ra cc khi 8x8. Cng on bin i nhanh Cosin hai chiu
cho cc khi 8x8 t ra hiu qu hn. Bin i Cosin cho cc khi c cng kch thc c th gim
c mt phn cc tnh ton chung nh vic tnh h s C ij cho 3 tng (8 = 23), s cc h s l: 4
+2 + 1 = 7
Nu vi mt nh 1024 x 1024, php bin i nhanh Cosin mt chiu theo hng ngang
hoc hng dc ta phi qua 10 tng (1024 = 210). S cc h s C ij l: 512 + 256 + 128 + 64 + 8 + 4
+ 2 + 1 = 1021. Thi gian tnh ton cc h s C ij vi ton b nh 1024 x 1024 ln gp 150 ln so
vi thi gian tnh ton cc h s ny cho cc khi.
Bin i Cosin i vi cc khi c kch thc nh s lm tng chnh xc khi tnh ton
vi s du phy tnh, gim thiu sai s do lm trn sinh ra.
Do im nh hng xm c tng quan cao hn, do php bin i Cosin cho tng
khi nh s tp trung nng lng hn v mt s t cc h s bin i. Vic loi bt mt s h s
nng lng thp trong cc khi ch to ra mt mt thng tin cc b gip nng cao cht lng nh.
nh s c chia lm B khi:
M ' N'
B=
= M B NB
k l
Cc khi c xc nh bi b s (m,n) vi m = [0MB-1] v n = [0NB-1], y m ch
th t ca khi theo chiu rng, n ch th t ca khi theo chiu di. Phn tch khi thc cht l
xc nh tng quan gia ta ring trong khi vi ta thc ca im nh trong nh ban u.
Nu nh ban u k hiu Image[i,j] th ma trn biu din khi (m,n) l x[u, v] c tnh:
x[u,v] = Image[mk + u,nl + v]
105
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
+ Bin i
Bin i l mt trong nhng cng on ln trong cc phng php nn s dng php bin
i. Nhim v ca cng on bin i l tp trung nng lng vo mt s t cc h s bin i.
Cng thc bin i cho mi khi l:
X ( k1 , k 2 ) =
k1 k 2
4
x(n , n
n1= 0 n 2 = 0
)Cos
(2n1 + 1)k1
(2n2 + 1)k 2
Cos
16
16
(7.29)
Trong :
k1 = 2
0
k 2
khi k1 = 0
khi 0 < k1 < 8
= 2
0
khi k 2 = 0
khi 0 < k 2 < 8
Thut ton bin i nhanh Cosin hai chiu cho mi khi trong trng hp ny s bao gm
16 php bin i nhanh Cosin mt chiu. u tin, ngi ta bin i nhanh Cosin mt chiu cho
cc dy im nh trn mi hng. Ln lt thc hin cho 8 hng. Sau em bin i nhanh Cosin
mt chiu theo tng ct ca ma trn va thu c sau 8 php bin i trn. Cng ln lt thc
hin cho 8 ct. Ma trn cui cng s l ma trn h s bin i ca khi tng ng.
Trong s gii nn ta phi dng php bin i Cosin ngc. Cng thc bin i ngc
cho khi 8x8:
x(n1 ,n2 ) =
12
4
X(kn ,k
k1=0 k1=0
)Cos
(2n2 + 1)k 2
(2n1 + 1)k1
Cos
16
16
(8.30)
trong :
k1 = 2
0
k 2
khi k1 = 0
khi 0 < k1 < 8
= 2
0
khi k 2 = 0
khi 0 < k 2 < 8
+ LNG T HA
Khi lng t ha trong s nn ng vai tr quan trong v quyt nh t l nn ca
chun nn j. u vo ca khi lng t ha l cc ma trn h s bin i Cosin ca cc khi im
nh.
106
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
gim s b lng t, ngi ta tm cch quy cc h s cc khi v cng mt khong
phn b. Chun nn j ch s dng mt b lng t ha. Gi s rng cc h s u c hm tnh xc
sut xut hin nh nhau. Chng ta s cn chnh li h s yj bng php gn:
yj =
yj - j
Vi j l trung bnh cng ca h s th j
j l lch c bn ca h s th j.
Nh vy chng ta s ng nht c mc quyt nh v mc to li cho tt c cc h s.
Do , cc h s c biu din cng bng mt s lng bit. C nhiu cch tip cn tnh c
cc mc quyt nh v mc to li. Lloyd Max a ra gii thut sau:
Bc 1: Chn gi tr khi to:
d0 = yL
dN = yH
r0 = d0
N l mc lng t
Bc 2: Cho i bin thin t i n N-1 thc hin cc cng vic sau:
a. Tnh di theo cng thc:
di
ri 1 =
y. p( y)dy
d i 1
di
p ( y )dy
d i 1
b. Tnh ri theo cng thc:

ri = 2di - ri 1
Bc 3: Tnh
dN
rt =
d N 1
y. p ( y )dy
dN
p ( y )dy
d N 1
Bc 4: Nu rN-1 r iu chnh li r0 v lp li t bc 2 n bc 4.
Trong qu trnh ci t to ra mt b lng t ha, Lloyd v Max c nhiu ci tin
tnh ton d dng hn. Xc nh d1 bng cng thc trong bc 2a c tin hnh theo phng
php Newton-Raphson. Sau y l cc bc m t ton b cng vic ca khi lng t ha tc
ng ln cc h s bin i Cosin:
Bc 1: Tnh trung bnh cng v lch c bn cho tng h s mi v tr
trong khi
j =
107
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
n y 2j ( y j )
i =
n(n 1)
Vi yj l h s th j, n l s khi.
Bc 2: La chn t l s h s gi li trong mt khi.
Bc 3: Gi li cc h s c lch c bn ln hn
Bc 4: Lp ma trn T sao cho: Tij =1 nu h s (i,j) c gi li.
Bc 5: Cn chnh li gi tr ca cc h s xoay chiu c gi li cc khi:
C ij =
C ij ij
ij
Bc 6: Tnh phn b ca cc gi tr xoay chiu cn chnh.

Bc 7: Tnh lch c bn
ca cc phn b va tnh.
Bc 8: Lng t ha cc h s xoay chiu bng cch s dng b lng t LloydMax sau khi iu chnh mc quyt nh v mc to li ca n theo cch sau:
di di s
ri ri s
dN = -d0
Thnh phn mt chiu s khng lng t ha. n y, ta chuyn sang bc nn.
+ Nn d liu
u vo ca khi nn gm hai thnh phn: thnh phn cc h s mt chiu v thnh phn
cc h s xoay chiu.
Thnh phn cc h s mt chiu Ci(0, 0) vi i = 0,1,,63 cha phn ln nng lng tn
hiu hnh nh. Ngi ta khng nn trc tip cc gi tr Ci(0, 0) m xc nh lch ca Ci(0, 0):
di = Ci+1(0, 0) Ci(0, 0)
di c gi tr nh hn nhiu so vi Ci nn trong biu din du phy ng theo chun IEE754
thng cha nhiu chui bit 0 nn c th cho hiu sut nn cao hn. Gi tr C0(0, 0) v cc
lch d1, c ghi ra mt tp tm. Tp ny c nn bng phng php nn Huffman.
Thnh phn cc h s xoay chiu C1(m, n) vi 1m7, 1n7 cha cc thng tin chi tit
ca nh. nng cao hiu qu nn cho mi b h s trong mt khi, ngi ta xp chng li theo
th t ZigZag.
Tc dng ca sp xp li theo th t ZigZag l to ra nhiu loi h s ging nhau. Chng
ta bit rng nng lng ca khi h s gim dn t gc trn bn tri xung gc di bn phi nn
vic sp xp li cc h s theo th t ZigZag s to iu kin cho cc h s xp x nhau (cng mc
lng t) nm trn mt dng.
Mi khi ZigZag ny c m ha theo phng php RLE. Cui mi khi u ra ca
RLE, ta t du kt thc khi EOB (End Of Block). Sau , cc khi c dn li v m ha mt
ln bng phng php m Huffman. Nh c du kt thc khi nn c th phn bit c hai khi
cnh nhau khi gii m Huffman. Hai bng m Huffman cho hai thnh phn h s tt nhin s khc
nhau.
108
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
c th gii nn c, chng ta phi ghi li thng tin nh: kch thc nh, kch thc
khi, ma trn Y, lch tiu chun, cc mc to li, hai bng m Huffman, kch thc khi nn
mt chiu, kch thc khi nn xoay chiu v ghi ni tip vo hai file nn ca thnh phn h s.
Ci t gii thut cho nn thc s phc tp. Chng ta phi nm c cc kin thc v nn
RLE, Huffman, bin i Cosin, xy dng b lng t ha Lloyd-MaxNn v gii nn j hi
chm nhng b li, thi gian truyn trn mng nhanh hn do kch thc tp nn nh.
Vi nhng u im ca mnh c ISO chp nhn l chun nh quc t v c bit n
di m s ISO 10918-1.
7.4 PHNG PHP M HA TH H TH HAI

Phng php m ha da vo bin i th h th hai, nh ni trong phn gii thiu
chung, c th phn thnh hai lp nh:
Lp phng php s dng cc php ton cc b t hp u ra theo cch thc hp l v
lp phng php s dng biu din nh.
Di y, trong lp phng php th nht chng ta s xem xt mt phng php c tn
gi l Kim t thp Laplace; cn trong lp phng php th hai s cp 2 phng php l
vng gia tng v phng php tch-hp.
7.4.1 Phng php Kim t thp Laplace (Pyramide Laplace)

Phng php ny l t hp ca hai phng php: M ha thch nghi v bin i. T s
nn l kh cao, thng l 10/1. V nguyn tc, phng php ny da vo m hnh phn cp quan
st ca con ngi.
Bt u t nh gc x(m, n) qua b lc di thp ta thu c tn hiu x1(m, n). B lc ny
c thit k tnh trung bnh cc b da vo p ng xung 2 chiu gn vi ng cong Gauss.
B lc ny ng vai tr d on vi sai s e1(m, n) tnh bi:
e1(m, n) = x(m, n) x1(m, n)
(7.31)
Nh vy l m ha ca x1(m, n) v e1(m, n) l tng ng vi m ha ca x(m, n). Vi

cch bin i nh trn e1(m, n) thuc loi di cao. V mt ngi t cm nhn c tn hiu vi tn
s cao nn ta c th dng mt lng bit t hn m ha cho n. Mt khc tn hiu x1(m, n) thuc
loi di thp, nn theo l thuyt s ly mu s mu s t hn.
Qu trnh ny c lp li bng cch dng cc b lc thp khc nhau v ta s thu c cc
f
tn hiu xi(m, n), i=1,2, Vi mi ln lp kch thc ca nh s gim i mt lng bng i .
f i +1
Theo cch ny, ta c mt cu trc xp chng t nh cu trc Kim t thp m kch thc gim dn
t gc n nh. Nhn chp Gauss c dng y c kch thc 5x5. Cc tn hiu ra sau
c lng ha v mu ha.
Theo kt qu cng b [6] vi b lc gii thp mt chiu tch c vi cc trng s:
g(0) = 0,7, g(-1) = g(1) = 0,25 v g(-2) = g(2) = 0,1. T s nn dao ng t 6/1 n 32/1. Tuy
nhin, nu t s nn cao th nh kt qu s c bin dng.
7.4.2 Phng php m ha da vo biu din nh.
109
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
Nh bit, trong x l nh ty theo cc ng dng m ta cn ton b nh hay ch nhng
c tnh quan trng ca nh. Cc phng php phn vng nh trong chng su nh hp vng,
tch, tch v hp l rt hu ch v c th nn nh. C th c nhiu phng php khc, song
di y chng ta ch cp n hai phng php: vng gia tng v phng php tch hp.
a. M ha da vo vng gia tng
K thut vng gia tng thc cht l hp cc vng c cng mt tnh cht no . Kt qu
ca n l mt nh c phn on ging nh mt trong tr xp ch (Puzzle). Tuy nhin, cn lu
rng tt c cc ng bao thu c khng to nn mt nh ging nh gc.
Vic xc nh tnh cht min ng nht xc nh phc tp ca phng php. n
gin, tiu chun chn y l khong mc xm. Nh vy, min ng nht l tp hp cc im
nh c mc xm thuc khong chn. Cng cn lu thm rng, nh gc c th c ng bao
v cc kt cu (Texture). Trong min texture, xm bin i rt chm. Do vy, nu khng ch
s chia nh thnh qu nhiu min v gy nn cc bao gi. Gii php khc phc hin tng ny
l ta dng mt b lc thch hp hay lc trung v.
Sau giai on ny, ta thu c nh phn on vi cc ng vin kn, rng 1 pixel.
loi b cc ng bao gi, ta c th dng phng php gradient (xem chng nm). Sau khi
thu c cc ng bao ng, ngi ta tin hnh m ha (xp x) ng bao bi cc ng cong
trong hnh hc, th d bi cc on thng hay ng cong. Nu nh gc c phn gii khng
thch hp, ngi ta dng khong 1,3 bit cho mt im bin.
Phng php ny th hin u im: l m hnh tham s. Cc tham s y l s vng,
chnh xc m t. Tuy nhin, tham s khong mc xm l quan trng nht v n c nh hng
n t s nn. Mt tham s cng khng km phn quan trng l s im ca cc ng bao b coi
l gi. Thng s im ny khng vt qu 20 im.
b. Phng php tch hp
Cng nh ch ra trong chng su, phng php tch hp khc phc c mt s
nhc im ca phng php phn vng da vo tch vng hay hp vng. Trong phng php
m ha ny, ngi ta thay tiu chun chn vng n gin trn bng mt tiu chun khc hiu
qu hn.
Nguyn tc chung ca phng php m hnh bin texture. Nhn chung ng bin d
nhy cm vi mt ngi, cn texture th t nhy cm hn. Ngi ta mong mun rng ng phn
ranh gia cc vng l ng nht vi cc ng bao. Lu rng cn quyt nh phn vng mt
phn ca nh sao cho n khng c vt cho ng bao. y l mt tiu chun kim tra quan
trng. Cc ng bao thng nhn c bi cc b lc thng cao, ng hng.
c th qun l cc im thuc mt vng mt cc tt hn, tiu chun kim tra th hai
cng c xem xt l du: cc im nm v mt pha ca ng bao c cng du.
Nhn chung, phng php gm hai giai on. giai on u thc hin vic tch vng, giai
on sau thc hin vic hp vng.
Qu trnh tch thc hin trc. Ngi ta chia nh gc thnh cc vng nh kch thc 9x9.
Tip theo, tin hnh xp x cc vng nh bng mt a thc c bc nh hn 3. Sau qu trnh
tch ta thu c trong mt s vng ca nh cc hnh vung lin tip. chng s to nn mt min
gc ln v khng nht thit vung. Nh vy, trong trng hp ny phi xp x bng rt nhiu cc
110
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
a thc ging nhau. R dng l vic m ha ring bit cc a thc l iu kin hiu qu v ngi
ngh n hp cc vng gim d tha ny.
Qu trnh hp c tin hnh nh sau: nu hai vng c th c xp x bi 2 a thc
tng t, ngi ta hp chng lm mt v ch dng mt a thc xp x. Nu mc thay i l
thp, ta s c nhiu cp vng tng t. c th nhn c kt qu khng ph thuc vo ln hp
u, ngi ta xy dng th vng k cn. Cc nt ca th ny l cc vng v cc lin h
biu din mi khng tng ng. S lin h vi mc khng tng ng thp ch ra rng hai vng
cn hp li.
Sau bc hp ny, th c cp nht li v qu trnh hp c lp li cho n khi tiu
chun l tha mn. Qu trnh hp dng c th quyt nh bi cht lng nh nn hay mt tiu
chun no khc.
Ta c th thy rng phng php ny kh phc tp song b li n cho t s nn kh cao 60
trn 1 [6].
7.5 KT LUN
Mi phng php nn u c nhng u im v nhc im. Tnh hiu qu ca phng
php khng ch ph thuc vo t s nn m cn vo nhiu ch tiu khc nh: phc tp tnh
ton, nhy cm vi nhiu, cht lng, kiu nh, v.v
Nn l mt vn ln c quan tm nhiu v c lin quan n nhiu lnh vc khc nhau.
Chng ta khng hi vng c th trnh by tt c trong mt chng. Song d sao, chng ny cng
cung cp mt s khi nim v cc phng php kh dng v mt s phng php mi v nn d
liu nht l nn nh. Bng tng kt di y cung cp cho chng ta mt cch nhn tng i ton
din v cc phng php nn.
Bng so snh kt qu mt s phng php nn
Phng php
T s nn
phc tp
Cht lng
Nhy cm
vi nhiu
Kiu nh
RLC
10
n gin
Rt tt
Ln
Nh phn
D on
2-4
n gin
Rt tt
Trung bnh
Mi nh
Bin i
10-15
Phc tp
Tt
Rt km
a cp xm
Pyramide Laplace
5-10
Trung bnh
Tt
Ln
a cp xm
Vng gia tng
20-30
Phc tp
Trung bnh
Rt ln
a cp xm
Tch v hp
60-70
Rt phc tp
Trung bnh
Rt ln
a cp xm
CU HI N TP
1. Vit mt chng trnh nn v gii nn theo phng php RLC (n gin, dc, ngang, hay
kt hp).
111
Chng 7: Nn d liu nh
2. Vit mt chng trnh nn v gii nn theo phng php Huffman.
3. Vit mt chng trnh nn v gii nn theo phng php LZW.
4. Vit th tc thc hin bin i Cosin thun.
5. Vit th tc thc hin bin i Cosin ngc
6. Vit th tc thc hin lng t ha theo thut ton Lloyd Max.
112
Ti liu tham kho
TI LIU THAM KHO

[1] Lng Mnh B, Nguyn Thanh Thu. Nhp mn x l nh s. Nh xut bn . Nh xut
bn Khoa hc v K thut, 2003.
[2] V c Khnh, Hong Vn Kim. Gio trnh x l nh s. Nh xut bn i hc Quc
gia Thnh ph H Chi Minh.
[3] Nguyn Kim Sch. X l nh v Video s. Nh xut bn Khoa hc v K thut, 1997.
[4] Nguyn Quc Trung. X l tn hiu v lc s. Nh xut bn Khoa hc v K thut, 2004.
[5] Bhabatosh Chanda, Dwijesh Dutta Mumder. Digital Imge Processing and Analysis.
Prentice Hall of India, 2001.
[6] Thomas Braunl, S. Feyer, W. Rapt, M. Reinhardt .Parallel Image Processing. Springer,
2000.
[7] Willam K. Pratt. Digital Image Processing: PIKS inside, Third Edition 2001, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
113
Gii thch t v thut ng vit tt
GII THCH T V THUT NG VIT TT

ACF
: AutoCorrelation Function : Hm t tng quan
ADALINE : ADAptive LINear Element

ART
: Adaptive Resonance Networks
BMP
: Bit MaP,
BP
: Back Propagation
CCD
: Charge-Coupled Devices: cc thit b gp
CIE
: Commission Internationale dEclairage : Mt t chun mu quc t.
dpi
: dot per inch.
EP
: Evolutionary Programming: Lp trnh tin ha
FIR
: Finite Impulsse Response : B lc p ng xung hu hn
GA
: Genetic Algorithm: Gii thut di truyn, p dng nhm ti u ton cc theo xc

sut.
GIF
: Graphics Interchanger Format do hng ComputerServer Incorporated (M) xut

nm 1990.
JPEG : Joint Phograph Expert Group : Tn ca nhm nghin cu cc chun nn cho nh,
thnh lp
nm 1982. Tn c l IOS. Nm 1986, JPEG chnh thc c thnh lp.
KL
: Karhumen Loeve, Tn mt php bin i nh c dng trong x l nh
PLD
: Picture Language Description: M t ngn ng nh
PC
: Personal Computer: My tnh c nhn
PSF
: Point-Spread Function: Hm tri im
SOM : (Self-Organization Map)
114
Mc lc
MC LC
LI NI U ................................................................................................................................ 1
CHNG 1: NHP MN X L NH..................................................................................... 3
1.1. GII THIU V H THNG X L NH.............................................................................................. 3
1.2 NHNG VN C BN TRONG H THNG X L NH ........................................................... 6
1.2.1 im nh (Picture Element) .................................................................................................................. 6
1.2.2 phn gii ca nh ............................................................................................................................. 7
1.2.3 Mc xm ca nh .................................................................................................................................. 7
1.2.4 nh ngha nh s.................................................................................................................................. 7
1.2.5 Quan h gia cc im nh ................................................................................................................... 7
1.2.6 Cc thnh phn c bn ca h thng x l nh ..................................................................................... 9
1.3 NHNG VN KHC TRONG X L NH .................................................................................... 10
1.3.1 Bin i nh (Image Transform) ......................................................................................................... 10
1.3.2 Nn nh ............................................................................................................................................... 11
CU HI N TP........................................................................................................................................... 11
CHNG 2: THU NHN NH ................................................................................................. 12

2.1 CC THIT B THU NHN NH ........................................................................................................... 12
2.1.1 B cm bin nh .................................................................................................................................. 12
2.1.2 H ta mu ..................................................................................................................................... 13
2.2 LY MU V LNG T HA............................................................................................................ 15
2.2.1 Gii thiu............................................................................................................................................. 15
2.2.2 Ly mu............................................................................................................................................... 15
2.2.3 Lng t ha ....................................................................................................................................... 17
2.3 MT S PHNG PHP BIU DIN NH .......................................................................................... 18
2.3.1 M lot di........................................................................................................................................... 18
2.3.2 M xch................................................................................................................................................ 18
2.3.3 M t phn .......................................................................................................................................... 19
2.4 CC NH DNG NH C BN ........................................................................................................... 19
2.4.1 Khi nim chung ................................................................................................................................. 19
2.4.2 Quy trnh c mt tp nh ................................................................................................................... 19
2.5 CC K THUT TI HIN NH ........................................................................................................... 20
2.5.1 K thut chp nh................................................................................................................................ 20
2.5.2 K thut in nh .................................................................................................................................... 20
2.6 KHI NIM NH EN TRNG V NH MU ................................................................................... 22
2.6.1 nh en trng ...................................................................................................................................... 22
2.6.2 nh mu .............................................................................................................................................. 23
CU HI N TP........................................................................................................................................... 23
CHNG 3 : X L NNG CAO CHT LNG NH...................................................... 24
115
Mc lc
3.1 CI THIN NH S DNG CC TON T IM..............................................................................24
3.1.1 Tng tng phn (Stretching Contrast) ..........................................................................................25
3.1.2 Tch nhiu v phn ngng.................................................................................................................26
3.1.4 Ct theo mc (Intensity Level Slicing)................................................................................................27
3.1.5 Trch chn bit (Bit Extraction).............................................................................................................27
3.1.6 Tr nh ................................................................................................................................................28
3.1.7 Nn di sng. ..................................................................................................................................28
3.1.8 M hnh ha v bin i lc xm .................................................................................................28
3.2 CI THIN NH DNG TON T KHNG GIAN ..............................................................................28
3.2.1 Lm trn nhiu bng lc tuyn tnh: lc trung bnh v lc di thng thp ..........................................29
3.2.2 Lm trn nhiu bng lc phi tuyn ......................................................................................................31
3.2.3 Mt n g sai phn v lm nhn ..........................................................................................................32
3.2.4. Lc thng thp, thng cao v lc di thng ........................................................................................33
3.2.5. Khuych i v ni suy nh................................................................................................................33
3.2.6. Mt s k thut ci thin nh nh phn ...............................................................................................34
3.3 KHI PHC NH .....................................................................................................................................35
3.3.1. Cc m hnh quan st v to nh ........................................................................................................36
3.3.2 Cc b lc ............................................................................................................................................38
CU HI N TP CHNG 3......................................................................................................................39
CHNG 4: CC PHNG PHP PHT HIN BIN........................................................40

4.1 GII THIU BIN V K THUT PHT HIN BIN .......................................................................40
4.1.1 Mt s khi nim .................................................................................................................................40
4.1.2 Phn loi cc k thut pht hin bin ..................................................................................................41
4.1.3 Quy trnh pht hin bin. .....................................................................................................................41
4.2 PHNG PHP PHT HIN BIN CC B.........................................................................................42
4.2.1 Phng php Gradient .........................................................................................................................42
4.2.2. D bin theo quy hoch ng .............................................................................................................47
4.2.3 Mt s phng php khc ...................................................................................................................49
CU HI V BI N TP ............................................................................................................................51
CHNG 5: PHN VNG NH ...............................................................................................52

5.1 GII THIU ...............................................................................................................................................52
5.2 PHN VNG NH THEO NGNG BIN .....................................................................................52
5.3 PHN VNG NH THEO MIN NG NHT ....................................................................................53
5.3.1 Phng php tch cy t phn.............................................................................................................53
5.3.2 Phng php cc b ............................................................................................................................55
5.3.3 Phng php tng hp.........................................................................................................................55
5.4 PHN VNG NH THEO KT CU B MT ......................................................................................56
5.4.1 Phng php thng k .........................................................................................................................56
5.4.2 Phng php cu trc ..........................................................................................................................58
5.4.3 Tip cn theo tnh kt cu....................................................................................................................59
CU HI N TP CHNG 5......................................................................................................................59
116
Mc lc
CHNG 6: NHN DNG NH .............................................................................................. 60
6.1 GII THIU .......................................................................................................................................... 60
6.1.1 Khng gian biu din i tng, khng gian din dch....................................................................... 60
6.1.2 M hnh v bn cht ca qu trnh nhn dng ..................................................................................... 61
6.2 NHN DNG DA THEO MIN KHNG GIAN................................................................................. 63
6.2.1 Phn hoch khng gian........................................................................................................................ 63
6.2.2 Hm phn lp hay hm ra quyt nh.................................................................................................. 63
6.2.3 Nhn dng theo phng php thng k ............................................................................................... 64
6.2.4 Thut ton nhn dng da vo khong cch........................................................................................ 65
6.3 NHN DNG DA THEO CU TRC .................................................................................................. 65
6.3.1 Biu din nh tnh .............................................................................................................................. 65
6.3.2 Cc bc nhn dng ............................................................................................................................ 67
6.4 NHN DNG DA THEO MNG NRON........................................................................................... 67
6.4.1 Gii thiu mng nron ........................................................................................................................ 67
6.4.2 Nhn dng nh cc hnh khi .............................................................................................................. 79
6.4.3 Nhn dng nh m vch ...................................................................................................................... 81
CU HI V BI TP................................................................................................................................... 86
CHNG 7: NN D LIU NH ............................................................................................ 87

7.1 TNG QUAN V NN D LIU NH................................................................................................... 87
7.1.1 Mt s khi nim................................................................................................................................. 87
7.1.2 Cc loi d tha d liu ...................................................................................................................... 87
7.1.3 Phn loi phng php nn ................................................................................................................. 88
7.2 CC PHNG PHP NN TH H TH NHT.................................................................................. 89
7.2.1 Phng php m ha lot di .............................................................................................................. 89
7.2.2 Phng php m ha Huffman............................................................................................................ 89
7.2.3 Phng php LZW .............................................................................................................................. 91
7.2.4 Phng php m ha khi ................................................................................................................... 95
7.2.5. Phng php thch nghi...................................................................................................................... 97
7.3. PHNG PHP M HA DA VO BIN I TH H TH NHT: ........................................... 97
7.3.1 Nguyn tc chung................................................................................................................................ 97
7.3.2 Thut ton m ha dng bin i 2 chiu............................................................................................ 98
7.3.3 M ha dng bin i Cosin v chun JPEG ...................................................................................... 99
7.4 PHNG PHP M HA TH H TH HAI ..................................................................................... 109
7.4.1 Phng php Kim t thp Laplace (Pyramide Laplace).................................................................... 109
7.4.2 Phng php m ha da vo biu din nh. .................................................................................... 109
7.5 KT LUN .............................................................................................................................................. 111
CU HI N TP......................................................................................................................................... 111
TI LIU THAM KHO.......................................................................................................... 113

GII THCH T V THUT NG VIT TT.................................................................... 114
MC LC ................................................................................................................................... 115
117
X L NH
M s: 412XLA450
Chu trch nhim bn tho
TRUNG TM O TO BU CHNH VIN THNG 1

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HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG

HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG

PGS.TS NGUYN QUANG HOAN

Chng 2. Thu nhn nh

Chng 3. X l nng cao cht lng nh

Chng 4. Cc phng php pht hin bin nh

Chng 5. Phn vng nh

Chng 6. Nhn dng nh

H Ni, thng 12 nm 2006

Cc khi nim, nh ngha nh s ha. Tng quan v biu din nh.

4. Mt s cng c x l nh. Cc vn t ra vi x l nh.

1.1 GII THIU V H THNG X L NH

Hnh 1.1 Cc bc c bn trong x l nh

Nhn dng theo tham s.

Nhn dng theo cu trc.

Biu din bng m chy (Run-Length Code)

Biu din bng m xch (Chaine -Code)

Biu din bng m t phn (Quad-Tree Code)

Biu din bng m chy

Hnh 1.2 S phn tch v x l nh v lu thng tin gia cc khi

1.2 NHNG VN C BN TRONG H THNG X L NH

1.2.2 phn gii ca nh

1.2.5 Quan h gia cc im nh

Hnh 1.3 Ln cn cc im nh ca ta (x,y)

1.2.6 Cc thnh phn c bn ca h thng x l nh

Hnh 1.4 Mt h thng x l nh.

1.3 NHNG VN KHC TRONG X L NH

Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

CHNG 2: THU NHN NH

2.1 CC THIT B THU NHN NH

Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

Px = [red , green, blue]

Ngi ta dng h ta ba mu R-G-B (tng ng vi h ta x-y-z) biu din mu

Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

(1,0,0) (1,1,0) vng

Hnh 2.1 H ta RGB

Px = GCIE v Px ' = G NTSC

RCIE 1.167 0.146 0.151 R NTSC

Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

Tip theo chng ta nh ngha hm rng lc vi cc khong x nh sau:

Khi tn hiu ly mu c m hnh ho

Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

Trong thc t, r khng th tnh c trong khong v hn (t n + ) m l mt s

g ( x) {g (0), g (x), g (2x),..., g (( N 1)x)

Ch 1: Khong ly mu (Sampling Interval) x l mt tham s cn phi c chn

trong x l gi tr tn s ng vi gii tr x trong min khng gian.

nh l ly mu ca Shannon c th m rng cho khng gian hai chiu. Hm rng lc

Hm ly mu hai chiu thu c:

v x, y c chn tho mn cc iu kin tng ng theo nh l ly mu ca Shannon khi

Tng t nh khng gian mt chiu, mt tn hiu nh hai chiu g(x,y) c th xp x trong

g(x, y) g(nx, my) ={g(0,0),g(0,1),...,g(0, N 1),g(1,0),g(1,1),...,g(1, N 1),...,g(N 1, M 1) } (2-13)

Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

Hnh 2.2 Cc dng mu im nh

Hnh 2.3 Khung lng t theo L mc xm.

Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

Chi tit hn v sai s ly mu, hc vin cn xem thm [5].

2.3 MT S PHNG PHP BIU DIN NH

Vi cc biu din trn, mt vng nh hay nh nh phn oc xem nh chui 0 hay 1 an

Hnh 2.2. Hng cc im bin v m tng ng:

Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

2.4.2 Quy trnh c mt tp nh

Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

2.5 CC K THUT TI HIN NH

Chng 2: Thu nhn nh