CHAPTER 43

THE BODYS
DEFENSES

The Nature of Disease

Pathogenic Organisms
Genetic Disorders
Toxic Chemicals
Other Environmental Factors
Physical Damage to Organs
Nutritional Disorders

Types of Pathogenic
Organisms
Viruses
Bacteria
Protozoan
Fungi
Animal
Parasites

Mechanisms of
Disease by Pathogens
Utilization of host nutritional
resources
Physical damage to host tissues
Production of toxic substances
Chromosomal and gene damage
Body cells behave abnormally

Viruses
envelope

capsid

nucleic acid

Bacteria
cell wall

plasma
membrane
cytoplasm
circular DNA

Defense Mechanisms
1. External defense
2. Internal Defense
3. Immune Defense

1st Line of Defense

Skin acts as barrier to microbes and viruses
- sweat has a low pH
Mucus traps foreign particles
Tears
- Lysozyme has antimicrobial action
Gastric stomach acid

Body Coverings: The Skin

epidermis
sebaceous
glands
sweat gland

Body Coverings:
Mucous Membranes
mucus
cilia

columnar
epithelium

2nd Line of Defense

Phagocytic cells (WBCs)
- N
L
M E
B
- Natural Killer (NK) Cells: attack virus
infected cells
Inflammatory Response
Antimicrobial proteins
- Lysozyme
- Interferon
- Antibodies

Nonspecific Phagocytosis

Neutrophils
Monocytes
Eosinophils

Mechanism of Phagocytosis
Mechanism of Phagocytosis

Macrophage

Lymphatic System

Inflammatory Response

Histamine &
prostaglandins
released

Capillaries dilate
Clotting begins

Chemotactic
factors attract
phagocytic cells

Phagocytes
consume
pathogens &
cell debris

Characteristics of Immunity
Recognition of self versus non-self
Response is specific
Retains a memory allowing an
accelerated second response
Can respond to many different
materials
Involves lymphocytes and
antibodies

Types of Immunity
Active Immunity
- Naturally-Acquired Active Immunity
- Artificially-Acquired Active Immunity
Passive Immunity
- Naturally-Acquired Passive Immunity
- Artificially-Acquired Passive Immunity

Types of
Acquired
Immunity

Active Immunity
The production of antibodies against a
specific disease by the immune system.
Naturally acquired through disease
Artificially acquired through vaccination
Vaccines include inactivated toxins, killed
microbes, parts of microbes, and viable but
weakened microbes.

Active immunity is usually permanent

 A vaccinated person has a secondary

response based on memory cells when
encountering the specific pathogen.
Routine immunization against infectious
diseases such as measles and whooping
cough, and has led to the eradication of
smallpox, a viral disease.
Unfortunately, not all infectious agents are
easily managed by vaccination.
HIV vaccine in the works

Passive Immunity
Passive Immunity- Protection
against disease through antibodies
produced by another human being
or animal.
Effective, but temporary
Ex. Maternal antibodies
Colostrum.

 Passive immunity can be transferred

artificially by injecting antibodies from an
animal that is already immune to a disease
into another animal.
Rabies treatment: injection with antibodies
against rabies virus that are both passive
immunizations (the immediate fight) and active
immunizations (longer term defense).

Immune System Response to

Antigens
Humoral Immunity
Involves antibodies (secreted from B
cells) dissolved in the blood plasma.
Demonstrated as a immune response
using only the blood serum.
Defense against bacteria, bacterial
toxins, & viruses.

Immune System Response to

Antigens
Cell-Mediated Immunity
Involves the activities of specific
white blood cells (T cells).
Defense against cancer cells, virusinfected cells, fungi, animal parasites,
& foreign cells from transplants.

Lymphocyte Formation

B Cells
Mature in bone marrow
Involved in humoral immunity
Once activated by antigen,
proliferate into two clones of cells:
plasma cells that secrete
antibodies and memory cells that
may be converted into plasma cells
at a later time

B Cells
antibodies

B Cells

B Cells

Activation of B Cells by
Antigen
antigen

Clonal Selection

Clonal Selection

plasma cells

memory cells

antibodies

antibody concentration

Humoral Immune Response

first
exposure to
antigen A

time (days)

antibody concentration

Humoral Immune Response

first exposure
to antigen A

primary response:
concentration of
anti-A
antibody
second exposure
to antigen A

time (days)

antibody concentration

Humoral Immune Response

secondary response:
concentration of anti-A
antibody
second exposure
to antigen A

time (days)

first exposure
to antigen B

antibody concentration

Humoral Immune Response

primary
response:
concentration of
anti-B antibody

time (days)

first
exposure to
antigen B

 Antibodies constitute a group of globular

serum proteins called immunoglobins
(Igs).
A typical antibody molecule has two identical
antigen-binding sites specific for the epitope
that provokes its production.

Antibody Molecule
antigen binding sites

antigen
light chains

heavy chains

Mechanisms on Antibody
Action

Precipitation of soluble antigens

Agglutination of foreign cells
Neutralization
Enhanced phagocytosis
Complement activation leading to cell lysis
Stimulates inflammation

 The binding of antibodies to antigens to form

antigen-antibody complexes is the basis of
several antigen disposal mechanisms.

The classical complimentary pathway,

resulting in lysis of a target cell

Immunoglobin Classes
IgM

1st response to antigen

Effective in agglutination
Cant cross placenta

IgD

B cell activation
Cant cross placenta

IgG

Most common form

Crosses blood vessels
Crosses placenta
(passive immunity to
fetus)

IgA

Secreted from mucus

membranes
Prevents attachment of
bacteria to epithelial surface
In colostrum

IgE

Histamine
reactions and
allergies

Overview of Immune System Responses

T Cells
Mature in thymus
Involved in cell-mediated immunity
Activated when another cell
presents antigen to them
Several types of T cells: cytoxic T
cells, helper T cells, suppressor T
cells, and memory T cells

T Cells
There are two main types of T cells, and
each responds to one class of MHC
molecule.
Cytotoxic T cells (TC) have antigen receptors
that bind to protein fragments displayed by the
bodys class I MHC molecules.
Helper T cells (TH) have receptors that bind to
peptides displayed by the bodys class II MHC
molecules.

Cytotoxic T Cell
perforin

pores in target cell

Helper T Cells
bacterial T cell receptor
bacterium antigens
helper
T cell

macrophage

interleukin 1

The central role of helper T cells

 The central role in Helper T cells in an

infected cell

T-independent antigens
T cells activated by binding to certain
antigens
No memory cells generated
Weaker response than t-dependent

T-dependent antigens
Most antigens require co-stimulation to
evoke a B-cell response
Antibody production stimulated with help
from TH
Most antigens are t-dependent

 T-dependent
antigens- can trigger a
humoral immune
response by B cells
only with the
participation of helper T
cells.

Tissue/Organ Transplants
Major Histocomatibility Complex
(MHC)
- Bone marrow
- Organs

Abnormal immune function can

lead to disease
Malfunctions of the immune system can
produce effects ranging from the minor
inconvenience of some allergies to the
serious and often fatal consequences of
certain autoimmune and immunodeficiency
diseases.

Abnormal Immune
Function

Autoimmune Disease
Allergy
Immunodeficiency

Autoimmune Disease

Rheumatoid arthritis
Type I Diabetes
MS
Lupis
Crohns disease
Graves disease

ABO Blood Types

Phenotype Genotype
O
i i
A
I A I A or I A i
B
I B I B or I B i
A
B
AB
I I

ABO Blood Types

b
b
b
b

b
b

Type
A

Produces
anti-B
antibodies
b
b

ABO Blood Types

a
a
a
a
a

Type
B

Produces
anti-A
antibodies
a

ABO Blood Types

Type
AB

Produces
neither
anti-A nor
anti-B
antibodies

ABO Blood Types

b

a
b
a

a
b

a
b

a
a
b
a
b

Type
O

Produces
both anti-A
and anti-B
antibodies
b

a
b

Rh Factor
and
Pregnancy
RH+ indicates protein
RH- indicates no protein
15% of population is RH-

Rh Factor
and
Pregnancy

Rh+ mother w/Rh- baby no problem

Rh- mother w/Rh+ baby problem
Rh- mother w/Rh- father no problem
Rh- mother w/Rh- baby-- no problem

RhoGAM used @ 28 weeks

Allergy (Immune Hypersensitivity)

Hypersensitive response to certain
environmental allergens
Food, pollen, pet dander, asthma, bee
sting
Anaphylactic shock
- epinephrine

 Mast cells, IgE,

and the allergic
response.

AIDS

Problems

Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome
HIV (virus) attacks T-cells
Weakens or eliminates immune
system
Susceptible to many fatal diseases

 Transmission of HIV requires the transfer of

body fluids containing infected cells, such as
semen or blood, from person to person.
Unprotected sex
Nonsterile needles
HIV transmission among heterosexuals is
rapidly increasing as a result of unprotected sex
with infected partners.
HIV in Africa and Asia- primarily by heterosexual
sex

AIDS
In 1983, a retrovirus, now called human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), had been
identified as the causative agent of AIDS.

 With the AIDS mortality close to 100%, HIV

is the most lethal pathogen ever
encountered.
Molecular studies reveal that the virus probably
evolved from another HIV-like virus in
chimpanzees in central Africa and appeared in
humans sometimes between 1915 and 1940.
These first rare cases of infection and AIDS went
unrecognized.

AIDS

AIDS

 HIV Testing:
The HIV antibody test has be used to screen
all blood supplies in the U.S. since 1985.
May take weeks or months before anti-HIV
antibodies become detectable.

- Drug treatment available

- Best prevention is education and protected sex