X Lý NH PTIT

HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH
VIN THNG
IT
BI GING MN HC
X L NH
Ngi son : PGS. TS. NNG TON
Chnh sa ln 1, Thng 11 nm 2013

1
LI NI U
Khong hn mi nm tr li y, phn cng my tnh v cc thit b lin quan c

s tin b vt bc v tc tnh ton, dung lng cha, kh nng x l v.v.. v gi c
gim n mc my tnh v cc thit b lin quan n x l nh khng cn l thit b
chuyn dng na. Khi nim nh s tr nn thng dng vi hu ht mi ngi trong x
hi v vic thu nhn nh s bng cc thit b c nhn hay chuyn dng cng vi vic a
vo my tnh x l tr nn n gin.
IT
Trong hon cnh , x l nh l mt lnh vc ang c quan tm v tr thnh

mn hc chuyn ngnh ca sinh vin ngnh cng ngh thng tin trong nhiu trng i
hc trn c nc. Tuy nhin, ti liu gio trnh cn l mt iu kh khn. Hin ti ch c
mt s t ti liu bng ting Anh hoc ting Php, ti liu bng ting Vit th rt him. Vi
mong mun ng gp vo s nghip o to v nghin cu trong lnh vc ny, chng ti
bin son cun gio trnh X l nh da trn cng mn hc c duyt. Cun sch
tp trung vo cc vn c bn ca x l nh nhm cung cp mt nn tng kin thc y
v chn lc nhm gip ngi c c th t tm hiu v xy dng cc chng trnh ng
dng lin quan n x l nh.
Gio trnh c chia lm 7 chng: Chng 1, trnh by Tng quan v x l nh, cc

khi nim c bn, s tng qut ca mt h thng x l nh v cc vn c bn trong
x l nh. Chng 2, trnh by cc vn lin quan n thu nhn nh, bao gm cc thit b
thu nhn nh c bn, qu trnh ly mu v lng t ha, mt s phng php biu din
nh, cng nh mt s nh dng nh ph dng. Chng 3, trnh by cc k thut nng cao
cht lng nh da vo cc thao tc vi im nh, nng cao cht lng nh thng qua vic
x l cc im nh trong ln cn im nh ang xt. Chng ny cng trnh by cc k
thut nng cao cht lng nh nh vo vic lc nhiu. Chng 4, trnh by cc k thut c
bn trong vic pht hin bin ca cc i tng nh theo c hai khuynh hng: Pht hin
bin trc tip v pht hin bin gin tip. Chng 5 th hin cc k thut phn vng nh,
y l khu quan trng h tr cho vic trch chn cc thuc tnh ca nh tin ti hiu
nh. Chng 6, trnh by cc vn v k thut lin quan n nhn dng nh, theo tip cn
khng gian, tip cn cu trc v tip cn mng nron. V cui cng l Chng 7 vi cc
k thut nn nh, y l vn lun c quan tm trong x l nh.
Gio trnh c bin son da trn kinh nghim ging dy ca tc gi trong nhiu
nm ti cc kha i hc v cao hc ca H Cng ngh - HQG H Ni, H Khoa hc t
nhin HQG H Ni, Khoa Cng ngh thng tin H Thi Nguyn, Khoa Cng ngh
thng tin Hc vin Cng ngh BCVT v.v.. Cun sch c th lm ti liu tham kho cho
sinh vin cc h k s, c nhn v cc bn quan tm n vn nhn dng v x l nh.
Cc tc gi by t lng bit n chn thnh ti cc bn ng nghip trong Vin Cng
ngh thng tin, Khoa Cng ngh thng tin Hc vin Cng ngh BCVT, Khoa Cng ngh
thng tin - H Thi Nguyn, Khoa Cng ngh thng tin - H Cng ngh - HQG H Ni,
Khoa Ton C Tin, H Khoa hc t nhin, HQG H Ni ng vin, gp v gip
hon chnh ni dung cun sch ny. Xin cm n Lnh o Khoa Cng ngh thng
tin Hc vin Cng ngh BCVT, Ban Gim c Hc vin Cng ngh BCVT h tr v
to iu kin cho ra i gio trnh ny.
Mc d rt c gng nhng ti liu ny chc chn khng trnh khi nhng sai st.
Chng ti xin trn trng tip thu tt c nhng kin ng gp ca bn c cng nh cc
bn ng nghip c chnh l kp thi.
Th gp xin gi v:
Nng Ton,
Vin Cng ngh thng tin.
18 Hong Quc Vit, Cu Giy, H Ni
in thoi: 04.3.7567935
Email: dntoan@ioit.ac.vn
H Ni, ngy 28 thng 06 nm 2010
IT
TC GI
MC LC
LI NI U .............................................................................................................................................................................. 2
Chng 1: NHP MN X L NH ....................................................................................................................7
1.1. TNG QUAN V H THNG X L NH ............................................................................................ 7
1.2. NHNG VN C BN TRONG X L NH ............................................................................. 8
1.2.1. Mt s khi nim c bn ..................................................................................................................................8
1.2.2. Nn chnh bin dng............................................................................................................................................8
1.2.3. Kh nhiu ...................................................................................................................................................................8
1.2.4. Chnh s mc xm ................................................................................................................................................9
1.2.5. Phn tch nh ............................................................................................................................................................ 9
1.2.6. Nhn dng v phn loi nh........................................................................................................................... 9
1.2.7. Nn nh...................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Chng 2: THU NHN NH ...................................................................................................................................... 11
2.1. CC THIT B THU NHN NH .................................................................................................................. 11
IT
2.2. LY MU V LNG T HO ................................................................................................................... 11

2.2.1. Giai on ly mu .............................................................................................................................................. 11
2.2.2. Lng t ha ......................................................................................................................................................... 12
2.3. MT S PHNG PHP BIU DIN NH ......................................................................................... 12

2.3.1. M hnh Raster ..................................................................................................................................................... 12
2.3.2. M hnh Vector .................................................................................................................................................... 13
2.4. CC NH DNG NH C BN .................................................................................................................. 13

2.4.1. nh dng nh IMG .......................................................................................................................................... 13
2.4.2. nh dng nh PCX .......................................................................................................................................... 14
2.4.3. nh dng nh TIFF ......................................................................................................................................... 15
2.4.4. nh dng file nh BITMAP ...................................................................................................................... 16
2.5. K THUT TI NHN NH ............................................................................................................................. 17
2.5.1 K thut chp nh................................................................................................................................................ 17
2.5.2 K thut in nh ...................................................................................................................................................... 18
2.6. KHI NIM NH EN TRNG, NH MU ....................................................................................... 20
2.6.1. Phn loi nh s................................................................................................................................................... 20
2.6.2. Mu sc...................................................................................................................................................................... 21
2.7. CU HI N TP CHNG ............................................................................................................................. 28
Chng 3: X L NNG CAO CHT LNG NH ........................................................................ 29
3.1. CI THIN NH S DNG CC TON T IM ...................................................................... 29
3.1.1. Gii thiu ................................................................................................................................................................. 29
3.1.2. Tng gim sng ............................................................................................................................................ 29
3.1.3. Tch ngng .......................................................................................................................................................... 29
3.1.4. Cn bng histogram .......................................................................................................................................... 30
3.1.5. K thut tm tch ngng t ng ......................................................................................................... 31
4
3.1.6. Bin i cp xm tng th ........................................................................................................................... 32

3.2. CI THIN NH S DNG CC TON T KHNG GIAN ............................................... 32
3.2.1. Php ca s di chuyn..................................................................................................................................... 32
3.2.2. Php nhn chp v mu ................................................................................................................................. 33
3.2.3. Lc trung v ............................................................................................................................................................ 35
3.2.4. Lc trung bnh ...................................................................................................................................................... 37
3.2.5. Lc trung bnh theo k gi tr gn nht ................................................................................................. 38
3.3. KHI PHC NH......................................................................................................................................................... 39
3.3.1. Nhiu v m hnh nhiu................................................................................................................................. 39
3.3.2. Cc loi nhiu ....................................................................................................................................................... 39
3.3.3. Cc k thut lc nhiu .................................................................................................................................... 40
3.4. CU HI N TP CHNG ............................................................................................................................. 42
Chng 4: CC PHNG PHP PHT HIN BIN ........................................................................ 43
IT
4.1. KHI QUT V BIN V PHN LOI CC K THUT D BIN C BN ..... 43

4.1.1. Gii thiu ................................................................................................................................................................. 43
4.1.2. K thut pht hin bin Gradient ............................................................................................................ 43
4.1.3. K thut pht hin bin Laplace .............................................................................................................. 47
4.1.4. K thut Canny .................................................................................................................................................... 47
4.2. PHNG PHP PHT HIN BIN CC B....................................................................................... 49
4.2.1. Bin v bin i v mc xm ............................................................................................................. 49
4.2.2. Pht hin bin da vo trung bnh cc b ......................................................................................... 50
4.3. D BIN THEO QUY HOCH NG ....................................................................................................... 53

4.3.1. Mt s khi nim c bn ............................................................................................................................... 53
4.3.2. Chu tuyn ca mt i tng nh........................................................................................................... 54
4.3.3. Thut ton d bin tng qut...................................................................................................................... 55
4.4.CC PHNG PHP KHC ............................................................................................................................... 58
4.4.1. Cc php ton hnh thi c bn ................................................................................................................ 58
4.4.2. Mt s tnh cht ca php ton hnh thi........................................................................................... 59
4.4.3. Xp x trn v xp x di i tng nh ......................................................................................... 62
4.4.4. Thut ton pht hin bin da vo php ton hnh thi .......................................................... 64
4.5. CU HI N TP CHNG ............................................................................................................................. 65
Chng 5: PHN VNG NH................................................................................................................................... 66
5.1. GII THIU ....................................................................................................................................................................... 66
5.2. PHN VNG NH THEO NGNG BIN ................................................................................ 67
5.2.1. Thut ton ng liu ......................................................................................................................................... 68
5.2.2. Thut ton i xng nn................................................................................................................................ 69
5.2.3. Thut ton tam gic .......................................................................................................................................... 70
5.2.3. Chn ngng i vi Bimodal Histogram ....................................................................................... 70
5.3. PHN VNG THEO MIN NG NHT .............................................................................................. 71
5.3.1. Gii thiu ................................................................................................................................................................. 71
5.3.2. Phng php tch cy t phn (quad tree) ....................................................................................... 72
5.3.3. Cc phng php phn vng bi hp .................................................................................................. 75

5.3.4. Phng php tch hp (split-merge) .................................................................................................... 76
5.4. PHN VNG DA THEO NG BIN .............................................................................................. 77
5.4.1. Pht hin bin........................................................................................................................................................ 77
5.4.2. Lm mnh bin .................................................................................................................................................... 78
5.4.3. Nh phn ha ng bin ............................................................................................................................. 78
5.4.4. Miu t ng bin ........................................................................................................................................... 78
5.5. PHN VNG THEO KT CU B MT................................................................................................. 79
5.4.1. Phng php thng k .................................................................................................................................... 79
5.4.2. Phng php cu trc ...................................................................................................................................... 81
5.4.3. Tip cn theo tnh kt cu ............................................................................................................................ 81
5.6. CU HI N TP CHNG ............................................................................................................................. 82
Chng 6: NHN DNG NH .................................................................................................................................. 83
6.1. GII THIU ....................................................................................................................................................................... 83
IT
6.2. NHN DNG DA THEO MIN KHNG GIAN ............................................................................ 84

6.2.1. Phn hoch khng gian .................................................................................................................................. 84
6.2.2. Hm phn lp hay hm ra quyt nh .................................................................................................. 84
6.2.3. Nhn dng thng k .......................................................................................................................................... 85
6.2.4. Mt s thut ton nhn dng tiu biu trong t hc .................................................................. 86
6.3. NHN DNG DA THEO CU TRC .................................................................................................... 88

6.3.1. Biu din nh tnh ............................................................................................................................................ 88
6.3.2. Phng php ra quyt nh da vo cu trc ................................................................................. 88
6.4. NHN DNG DA THEO MNG NRON.......................................................................................... 90

6.4.1. Mng Hopfield ..................................................................................................................................................... 90
6.4.2. Mng Kohonen..................................................................................................................................................... 92
Chng 7: NN D LIU NH ............................................................................................................................... 95
7.1. GII THIU ....................................................................................................................................................................... 95
7.2. CC PHNG PHP NN TH H TH NHT ............................................................................ 96
7.2.1. Phng php m ha lot di .................................................................................................................... 96
7.2.2. Phng php m ha Huffman ................................................................................................................. 96
7.2.3. Phng php LZW ............................................................................................................................................ 98
7.2.4. Phng php m ha khi......................................................................................................................... 102
7.2.5. Phng php thch nghi .............................................................................................................................. 103
7.2.6. Bin i Cosin v chun nn JPEG.................................................................................................... 104
7.3. CC PHNG PHP NN TH H TH HAI ............................................................................... 109
7.3.1. Phng php Kim t thp Laplace (Pyramide Laplace) ..................................................... 109
7.3.2. Phng php m ha da vo biu din nh ............................................................................... 110
7.4. CU HI N TP CHNG .......................................................................................................................... 112
TI LIU THAM KHO ............................................................................................................................................ 113
Chng 1:
NHP MN X L NH
1.1. TNG QUAN V H THNG X L NH

Con ngi thu nhn thng tin qua cc gic quan, trong th gic ng vai tr quan
trng nht. Nhng nm tr li y vi s pht trin ca phn cng my tnh, x l nh v
ho pht trin mt cch mnh m v c nhiu ng dng trong cuc sng. X l nh
v ho ng mt vai tr quan trng trong tng tc ngi my.
Qu trnh x l nh c xem nh l qu trnh thao tc nh u vo nhm cho ra kt
qu mong mun. Kt qu u ra ca mt qu trnh x l nh c th l mt nh tt hn
hoc mt kt lun.
nh
Tt hn
nh
X L NH
IT
Kt lun
Hnh 1.1. Qu trnh x l nh
nh c th xem l tp hp cc im nh v mi im nh c xem nh l c trng

cng sng hay mt du hiu no ti mt v tr no ca i tng trong khng
gian v n c th xem nh mt hm n bin P(c1, c2,..., cn). Do , nh trong x l nh c
th xem nh nh n chiu.
Thu nhn nh
(Scanner,
Camera,Sensor)
Tin x l
Trch chn
c im
H quyt nh
i snh rt
ra kt lun
Hu
x l
Lu tr
Hnh 1.2. Cc bc c bn trong mt h thng x l nh

Hnh 1.2 biu din s tng qut ca mt h thng x l nh:
Khi thu nhn nh: c nhim v tip nhn nh u vo.
Khi tin x l: c nhim v x l nng cao cht lng nh nh gim nhiu,

phn vng, tm bin v.v..
Khi trich chn c im: c nhim v trch chn cc c trng quan trng ca
cc bc nh c tin x l s dng trong h quyt nh
Chng 1: Nhp mn x l nh
Khi hu x l: c nhim v x l cc c im trch chn, c th lc b

hoc bin i cc c im ny ph hp vi cc k thut c th s dng trong
h quyt nh
Khi h quyt nh v lu tr: c nhim v a ra quyt nh (phn loi) da

trn d liu hc lu trong khi lu tr
Khi kt lun: a ra kt lun da vo quyt nh ca khi quyt nh
1.2. NHNG VN C BN TRONG X L NH

1.2.1. Mt s khi nim c bn
* nh v im nh:
im nh c xem nh l du hiu hay cng sng ti mt v tr no ca i
tng trong khng gian v nh c xem nh l mt tp hp cc im nh.
* Mc xm, mu
L s cc gi tr c th c ca cc im nh ca nh
1.2.2. Nn chnh bin dng
nh thu nhn thng b bin dng do cc thit b quang hc v in t.
Pi
f(Pi)
nh mong mun
nh thu nhn
IT
Pi
Hnh 1.3. nh thu nhn v nh mong mun
khc phc ngi ta s dng cc php chiu c xy dng trn tp cc im iu

khin. Gi s c hai nh I v I' tng ng vi nh thu nhn c v nh mong mun. Pi l
mt im thuc I tng ng vi mt im Pi' trn I', ta c n cc cp im iu khin nh
vy.
Nn chnh bin dng l tm hm : P ( ) sao cho
n
f ( Pi ) Pi '
min
i 1
Thng thng cc im iu khin c ly bng cch chp nhng nh c cu trc

nh sn nh l nh li ging nh nh mong mun trn Hnh 1.3.
1.2.3. Kh nhiu
C 2 loi nhiu c bn trong qu trnh thu nhn nh m chng ta cn loi b:
Nhiu h thng: l nhiu c quy lut c th kh bng cc php bin i
Nhiu ngu nhin: vt bn khng r nguyn nhn c th khc phc bng cc

php lc
1.2.4. Chnh s mc xm
Chnh s mc xm l nhm khc phc tnh khng ng u ca h thng x l nh,
thng thng c 2 hng tip cn:
Gim s mc xm: Thc hin bng cch nhm cc mc xm gn nhau thnh mt

b. Trng hp gim xung 2 mc xm th chnh l chuyn v nh en trng.
Tng s mc xm: Thc hin ni suy ra cc mc xm trung gian bng k thut
ni suy. K thut ny nhm tng cng mn cho nh.
1.2.5. Phn tch nh

L khu quan trng trong qu trnh x l nh tin ti hiu nh. Trong phn tch
nh vic trch chn c im l mt bc quan trng. Cc c im ca i tng c
trch chn tu theo mc ch nhn dng trong qu trnh x l nh. C th nu ra mt s c
im ca nh sau y:
c im khng gian: Phn b mc xm, phn b xc sut, bin , im un
v.v..
c im bin i: Cc c im loi ny c trch chn bng vic thc hin

lc vng (zonal filtering). Cc b vng c gi l mt n c im (feature
mask) thng l cc khe hp vi hnh dng khc nhau (ch nht, tam gic, cung
trn v.v..)
c im bin v ng bin: c trng cho ng bin ca i tng v do

vy rt hu ch trong vic trch trn cc thuc tnh bt bin c dng khi nhn
dng i tng (V d c im gc, cnh v.v..). Cc c im ny c th c
trch chn thng qua nh bin. thu c nh bin ta c th s dng ton t
gradient, ton t la bn, ton t Laplace v.v..
IT
Vic trch chn hiu qu cc c im gip cho vic nhn dng cc i tng nh
chnh xc, vi tc tnh ton cao v gim thiu dung lng lu tr.
1.2.6. Nhn dng v phn loi nh
Nhn dng t ng (automatic recognition), m t i tng, phn loi v phn
nhm cc mu l nhng vn quan trng trong th gic my, c ng dng trong nhiu
ngnh khoa hc khc nhau. Tuy nhin, mt cu hi t ra l: mu (pattern) l g?
Watanabe, mt trong nhng ngi i u trong lnh vc ny nh ngha: Ngc li vi
hn lon (chaos), mu l mt thc th (entity), c xc nh mt cch ang ng (vaguely
defined) v c th gn cho n mt tn gi no . V d mu c th l nh ca vn tay,
nh ca mt vt no c chp, mt ch vit, khun mt ngi hoc mt k tn hiu
ting ni. Khi bit mt mu no , nhn dng hoc phn loi mu c th s dng
hai cch chnh:
Phn loi c mu (supervised classification): v d phn tch phn bit

(discriminant analyis), trong mu u vo c nh danh thnh mt phn ca
mt lp xc nh.
Phn loi khng c mu (unsupervised classification hay clustering): Cc mu

c gn vo cc lp khc nhau da trn mt tiu chun ng dng no . Cc
lp ny cho n thi im phn loi vn cha bit hay cha c nh danh.
C nhiu cch tip cn khc nhau trong l thuyt nhn dng trong c: i snh
mu da trn cc c trng c trch chn, phn loi thng k, i snh cu trc, phn
loi da trn mng n-ron nhn to...
H thng nhn dng t ng bao gm ba khu tng ng vi ba giai on ch yu
sau y:
1. Thu nhn d liu v tin x l.
2. Biu din d liu.
3. Nhn dng, ra quyt nh.
Trong ng dng thc tin, khng th ch dng c mt cch tip cn n l phn
loi ti u v vy cc phng thc phn loi t hp thng c s dng khi nhn dng.
Cho n nay cc h thng lai (hybrid system) s dng nhiu phng php v cch tip cn
khc nhau cho nhng kt qu nhiu trin vng.
1.2.7. Nn nh
Nn nh l k thut nhm gim thiu khng gian lu tr. C hai hng tip cn
chnh l nn c bo ton v khng bo ton thng tin. Nn khng bo ton th thng c
kh nng nn cao hn nhng khng phc hi c nh gc, ngc li nn c bo ton cho
php khi phc hon ton nh gc. Nn nh ni chung c 4 cch tip cn c bn:
Nn nh thng k: K thut nn ny da vo vic thng k tn xut xut hin
ca gi tr cc im nh, trn c s m c chin lc m ha thch hp. Mt v
d in hnh cho k thut m ha ny l *.TIF
Nn nh khng gian: K thut ny da vo v tr khng gian ca cc im nh

tin hnh m ha. K thut li dng s ging nhau ca cc im nh trong cc
vng gn nhau. V d cho k thut ny l m nn *.PCX
Nn nh s dng php bin i: y l k thut tip cn theo hng nn khng

bo ton v do vy t l nn tng i cao. *.JPG chnh l tip cn theo k thut
nn ny.
Nn nh Fractal: S dng tnh cht Fractal ca cc i tng nh. Tnh cht

Fractal ca nh th hin s lp li ca cc chi tit ti nhiu v tr khc nhau vi
kch thc v hng khc nhau. K thut nn s tnh ton ch cn lu tr phn
gc nh v quy lut sinh ra nh theo nguyn l Fractal.
IT
10
Chng 2:
THU NHN NH
2.1. CC THIT B THU NHN NH

Cc thit b thu nhn nh c hai loi chnh ng vi hai loi nh thng dng Raster,
Vector v c th cho nh en trng hoc nh mu.
Cc thit b thu nhn nh Raster thng thng l camera, scanner. Cn cc thit b
thu nhn nh Vector thng thng l sensor hoc bn s ho digitalizer hoc c chuyn
i t nh Raster.
Cc h thng thu nhn nh s dng chung mt qu trnh thu nhn:
Cm bin: bin i nng lng quang hc thnh nng lng in (giai on

ly mu)
Tng hp nng lng in thnh nh (giai on lng t ha)
nh
cha
tn hiu
quang
hc
IT
2.2. LY MU V LNG T HO
2.2.1. Giai on ly mu
Ngi ta s dng b cm bin hoc my qut bin tn hiu quang ca nh thnh
tn hiu in lin tc. Phng php s dng my qut ph bin hn. My qut s qut theo
chiu ngang to ra tn hiu in ca nh, kt qu cho ra mt tn hiu in hai chiu
I(x,y) lin tc.
Dng tn hiu nh
Xt nh lin tc c biu din bi hm I(x, y), gi x l khong cch gia hai im

c gi li theo trc x, gi y l khong cch gia hai im c gi li theo trc y. y ,
x c gi l chu k ly mu theo trc x v y.

Giai on ly mu s bin hm lin tc I(x,y) thnh hm ri rc I(n x , m y ). Vi
m,n l nguyn.
Theo SHANON m bo khng xy ra hin tng chng ph, cho php ti to li
nh gc t nh s ha th tn s ly mu phi t nht phi ln hn hoc bng hai tn s
cao nht ca tn hiu nh. Gi fxmax, fymax l tn s cao nht ca tn hiu theo trc x, y th:
fx 2fxmax vi fx =
1
l tn s ly mu theo trc x.
x
fy 2fymax vi fy =
1
l tn s ly mu theo trc y.
y
11
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh
2.2.2. Lng t ha
nh sau khi ly mu s c dng I(m,n) vi m, n l nguyn nhng gi tr I(m, n) vn
l gi tr vt l lin tc. Qu trnh bin i gi tr I(m,n) thnh mt s nguyn thch hp
lu tr gi l lng t ho. y l qu trnh nh x mt bin lin tc u vo bin ri rc u*
thuc tp hu hn [u1, u2,..uL] xc nh trc, L l mc lng t ho c to ra.
V d:
Vi nh a cp xm th L=256, f(m,n) = g 0, 255
Vi nh 24 bit th L=224, f(m, n) = g 0, 2 24 1
2.3. MT S PHNG PHP BIU DIN NH

nh trn my tnh l kt qu thu nhn theo cc phng php s ho c nhng
trong cc thit b k thut khc nhau. Cu trc d liu lu tr thng tin nh trong b
nh c nh hng rt ln n vic hin th, in n v x l. Qu trnh lu tr nh nhm biu
din nh di dng lu tr c vi hai tiu ch chnh:
Tit kim b nh
Gim thi gian x l
nh c biu din theo hai m hnh c bn, nh Raster v nh Vector.
IT
2.3.1. M hnh Raster

y l cch biu din nh thng dng nht hin nay, nh c biu din di dng
ma trn cc im (im nh). Thng thu nhn qua cc thit b nh camera, scanner. Tu
theo yu cu thc th m mi im nh c biu din qua 1 hay nhiu bt. Mt im
nh trn mt n v kch thc vt l c gi l phn gii. nh c phn gii cao th
cng p, cng mn v cng th hin r chi tit. Vic la chn phn gii thch hp tu
thuc vo nhu cu s dng v c trng ca mi nh c th.
M hnh Raster thun li cho hin th v in n. Ngy nay cng ngh phn cng cung
cp nhng thit b thu nhn nh Raster ph hp vi tc nhanh v cht lng cao cho c
u vo v u ra. Mt thun li cho vic hin th trong mi trng Windows l Microsoft
a ra khun dng nh DIB (Device Independent Bitmap) lm trung gian. Hnh 2.1 th
hnh quy trnh chung hin th nh Raster thng qua DIB.
Mt trong nhng hng nghin cu c bn trn m hnh biu din ny l k thut
nn nh bao gm c nn bo ton v khng bo ton. Hin nay trn th gii c trn 50
khun dng nh thng dng (BMP, TIF, GIF, PCX v.v..) bao gm c trong cc k thut
nn c kh nng phc hi d liu 100% v nn c kh nng phc hi vi sai s nht
nh.
Paint
BMP
PCC
..
.
DIB
Ca s
Thay i
Hnh 2.1. Qu trnh hin th v chnh sa, lu tr nh thng qua DIB
12
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh
2.3.2. M hnh Vector

Biu din nh ngoi tiu ch tit kim khng gian lu tr, d dng cho hin th v in
n cn cn m bo d dng trong la chn, sao chp, di chuyn v tm kim v.v.. Theo
nhng yu cu ny k thut biu din Vector t ra u vit hn.
Trong m hnh vector ngi ta s dng hng gia cc vector ca im nh ln cn
m ho v ti to hnh nh ban u nh vector c thu nhn trc tip t cc thit b s
ho nh Digital hoc c chuyn i t nh Raster thng qua cc chng trnh s ho
Cng ngh phn cng cung cp nhng thit b x l vi tc nhanh v cht lng
cho c u vo v ra nhng li ch h tr cho nh Raster. Do vy, nhng nghin cu v
biu din Vector u tp trung vo vic chuyn i nh t m hnh Raster.
RASTER
Vector
ha
VECTOR
Raster
ha
RASTER
Hnh 2.2. S chuyn i gia cc m hnh biu din nh
IT
2.4. CC NH DNG NH C BN
Hin nay trn th gii c trn 50 khun dng nh thng dng. Sau y l mt s nh
dng nh hay dng trong qu trnh x l nh hin nay.
2.4.1. nh dng nh IMG
nh IMG l nh en trng, phn u ca nh IMG c 16 byte cha cc thng tin:
6 byte u: dng nh du nh dng nh. Gi tr ca 6 byte ny vit di
dng Hexa: 0x0001 0x0008 0x0001
2 byte tip theo: cha di mu tin. l di ca dy cc byte k lin nhau

m dy ny s c lp li mt s ln no . S ln lp ny s c lu trong
byte m. Nhiu dy ging nhau c lu trong mt byte.
4 byte tip: m t kch c pixel.
2 byte tip: s pixel trn mt dng nh.
2 byte cui: s dng nh trong nh.

nh IMG c nn theo tng dng, mi dng bao gm cc gi (pack). Cc dng
ging nhau cng c nn thnh mt gi. C 4 loi gi sau:
Loi 1: Gi cc dng ging nhau. Quy cch gi tin ny nh sau: 0x00 0x00
0xFF Count. Ba byte u tin cho bit s cc dy ging nhau, byte cui cho bit
s cc dng ging nhau.
Loi 2: Gi cc dy ging nhau. Quy cch gi tin ny nh sau: 0x00 Count.

Byte th hai cho bit s cc dy ging nhau c nn trong gi. di ca dy
ghi u tp.
Loi 3: Dy cc Pixel khng ging nhau, khng lp li v khng nn c.

Quy cch gi tin ny nh sau: 0x80 Count. Byte th hai cho bit di dy cc
pixel khng ging nhau khng nn c.
13
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh
Loi 4: Dy cc Pixel ging nhau. Tu theo cc bt cao ca byte u tin c

bt hay tt. Nu bt cao c bt (gi tr 1) th y l gi nn cc byte ch gm bt
0, s cc byte c nn c tnh bi 7 bt thp cn li. Nu bt cao tt (gi tr 0)
th y l gi nn cc byte gm ton bt 1. S cc byte c nn c tnh bi 7
bt cn li.
Cc gi tin ca file IMG rt a dng do nh IMG l nh en trng, do vy ch cn 1

bt cho 1 pixel thay v 4 hoc 8 nh ni trn. Ton b nh ch c nhng im sng v
ti tng ng vi gi tr 1 hoc 0. T l nn ca kiu nh dng ny l kh cao.
2.4.2. nh dng nh PCX
nh dng nh PCX l mt trong nhng nh dng nh c in. N s dng phng
php m ho lot di RLE (Run Length Encoded) nn d liu nh. Qu trnh nn v
gii nn c thc hin trn tng dng nh. Thc t, phng php gii nn PCX km hiu
qu hn so vi kiu IMG. Tp PCX gm 3 phn: u tp (header), d liu nh (Image
data) v bng mu m rng.
Header ca tp PCX c kch thc c nh gm 128 byte v c phn b nh sau:
1 byte: ch ra kiu nh dng.Nu l PCX/PCC th n lun c gi tr l 0Ah.
1 byte: ch ra version s dng nn nh, c th c cc gi tr sau:

0: version 2.5.
2: version 2.8 vi bng mu.
3: version 2.8 hay 3.0 khng c bng mu.
5: version 3.0 c bng mu.
IT
1 byte: ch ra phng php m ho. Nu l 0 th m ho theo phng php BYTE

PACKED, ngc li l phng php RLE.
1 byte: S bt cho mt im nh phng (plane).
1 word: to gc tri ca nh. Vi kiu PCX n c gi tr l (0,0), cn PCC th

khc (0,0).
1 word: to gc phi di.
1 word: kch thc b rng v b cao ca nh.
1 word: s im nh.
1 word: phn gii mn hnh.
1 word.
48 byte: chia n thnh 16 nhm, mi nhm 3 byte. Mi nhm ny cha thng tin
v mt thanh ghi mu. Nh vy ta c 16 thanh ghi mu.
1 byte: khng dng n v lun t l 0.
1 byte: s bt plane m nh s dng. Vi nh 16 mu, gi tr ny l 4, vi nh

256 mu (1pixel/8bits) th s bt plane li l 1.
1 byte: s bytes cho mt dng qut nh.
1 word: kiu bng mu.
58 byte: khng dng.
14
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh
nh dng nh PCX thng c dng lu tr nh v thao tc n gin, cho php

nn v gii nn nhanh. Tuy nhin, v cu trc ca n c nh, nn trong mt s trng hp
lm tng kch thc lu tr. Cng v nhc im ny m mt s ng dng s dng mt
kiu nh dng khc mm do hn: nh dng TIFF (Targed Image File Format) s m t
di y.
2.4.3. nh dng nh TIFF
Kiu nh dng TIFF c thit k lm nh bt cc vn lin quan n vic m
rng file nh c nh. V cu trc, n cng gm 3 phn chnh:
Phn Header (IFH): c trong tt c cc tp TIFF v gm 8 byte:
1 word: ch ra kiu to tp trn my tnh PC hay my Macintosh. Hai loi

ny khc nhau rt ln th t cc byte lu tr trong cc s di 2 hay 4 byte.
Nu trng ny c gi tr l 4D4Dh th l nh cho my Macintosh, nu l
4949h l ca my PC.
1 word: version. t ny lun c gi tr l 42. y l c trng ca file TIFF

v khng thay i.
2 word: gi tr Offset theo byte tnh t u ti cu trc IFD l cu trc th

hai ca file. Th t cc byte ny ph thuc vo du hiu trng u tin.
2 byte: cha cc DE (Directory Entry).
12 byte l cc DE xp lin tip, mi DE chim 12 byte.
4 byte: cha Offset tr ti IFD tip theo. Nu y l IFD cui cng th

trng ny c gi tr 0.
IT
Phn th 2 (IFD): Khng ngay sau cu trc IFH m v tr c xc nh bi

trng Offset trong u tp. C th c mt hay nhiu IFD cng tn ti trong mt
file. Mt IFD bao gm:
Phn th 3: cc DE: cc DE c d di c nh gm 12 byte v chia lm 4 phn:
2 byte: ch ra du hiu m file nh c xy dng.
2 byte: kiu d liu ca tham s nh. C 5 kiu tham s c bn:

1: BYTE (1 byte)
2: ASCII (1 byte)
3: SHORT (2 byte).
4: LONG (4 byte)
5: RATIONAL (8 byte)
4 byte: trng di cha s lng ch mc ca kiu d liu ch ra. N

khng phi l tng s byte cn thit lu tr. c s liu ny ta cn nhn
s ch mc vi kiu d liu dng.
4 byte: l Offset ti im bt u d liu lin quan ti du hiu, tc l

lin quan vi DE khng phi lu tr vt l cng vi n nm mt v tr no
trong file.
15
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh
D liu cha trong tp thng c t chc thnh cc nhm dng (ct) qut ca d
liu nh. Cch t chc ny lm gim b nh cn thit cho vic c tp. Vic gii nn c
thc hin theo 4 kiu khc nhau c lu tr trong byte du hiu nn.
2.4.4. nh dng file nh BITMAP
Mi file BITMAP gm u file cha cc thng tin chung v file, u thng tin cha
cc thng tin v nh, mt bng mu v mt mng d liu nh. Khun dng c cho
nh sau:
BITMAPFILEHEADER
bmfh;
BITMAPINFOHEADER
bmih;
RGBQUAD
aColors[];
BYTE
aBitmapBits[];
Trong , cc cu trc c nh ngha nh sau:

typedef struct tagBITMAPFILEHEADER { /* bmfh */
bfType;
DWORD
bfSize;
UINT
bfReserved1;
UINT
bfReserved2;
DWORD
bfOffBits;
IT
UINT
} BITMAPFILEHEADER;
typedef struct tagBITMAPINFOHEADER { /* bmih */

biSize;
LONG
biWidth;
LONG
WORD
DWORD
biHeight;
biPlanes;
WORD
biBitCount;
DWORD
biCompression;
DWORD
biSizeImage;
LONG
biXPelsPerMeter;
LONG
biYPelsPerMeter;
DWORD
biClrUsed;
DWORD
biClrImportant;
} BITMAPINFOHEADER, *LPBITMAPINFOHEADER;
16
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh
Vi bin chi tit nh sau

biSize
kch thc ca BITMAPINFOHEADER
biWidth
Chiu rng ca nh, tnh bng s im nh
biHeight
Chiu cao ca nh, tnh bng s im nh
biPlanes
S plane ca thit b, phi bng 1
biBitCount
S bit cho mt im nh
biCompression
Kiu nn
biSizeImage
Kch thc ca nh tnh bng byte
biXPelsPerMeter phn gii ngang ca thit b, tnh bng im nh trn met

biYPelsPerMeter phn gii dc ca thit b, tnh bng im nh trn met
biClrUsed
S lng cc mu thc s c s dng
biClrImportant
S lng cc mu cn thit cho vic hin th, bng 0 nu tt c

cc mu u cn hin th
IT
Nu bmih.biBitCount > 8 th mng mu rgbq[] trng, ngc li th mng mu c 2<<

bmih.biBitCount phn t.
typedef struct tagRGBQUAD { /* rgbq */
rgbBlue;
BYTE
rgbGreen;
BYTE
rgbRed;
BYTE
BYTE
rgbReserved;
} RGBQUAD;
typedef struct tagBITMAPINFO {

BITMAPINFOHEADER
bmiHeader;
RGBQUAD
bmiColors[1];
} BITMAPINFO, *PBITMAPINFO;
2.5. K THUT TI NHN NH
2.5.1 K thut chp nh
Phng php sao chp nh l phng php n gin, gi thnh thp, cht lng cao.
Sau bc chp l k thut phng ti nhm tng cng nh nh mong mun. V d k thut
phng ti nh: phng i nh, thu nh nh, ty theo ng dng. K thut chp nh mn
hnh mu kh n gin. N bao gm cc bc sau:
t camera trong phng ti, cch mn hnh khong 10 feet (1feet=0,3048m)
M ng knh phng mt cong mn hnh, do vy nh s dn u hn
17
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh
Tt phm sang ti (Brightness) v phm tng phn (Contrast) ca mn hnh

to r cho nh. Cc mu chi, cng cao trn nh s gim i.
t tc ng knh t 1/8 n 1/2 giy.
2.5.2 K thut in nh
Ngi ta dng k thut na cng th hin nh trn sch bo, tp ch. Theo k
thut ny, mt nh to nn bi mt chui cc im in trn giy. Thc cht, mi im nh
c th c coi l mt hnh vung trng bao quanh mt chm en. Do vy, nu chm en
cng ln im nh s cng xm mu. Mu xm c th coi nh chm en chim na vng
trng. Vng trng l vng gm mt chm cc im nh c rt t hoc khng c chm en.
T c im cm nhn ca mt ngi, s thay i cng chm en trong cc
phn t nh trng to nn m phng ca mt nh lin tc. Nh vy, mt ngi cm nhn t
mt nh m mu bin i t en qua xm ri n trng. Tng s cng duy nht hin
din s xc nh cc kch thc khc nhau ca chm en. Thng thng, bo nh to nh
na cng vi phn gii t 60 n 80 DPI(dot per inchs: s im nh trn mt inch),
sch c th in n 150 DPI.
IT
Tuy nhin, cc my in ghp ni vi my tnh khng c kh nng sp xp cc chm

en c kch thc khc nhau ca nh, v vy chng ta cn cc k thut na cng k
thut s (Digital Halftoning): phn ngng, chn mu (Patterning), Dithering hoc khuch
tn li (Error Diffusion).
a) Phn ngng
K thut ny t ngng hin th cc tng mu lin tc. Cc im trong nh c
so snh vi ngng nh trc. Gi tr ca ngng s quyt nh im c c hin th
hay khng. Do vy nh kt qu s mt i mt s chi tit. C nhiu k thut chn ngng
p dng cho cc i tng khc nhau:
Hin th 2 mu: ch dng nh en trng c 256 mc xm. Bn cht ca phng php

ny l chn ngng da trn lc mc xm ca nh. n gin c th ly ngng vi
gi tr l 127. Nh vy ngha l cc im c gi tr im nh ln hn 127 s l 1, ngc li
l 0.
Hin th 4 mu: s dng 4 mu khc phc nhc im ca k thut hin th 2
mu. Mt v d ca Bng m 4 mu c cho Bng 2.1.
M
mu
Mn hnh monochrome (n sc)
Mn hnh mu
en
en
Xm m
Xm nht
Xanh
Trng
Vng
Bng 2.1 Bng m 4 mu
18
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh
b) K thut chn theo mu (Patterning)

K thut ny s dng mt nhm cc phn t trn thit b ra (my in chng hn)
biu din mt pixel trn nh ngun. Cc phn t ca nhm quyt nh sng ti ca c
nhm. Cc phn t ny m phng cc chm en trong k thut na cng . Nhm
thng c chn c dng ma trn vung. Nhm nn phn t s to nn n2+1 mc sng.
Ma trn mu thng c chn l ma trn Rylander. Ma trn Rylander cp 4 c dng nh
Bng 2.2.
0
10
12
14
11
15
13
Bng 2.2. Ma trn Rylander cp 4
IT
Vic chn kch thc ca nhm nh vy s lm gim mn ca nh. V vy k

thut ny ch p dng trong trng hp m phn gii ca thit b ra ln hn phn gii
ca nh ngun.
V d: thit b ra c phn gii 640480 khi s dng nhm c kch thc 44 s
ch cn 160120.
c) K thut Dithering
Dithering l vic bin i mt nh a cp xm (nhiu mc sng ti) sang nh nh
phn (hai mc sng ti). K thut Dithering c p dng to ra nh a cp sng khi
phn gii ngun v ch l nh nhau. K thut ny s dng mt ma trn mu gi l ma trn
Dither. Ma trn ny gn ging nh ma trn Rylander.
to nh, mi phn t ca nh gc s c so snh vi phn t tng ng ca ma
trn Dither. Nu ln hn, phn t u ra s sng v ngc li.
d) K thut khuch tn li (Error diffusion)
Khuch tn li cho php gim thiu mc mt chi tit ca nh khi tch ngng
bng cch phn tn li do lng t ha ra cc im nh xung quanh. Bng cch ny tng
gi tr im nh ca mt vng nh c gi tng i gn vi gi tr trn nh gc.
Khuch tn li c hai dng, khuch tn li mt chiu v khuch tn li hai chiu.
Khuch tn li mt chiu ch phn tn li sang im nh ln cn trn cng mt dng trong
khi khuch tn li hai chiu phn tn li sang cc im nh ln cn theo mt t l xc
nh bi mt ma trn khuch tn li.
K thut khuch tn li mt chiu:

o nh c duyt t tri qua phi, t trn xung di.
o Ti mi im nh, gi tr im nh c tch theo ngng c sn.
o Phn d do lng t ha c c chuyn sang im nh tip theo trn
cng dng.
19
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh
o Cc bc c lp li cho n ht dng, phn d ca im nh cui cng s

c loi b.
K thut khuch tn li hai chiu:

o Cc bc c thc hin nh khuch tn li mt chiu, tuy nhin li do
lng t ha s c phn tn ra cc im xung quanh theo t l xc nh
bi ma trn khuch tn
o C hai ma trn ph bin (Hnh 2.3):
Ma trn ca Floyd v Steinberg.
Ma trn ca J F Jarvis, C N Judice, v W H Ninke ti phng th nghim

Bell.
Floyd v Steinberg
Phng th nghim Bell
Hnh 2.3. Ma trn khuch tn li,
IT
"#" ch im ang xt v "" ch cc im xt, cc con s ch t l li c phn

tn t im hin ti
2.6. KHI NIM NH EN TRNG, NH MU

nh trong thc t l mt nh lin tc v khng gian v gi tr cng sng. c
th x l nh bng my tnh ngi ta cn thit phi s ha nh. Trong qu trnh s ha, ta
bin i tn hiu lin tc sang tn hiu ri rc thng qua qu trnh ly mu (ri rc ha v
khng gian) v lng ha thnh phn gi tr m v nguyn tc bng mt thng khng
phn bit c hai im k nhau. Mt nh s l mt tp hp cc phn t nh (Picture
element) hay cn c gi l Pixel.
Nh vy, nh s l mt tp hp cc im nh. Khi c s ha, n thng c biu
din bi mt mng hai chiu I(n,p) vi n l s dng v p l s ct. Ta ni nh gm np
pixels. Ngi ta thng k hiu I(x,y) ch mt pixel I chnh l gi tr cng sng ca
nh ti pixel . nh c th c biu din vi cc phn gii khc nhau. Mt pixel c
th c lu tr trn 1, 4, 8 hay 24 bit ty thuc vo cc mc cng sng cn phn bit
ca nh v s lng thnh phn mu c bn cha trong nh .
2.6.1. Phn loi nh s
Ngi ta thng chia nh s ra lm ba loi chnh l:
nh en trng: Mi phn t nh nhn mt trong hai gi tr tng ng vi hai mc

sng en v trng (cn gi l nh nh phn)
nh a mc xm (Grayscale): Cc phn t nh cha thng s v cng sng

c m ho thnh N mc (8, 256 hoc nhiu hn) tng ng vi 3 bt, 8 bt
hoc hn na, nh xm c mt c trng l lc xm (histogram).
nh mu: Mi phn t nh c lu tr trong nh di dng mt cu trc c 3

trng cha thng tin v 3 mu c bn l , xanh, l (red, blue, green). Mu ca
20
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh
nh s l tng hp ca 3 gi tr trn. Mi trng biu din gi tr mu c th dng

8 bt, 16 bt hc 24 bit m ho.
Nh vy nh mu l nh mang thng tin v i tng y nht so vi nh en
trng v nh a cp xm. Tuy nhin, tt c cch biu din ny u ch l s m phng h
mu trong t nhin. Thc t th mt mu c phn bit qua 3 thuc tnh l chi
(Itensity), sc thi mu (Hue) v bo ho (Saturation). Tuy nhin vi kh nng cm
nhn ca mt ngi th cch biu din nh di dng cu trc 3 mu RGB cht lng nh
thu c l c th chp nhn c.
2.6.2. Mu sc
Mu sc c to ra bi cc nh sng vi cc bc sng khc nhau, mt ngi bao
gm ba loi t bo cm nhn mu c th nhn c by triu mu nhng thc cht chng ta
ch c th cm nhn s khc bit vi ngn mu. Mt mu c th c biu din bi ba
thuc tnh: Sc thi mu (Hue), bo ha (Saturation), v chi (Itensity).
Trong x l nh v ha, m hnh mu l mt ch s k thut ca mt h ta
mu 3 chiu c th dng biu din tt c cc mu. V d nh m hnh mu RGB (Red,
Green, Blue): l mt n v tp cc mu thnh phn sp xp theo hnh lp phng ca h
trc ta cc.
IT
Mc ch ca m hnh mu l cho php biu din mt phn cc mu nhn thy c

bng cc ch s k thut quy c. Sau y, ta xem xt mt s m hnh hay c s dng
nht.
2.6.2.1. M hnh mu RGB (Red, Green, Bule)

Mu , lc xanh l cy, lam xanh da tri (RGB) c s dng ph bin nht
trong hin th. Cc mu gc ny c t hp vi nhau theo mt t l ti to mu sc, h
mu ny s dng phi mu cng. Tp hp cc mu c sp xp theo khi lp phng n
v. ng cho chnh ca khi lp phng th hin cc mu c phi bi ba mu gc vi
t l tng ng nhau ng vi cc mc xm t en l (0,0,0) t trng (1,1,1).
Hnh 2.4. M hnh mu RGB v CMY
21
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh
2.6.2.2. M hnh mu CMY (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow)

Xanh nht (Cyan), vng (Yellow) v tm (Magenta) l cc phn b tng ng cho
cc mu , lc v lam. Chng c th c s dng lc loi tr cc mu ny t nh
sng trng. V vy CMY cn c gi l cc phn b loi tr ca mu gc. Cc mu trong
h mu CMY cng c biu din trong h ta -cc nhng phng php phi mu
s dng l phi mu tr. Cc mu c to thnh bng cch loi b hoc c b t nh
sng trng thay v l c thm vo vng ti.
Green
Cyan
Red
Magenta
Blue
Yellow
Black
Blue
White
Red
Cyan
Yellow
Green
IT
Magenta
Hnh 2.5.Trn mu cng v trn mu tr
Khi b mt c bao ph bi lp mc mu xanh tm, s khng c tia mu phn

chiu t b mt . Mu xanh tm loi b phn mu phn x khi c tia sng trng, m
bn cht l tng ca 3 mu , lc, lam. V th ta c th coi mu Cyan l mu trng tr i
mu v cng l mu lam cng mu lc. Tng t nh vy ta c mu thm
(magenta) hp th mu lc, v th n tng ng vi mu cng mu lam. V cui
cng mu vng (yellow) hp th mu lam, n s bng mu cng vi lc.
Khi b mt ca thc th c bao ph bi xanh tm v vng, chng s hp th ht
cc phn mu v xanh lam ca b mt. Khi ch tn ti duy nht mu lc b phn x t
s chiu sng ca nh sng trng. Trong trng hp khi b mt c bao ph bi c 3 mu
xanh tm, vng, thm, hin tng hp th xy ra trn c 3 mu , lc v lam. Do ,
mu en s mu ca b mt. Nhng mi lin h ny c th c miu t bi:
C 1 R
M 1 G

Y 1 B
Hnh 2.6. S bin i t RGB thnh CMY
2.6.2.3. M hnh mu HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value)
Cc m hnh mu RGB, CMY c th hin th c tt c cc mu cn thit, tuy vy
rt kh khn con ngi c th phi mu trn hai h mu ny. phi mu d dng hn
Smith nh ngha m hnh mu HSV ca hay HSB vi B l Brightness ( sng) hng
ngi s dng da trn c s nn tng trc gic v tng mu, sc v sc thi m thut.
22
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh
H thng ta c dng hnh

h
tr v tp mu thnh phn
n ca khng gian bbn trong
m hnh mu c
c xc nh l
l hnh nn nh trong hnh 2.7.
Hnh 2.7. M hnh mu HSV

Sc mu (hue) hoc
c H c
o bi gc quanh trc
c ng vi m
mu l 0o, mu lc l
120o, mu lam l 240o. Cc mu b nm v tr i din vi nhng
ng m
mu gc. S ly gi tr
t 0 trn ng
ng trc tm (trc V) n 1 trn
tr cc mt bn ti ca hnh
nh chp su ccnh. S bo
ha c hiu l mc
c ti
t
ca
a mu, cc mu xm t en ti trng c S l 0. Gi tr V
c hiu l sng ca mu,
m V l 0 th l mu en, V l 1 th l mu
u c sng ti a.
Gi m chuyn
n i t RGB sang HSV
IT
Hm RGB_HSV_Conversion
H: Sc mu
u [0-360]
[0
vi mu ti im 0
S: bo
o ha [0-1]
[0
V: Gi tr cng
ng sng [0-1]
[0
Max: Hm ly
y gi tr cc i
Min: Hm ly
y gi tr nh nht
{
//Xc nh
nh gi tr cng
c
sng
V= Max(R,G,B)
//Xc nh
nh bo
b
ha
Temp= Min(R,G,B)
If V=0 than
S= 0
Else
S= (V-Temp)/V
Temp)/V
End
//Xc nh
nh sc mu
m
IF s=0 THEN
H= Undefined
Else
Cr= (V-R)/(V
R)/(V-Temp);
Cg= (V-G)/(V
G)/(V-Temp);
Cb= (V-B)/(V
B)/(V-Temp);
// Mu nm
m trong khong gia vng
vng (Yellow) v
ta (Magenta)
If R=V then
H= Cb-Cg
Cg
23
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

// Mu nm trong khong gia xanh tm (cyan) v vng (yellow)
If G= V then
H= 2+Cr-Cb
// Mu nm trong khong gia ti (magenta) v xanh (cyan)
If B=V then
H= 4+ Cg Cr
H= 60*H // Chuyn sang
//Loi cc gi tr m
If H < 0 then
H= H+360
}
Gi m chuyn i t HSV sang RGB

Hm HSV_RGB_Conversion()
H: Sc mu [0-360] vi mu ti im 0
S: bo ha [0-1]
V: Gi tr cng sng [0-1]
{
IT
//Kim tra trng hp nh sng khng mu

If S=0 then
If H=Undefined then
R= V
B= V
Endif
Else
G= V
If H=360 then
H= 0
Else
H= H/60
endif
I= Floor(H)
F= H-I
M= V*(1-S)
N= V*(1-S*F)
K= V*(1-S*(1-F))
//(R,G,B)=(V,K,M) R= V; C= K; B= M
If I=0 then
(R,G,B)=(V,K,M);
If I=1 then
(R,G,B)=(N,V,M);
If I=2 then
(R,G,B)=(M,V,K);
24
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

If I=3 then
(R,G,B)=(M,N,V);
If I=4 then
(R,G,B)=(K,M,V);
If I=5 then
(R,G,B)=(V,M,N);
}
IT
2.6.2.4.
.2.4. M hnh mu HSL
HS
M hnh mu HSL
L tng t nh m hnh HSV nhng thay v bi
biu din tp hp mu
hnh nn su nh
m hnh
h
HSV th HSL biu din cc tp hp mu
u hnh chp i di
dng khng gian hnh tr.
. Sc mu
m H (hue) vn l gc quanh trc
c ng vi m
mu ti gc
o
0 . Chng ta c th xem h mu HSL nh mt s bin dng ca h HSV
HSV.
Hnh 2.8. M hnh mu HLS

Gi m chuyn
n i t RGB sang HSL
H
Hm RGB_HLS_Conversion()
H: Sc mu
u [0-360]
[0
vi mu ti im 0
S: bo
o ha [0-1]
[0
V: Gi tr cng
ng sng [0-1]
[0
Max: Hm ly
y gi tr cc i
Min: Hm ly
y gi tr nh nht
{
//Xc nh
nh sng
M1= Max(R,G,B)
M2= Min(R,G,B)
L= (M1+M2)
//Xc nh
nh bo
b
ha
If M1=M2 //Trng
//Tr
hp khng mu
S= 0
H= Undefined
Else
If L <= 0.5 then //Trng
//Tr
hp mu
S= (M1-M2)/(M1+M2)
M2)/(M1+M2)
Else
S= (M1-M2)/(2
M2)/(2-M1-M2)
25
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

Endif
//Xc nh sc
Cr= (M1-R)/(M1-M2)
Cg= (M1-G)/(M1-M2)
Cb= (M1-B)/(M1-M2)
if R=M1 then
H= Cb-Cg
If G=M1 then
H= 2+Cr-Cb
If B=M1 then
H= 4+Cg-Cr
H= H*60
if H<0 then
H= H+360
endif
}
Gi m chuyn i t HSL sang RGB
IT
Hm HLS_RGB_Conversion()
H: Sc mu [0-360] vi mu ti im 0
S: bo ha [0-1]
V: Gi tr cng sng [0-1]
{
If L <= 0.5 then
Else
M2= L*(1+S)
M2= L+S-L*S
Endif
M1= 2*L-M2
//Kim tra bo ha = 0
If S=0 then
If H=Undefined
R=L
G=L
B=L
Else //Error: D liu nhp sai
Endif
Else //Xc nh gi tr ca RGB
RGB(H+120, M1,M2,Value)
R= Value
RGB(H, M1,M2,Value)
G= Value
RGB(H-120, M1,M2,Value)
B= Value
26
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

Endif
}
//Hm iu chnh gi tr ca H cho ph hp khong xc nh

Hm RGB(H, M1, M2, Value)
{
If H < 0 then
H= H+360
If H < 60 then
Value= M1+(M2-M1)*H/60
If H >=60 and H < 180 then
Value= M2
If H>= 180 and H < 240 then
Value = M1+(M2-M1)*(240-H)/60
If H > 240 and H <= 360 then
Value= M1
Return
IT
27
Chng 2: Thu nhn nh
2.7. CU HI N TP CHNG
Cu 1: Th no l m hnh Raster v Vector? Trnh by s ging v khc nhau ca
hai m hnh ny.
Cu 2: Nu cc nh dng nh ph bin. Trnh by cch nn nh ca nh dng anh
BITMAP.
Cu 3: K thut khuch tn li (Error diffusion) l g? Thc hin khuch tn li mt
chiu vi nh sau, c bit ngng l 127.
23 156 22 45
1
I 133 13 12 12 212
12 232 127 32 21
Cu 4: K thut khuch tn li hai chiu khc g vi mt chiu. Thc hin khuch

tn li hai chiu vi nh cu 3 s dng ma trn khuch tn li Floyd v Steinberg, c
bit ngng l 127.
IT
Cu 5: H mu HSL v HSV c pht trin v mc ch g? Da theo gi m

trnh by trn, hy vit mt phn mm nh c th chuyn nh gia cc h mu RGB,
CMY, HSV v HSV.
28
Chng 3:
X L NNG CAO CHT LNG NH
3.1. CI THIN NH S DNG CC TON T IM

3.1.1. Gii thiu
Cc php ton khng ph thuc khng gian l cc php ton khng phc thuc v tr
ca im nh. V d: Php tng gim sng, php thng k tn sut, bin i tn
sut v.v..
Mt trong nhng khi nim quan trng trong x l nh l biu tn sut
(Histogram): Biu tn sut ca mc xm g ca nh I l s im nh c gi tr g ca nh
I. K hiu l h(g)
V d:
0
h(g)
1
1
IT
I=
3.1.2. Tng gim sng

Gi s ta c nh I ~ kch thc m n v s nguyn c
Khi , k thut tng, gim sng c th hin
I i, j = I i, j + c; (i,j)
Nu c > 0 th nh sng ln v c < 0 th nh ti i
3.1.3. Tch ngng
Gi s ta c nh I ~ kch thc m n, hai s Min, Max v ngng
Khi , k thut tch ngng c th hin
I i, j = I i, j > = ? Max: Min; (i,j)
Nu Min = 0, Max = 1 th nh thu c sau tch ngng l nh en trng.
29
Chng 3: X l nng cao cht lng nh
3.1.4. Cn bng tn sut

nh I c gi l cn bng "l tng" nu vi mi mc xm g, g ta c h(g) = h(g)
Gi s, ta c:
I ~ kch thc m n
new_level ~ s mc xm mi ca nh sau cn bng, thng thng gi tr
ny c th bng ng s mc xm ca nh gc
TB
mn
~ s im nh trung bnh ca mi mc xm ca nh cn bng
new _ level
g
t ( g ) h(i ) ~ s im nh c mc xm g trn nh gc
i 0
Cn xc nh hm f: g f(g) sao cho:
t(g)
f ( g ) max 0, round
1
TB
V d: Cn bng nh sau vi new_level = 4

4
h(g) t(g) f(g)

5
10
11
14
15
17
19
20
1
3
4
Ikq =
IT
I=
nh sau khi thc hin cn bng cha chc l cn bng "l tng ", tuy nhin
chng ta c th thy biu tn sut ca anh sau cn bng ng u hn rt nhiu so nh
gc.
30
3.1.5. K thut tm tch ngng t ng

Ngng trong k thut tch ngng thng c cung cp bi ngi s dng. K
thut tm tch ngng t ng xc nh ngng mt cch t ng da vo histogram
theo mt nguyn l trong vt l l vt th c th tch lm 2 phn nu tng lnh trong
tng phn l ti thiu.
Gi s, ta c nh
I ~ kch thc m n
G ~ l s mc xm ca nh k c khuyt thiu
t(g) ~ s im nh c mc xm g
1 g
i.h(i) ~ mmen qun tnh TB c mc xm g
t ( g ) i0
m( g )
Hm f: g f (g ) c nh ngha l:
f (g)
t(g)
m( g ) m(G 1)2
mxn t ( g )
Ngng c xc nh sao cho:
IT
f max f ( g )
0 g G 1
0
0
I=
V d: Tm ngng t ng ca nh sau
ih(i)
m(g)
f(g)
h(g) t(g)
g.h(g)
i 0
15
15
1.35
20
0,25
1.66
24
13
0,54
1.54
27
22
0,81
1.10
29
30
1,03
0.49
30
35
1,16
Ngng tm c = 1 ng vi f() = 1.66.
31
3.1.6. Bin i cp xm tng th

Nu bit nh v hm bin i th ta c th tnh c nh kt qu v do ta s c
c histogram ca nh bin i. Nhng thc t nhiu khi ta ch bit histogram ca nh
gc v hm bin i, cu hi t ra l liu ta c th c c histogram ca nh bin i.
Nu c nh vy ta c th hiu chnh hm bin i thu c nh kt qu c phn b
histogram nh mong mun.
Bi ton t ra l bit histogram ca nh, bit hm bin i hy v histogram ca
nh mi. Gi s ta c nh gc I vi cc mc xm g v biu tn sut h(g). Php bin i
f(g) bin nh I thnh I' vi cc mc xm q nh vy q f (g ) . Biu tn sut h(q) c th
c tnh bng h(q)
h(i) .
i f 1 ( q )
V d:
g
h(g)
g + 1 nu g 2
g
nu g = 3
IT
f(g) =
g 1 nu g > 3
h(q)
q = f(g)
3.2. CI THIN NH S DNG CC TON T KHNG GIAN

3.2.1. Php ca s di chuyn (Moving Window)
Hu ht cc phng php x l nh s dng ton t khng gian l phng php ca
s di chuyn. V c bn phng php ca s di chuyn thc hin bin i trn mt im
da vo gi tr im nh nm trong mt ca s bao trm cc im nh ln cn.
Gi I v J l nh sao cho J = T[J]. T[X] l mt php bin i sao cho
( , ) = [ ]( , )
= ({ ( , )|
{ , + },
{ , + }})
y l php bin i ca s di chuyn vi kch thc (s+1) x (d+1) v gi tr c

bin i nm gc trn bn tri ca s.
32
3.2.2. Php nhn chp v mu

Nhn chp l mt php ca s di chuyn, php bin i c nh ngha thng qua
mt ma trn (mu). Gi s ta c nh I kch thc M N, mu T c kch thc m n khi
, nh I nhn chp theo mu T c xc nh bi cng thc.
m 1
I T ( x, y )
i 0
m 1
Hoc
I T ( x, y)
i 0
n 1
I x i, y j * T i, j
(3.1)
j 0
n 1
I x i, y j *T i, j
(3.2)
j 0
Theo cng thc (3.1) th gi tr c bin i nm gc trn bn tri ca s, trong

khi theo cng thc (3.2) th gi tr c bin i nm gc di bn phi ca s.
T=
I=
IT
V d:
Tnh theo cng thc (3.1)

1
I T ( x, y )
i 0
I x i, y j *T i, j I x, y *T 0,0 I x 1, y 1*T 1,1

j 0
I x, y I x 1, y 1
IT=
10
12
12
12
33
Tnh theo cng thc (3.2)
IT=
10
12
12
12
Trong qu trnh thc hin php nhn chp c mt s thao tc ra ngoi nh, nh khng
c xc nh ti nhng v tr dn n nh thu c c kch thc nh hn.
nh thc hin theo cng thc 3.1 v 3.2 ch sai khc nhau 1 php dch chuyn
n gin ta s hiu php nhn chp l theo cng thc 3.1
T1 =
IT
Mt s mu nhn chp thng dng
Dng kh nhiu Cc im c tn s cao
31
V d 1:
55
65
45
46
52
58
34
35
I T1 = 29
27
35
35
I=
p dng k thut cng hng s vi c = -27, ta c:
Ikq =
28
38
18
19
25
31
34
T2 =
-1
-1
-1
-1
Dng pht hin cc im c tn s cao

V d 2:
114 -40
-14
-22
14
16
-1
-6
-10
-2
I T2 =
+ Nu n l x 1
2
* Mnh 3.1
n
i
+ Nu n chn: x hoc
2
xx
x 1
2
IT
3.2.3. Lc trung v
* nh ngha 3.1 (Trung v)
Cho dy x1; x2...; xn n iu tng (gim). Khi trung v ca dy k hiu l
Med(xn), c nh ngha:
min ti Med xn
i 1
*Chng minh mnh 3.1

Xt trng hp n chn
t M
n
2
Ta c:
n
i 1
x x i x xi x x M i
i 1
i 1
i 1
i 1
x xi x M i x x M i xi
M
x M 1 x M x M xi
i 1
35

M
i 1
i 1
x M i Med xi xi Med xi
n
xi Med xi
i 1
Nu n l:
B sung thm phn t Med xi vo dy. Theo trng hp n chn ta c:
n
xx
Med xi Med xi min ti Med({xn})
i 1
n
xx
min ti Med({xn})
i 1
* K thut lc trung v
Gi s ta c nh I ngng ca s W(P) v im nh P
Khi k thut lc trung v ph thuc khng gian bao gm cc bc c bn sau:
+ Bc 1: Tm trung v
IT
I(q) q W(P) Med (P)

+ Bc 2: Gn gi tr
V d:
I=
I ( P) Med ( P)
I ( P)
I ( P)
Med ( P) I ( P) Med ( P)
16
vi ca s W(3 3) v = 2
Ikq =
Gi tr 16, sau php lc c gi tr 2, cc gi tr cn li khng thay i.
36
3.2.4. Lc trung bnh

* nh ngha 3.2 (Trung bnh)
Cho dy x1, x2, xn khi trung bnh ca dy k hiu AV(xn) c nh ngha:
1 n
AV x n round xi
n i 1
* Mnh 3.2
2
x x
i
min ti AV xn
i 1
* Chng minh mnh 3.2

n
t:
( x ) x x i 2
i 1
Ta c:
n
( x ) 2 x x i
' ( x) 0
n
x x 0
i
i 1
1 n
xi AV xi
n i 1
IT
i 1
Mt khc,
''
( x ) 2n 0
min
ti
x AV xi
K thut lc trung bnh

Gi s ta c nh I, im nh P, ca s W(P) v ngng . Khi k thut lc trung
bnh ph thuc khng gian bao gm cc bc c bn sau:
+ Bc 1: Tm trung bnh
I(q) q W(P) AV(P)
+ Bc 2: Gn gi tr
I ( P) AV ( P)
I ( P)
I ( P)
AV ( P) I ( P) AV ( P)
37
V d:
I=
16
vi ca s W(3 3) v = 2
Ikq =
Gi tr 16 sau php lc trung bnh c gi tr 4, cc gi tr cn li gi nguyn sau

php lc.
3.2.5. Lc trung bnh theo k gi tr gn nht
Gi s ta c nh I, im nh P, ca s W(P), ngng v s k. Khi , lc trung
bnh theo k gi tr gn nht bao gm cc bc sau:
IT
+ Bc 1: Tm K gi tr gn nht
I(q) q W(p) k gi tr gn I(P) nht
+ Bc 2: Tnh trung bnh
k gi tr gn I(P) nht AVk(P)

+ Bc 3: Gn gi tr
V d:
I=
I ( P) AVk ( P)
I ( P)
I ( P)
AVk ( P) I ( P) AVk ( P)
16
vi ca s W(3 3), = 2 v k = 3
Ikq =
Nu k ln hn kch thc ca s th k thut chnh l k thut lc trung bnh, nu k

l 1 th nh kt qu khng thay i. Vy nn cht lng ca k thut ph thuc vo s
phn t la chn k.
38
3.3. KHI PHC NH

3.3.1. Nhiu v m hnh nhiu
nh c coi l mt min ng nht v mc xm, tc l cc im nh ln cn c s
bin i lin tc v mc xm. Nh vy sau qu trnh s ho th trong mi ca s ang xt
cc im nh u c gi tr gn bng nh nhau. Thc t quan st c nhng im nh c gi
tr khc hn nhiu so vi cc im nh xung quanh. chnh l nhiu. Nh vy, nhiu
trong nh s c xem nh l s dch chuyn t ngt ca tn hiu nh trn mt khong
cch nh.
M hnh lin tc
H thng thu nhn nh chuyn cc hnh nh thc ca mi trng xung quanh g(x,y)
thnh dng tn hiu nh g(x,y). Tuy nhin trong qu trnh chuyn i c nhiu yu t tc
ng to thnh nhiu. Do tn hiu g(x,y) c th cha cc thnh phn nhiu trong .
Qu trnh thu nhn nh c nhiu c th m t mt cch trc quan nh sau:
Tn hiu
nhiu (x,y)
IT
nh gc
g(x,y)
H thng thu
nhn nh H
Tn hiu nh
g(x,y)
Hnh 3.1. M hnh nhiu
M hnh ri rc:
Trn c s m hnh nhiu lin tc, ta c th xy dng mt m hnh nhiu ri rc
tng ng vi nh s. Khi g(x,y) s chuyn thnh nh ri rc g[m,n], nh lin tc
g(x,y) s chuyn thnh ma trn im nh g[m,n] v nhiu cng phn b ri rc ti cc
im nh [m,n]. Gi s H l hm tuyn tnh bt bin trong phm vi MN (kch thc
nh) th ta c:
g'[m,n] h[m,n]*g[m,n] [m,n]
h[m k,n l].g[k,l] [m,n]
k l
(3.3)
i vi x l s nh th ta ch s dng m hnh nhiu ri rc.

3.3.2.Cc loi nhiu
Cc tn hiu nhiu thng c chia thnh cc loi chnh nh sau:
Nhiu do thit b thu nhn nh: l loi nhiu gy ra do gii hn nhiu x v

quang sai ca thu knh, nhiu do b phn cm quang, nh m nhe do ng knh,
nhiu do rung ng thit b trong qu trnh thu nhn.
Nhiu nhu nhin c lp: l cc loi nhiu gy ra do nh hng ca mi trng

xung quanh, do nh hng ca kh quyn.
Nhiu do vt quan st: l nhiu gy ra do b mt ca bn thn vt c nhm g

gh. Chnh nhiu ny gy hin tng tn x ca cc tia n sc v sinh ra hin
tng nhiu lm m.
39
Thng ngi ta xp x cc loi nhiu bng cc qu trnh tuyn tnh bt bin v c

nhiu cng c tuyn tnh c th gii quyt vn khi phc nh hn l cc cng c phi
tuyn. Vic x l nhiu bng cch xp x tuyn tnh cng gip cho cng vic d dng hn
trong trng hp dng cch bin i phi tuyn.
3.3.3.Cc k thut lc nhiu
Trong phn ny ta s xt hai k thut lc tuyn tnh hay s dng l lc o v lc
gi o.
Lc o (inverse filter):
Nguyn l ca lc o l s dng hm ngc ca p ng xung h[m,n] khi phc
li mt nh xp x nh nguyn gc g[m,n] t nh g[m,n] bit nguyn l ny c biu
din m t theo s sau:
g(m,n)
h(m,n)
g(m,n)
h-1(m,n)
g*(m,n)
Hnh 3.2. Lc o khi phc nh nguyn
g*[m,n]= g[m,n]* h-1[m,n]
IT
Nh vy nh khi phc g*[m,n] s c tnh theo cng thc:

(3.4)
Trong h-1[m,n] chnh l hm ca b lc o. V H-1(H(x)) = x nn ta c gi tr u

ra l g*[m,n] cng bng gi tr u vo g[m,n]. Nh vy ta khi phc c nh g[m,n]
nh dng hm ngc ca p ng xung h[m,n]. Nu dng bin i Fourier ta c:
G ' [u, v]
H [u, v]
G[u, v] G ' [u, v].H T [u, v]
(3.5)
Qua ta thy, p ng tn s ca b lc o l nghch o ca p ng tn s ca

h thu nhn nh. Nu nh gi c mc nhiu ta c th xp x gn hn vi nh nguyn
gc:
G[u , v]
G ' [u , v] N [u , v]
H [u, v] H [u, v] vi N[u,v] l nhiu c lng
(3.6)
Nu H[u,v] bng 0 hoc kh nh th h thng khi phc s khng n nh (hm

H [u,v] khng xc nh). y chnh l nhc im ca phng php lc o. Tuy b lc
o c kh nng ngn nhiu do h thng nhn nh gy ra kh tt nhng vic thit k b lc
ny li l kh phc tp.
T
Lc gi o (Pseudoinverse filter):
K thut lc ny khc phc c nhc im ca k thut lc o l lm cho hm
T
H [u,v] lun xc nh:
40
1
khi H[u, v]
H [u, v] H [u, v]
0
khi H[u, v]
(3.7)
Vi l mt gi tr cho trc.
Trong trng hp nh nguyn gc g[m,n] chuyn ng tnh tin theo phng x v y
sinh ra hin tng nho nh th HT[u,v] s c xc nh theo cc thng s chuyn ng,
v lc gi o c kh nng khi phc c nh nho ny.
Lc nhiu lm m:
Ta bit nhiu lm m gy ra do tnh cht g gh ca b mt vt th gy ra hin
tng tn x cc tia n sc. Phn ny ta s nghin cu mt k thut lc nhiu lm m l
k thut trung bnh thng k s dng b lc ng cu.
K thut lc nhiu trung bnh thng k tin hnh thng k cc cng sng ca i
tng nh b nhiu lm m bng N ln thu nhn c lp v ly trung bnh cc cng
.
Ta gi thit h thng ch c nhiu lm m v nhiu ny c th coi nh l tng v s
hn cc pha c lp v ng nht. Ta c th biu din nhiu lm m nh sau:
IT
a[m,n]=aR[m,n]+j.aL[m,n]
Vi aR v aL l cc bin ngu nhin c lp phn b theo Gaussian, ng vi mi to
[m,n] c trung bnh bng 0 v phng sai 2. Ta c cng S:
S[m,n] = a[m,n] = aR2 + aL2
(3.8)
Nh vy nh thu c trong ln nhn th i (1,...,N) s l:

gi[m,n]=g[m,n].si[m,n]
(3.9)
Tr trung bnh thng k ca N ln thu nhn nh s l:

g N' [ m, n]
1
N
'
i
N
'
i
g [m, n] g[m, n].( N s [m, n]) g[m, n].s

i 1
[ m, n ]
i 1
(3.10)
Trong sN[m,n] l tr trung bnh thng k ca trng cng nhiu lm m

Lc ng cu (Homomorphic filter):
Nu ly logarit 2 v ca biu thc 3.10 ta thu c:
log gN[m,n]= log g[m,n]+ log sN[m,n]
(3.11)
t wN[m,n]= log gN[m,n], z[m,n]= log g[m,n],N[m,n]= log sN[m,n]

Ta c m hnh quan st c nhiu lm m nh sau:
wN[m,n]= z[m,n] +N[m,n]
(3.12)
T cng thc 3.12 ta thy c th tm ra z[m,n] t wN[m,n] v N[m,n]. Nh vy l c

th tch nhiu lm m v khi phc li nh ban u.
Trong cng thc 3.12 th N[m,n] l nhiu trng dng. Vi N2 th N[m,n] c th
m t gn vi nhiu ngu nhin Gauusian vi mt ph c nh ngha nh sau:
2 / 6 N 1
S N (1 , 2 ) 2
1 / N N 1
(3.13)
41
Cu 1: Biu tn sut l g? Hy tm biu tn sut h(g) cho nh I sau, c bit
cc im nh c gi tr t 0 n 9:
1 2 1 3 2 1
4 4 3 2 4 0
6 9 2 3 2 1
=
6 2 0 5 3 0
3 4 0 5 1 5
5 6 8 9 3 6
Cu 2: Thc hin cc php bin i sau vi nh I cu 1.
Tng sng vi c = 4.
Tch ngng vi = 3.
Cn bng tn sut vi nh kt qu c cng s mc xm vi nh gc.
Tm ngng t ng v tch ngng.
Lu : Cc im nh ch nhn gi tr t 0 n 9.
Cu 3: T biu tn sut h(g) tnh c cu 1 hy tnh biu tn sut h'(g) ca
nh I' sau khi c bin i t nh I s dng biu thc:
IT
( ) = |2 9|
Cu 4: Thc hin nhn chp nh I vi ma trn nhn chp H:
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
2 2 15 15 15 2 2
1 1
= 2 2 13 17 16 2 2 =
1 1
2 2 15 15 15 2 2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
Cu 5: Thc hin lc vi ca s 3x3 v = 3 s dng cc phng php sau vi nh I
cu 1:
Lc trung v vi.
Lc trung bnh.
Lc trung bnh k gi tr gn nht vi k = 4.
42
Chng 4: Cc phng php pht hin bin
Chng 4:
CC PHNG PHP PHT HIN BIN
4.1. KHI QUT V BIN V PHN LOI CC K THUT D BIN C BN

4.1.1. Gii thiu
Bin l vn quan trng trong trch chn c im nhm tin ti hiu nh. Cho n
nay cha c nh ngha chnh xc v bin, trong mi ng dng ngi ta a ra cc o
khc nhau v bin, mt trong cc o l o v s thay i t ngt v cp xm. V
d: i vi nh en trng, mt im c gi l im bin nu n l im en c t nht
mt im trng bn cnh. Tp hp cc im bin to nn bin hay ng bao ca i
tng. Xut pht t c s ny ngi ta thng s dng hai phng php pht hin bin
c bn:
Pht hin bin trc tip: Phng php ny lm ni bin da vo s bin thin
mc xm ca nh. K thut ch yu dng pht hin bin y l k thut ly
o hm. Nu ly o hm bc nht ca nh ta c cc k thut Gradient, nu ly
o hm bc hai ca nh ta c k thut Laplace. Ngoi ra cn c mt s cc tip
cn khc
Pht hin bin gin tip: Nu bng cch no ta phn c nh thnh cc vng
th ranh gii gia cc vng gi l bin. K thut d bin v phn vng nh l hai
bi ton i ngu nhau v d bin thc hin phn lp i tng m khi phn
lp xong ngha l phn vng c nh v ngc li, khi phn vng nh
c phn lp thnh cc i tng, do c th pht hin c bin.
IT
Phng php pht hin bin trc tip t ra kh hiu qu v t chu nh hng ca
nhiu, song nu s bin thin sng khng t ngt, phng php t ra km hiu qu,
phng php pht hin bin gin tip tuy kh ci t, song li p dng kh tt trong trng
hp ny. S khc bit c bn gia hai phng php ny l: Phng php pht hin bin
trc tip cho ta kt qu l nh bin, cn phng php pht hin bin gin tip cho ta kt
qu l ng bin.
4.1.2. K thut pht hin bin Gradient
Theo nh ngha, gradient l mt vct c cc thnh phn biu th tc thay i gi
tr ca im nh, ta c:
f ( x, y )
f ( x dx, y ) f ( x, y )
fx
x
dx
f ( x, y )
f ( x, y dy ) f ( x, y )
fy
y
dy
Trong , dx, dy l khong cch (tnh bng s im) theo hng x v y.
43
Tuy ta ni l ly o hm nhng thc cht ch l m phng v xp x o hm bng

cc k thut nhn chp v nh s l tn hiu ri rc nn o hm khng tn ti.
Gi s vi dx v dy nh nht l 1, ta c:
f
x f x 1, y f x, y
f
f x, y 1 f x, y
y
Do , mt n nhn chp theo hng x l
v hng y l
A= 1 1
1
B=
1
V d:
I=
; I B=
IA=
IT
Ta c,
I A + I B=
4.1.2.1. K thut Prewitt

K thut s dng 2 mt n nhp chp xp x o hm theo 2 hng x v y l:
Hx =
Hy =
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
44
Cc bc tnh ton ca k thut Prewitt

+ Bc 1: Tnh I Hx v I Hy
+ Bc 2: Tnh I Hx + I Hy
+ Bc 3: Phn ngng theo c nh bin
V d:
I Hy =
-10
-10
-15
-15
-10
-10
-5
-5
15
15
10
-15
IT
I Hx =
-15
-10
-5
-15
-15
-10
-5
15
15
-5
-15
-15
-15
-15
-20
-15
-15
-15
-15
-10
I=
I Hx + I Hy =
45
4.1.2.2. K thut Sobel

Tng t nh k thut Prewitt k thut Sobel s dng 2 mt n nhn chp theo 2
hng x, y l:
Hx =
Hy =
-1
-2
-1
-1
-2
-1
Cc bc tnh ton tng t Prewitt

+ Bc 1: Tnh I Hx v I Hy
+ Bc 2: Tnh I Hx + I Hy
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
H2 =
5
5
H4 =
H3 =
H1 =
IT
4.1.2.3. K thut la bn
K thut s dng 8 mt n nhn chp theo 8 hng 00, 450, 900, 1350, 1800, 2250,
2700, 3150
H5 =
H7 =
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
H6 =
H8 =
Cc bc tnh ton thut ton La bn

+ Bc 1: Tnh I Hi; i = 1,8
8
+ Bc 2:
I H
i 1
46
4.1.3. K thut pht hin bin Laplace

Cc phng php nh gi gradient trn lm vic kh tt khi m sng thay i
r nt. Khi mc xm thay i chm, min chuyn tip tri rng, phng php cho hiu qu
hn l phng php s dng o hm bc hai Laplace.
Ton t Laplace c nh ngha nh sau:
Ta c:
2 f 2 f
f 2 2
x
y
2
f
f
f ( x 1, y ) f ( x, y )
2
x
x x x
2
f ( x 1, y ) f ( x, y ) f ( x, y ) f ( x 1, y )
f ( x 1, y ) 2 f ( x, y ) f ( x 1, y )
Tng t,
2 f
f
f ( x, y 1) f ( x, y )
2
y
y y y
IT
f ( x, y 1) f ( x, y ) f ( x, y ) f ( x, y 1)
f ( x, y 1) 2 f ( x, y ) f ( x, y 1)
Vy: 2 f= f(x+1,y) + f(x,y+1) - 4f(x,y) + f(x-1,y) + f(x,y-1)
Dn ti:
0 1 0
H 1 4 1
0 1 0
Trong thc t, ngi ta thng dng nhiu kiu mt n khc nhau xp x ri rc

o hm bc hai Laplace. Di y l ba kiu mt n thng dng:
0 1 0
1 1 1
1 2 1
H1 1 4 1 H 2 1 8 1 H 3 2 4 2
0 1 0
1 1 1
1 2 1
4.1.4. K thut Canny

y l mt thut ton c pht trin kh sm nhng cho n nay vn l mt trong
nhng k thut c s dng rng ri, cho cc kt qu tng i tt, c kh nng a ra
ng bin mnh, phn bit c im bin vi im nhiu.
47
Chng 4: Cc phng php pht hin

hi bin
Hnh 4.1. Kt qu tm bin ca Canny

Thut
t ton Canny gm nm bc:
b
+ Bc 1: Lm trn nh. Chng ta s dng
Tnh I H, vi:
4
5
9 12
12 15
9 12
4
5
4
9
12
9
4
IT
2
4
1
H=
5
159
4
2
Gi G l kt
t qu lc nhiu: G = I H
2
4
5
4
2
+Bc 2: Tnh gradient ca

c nh bng mt n PreWitt (hoc
c cc m
ma trn pht hin
bin khc nh Roberts, Sobel..),
Sobel.. kt qu t vo Gx,Gy.
Gx = G Hx, Gy = G Hy
+ Bc3: Tnh ln v hng ca gradient ti mi im

m (i,j) cca nh. ln G(i,j)
ti im (i,j) cc tnh da
d vo nh l Pitago:
(, )=
(, ) +
(, )
Ngoi ra hng ca vc t gradient c tnh vi cng thc:

(, )=
2(
( , ),
( , ))
vi atan2 l hm arctan vi hai bin nhm nhn thm

m thng tin h
hng v xc nh
gc trong khong 360,, hm atan2 c th c nh ngha nh sau:
48
Sau hng gradient c lm trn thnh bn gc 0, 45, 90 v 135 i din cho

chiu dc, ngang v hai chiu cho.
+ Bc 4: Bc ny loi b nhng im khng phi l cc i a phng xa b

nhng im khng thc s l bin, bc ny s gip bin mng hn. Xt (i,j), (i,j) l
hng gradient ti (i,j). I1, I2 l hai im ln cn ca (i,j) theo hng . Theo nh ngha
im bin cc b th (i,j) l bin nu I(i,j) cc i a phng theo hng gradient ngha l
nu I(i,j) > I1 v I(i,j) > I2 th mi gi li I(i,j) xt tip trong bc sau.
+ Bc 5: Ti bc ny, Canny s dng hai ngng cao v thp. u tin, Canny
lc cc im c gi li s dng ngng cao, ch nhng im c ln gradient cao hn
ngng ny mi c chn. T nhng im c chn Canny d theo bin s dng hng
ca gradient ti cc im. Khi thc hin vic d theo bin, Canny s dng ngng thp
xc nh im dng ca bin (nu gi tr im tip theo thp hn ngng ny, vic d theo
bin ny s kt thc)
IT
Cc k thut thng thng c c nh bin thng s dng mt ngng, im

nh c ln gradien ln hn ngng ny s c chn lm bin. Tuy nhin cc k thut
s dng mt ngng khng th va chn bin chnh xc v mnh nh Canny, v thng
thng s c qu nhiu bin gi hoc xc nh thiu bin. y chnh l mt trong nhng
iu khin Canny vn l k thut d bin tt nht hin nay.
4.2. PHNG PHP PHT HIN BIN CC B

4.2.1. Bin v bin i v mc xm
Nh trnh by trn, trong thc t ngi ta thng dng hai phng php pht
hin bin c bn l: Pht hin bin trc tip v gin tip. Phn ny cp n k thut da
vo trung bnh cc b trn c s nh gi chnh lch v gi tr mc xm ca im nh
so vi cc im ln cn do kt hp c u im ca c hai khuynh hng trc tip v
gin tip.
i vi cc nh mu theo m hnh no u c th chuyn sang m hnh gm 3
thnh phn mu R, G, B. Sau d dng chuyn cc nh mu sang dng nh a cp xm.
Gi tr xm ca im nh c th c tnh l trung bnh cng ca ba thnh phn mu R,G
v B. Vic x l, thao tc trn cc nh xm c mt u im l d x l hn cc nh mu
m vn gi c cc c tnh ca nh. Cc nh trng en tuy d x l nht nhng s b mt
nhiu chi tit sau khi chuyn i.
49
Mt cch l tng th bin thin mc xm ca im nh khi qua bin phi

c dng:
Mc xm
Trong thc t dng th ny ch gp trong cc nh trng en (nh xm c hai mu),

cn vi cc nh thc th th ca n c dng:
Mc xm
IT
x
0
Kh khn cho vic phn tch cc nh trn thc t l ch s bin thin v mc xm
ca im nh khng phi ch c th hin theo mt hng duy nht m phi xt theo c
tm hng ca cc im nh lng ging, ti cc vng bin v ln cn bin s bin thin
mc xm ca cc im nh thng khng t ngt m tri qua mt khong bin thin
khng u nhng c tc bin thin nhanh.
Chng ta c th xc nh c cc ng bin nh th ny bng k thut Laplace

nhng nh trn ni k thut ny rt nhy cm vi nhiu m nhiu hu nh li l vn
m trong bc nh no cng c. Ngoi ra, trong thc t khi d bin cho cc nh xm
ty theo mc ch x l sau ny m ngi ta c th mun ly bin ca tt c cc i tng
trong nh hoc ch mt s i tng chnh trong nh. Cc k thut o hm do s dng cc
mt n l cc ma trn nhn chp nn kh iu chnh chi tit ca nh bin thu c.
Mun lm c iu ny li phi tnh ton li cc gi tr ca cc phn t trong ma
trn theo cc cng thc nht nh, rt phc tp v tn km. Khng nhng th nh thu c
sau khi lc khng lm mt i c tt c cc im khng thuc ng bin m ch lm ni
ln cc im nm trn bin v mun nhn dng c cc i tng th ta cn phi x l
thm mt vi bc na th mi thu c nh bin thc s. C th nhn thy l cc thut
ton d bin truyn thng m chng ta hay dng vn cha t c s hon thin nh
mong mun.
4.2.2. Pht hin bin da vo trung bnh cc b
tng chnh ca thut ton c xut l: Xc nh tt c cc im nm trn bin
khng theo hng tm kim v s dng cc ma trn lc, thng qua vic so snh chnh
lch v mc xm ca n so vi mc xm chung ca cc im nh ln cn (mc xm nn).
Trc ht gi tr xm trung bnh ca cc im nh nm trong phm vi ca ma trn 33
hoc 55 c tm l im nh ang xt s c tnh ton. Nu nh chnh lch mc xm
gia im ang xt vi gi tr xm trung bnh tha mn ln hn mt mc ti thiu 1 no
50
(PTB+ 1< P) th chng ta s coi n l im bin v ghi nhn li, cn cc im khng

tha mn iu kin trn s c coi l im nn.
N=5
a) Ma trn im nh trc khi lc
b) Ma trn im nh sau khi lc
Hnh 4.2. Ma trn im nh trc v sau lc

Thut ton c th c m t nh sau:
for (i=0; i< biHeight; i++){
for (j=0; j< biWidth; j++){
tt_GrayScale=0;
IT
for (ii=i-1; ii<=i+1; ii++){

for (jj=j-1; jj<=j+1; jj++){
}
}
tt_GrayScale+=GetPoint(pOrgImg,ii,jj);
if (tt_GrayScale>9*GetPoint(pOrgImg,i,j)+1){
}
}
}
SetPoint(pBdImg,i,j,BLACK);
Trong :
biWidth, biHeight: l chiu rng v chiu cao ca nh tnh theo n v Pixel.
pOrgImg, pBdImg: ln lt l cc con tr tr n cc vng d liu ca nh gc v
nh bin.
tt_GrayScale: l tng gi tr xm ca cc im nh thuc ma trn 33 c tm l
im nh ang xt.
1: l chnh lch mc xm ca im nh ang xt so vi gi tr xm trung bnh
ca ma trn.
SetPoint() v GetPoint(): l cc hm c, ghi gi tr im nh.
Chng ta c th so snh c hiu qu ca thut ton pht hin bin ny so vi cc
thut ton pht hin bin truyn thng thng qua cc hnh minh ha di y. Hnh 4.3a l
nh gc, Hnh 4.3b l nh bin qua lc Sobel Hx, Hnh 4.3c l nh bin qua lc Sobel Hy,
Hnh 4.3d l nh bin qua lc Kirsh, Hnh 4.2e l nh bin qua lc Laplace. Hnh 4.3 l cc
51
nh bin thu c khi s dng thut ton pht hin bin xut da vo trung bnh cc b
vi gi tr 1 khc nhau. Hnh 4.3a l nh bin thu c vi 1= 25, Hnh 4.3b l nh bin
thu c vi 1= 250.
a) nh gc
b) nh qua lc Sobel Hx
d) nh qua lc Kirsh
c) nh qua lc Sobel Hy
e) nh qua lc Laplace
IT
Hnh 4.3. Cc nh bin theo cc thut ton pht hin bin truyn thng
a) nh bin thu c vi 1= 25
b) nh bin thu c vi 1= 250
Hnh 4.4. Cc nh bin kt qu thu c theo thut ton xut

Chng ta c nhn xt l nh gc s dng trong chng trnh c mu nn kh ti v
c rt nhiu nhiu. Cc b lc s dng trong minh ha trn u mc phi vn ny. Thut
ton d bin s dng trong chng trnh tuy hn ch c nhiu nhiu so vi vic s
dng cc b lc v lm ni r cc ng bin nhng vn khng loi b c hu ht cc
nhiu. Khi p dng thut ton trn chng ta vn c th lm gim bt nhiu i nhiu hn
na bng cch tng gi tr ca h s 1 ln. Nhng khi cc ng bin thu c cng b
t on v m i nhiu.
Thut ton c phc tp t l vi kch thc nh v kch thc ca s. phc tp
ca thut ton l O(n2) nn n thc hin vic tm bin kh nhanh, nh bin thu c ch
gm cc im nh v im bin nn d x l, bn thn thut ton ny cng t chu nh
hng ca nhiu hn l k thut Sobel mc d n c kh nng pht hin kh tt cc vng
bin nhiu. Nhng cng ging cc phng php pht hin bin trc tip khc l n cho kt
qu ng bin c dy khng u.
52
4.3. D BIN THEO QUY HOCH NG

4.3.1. Mt s khi nim c bn
*nh v im nh
nh s l mt mng s thc 2 chiu (Iij) c kch thc (MN), trong mi phn t
Iij(i = 1,...,M; j = 1,...,N) biu th mc xm ca nh ti (i,j) tng ng.
nh c gi l nh nh phn nu cc gi tr Iij ch nhn gi tr 0 hoc 1.
y ta ch xt ti nh nh phn v nh bt k c th a v dng nh phn bng k
thut phn ngng. Ta k hiu l tp cc im vng (im en) v l tp cc im
nn (im trng).
*Cc im 4 v 8-lng ging
Gi s (i,j) l mt im nh, cc im 4-lng ging l cc im k trn, di, tri,
phi ca (i,j):
N4(i,j) = {(i,j): |i-i|+|j-j| = 1},
v nhng im 8-lng ging gm:
N8(i,j) = {(i,j): max(|i-i|,|j-j|) =1}.
IT
Trong Hnh 3.1 biu din ma trn 8 lng ging k nhau, cc im P0, P2, P4, P6 l cc
4-lng ging ca im P, cn cc im P0, P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, P7 l cc 8-lng ging
ca P.
P2
P1
P4
P0
P5
P6
P7
P3
Hnh 4.5. Ma trn 8-lng ging k nhau
*i tng nh
Hai im Ps, Pe E, E hoc c gi l 8-lin thng (hoc 4-lin thng)
trong E nu tn ti tp cc im c gi l ng i (io,jo)...(in,jn) sao cho (io,jo)= Ps,
(in,jn)= Pe, (ir,jr) E v (ir,jr) l 8-lng ging (hoc 4-lng ging tng ng) ca (ir-1,jr-1) vi
r = 1,2,...,n
Quan h k-lin thng trong E (k=4,8) l mt quan h phn x, i xng v bc cu.
Bi vy l mt quan h tng ng. Mi lp tng ng c gi l mt thnh phn
k-lin thng ca nh. V sau ta s gi mi thnh phn k-lin thng ca nh l mt i
tng nh.
53
4.3.2. Chu tuyn ca mt i tng nh

nh ngha 4.1: [Chu tuyn]
Chu tuyn ca mt i tng nh l dy cc im ca i tng nh P1,,Pn sao cho
Pi v Pi+1 l cc 8-lng ging ca nhau (i=1,...,n-1) v P1 l 8-lng ging ca Pn, i Q
khng thuc i tng nh v Q l 4-lng ging ca Pi. K hiu <P1P2..Pn>.
Tng cc khong cch gia hai im k tip ca chu tuyn l di ca chu tuyn v
k hiu Len(C) v hng PiPi+1 l hng chn nu Pi v Pi+1 l cc 4 lng ging (trng hp
cn li th PiPi+1 l hng l). Hnh 4.6 di y biu din chu tuyn ca nh, trong , P l
im khi u chu tuyn.
P
Hnh 4.6. V d v chu tuyn ca i tng nh

nh ngha 4.2 [Chu tuyn i ngu]
IT
Hai chu tuyn C= <P1P2..Pn> v C= <Q1Q2..Qm> c gi l i ngu ca nhau nu

v ch nu i j sao cho:
(i) Pi v Qj l 4-lng ging ca nhau.
(ii) Cc im Pi l vng th Qj l nn v ngc li.
nh ngha 4.3 [Chu tuyn ngoi]
Chu tuyn C c gi l chu tuyn ngoi (Hnh 4.7a) nu v ch nu
(i) Chu tuyn i ngu C l chu tuyn ca cc im nn

(ii) di ca C nh hn di C
nh ngha 4.4 [Chu tuyn trong]
Chu tuyn C c gi l chu tuyn trong (Hnh 4.7b) nu v ch nu:

(i) Chu tuyn i ngu C l chu tuyn ca cc im nn
(ii) di ca C ln hn di C
a) Chu tuyn ngoi
b) Chu tuyn trong
Hnh 4.7. Chu tuyn trong, chu tuyn ngoi
54
nh ngha 4.5 [im trong v im ngoi chu tuyn]

Gi s C= <P1P2..Pn> l chu tuyn ca mt i tng nh v P l mt im nh.
Khi :
(i) Nu na ng thng xut pht t P s ct chu tuyn C ti s l ln, th P c gi
l im trong chu tuyn C v k hiu in(P,C)
(ii) Nu PC v P khng phi l im trong ca C, th P c gi l im ngoi chu
tuyn C v k hiu out(P,C).
B 4.1 [Chu tuyn i ngu]
Gi s E l mt i tng nh v C= < P1P2..Pn> l chu tuyn ca E,
C =<Q1Q2..Qm> l chu tuyn i ngu tng ng. Khi :

(i) Nu C l chu tuyn trong th in(Qi,C) i (i=1,....,m)
(ii) Nu C l chu tuyn ngoi th in(Pi,C) i (i=1,...,n)
B 4.2 [Phn trong/ngoi ca chu tuyn]
Gi s E l mt i tng nh v C l chu tuyn ca E. Khi :
(i) Nu C l chu tuyn ngoi th x E sao cho xC, ta c in(x,C)
(ii) Nu C l chu tuyn trong th x E sao cho xC, ta c out(x,C)
IT
nh l 4.1 [Tnh duy nht ca chu tuyn ngoi]

Gi s E l mt i tng nh v CE l chu tuyn ngoi ca E. Khi CE l
duy nht.
4.3.3. Thut ton d bin tng qut

Biu din i tng nh theo chu tuyn thng da trn cc k thut d bin. C hai
k thut d bin c bn. K thut th nht xt nh bin thu c t nh vng sau mt ln
duyt nh mt th, sau p dng cc thut ton duyt cnh th. K thut th hai da
trn nh vng, kt hp ng thi qu trnh d bin v tch bin. y ta quan tm cch tip
cn th hai.
Trc ht, gi s nh c xt ch bao gm mt vng nh 8-lin thng , c bao
bc bi mt vnh ai cc im nn. D thy l mt vng 4-lin thng ch l mt trng
ring ca trng hp trn.
V c bn, cc thut ton d bin trn mt vng u bao gm cc bc sau:
Xc nh im bin xut pht
D bo v xc nh im bin tip theo
Lp bc 2 cho n khi gp im xut pht
Do xut pht t nhng tiu chun v nh ngha khc nhau v im bin, v quan h
lin thng, cc thut ton d bin cho ta cc ng bin mang cc sc thi rt khc nhau.
Kt qu tc ng ca ton t d bin ln mt im bin ri l im bin ri+1 (8-lng
ging ca ri). Thng thng cc ton t ny c xy dng nh mt hm i s Boolean
trn cc 8-lng ging ca ri. Mi cch xy dng cc ton t u ph thuc vo nh ngha
quan h lin thng v im bin. Do s gy kh khn cho vic kho st cc tnh cht
ca ng bin. Ngoi ra, v mi bc d bin u phi kim tra tt c cc 8-lng ging
55
ca mi im nn thut ton thng km hiu qu. khc phc cc hn ch trn, thay v

s dng mt im bin ta s dng cp im bin (mt thuc , mt thuc ), cc cp
im ny to nn tp nn vng, k hiu l NV v phn tch ton t d bin thnh 2 bc:
Xc nh cp im nn vng tip theo.
La chn im bin
Trong bc th nht thc hin chc nng ca mt nh x trn tp NV ln NV v

bc th hai thc hin chc nng chn im bin.
Thut ton d bin tng qut
Bc 1: Xc nh cp nn-vng xut pht
Bc 2: Xc nh cp nn-vng tip theo
Bc 3: La chn im bin vng
Bc 4: Nu gp li cp xut pht th dng, nu khng quay li bc 2
IT
Vic xc nh cp nn-vng xut pht c thc hin bng cch duyt nh ln lt t

trn xung di v t tri qua phi ri kim tra iu kin la chn cp nn-vng. Do vic chn
im bin ch mang tnh cht quy c, nn ta gi nh x xc nh cp nn-vng tip theo l
ton t d bin.
NV
NV
(b,r)
(b,r)
nh ngha 4.6 [Ton t d bin]

Gi s T l mt nh x nh sau: T:
Gi T l mt ton t d bin c s nu n tho mn iu kin: b,r l cc 8-lng

ging ca r.
Gi s (b,r) NV; gi K(b,r) l hm chn im bin. Bin ca mt dng c th

nh ngha theo mt trong ba cch:
Tp nhng im thuc c mt trn NV, tc l K(b,r)= r
Tp nhng im thuc c trn NV, tc l K(b,r)= b
Tp nhng im o nm gia cp nn-vng, tc l K(b,r) l nhng im nm

gia hai im b v r.
Cch nh ngha th ba tng ng mi cp nn-vng vi mt im bin. Cn i

vi cch nh ngha th nht v th hai mt s cp nn-vng c th c chung mt im
bin. Bi vy, qu trnh chn im bin c thc hin nh sau:
i:= 1; (bi,ri):= (bo,ro);
While K(bi,ri)<>K(bn,rn) and i8 do
Begin
(bi+1,ri+1)= T(bi,ri); i:= i+1;
End;
iu kin dng: Cp nn-vng th n trng vi cp nn vng xut pht: (bn,rn)=

(bo,ro)
56
* Xc nh cp nn vng xut pht

Cp nn vng xut pht c xc nh bng cch duyt nh ln lt t trn xung
di v t tri sang phi im em u tin gp c cng vi im trng trc (theo
hng 4) to nn cp nn vng xut pht.
* Xc nh cp nn vng tip theo
u vo: pt, dir
V d: (3, 2) 4
Point orient []= (1,0);(1;-1);(0;-1);(-1;-1);(-1;0);(-1,1);(0,1);(1,1);
//Hm tm hng c im en gn nht
BYTE GextNextDir(POINT pt, BYTE dir)
{
BYTE pdir= (dir + 7)%8;
do{
if(getpixel(pt. x+orient pdir. x,pt.y+orient pdir. y))==BLACK)
return pdir;
pdir = (pdir + 7) %8;
}while(pdir ! = dir);
return. ERR; //im c lp
IT
//Gn gi tr cho bc tip theo

pdir = GetNextDir(pt, dir);
if(pdir==ERR) //Kim tra c l im c lp khng?
return. ERR; //im c lp
pt. x = pt. x + orient pdir. x;
pt. y = pt. y + orient pdir. y;
tnh gi tr cho hng tip theo ta lp bng da trn gi tr pdir tnh c trc
theo cc kh nng c th xy ra:
pdir
im trng trc
Trng so vi en mi
Do cng thc tnh hng tip theo s l:

dir= ((pdir+3)/ 2 * 2)%8;
57

hi bin
4.4.CC PHNG PHP KHC

4.4.1.
1. Cc php ton hnh thi c
c bn
Hnh thi l thut
t ng ch s nghin
nghi cu v cu trc hay hnh
nh hhc topo ca i tng
trong nh. Phn ln cc php
p
ton ca "Hnh thi" c
c nh ngha t hai php ton cc bn
l php "gin n"
" (Dilation) v
v php "co" (Erosion).
Cc php ton ny c
nh ngha nh sau: Gi thit ta c i ttng X v phn t
cu
u trc (mu) B trong khng gian Euclide hai chiu. K
K hiu Bx l ddch chuyn ca B ti
v tr x.
nh ngha 4.7 (DILATION)

Php "gin n"
" ca X theo mu B l
l hp ca tt c cc Bx vi
i
x thuc X. Ta c:
X B = Bx
xX
X B = {x: Bx X}
IT
nh ngha 4.7 (EROSION)

Php "co" ca
a X theo B l
l tp hp tt c cc im
m x sao cho Bx
nm trong X. Ta c:
0
0
0
V d: Ta c tpp X nh sau: X =0
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0 0
X B = 0
0 0 v X B = 0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0
B=
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
nh ngha 4.9 (OPEN)

Php ton m
(OPEN) ca X theo cu trc B l
l tp
p hp cc
im
m ca nh X sau khi
co v gin n lin lip theo B. Ta c:
OPEN(X,B) = (X B) B
V d: Vi tp X v B trong v d
d trn ta c
0 0 0
0 0
OPEN(X,B) = (X
B) B =0
0 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
58

hi bin
nh ngha 4.10 (CLOSE

CLOSE)
Php ton ng (CLOSE) ca
c X theo cu trc B l tp
p hp cc im ca nh X sau
khi gin n v co lin tip
ti theo B. Ta c:
CLOSE(X,B) = (X B) B
Theo v d trn ta c:
0
CLOSE(X,B) = (X B) B = 0
0
0
4.4.2. Mt
t s tnh cht ca php ton hnh
h
thi
* Mnh 4.1 [Tnh gia tng]:
tng
(i) X X
X B X B
X B X B
(ii) B B'
xX
B
x X '
X ' B
x / Bx X x / Bx X ' = X B
(ii) X B =
IT
Chng minh:
XB=
X B X B' X
X B X B
(i) X B =
0
0
0
0
B'
X B'
xX
xX
Theo nh ngha:
X B =
x / B' x X x / Bx X = X B.
*Mnh 4.2 [Tnh

Tnh phn phi
ph vi php ]:
(i) X (B B') = (X B) (X B')
(ii) X (B B') = (X B) (X B')
59
Chng minh:
(i) X (B B) = (X B) (X B)
Ta c: B B B
X (B B) X B (tnh gia tng)
Tng t:
X (B B) X B
X (B B) (X B) (X B)
(4.1)
Mt khc,
y X (B B) x X sao cho y (B B)x
y Bx
yXB
y Bx
y X B
y (X B) (X B)
X (B B) (X B) (X B)
(4.2)
T (4.1) v (4.2) ta c: X (B B) = (X B) (X B)
(ii) X (B B) = (X B) (X B)
B B B
X (B B) X B (tnh gia tng)
IT
Ta c:
X (B B) X B
X (B B) (X B) (X B)
Mt khc,
(4.3)
Tng t:
x (X B) (X B)
Suy ra,
xXB
x X B
Bx X
Bx X
(B B)x X
x X (B B)
X (B B) (X B) (X B)
(4.4)
T (4.3) v (4.4) ta c: X (B B) = (X B) (X B).

* ngha:
Ta c th phn tch cc mu phc tp tr thnh cc mu n gin thun tin cho vic
ci t.
* Mnh 4.3 [Tnh phn phi vi php ]:
(X Y) B = (X B) (Y B)
Chng minh:
Ta c,
X YX
(X Y) B X B
Tng t: (X Y) B Y B
60
(X Y) B (X B) (Y B)
(4.5)
Mt khc,
x (X B) (Y B)
Suy ra
xXB
Bx X
xYB
Bx Y
Bx X Y
x (X Y) B
(X Y) B (X B) (Y B)
(4.6)
T (4.5) v (4.6) ta c: (X Y) B = (X B) (Y B).

* Mnh 4.4 [Tnh kt hp]
(i) (X B) B' = X (B B')
(ii) (X B) B' = X (B B')
Chng minh:
(i) (X B) B' = X (B' B)
Ta c, (X B) B'
=(
) B'
IT
x X
(B
B' ) =
x X
(B B )
'
x X
= X (B' B)
(i) (X B) B' = X (B B')
Trc ht ta i chng minh: B x' X B ( B ' B ) x X
By X
Tht vy, do B x' X B nn y B x' yX B
yBx'
( B ' B) x X
'
Mt khc, ( B B ) x X
( B x' B) X
yBx'
y B x' ta c By X
hay y B x' ta c y X B
Do , B x' X B
Ta c, (X B) B'
= x / Bx X B'
= {x/ B x' X B}
= {x/ ( B ' B ) x X} (do chng minh trn)
61
= X (B B').
* nh l 4.2 [X b chn bi cc cn OPEN v CLOSE]
Gi s, X l mt i tng nh, B l mu, khi , X s b chn trn bi tp CLOSE
ca X theo B v b chn di bi tp OPEN ca X theo B.
Tc l:
(X B) B X (X B) B
Chng minh:
Ta c: x X Bx X B
(V X B =
x X
x (X B) B (theo nh ngha php co)

(X B) B X
(4.7)
Mt khc,
y (X B) B, suy ra:
x X B sao cho y Bx (V (XB) B =
xXB
Suy ra: X (X B) B
IT
Bx X y X
(4.8)
T (4.7) v (4.8) Ta c: (X B) B X (X B) B.
*H qu 4.1 [Tnh bt bin]:

(i) ((X B) B) B = X B
(ii) ((X B) B) B = XB
Chng minh:
(i) Tht vy, t nh l 4.2 ta c X (X B) B
X B ((X B) B) B (do tnh cht gia tng)
(4.9)
Mt khc, cng t nh l 4.2 ta c (X B) B X X

Do , thay X bi X B ta c, ((X B) B) B X B
(4.10)
T (4.9) v (4.10) Ta c: ((X B) B) B = X B

(ii) Tht vy, t nh l 4.2 ta c (X B) B X
((X B) B) B XB (do tnh cht gia tng)
Mt khc, cng t nh l 4.2 ta c X (X B) B X
(4.11)
Do , thay X bi X B ta c, XB ((X B) B) B
(4.12)
T (4.11) v (4.12) Ta c: ((X B) B) B = XB (pcm).

4.4.3. Xp x trn v xp x di i tng nh
Bin l vn quan trng trong x l nh v nhn dng, v cc c im trch chn
trong qu trnh nhn dng ch yu da vo bin. Trong thc t ngi ta thng dng hai
phng php php hin bin c bn l: Pht hin bin trc tip v gin tip. Phn ny
62
cp n mt tip cn mi trong pht hin bin da vo cc php ton hnh thi thng qua
cc k thut xp x trn v xp x di i tng.
Cng c mt vi tc gi cp n k thut pht hin bin da vo php ton
hnh thi. Nhng cc k thut pht hin bin trc tip, gin tip v da vo cc php ton
hnh thi k trn u xut pht t quan im bin ca i tng l mt tp hp con ca i
tng. Trong thc t chng ta thng hiu ng bin l khu vc ranh gii bao gm c hai
phn thuc i tng v khng thuc i tng. phn di y, chng ti xut mt
k thut pht hin bin da vo php ton hnh thi theo quan nim ny, xut pht t c s
nh l 4.2 c chng minh trn.
Bin (hay ng bin) c th hiu n gin l cc ng bao ca cc i tng trong
nh chnh l ranh gii gia i tng v nn. Vic xem ranh gii l phn c to lp bi
cc im thuc i tng v thuc nn cho php ta xc nh bin da trn cc php ton
hnh thi.
Theo nh l 4.2 ta c: (XB)B X B
Nh vy, tp CLOSE(X,B) = (XB)B c th c xem nh l xp x trn ca tp
X theo mu B (Hnh 4.8).
IT
CLOSE(X,B)= (XB)B
Xp x trn ca X (cha X)
X B = CLOSE(X,B)\ OPEN(X,B)
Xp x bin ca X theo mu B
OPEN(X,B)= ((XB)B)
Xp x di ca X (thuc X)
Hnh 4.8. Xp x trn v di theo mu B ca X

Cng theo nh l 4.2 ta c, (XB)B X B
Do vy, tp OPEN(X,B) = (XB)B c th c xem nh l xp x di ca tp X
theo mu B.
T , tp CLOSE(X,B)\ OPEN(X,B) c th c xem nh l xp x bin ca tp X
theo mu v qu trnh xp x bin ca X theo mu B k hiu l X B.
tng chnh xc, ngi ta thng xem B l dy cc phn t cu trc.
B = {Bi, 1 i n }
V xp x bin ca X theo tp cu trc B c xc nh:
XB
X B i
i 1
63
4.4.4. Thut ton pht hin bin da vo php ton hnh thi
Vo
: nh X v dy mu B= {Bi, 1 i n };
: Bin ca i tng theo mu B
Ra
Phng php:
Bc 1: Tnh X Bi i=1,n
Bc 2: Tnh
X B
i
i 1
Trong Hnh 4.9a di y l nh gc vi 256 mc xm, Hnh 4.9b l nh bin thu

c qua pht hin bin bng Sobel, Hnh 4.9c l nh bin thu c qua pht hin bin
bng Laplace. Hnh 4.9d l nh bin kt qu thc hin bi thut ton pht hin bin bng
cc php ton hnh thi vi ngng tch = 128 v cc mu tch bin Bi l:
B1
B2
B3
B4
IT
a) nh gc a cp xm
b) nh bin thu c qua Sobel
c) nh bin thu c qua Laplace
d) nh bin kt qu da vo php ton

hnh thi
Hnh 4.9. Pht hin bin bi thut ton da vo php ton hnh thi
64
Cu 1: im bin c nh ngha nh th no? K thut ph bin nht pht hin
bin l g?
Cu 2: Thc hin ci t phng php tch bin Canny. u vo ca h thng l
mt ma trn nh a cp xm (0-255)v u ra l nh vi ch hai loi im nh, im nn c
gi tr l 0 v im bin c gi tr l 255.
Cu 3: Thc hin php co v dn hnh X vi mt phn t cu trc B sau c hai
hnh X1 v X2. Thc hin php tr tm nh bin. c bit tm ca B l chnh gia.
0
1
1
X
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
0 1 0
1
B 1 1 1
0
0 1 0
1
0
IT
Cu 4: Thc hin php ng v m hnh X vi mt phn t cu trc B cu 3

c hai hnh X1 v X2. Thc hin php tr tm nh bin. c bit tm ca B l
chnh gia.
65
Chng 5: Phn vng nh
Chng 5:
PHN VNG NH
5.1. GII THIU
IT
X l nh bao gm cc bc: thu nhn nh, tin x l, phn on nh, biu din v
gii thch, nhn dng v m t (tuy nhin khng phi ng dng x l nh no cng phi c
y tt c cc bc trn). Trong cc bc , bc phn on nh l bc quan trng
nht nhng v cng kh khn nht. Mt khc, c nhiu ng dng quan trng cn n k
thut phn on: nh mu hoc a mc xm th cn phi phn ngng; mun nhn dng
c cc i tng th trc ht cn phi phn nh thnh cc vng khc nhau cha cc i
tng trong nh: tch ra vng l ch, s trn b th hoc fax trong phn loi th, fax t
ng; tch ra cc vng l ch, hnh nh, bng biu trong cc ng dng nhp d liu t
ng; tch ra vng b bng nh gi phn trm din tch bng trn da; tch ra vng rng
b chy trong nh chp t my bay, v tinh pht hin chy rng; tch ra ao, h, cy xanh
t nh chp thnh ph t v tinh nh gi t l ao h, cy xanh, nh ca ca thnh ph
v.v..
Hnh dng ca mt i tng c th c miu t hoc bi cc tham s ca ng

bin hoc cc tham s ca vng m n chim gi. S miu t hnh dng da trn thng tin
ng bin yu cu vic pht hin bin. S m t hnh dng da vo vng i hi vic
phn on nh thnh mt s vng ng nht. Nh vy, pht hin bin v phn vng l hai
cch tip cn i ngu trong vic phn tch nh. Cc vng nh yu cu phi c cc c tnh
ng nht (v d nh: cng , kt cu) gip phn bit c tng vng. Cc c tnh ny
to nn cc vect c trng (feature vectors) phn bit mt vng vi cc vng khc. Cc
c trng c s dng trong sut qu trnh phn on theo cc nguyn tc kim tra tnh
ng nht ca vng.
Chng ta hy gi s rng mt min nh X phi c phn on thnh N vng khc
nhau: R1, , RN v nguyn tc phn on l mt v t ca cng thc P(R). C min nh X
v cc vng ca n R1, , RN c th c miu t mt cch tin li bi cc tp con ca
plane nh (image plane) Z2. Vic phn on nh chia tp X thnh cc tp con Ri, i = 1..N
c nhng tnh cht sau:
N
X Ri
(5.1)
i 1
Ri R j 0
vi i j
(5.2)
P(Ri) = TRUE vi i = 1..N
(5.3)
P(Ri Rj) = FALSE vi i j
(5.4)
Nhng vng Ri, i=1..N phi lp kn hon ton nh, n c th hin trong tnh cht
(5.1). Tnh cht (5.2) m bo rng hai vng khc nhau l nhng tp hp ri nhau. V t
P(Ri) phi l TRUE trn mi vng Ri bo m tnh ng nht ca vng, c th c
66
Chng 5: Phn vng nh
thy 5.3. Cui cng, v t P(RiRj) (i j) phi l FALSE, bi v RiRj, i j tng ng

vi mt vng nh khng ng nht.
Cng thc ca v t phn on P v nhng c trng m n s dng ng vai tr
quan trng trong kt qu phn on. P thng l mt v t ca cng thc P(R,x,t), trong
x l vect c trng gn vi mt im nh v t l mt tp hp cc tham s (thng l cc
ngng). Cc c trng cu trc thng c cha trong vect c trng. Trong trng
hp n gin nht, vect c trng x ch c cng nh f(k,l) v vect ngng ch gm
mt ngng T. Mt nguyn tc phn on n gin c cng thc:
P(R): f(k,l) < T
(5.5)
Trong trng hp cc nh mu, vect c trng x c th l ba thnh phn nh RGB

[fR(k,l), fG(k,l), fB(k,l)]T. Mt nguyn tc phn on nh n gin c th c cng thc:
P(R,x,t): ((fR(k,l) < TR) v (fG(k,l) < TG) v (fB(k,l) < TR))
(5.6)
IT
Trong nhiu ng dng, s lin thng ca vng ng vai tr quan trng trong vic
phn on nh. Mt vng R c gi l lin thng nu bt k hai im (xA,yA) v (xB,yB)
thuc vo R c th c ni bi mt ng (xA,yA)... (xi-1,yi-1), (xi,yi), (xi+1,yi+1)... (xB,yB),
m cc im (xi,yi) thuc vo R v bt k im (xi,yi) no u k st vi im trc (xi-1,yi1) v im tip theo (xi+1,yi+1) trn ng . Mt im (xk,yk) c gi l k vi im
(xl,yl) nu (xl,yl) thuc vo lng ging trc tip ca (xk,yk). Chng ta c th nh ngha hai
loi lng ging. 4-lng ging ca mt im (x,y) l mt tp hp bao gm lng ging dc v
lng ging ngang ca n:
N4((x,y)) = {(x+1,y), (x-1,y), (x,y+1), (x,y-1)}
(5.7)
8-lng ging ca (x,y) l mt tp cha ca 4-lng ging v bao gm lng ging ngang,
dc v cho:
(5.8)
N8((x,y)) = N4((x,y)){(x+1,y+1),(x-1,y-1), (x+1,y-1),(x-1,y+1)}
Cc ng c xc nh bng cch s dng 4-lng ging gm c cc vt dc v

ngang vi x = y = 1. Nhng ng s dng 8-lng ging c thm cc vt cho vi
khong cch
2.
Cc k thut phn on c th chia thnh ba lp khc nhau. Cc k thut cc b

(Local techniques) da vo cc thuc tnh cc b ca cc im v lng ging ca n. Cc
k thut ton th (global) phn nh da trn thng tin chung ca ton b nh (v d bng
cch s dng lc xm ca nh image histogram). Cc k thut tch (split), hp
(merge) v growing s dng c khi nim ng nht v gn v hnh hc. Hai vng c th
c hp li nu chng ging nhau (nu P(RiRj) = TRUE) v k nhau. Mt vng khng
ng nht c th b chia thnh nhng vng nh hn. Mt vng c th m rng bng cch
thm cc im sao cho n vn ng nht, P(Ri) = TRUE. Cc chng tip theo s trnh by
mt s phng php phn on nh c th.
5.2. PHN VNG NH THEO NGNG BIN
Trong hu ht cc trng hp, ngng c chn t lc sng ca vng hay
nh cn phn on. C rt nhiu k thut chn ngng t ng xut pht t lc xm
{h[b] | b = 0, 1,..., B-1} c a ra, B l s mc xm ca nh, vi nh grayscale
67
Chng 5: Phn vng nh
B=256. Nhng k thut ph bin s c trnh by di y. Nhng k thut ny c th

tn dng nhng li th do s lm trn d liu lc ban u mang li nhm loi b
nhng dao ng nh v sng. Tuy nhin cc thut ton lm trn cn phi cn thn,
khng c lm dch chuyn cc v tr nh ca lc . Nhn xt ny dn n thut ton
lm trn di y:
[ ]=
)/
[ ]
)/
(5.9)
Trong ,
W thng c chn l s l (3 hoc 5).
hsmooth[b] l gi tr tn xut ca sng b sau khi lm trn
hraw[b] l gi tr tn xut ca sng b gc
5.2.1. Thut ton ng liu

y l k thut chn ngng theo kiu lp do Ridler v Calvard a ra.
Trc ht, lc s c phn on thnh hai phn bng mt gi tr ngng
khi ng vi 0 = B/2 tc l bng phn na thang xm ng ca nh.
Sau , cc trung bnh mu (mf,0) ca nhng im nh thuc i tng v (mb,0)

ca nhng im nh nn s c tnh ton.
Mt gi tr ngng mi 1 s c tnh k bng cch ly gi tr trung bnh ca

hai trung bnh mu ni trn.
Qu trnh ny c th s c tip tc vi ngng mi cho n khi no gi tr

ngng khng thay i na th dng li.
IT
Nu biu din di dng cng thc ton hc, chng ta c:

=
( )
( )
vi
mf,k+1 th Bmin = 0 v Bmax = k
mb,k+1 th Bmin = k v Bmax = B - 1

=
Thc hin cho ti khi
+
2
=
(5.10)
68
Chng 5: Phn vng nh
5.2.2. Thut ton i xng nn

K thut ny da trn s gi nh l tn ti hai nh phn bit trong lc nm i
xng nhau qua nh c gi tr ln nht trong phn lc thuc v cc im nh nn. K
thut ny c th tn dng u im ca vic lm trn c m t trong phng trnh (5.9).
nh cc i maxp tm c nh tin hnh tm gi tr cc i trong lc . Sau thut
ton s c p dng pha khng phi l im nh thuc i tng ng vi gi tr cc i
nhm tm ra gi tr sng a ng vi gi tr phn trm p% m: P(a) = p%, trong P(a)
l hm phn phi xc sut v sng.
nh ngha: [Hm phn phi xc sut v sng]
Hm phn phi xc sut P(a) th hin xc sut chn c mt gi tr sng t mt
vng nh cho trc, sao cho gi tr ny khng vt qu mt gi tr sng cho trc a. Khi a
bin thin t - n +, P(a) s nhn cc gi tr t 0 n 1. P(a) l hm n iu khng
gim theo a, do vy
0.
S im
nh
Nn
IT
i tng
Gi tr sng
T maxp a
Hnh 5.1 Minh ho thut ton i xng nn
y ta ang gi thit l nh c cc i tng ti trn nn sng. Gi s chc chn

l 95%, th c ngha l ta phi bn phi nh maxp mt gi tr a sao cho P(a)=95%. Do
tnh i xng gi nh trn, chng ta ly i xng qua maxp c c ngng T:
T = maxp (a maxp)
(5.11)
K thut ny thc hin ngc li vi tnh hung nh c cc i tng sng trn mt

nn ti.
69
Chng 5: Phn vng nh
5.2.3. Thut ton tam gic

Thut ton ny do Zack xut. Hnh 5.2 minh ho thut ton ny. Cc bc ca
thut ton nh sau: Ni ng thng t im Hmax ca lc (im c histogram ln
nht, c mc xm bmax) n im Hmin ca lc (im ng vi sng nh nht bmin).
Vi mi sng b trong khong [bmax, bmin], chng ta i tnh khong cch d t im Hb ca
lc (ng vi gi tr sng b) n . Gi tr b0 ng vi khong cch d ln nht s
c chn lm gi tr ngng T. K thut ny c bit hiu qu khi cc im nh thuc i
tng to nn mt nh yu trong lc nh.
S im nh
Hmax
d
Hmin
Hb
bmin
bmax
Gi tr sng
IT
Hnh 5.2. Minh ho thut ton tam gic
5.2.4. Chn ngng i vi Bimodal Histogram

Nu nh cha mt i tng v mt nn c cng ng nht, n thng c mt
histogram hai mt (bimodal histogram) nh mt trng hp trnh by trong hnh 5.3.
Ngng T c chn ti v tr cc tiu a phng ca histogram nm gia hai

nh ca histogram. im cc i a phng ca histogram c th d dng c pht hin
bng cch s dng bin i chp m (top hat) do Meyer a ra: Ph thuc vo tnh hung
chng ta ang phi lm vic l vi nhng i tng sng trn nn ti hay i tng ti trn
nn sng m php bin i top hat s c mt trong hai dng sau:
a) Cc i tng sng:
TopHat ( A, B ) A ( A B ) A max (min ( A))
B
(5.12)
b) Cc i tng ti:
TopHat ( A, B ) A ( A B ) A min (max ( A))
B
(5.13)
Vic tnh ton gi tr cc tiu a phng ca histogram th kh nu histogram nhiu.

Do , trong trng hp ny nn lm trn histogram, v d s dng thut ton (5.9).
S im nh
T
Hnh 5.3. Bimodal histogram
Gi tr sng
70
Chng 5: Phn vng nh
Trong mt s ng dng nht nh, cng ca i tng hay nn thay i kh

chm. Trong trng hp ny, histogram nh c th khng cha hai thu phn bit r rng,
v vy c th phi dng ngng thay i theo khng gian. Hnh nh c chia thnh nhng
khi hnh vung, histogram v ngng c tnh cho mi khi tng ng. Nu histogram
cc b khng phi l bimodal histogram th ngng c tnh bng cch ni suy ngng
ca cc khi lng ging. Khi ngng cc b c th p dng thut ton phn ngng
hnh 5.3 cho khi ny.
5.3. PHN VNG THEO MIN NG NHT
5.3.1. Gii thiu
K thut phn on nh thnh cc min ng nht da vo cc thuc tnh quan trng
no ca min. Mi mt thuc tnh khi s dng th c mt tiu chun phn on tng
ng. Mt s thuc tnh tiu biu l: mc xm, mu sc (i vi nh mu), kt cu si...
Ta c th dng logic v t lm tiu chun nh gi phn on. Gi s nh X phi
phn thnh n vng khc nhau: Z1, Z2,..., Zn v lgic v t c dng P(Z). Vic phn vng
phi tho mn cc tnh cht sau:
IT
vi
i 1,2,...,
n
X
i j
Z i Z j vi
P(Z ) True vi
i 1,2,...,
n
i
i j
P(Zi Z j ) False vi
(5.14)
Kt qu ca vic phn on nh ph thuc vo dng ca v t P v cc c tnh biu

din bi vect c tnh. Thng v t P c dng P(Z, X, t), vi X l vc t c tnh, t l
ngng. Trng hp n gin nht, vc t c tnh ch cha gi tr mc xm ca nh I(k, t)
v ngng ch n thun l gi tr T.
P(Z): I (k, I) <T.
(5.15)
Vi nh mu, vc t c tnh X c th l thnh phn ba mu R, G, B v IR(k,l),

IG(k,l), IB(k, l) l cc thnh phn tng ng. Lc lut phn ngng c dng:
P(Z,X,t): IR(k,l) <TR v IG(k,l) < TG v IB(k,l) < TB
(5.16)
C ba cch tip cn ch yu trong phn vng nh theo min ng nht v c lp vi

tiu chun la chn tnh ng nht:
Phng php phn tch cy t phn (split quad trees)
Phng php hp (merge).
Phng php tch - hp (split merge).
Mc hiu qu ca cc phng php l ph thuc vo vic la chn tiu chun

nh gi thun nht. Trn thc t ngi ta hay s dng trung bnh s hc, v lch
chun i cho vng Zi c n im:
71
Chng 5: Phn vng nh
mi
1
I (k , l )
n ( k ,l )Zi
(5.17)
1
( I ( k ) mi ) 2
n ( k ,l )Z j
(5.18)
Hai vng Zi v Zj c th hp nht nu | mi-mj | < ki.

Hoc c th da vo mc xm xt tiu chun min ng nht. Gi s max v min
l gi tr mc xm ln nht v nh nht trong min ang xt. Khi , tiu chun min
ang xt l ng nht c th l:
| max-min | <
(5.19)
vi l mt ngng
hoc tiu chun l lch bnh phng trung bnh nh hn
1 n
( xi x) 2
n i1
(5.20)
IT
l gi tr trung bnh trong vng nh ang xt.
5.3.2. Phng php tch cy t phn (quad tree)

V nguyn tc phng php ny kim tra tnh hp thc ca tiu chun ng nht mt
cch tng th trn min ln. Nu tiu chun c tho vic phn on coi nh kt thc.
Trong trng hp ngc li ta chia min ang xt thnh 4 min nh hn, ta li p dng
quy bng phng php trn cho mi min nh hn cho n khi tt c cc min u tho
mn. Phng php ny c th m t bng thut ton sau:
Procedure PhanDoan(Mien)
Begin
If min ang xt khng tho Then

Begin
Chia min ang xt thnh 4 min: Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4
For i=1 to 4 Do PhanDoan(Zi)
End
Else Exit
End;
Nu min ang xt khng tho mn tiu chun th khng phi l min ng nht v
s c chia thnh 4 phn.
72
Chng 5: Phn vng nh
Thut ton kim tra tiu chun theo (5.19) c th c vit:

Fuction Examin_Criteria(I,N1,M1,N2, M2, T)
/* Gi s l nh c ti a 255 mc xm.
(N1,M1), (N2, M2) l to im u v im cui ca min, T l ngng. */
Begin
1. Max = 0; Min = 255;
2. For i = N1 to N2 do
For j = N1 to N2 do
If I(i,j) < Min Then Min = I(i,j);
If I(i,j) >Max Then Max = I(i,j);
3.
If ABS(max - min) < T Then Examin_Criteria = 0
Else Examin_Criteria = 1;
End
Thut ton kim tra tiu chun theo (5.20) c vit:

Fuction Examin_Criteria(I,N1,M1,N2, M2, T)
/* Gi s l nh c ti a 255 mc xm.
(N1,M1),(N2, M2) l to im u v im cui ca min, T l ngng.*/
IT
Begin
1. xtb = 0; e=0; n = (N2-N1)*(M2-M1)
For j = N1 to N2 do
xtb = xtb + I(i,j)/n

For j = N1 to N2 do
e = e + sqr(I(i,j)-xtb)/n
4. If e < T Then Examin_Criteria = 0

Else Examin_Criteria = 1;
End
Nu hm tr v gi tr 0, c ngha vng ang xt l ng nht, trng hp ngc li

ngha l mc khng ng nht. Trong gii thut trn, khi min l ng nht cn tnh li gi
tr trung bnh v cp nht li nh u ra. Gi tr trung bnh c tnh bi:
Tng gi tr mc xm/ tng s im.
Thut ton ny to nn mt cy m mi nt cha c 4 nt con mi mc, tr mc
ngoi cng. V th cy ny c tn l cy t phn.
Mt vng tho tiu chun to nn mt nt l, nu khng s to nn mt nt trong v
4 nt con tng ng ca vic chia lm 4 vng. Mi nt l ca cy biu din mt vng
phn chia theo tiu chun.
Hnh 5.4 a-e minh ha thut ton tch cy t phn: nh gc (a) c chia thnh 4
phn c kt qu phn mc 1 (b), tip tc thc hin i vi cc phn nh, ta c phn
mc 2, 3.
73
Chng 5: Phn vng nh
a) nh gc
IT
b) Phn mc 1
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
c) Phn mc 2
74
Chng 5: Phn vng nh

5
17 18 9
10
19 20
21 22 8
11
12
23 24
25 26 29 30 4
27 28 31 32
15
16
d) Phn mc 3
18
19
20
21
22
17
10
23
24
11
25
IT
12
26
13
27
28
15
14
29
30
31
16
32
e) Cy tng ng
Hnh 5.4. Phng php tch cy t phn

Tiu chun phn vng y l mu sc. Nu mi im ca vng l mu trng s to
nn mt nt l trng v tng t nh vy vi nt l en. Nt mu ghi c ngha l vng
khng thun nht v phi tip tc chia.
5.3.3. Cc phng php phn vng bi hp
tng ca phng php ny l xem xt nh t cc min nh nht ri hp chng li
nu tho mn tiu chun c mt min ng nht ln hn. Ta li tip tc vi min thu
c cho n khi khng th hp c na. S min cn li cho ta kt qu phn on nh.
Min nh nht ca bc xut pht l im nh. Vic hp 2 vng c thc hin theo
nguyn tc sau:
Hai vng phi p ng tiu chun, nh cng mu hay cng mc xm.
Chng phi k cn nhau
75
Chng 5: Phn vng nh
Trong x l nh ngi ta dng khi nim lin thng xc nh k cn. Vi 4 lin

thng mt im nh I (x,y) s c 4 k cn theo hng x, y. Trong khi vi 8 lin thng,
im nh I(x, y) s c 4 lin thng theo hai hng x v y v 4 lin thng khc theo hng
cho 45.
Gi s chng ta s dng lch tiu chun lm tiu ch nh gi tnh ng nht. Lp
Ri c n im c gi tr trung bnh mi v lch tiu chun
mi
1
I (k , l )
n ( k ,l )Ri
(5.21)
2
1
( I (k , l ) mi )
n ( k ,l )Ri
(5.22)
m'i
1
n
2
I (k , l ) mi 2 )
(n i
n 1
n 1
(5.23)
(5.24)
i2
1
(I(k, l) n * mi )
n 1
tiu chun:
IT
Hai vng R1 v R2 c th hp nu | m1 - m2 | < T v im I(k, l) hp vi vng Ri nu

nu| I(k,l) - mi | < T, vi T l mt ngng. u tin chng ta c gng hp im (k, l) vi
mt trong cc vng ln cn Ri. Nu vic hp khng thnh cng th ta hp vi cc vng
khc c. Nu vn khng thnh cng hoc khng c vng ln cn tn ti th im ny
c coi l mt vng mi.
Nu hp R (k, l) l thnh cng, cp nht li gi tr trung bnh v lch
Nu c nhiu hn mt vng ln cn tho mn th hp im vi vng Ri c s khc

bit | I(k,l) - mi | nh nht.
5.3.4. Phng php tch hp (split-merge)
Hai phng php va xt trn c mt s nhc im.
Phng php tch to nn mt cu trc phn cp v thit lp mi quan h gia

cc vng. Tuy nhin n thc hin vic chia qu chi tit.
Phng php hp cho php lm gim s min lin thng xung ti thiu nhng
cu trc hng ngang dn tri, khng cho ta thy mi lin h gia cc vng.
Chnh v nhc im ny m ta ngh n phng php phi hp c 2 phng php.

Trc tin dng phng php tch to nn cy t phn, phn on theo hng t gc
n l. Tip theo tin hnh duyt cy theo chiu ngc li v hp cc vng c cng tiu
chun. Vi phng php ny ta thu c miu t cu trc ca nh vi cc min lin thng
c kch thc ti a.
Gii thut trn gm mt s bc sau:
1. Kim tra tiu chun ng nht
76
Chng 5: Phn vng nh
i.
Nu khng tho v s im trong vng ln hn mt im, tch lm 4

vng (trn, di, tri, phi) bng cch gi quy. Nu kt qu tch xong
v khng tch c na chuyn sang bc ii.
ii.
Nu tiu chun ng nht l tho th tin hnh hp vng v cp nht gi

tr trung bnh cho vng.
2. Hp vng Cn kim tra 4 ln cn nu trn. C th c nhiu vng tho mn

khi ta chn vng ti u ri tin hnh hp.
Phng php ny thu c kt qu s vng l nh hn phng php tch v nh
c lm trn hn.
5.4. PHN VNG DA THEO NG BIN
Vic phn on nh da vo bin c tin hnh qua mt s bc:
Pht hin bin v lm ni bin
Lm mnh bin
Nh phn ho ng bin
Miu t ng bin
Mc xm
IT
5.4.1. Pht hin bin

V mt ton hc, ngi ta coi im bin ca nh l im c s bin i t ngt v
xm, nh trong hnh 5.5 sau y:
a) ng bin l tng
Mc xm
b) ng bin bc thang
Mc xm
x
c) ng bin thc
Hnh 5.5. ng bin ca nh
77
Chng 5: Phn vng nh
C nhiu nh ngha v ng bin, in hnh c ba loi ng bin chnh:
ng bin l tng (Hnh 5.5 a) c nh ngha l s thay i gi tr cp xm

ti mt v tr xc nh. V tr ca ng bin chnh l v tr thay i cp xm.
ng bin bc thang (Hnh 5.5 b) xut hin khi s thay i cp xm tri rng
qua nhiu im nh. V tr ca ng bin c xem nh v tr chnh gia ca
ng ni gia cp xm thp v cp xm cao.
ng bin thc (Hnh 5.5 c): l s thay i cp xm ti nhiu im nhng

khng trn.
nh ngha ton hc ca bin trn l c s cho cc k thut pht hin bin. im

quan trng l bin thin gia cc im nh thng l nh, trong khi bin thin sng
ca im bin (khi qua bin) li kh ln.
5.4.2. Lm mnh bin
Lm mnh bin l vic lm ni bin vi rng ch 1 pixel. Trong phn trn, ta thy,
k thut Laplace dng trong vic pht hin bin cho kt qu trc tip bin nh vi rng
1 pixel. Cn vi cc k thut khc, v d nh k thut Gradient th khng nh vy, ta phi
c bc lm mnh bin thu c bin vi rng 1 pixel.
IT
Khi thc hin o hm mt nh, ta thu c nhng im cc tr cc b. Theo k

thut Gradient, nhng im cc tr cc b c th coi nh bin. Do vy cn tch bit nhng
im cc tr xc nh chnh xc bin nh v gim rng bin nh. Mt trong
nhng phng php hay dng l phng php Loi b cc im khng cc i.
5.4.3. Nh phn ha ng bin

Nh phn ha ng bin l giai on then cht trong qu trnh trch chn v n xc
nh ng bao no thc s cn v ng bao no c th loi b. Ni chung, ngi ta
thng nh phn ha ng bin theo cch thc lm gim nhiu hoc trnh hin tng ko
si trn nh. iu ny cng gii thch ti sao phn on da theo bin c hiu qu khi nh
c tng phn tt. Trong trng hp ngc li, c th s b mt mt phn ng bao
hay ng bao c chn, khng khp kn, v.v.., do s bt li cho biu din sau ny. Mt
phng php hay c dng l chn ngng thch nghi. Vi cch chn ny, ngng s
ph thuc vo hng ca gradient nhm lm gim s xon ca bin. u tin, ngi ta
nh ra mt ngng no v sau s dng mt h s sinh thch nghi thng qua li gii
ton t o hm theo hng tm c tinh chnh.
5.4.4. Miu t ng bin
Khi c bn bin nh, ta cn phi biu din n di dng thch hp phc v cho
vic phn tch v lm gim lng thng tin dng miu t, lu tr i tng. Ngi ta
thng thc hin theo nguyn tc: tch ring tng bin v gn cho mi bin mt m.
C nhiu phng php miu t ng bin khc nhau, mi phng php thch hp
vi mt loi ng dng. Vic tch cc ng bao c th phi b xung thm cc iu kin
nhm loi b cc ng bao khng khp kn, hoc b i cc chn rt bm theo cc ng
bao kn.
78
Chng 5: Phn vng nh
C nhiu cch m ha ng bao, c th biu din chnh xc ng bao hay xp x

nh ni suy. Mt s cu trc c s m ha ng bao thng dng l: im, on thng,
cung, ng cong. C mt s phng php m ha ng bao hay dng nh: m ha theo
ta cc, m ha Freeman, xp x bi on thng, xp x a thc.
5.5. PHN VNG THEO KT CU B MT
Kt cu thng c nhn bit trn b mt ca cc i tng nh g, ct, vi
vcKt cu l thut ng phn nh s lp li ca cc phn t si (texel) c bn. S lp li
ny c th ngu nhin hay c tnh chu k hoc gn chu k. Mt texel cha rt nhiu im
nh. Trong phn tch nh, kt cu c chia lm hai loi chnh l: loi thng k v loi
cu trc.
5.4.1. Phng php thng k
Tnh kt cu ngu nhin rt ph hp vi cc c trng thng k. V vy, ngi ta c
th dng cc c trng ngu nhin o n nh: Hm t tng quan (AutoCorrelation
Function- ACF), cc bin i mt g, ma trn tng tranh,
(5.25)
vi:
IT
Theo cch tip cn bng hm t tng quan, th ca kt cu si t l vi rng

ca ACF, c biu din bi khong cch x0, yo sao cho r(x0,0) = r(0, y0) = 1. Ngi ta
cng dng cch o nhnh ca ACF nh hm khi sinh moment:
Cc c trng ca kt cu si nh th, mn hay hng c th c lng nh

cc bin i nh bng k thut lc tuyn tnh. Mt m hnh n gin trong trng hp
ngu nhin cho vic phn tch tnh kt cu oc m t trong hnh di y:
Hnh 5.6. Phn tch kt cu si bng di tng quan

Trong m hnh ny, trng kt cu si trc tin c gii chp bi b lc ly t u
ra ca ACF. Nh vy, nu r(m,n) l ACF th:
(5.26)
l trng ngu nhin khng tng quan.
Lu rng, b lc l khng duy nht, c th l nhn qu, bn nhn qu hay khng
nhn qu. Cc ACF hay dng nh M(0,2), M(2,0), M(1,1), M(2,2). Cc c trng ca lc
79
Chng 5: Phn vng nh
bc mt ca (m,n) chng hn nh trung bnh m1, phn tn 2 cng hay c

s dng.
Ngoi cc c trng trn, c th a thm mt s khi nim v nh ngha cc i
lng da trn nh: lc mc xm (Histogram Grey Level Difference), ma trn xut
hin mc xm (Grey Level Occurrence Matrices).
Lc hiu mc xm:
Lc hiu mc xm dng m t cc thng tin mang tnh khng gian v c
nh ngha nh sau. Cho d=(d1, d2) l vecto dch chuyn gia 2 im nh v g(d) l hiu
mc xm vi khong cch d:
g(d) = | f(k,l) f(k+d1, l+d2) |
(5.27)
vi hm f(k, l) cho gi tr mc xm ti ta (k, l). Gi hg(g, d) l lc ca hiu

mc xm khong cch d. Vi mi khong cch d ta c mt lc mc xm ring.
Trung bnh:
Phng sai:
tng phn:
IT
Vi mt min nh c kt cu th, lc hg(g, d) c khuynh hng tp trung xung

quanh g=0 vi khong cch d nh. Tri li, vi mt min nh c kt cu mn, hg(g, d) s
phn nhnh d vi vecto dch chuyn d kh nh. Da trn lc ny, ngi ta nh ngha
li mt s i lng:
(5.28)
(5.29)
(5.30)
Phng sai o tn mt ca hiu mc xm ti mt khong cch d no y. Kt cu

tt nh thng c phng sai d tng i nh. tng phn cd chnh l mmen ca
lc hg(g,d) xung quanh g=0 v o tng phn ca hiu mc xm.
Ngi ta s dng entropy o ng nht ca lc hg:
(5.31)
u im c bn ca lc hiu mc xm l tnh ton n gin. Ngoi ra cn c
kh nng cho ta t chc kt cu khng gian.
Ma trn xut hin lin hip mc xm
Gi s P(k,l,d) l xc sut lin hip ca hai im nh fk v f1 vi cc mc xm k,l
tng ng cch nhau mt khong d. Xc sut ny d dng tnh c nh vic tnh s ln
xut hin nk,l ca cp im nh (fk, f1) c mc xm k v l vi khong cch d. Gi n l tng
s cp lin hip c th vi khong cch d trong nh. Cc phn t ck,l ca ma trn xut hin
lin hip mc xm cd c tnh nh sau: cd = (ck,l)
V
(5.32)
Ma trn xut hin lin hip mc xm Cd l ma trn vung NN phn t (N l s mc

xm ca nh). Ma trn ny cha cc thng tin hu ch v t chc kt cu khng gian. Nu
80
Chng 5: Phn vng nh
kt cu tng i th th cc phn t ca ma trn tp trung xung quanh ng cho chnh.

Ngc li, nu kt cu b mt mn, gi tr cc phn t ca cd s phn ri tng i r.
Da trn khi nim ny ngi ta nh ngha v mt s o:
Xc sut cc i:
(5.33)
Entropy:
(5.34)
D dng thy c entropy cc i khi xc sut lin hip P(k,l,d) c phn phi u.
M men bc m:
(5.35)
Id cc tiu khi cc phn t ca ma trn C tp trung trn ng cho chnh v khong

cch |k-l|m rt nh, Id nh c ngha l kt cu kh th. Ngi ta cng cn a vo mt s
o khc nh hm t tng quan, ph nng lng.
p dng cch tip cn ny, cn ci t cc gii thut tnh cc i lng o trn.
IT
5.4.2. Phng php cu trc

Kt cu si c cu trc thun nht l nhng texels xc nh, m s xut hin lp i
lp li tun theo mt lut tt nh hay ngu nhin no y. Mt texel v thc t l mt
nhm cc im nh c cng mt s tnh cht bt bin lp trn nh. Mt texel cng c nh
ngha theo mc xm, theo b mt hay tnh ng nht i vi mt s cc tnh cht nh kch
thc, hng, lc bc hai (ma trn tng tranh).
Vi cc texel c phn b ngu nhin, tnh kt cu si tng ng ca n c coi

l yu (Weak) ngc vi qui lut phn b tt nh gi l khe (Strong). Khi tnh kt cu
si l yu, lut phn b c th o bi:
Mt g
Cc lot di ca cc texel lin thng ti a
Mt cc tr tng i; s pixel trn mt n v din tch c mc xm cc tr

a phng so vi cc ln cn.
Ngoi hai cch tip cn trn, ngi ta cn dng cch tip cn khc bng cch ly t
hp 2 cch trn v gi l k thut mosaic. M hnh ny biu din cc qu trnh hc ngu
nhin, v d nh khm ngu nhin hay u ca mt mt phng vo cc ng cong li s
lm ni ln tnh kt cu t bo.
5.4.3. Tip cn theo tnh kt cu
Khi i tng xut hin trn mt nn c tnh kt cu cao, vic phn on da vo
tnh kt cu tr nn quan trng. Nguyn nhn l kt cu si thng cha mt cao cc g
(edge) lm cho phn on theo bin km hiu qu, tr phi ta loi tnh kt cu. Vic phn
on da vo min ng nht cng c th p dng cho cc c trng kt cu v c th
dng phn on cc min c tnh kt cu.
Nhn chung, vic phn loi v phn vng da vo kt cu l mt vn phc tp.
y, ti liu ch mang tnh cht gii thiu. C th gii quyt vn ny trong thc t nu ta
bit trc cc loi kt cu (da vo quy lut hay cc phn b ca n).
81
Cu 1: Thut ton i xng nn l thut ton g? Thut ton i xng nn cho kt
qu tt nht khi no?
Cu 2: Thc hin tm ngng phn vng vi thut ton i xng nn vi biu tn
sut sau. c bit chnh xc cn tnh l 88%.
g
0
h(g) 2
1
3
2
4
3
5
4
7
5
8
6
12
7
47
8
10
9
2
Cu 3: Thc hin tm ngng t ng vi thut ton ng liu cho bc nh I c biu

tn sut sau:
g
0
h(g) 2
1
3
2
4
3
5
4
7
5
8
6
12
7
47
8
10
9
2
IT
M t tng bc cho n khi tm c ngng mong mun. c bit nh c 10

mc xm.
82
Chng 6:Nhn dng nh
Chng 6:
NHN DNG NH
6.1. GII THIU

Nhn dng l qu trnh phn loi cc i tng biu din theo mt m hnh no v
gn chng vo mt lp (gn cho i tng mt tn gi) da theo nhng guy lut v cc
mu chun. Qu trnh nhn dng da vo nhng mu hc bit trc gi l nhn dng c
thy hay Hc c gim st; trong trng hp ngc li gi l Hc khng gim st.
Qu trnh nhn dng gm 3 giai on chnh:
La chn m hnh biu din i tng.
La chn lut ra quyt nh (phng php nhn dng) v suy din qu trnh hc.
Hc nhn dng.
IT
Khi m hnh biu din i tng c xc nh, c th l nh lng (m hnh

tham s) hay nh tnh (m hnh cu trc), qu trnh nhn dng chuyn sang giai on hc.
Hc l giai on rt quan trng. Thao tc hc nhm ci thin, iu chnh vic phn hoch
tp i tng thnh cc lp.
Vic nhn dng chnh l tm ra quy lut v cc thut ton c th gn i tng vo
mt lp hay ni mt cch khc gn cho i tng mt tn.
Hc c gim st (supervised learning)

K thut phn loi nh kin thc bit trc gi l Hc c gim st. c im c
bn ca k thut ny l ngi ta c mt th vin cc mu chun. Mu cn nhn dng s
c em snh vi mu chun xem n thuc loi no. V d nh trong mt nh vin
thm, ngi ta mun phn bit mt cnh ng la, mt cnh rng hay mt vng t hoang
m c cc miu t v cc i tng . Vn ch yu l thit k mt h thng c
th i snh i tng trong nh vi mu chun v quyt nh gn cho chng vo mt lp.
Vic i snh nh vo cc th tc ra quyt nh da trn mt cng c gi l hm phn lp
hay hm ra quyt nh.
Hc khng gim st (unsupervised learning)
K thut hc ny phi t nh ra cc lp khc nhau v xc nh cc tham s c
trng cho tng lp. Hc khng gim st ng nhin l kh khn hn. Mt mt, do s lp
khng c bit trc, mt khc nhng c trng ca cc lp cng khng bit trc. K
thut ny nhm tin hnh mi cch gp nhm c th v chn la cch tt nht. Bt u t
tp d liu, nhiu th tc x l khc nhau nhm phn lp v nng cp dn t c mt
phng n phn loi.
Nhn chung, d l m hnh no v k thut nhn dng ra sao, mt h thng nhn
dng c th tm tt theo s sau:
83
Chng 6:Nhn dng nh
Trch chn c
tnh biu din i
tng
Phn lp ra
quyt nh
nh
gi
Khi nhn dng
Hnh 6.1. S tng qut mt h nhn dng.

6.2. NHN DNG DA THEO MIN KHNG GIAN
Trong k thut ny, cc i tng nhn dng l cc i tng nh lng. Mi i
tng c biu din bi mt vct nhiu chiu. Trc tin, ta xem xt mt s khi nim
nh: phn hoch khng gian, hm phn bit sau s i vo mt s k thut c th.
6.2.1. Phn hoch khng gian
Gi s khng gian i tng X c nh ngha: X = {Xi, i=1, 2,...,m}, Xi l mt
vct. Ngi ta ni P l mt phn hoch ca khng gian X thnh cc lp Ci, Ci X nu:
IT
Ci Cj = vi i j v Ci = X
Ni chung, y l trng hp l tng: tp X tch c hon ton. Trong thc t,

thng gp khng gian biu din tch c tng phn. Nh vy phn loi l da vo vic
xy dng mt nh x f: X P
6.2.2. Hm phn lp hay hm ra quyt nh

phn i tng vo cc lp, ta phi xc nh s lp v ranh gii gia cc lp .
Hm phn lp hay hm phn bit l mt cng c rt quan trng. Gi {gi} l lp cc hm
phn lp. Lp hm ny c nh ngha nh sau:
nu i k, gk(X) > gi(X) th ta quyt nh X lp k.
Nh vy phn bit k lp, ta cn k-1 hm phn bit. Hm phn bit g ca mt lp
no thng dng l hm tuyn tnh, c ngha l:
g(X) = W0 + W1X1 + W2 X2+... + Wk Xk
trong :
Wi l cc trng s gn cho cc thnh phn Xi.
W0 l trng s vit cho gn.
Trong trng hp g l tuyn tnh, ngi ta ni l vic phn lp l tuyn tnh hay siu
phng (Hyperplane).
Cc hm phn bit thng c xy dng da trn khi nim khong cch hay da
vo xc sut c iu kin.
L t nhin, khong cch l mt cng c rt tt xc nh xem i tng c "gn
nhau" hay khng. Nu khong cch nh hn mt ngng no y ta coi 2 i tng l
ging nhau v gp chng vo mt lp. Ngc li, nu khong cch ln hn ngng, c
ngha l chng khc nhau v ta tch thnh 2 lp.
84
Chng 6:Nhn dng nh
Trong mt s trng hp, ngi ta da vo xc sut c iu kin phn lp cho i

tng. L thuyt xc sut c iu kin c Bayes nghin cu kh k v chng ta c th
p dng l thuyt ny phn bit i tng.
Gi: P(X/Ci) l xc sut c X bit rng c xut hin lp Ci
P(Ci /X) l xc sut c iu kin X thuc lp Ci.
vi X l i tng nhn dng, Ci l cc lp i tng.
Qu trnh hc cho php ta xc nh P(X/Ci) v nh cng thc Bayes v sc xut c
iu kin p dng trong iu kin nhiu bin, chng ta s tnh c P(Ci/X) theo cng
P ( X / Ci ) P (Ci )
thc: P(Ci /X) = n
P ( X / Ci ) P (Ci )
P( X )
P (C / Xi ) P (Ci )
i 1
(6.1)
Nu P(Ci /X) > P(Ck /X) vi i # k th X Ci. Tu theo cc phng php nhn dng
khc nhau, hm phn bit s c cc dng khc nhau.
f x
1
2 2
exp
x m 2
2 2
IT
6.2.3. Nhn dng thng k

Nu cc i tng nhn dng tun theo lut phn b Gauss, m hm mt sc sut
cho bi:
(6.2)
Ngi ta c dng phng php ra quyt nh da vo l thuyt Bayes. L thuyt

Bayes thuc loi l thuyt thng k nn phng php nhn dng.da trn l thuyt Bayes
c tn l phng php thng k.
Quy tc Bayes
- Cho khng gian i tng X = {Xl, l=1, 2,..., L}, vi Xl= {x1, x2,..., xp}
- Cho khng gian din dch = { C1, C2,..., Cr}, r l s lp
Quy tc Bayes pht biu nh sau:
: X sao cho X Ck nu P(Ck /X) > P(Cl /X) l <> k, l=1, 2,...,r.
Trng hp l tng l nhn dng lun ng, c ngha l khng c sai s. Thc t,
lun tn ti sai s trong qu trnh nhn dng. Vn y l xy dng quy tc nhn
dng vi sai s l nh nht.
Phng php ra quyt nh vi ti thiu
Ta xc nh X Ck nh xc sut P(Ck/X). Vy nu c sai s, sai s s c tnh bi
1 - P(Ck/X). nh gi sai s trung bnh, ngi ta xy dng mt ma trn L(r,r) gi thit l
c n lp.
Ma trn L c nh ngha nh sau:
l k , j 0
Lk , j
l k , j 0
Khi
Khi
k j
k j
(6.3)
85
Chng 6:Nhn dng nh
Nh vy, sai s trung bnh ca s phn lp s l:

r
rk(X) =
lk , jP(C / X )
(6.4)
j 1
sai s l nh nht ta cn c rk l min. T cng thc 6.2 v 6.4 ta c:

r
rk(X) = lk , jP( X / Cj ) P(Cj)
(6.5)
j 1
Vy, quy tc ra quyt nh da trn l thuyt Bayes c tnh n sai s c pht biu
nh sau:
XCk nu pk < pp vi p k, p= 1,2, .., r
(6.6)
vi k l rk(X).
Trng hp c bit vi 2 lp C1 v C2, ta d dng c:

X C1 nu P(X/C1) >
l 12 l 22 P (C 2 )
P( X / C 2)
l 11 l 21 P (C 1)
(6.7)
Gi s thm rng xc sut phn b l u (P(C1) = P(C2), sai s l nh nhau

ta c:
(6.8)
IT
X C1 nu P(X/C1) > P(X/C2)
6.2.4. Mt s thut ton nhn dng tiu biu trong t hc

Thc t c nhiu thut ton nhn dng Hc khng gim st. y, chng ta xem xt
3 thut ton hay c s dng: Thut ton nhn dng da vo khong cch ln nht, thut
ton K- trung bnh (K mean) v thut ton ISODATA. Chng ta ln lt xem xt cc thut
ton ny v chng c bc tip ni, ci tin t thut ton ny qua thut ton khc.
6.2.4.1. Thut ton da vo khong cch ln nht

a) Nguyn tc
Cho mt tp gm m i tng. Ta xc nh khong cch gia cc i tng v
khong cch ln nht ng vi phn t xa nht to nn lp mi. S phn lp c hnh
thnh dn dn da vo vic xc nh khong cch gia cc i tng v cc lp.
b) Thut ton
Bc 1
Chn ht nhn ban u: gi s X1 C1 gi l lp g1. Gi Z1 l phn t trung tm
ca g1.
Tnh tt c cc khong cch Dj1 = D(Xj,Z1) vi j =1, 2,..., m
Tm Dk1= maxj Dj1. Xk l phn t xa nht ca nhm g1. Nh vy Xk l phn t

trung tm ca lp mi g2, k hiu Z2.
Tnh d1 = D12 = D(Z1,Z2).
Bc 2
Tnh cc khong cch Dj1, Dj2.
Dj1 = D(Xj,Z1), Dj2 = D((Xj,Z2). t Dk(2) = max j Dj
86
Chng 6:Nhn dng nh
Nguyn tc chn
Nu Dk(2) < d1 kt thc thut ton. Phn lp xong.
Nu khng, s to nn nhm th ba. Gi Xk l phn t trung tm ca g3, k hiu

Z3.
o Tnh d3 = (D12 + D13 + D23)/3
vi l ngng cho trc v D13 = D(Z1,Z3), D23 = D(Z2,Z3).
Qu trnh c lp li nh vy cho n khi phn xong. Kt qu l ta thu c cc lp

vi cc i din l Z1, Z2,..., Zm.
6.2.4.2. Thut ton K trung bnh (gi s c K lp)
a) Nguyn tc
Khc vi thut ton trn, ta xt K phn t u tin trong khng gian i tng, hay
ni mt cch khc ta c nh K lp. Hm nh gi l hm khong cch Euclide:
k
Jk = X gk D ( X , Zk ) D 2( Xj , Zk )
j 1
(6.9)
Xt
IT
Jk l hm ch tiu vi lp Ck. Vic phn vng cho k ht nhn u tin c tin hnh
theo nguyn tc khong cch cc tiu. y, ta dng phng php o hm tnh
cc tiu.
J
0 vi Zk l bin. Ta d dng c (6.9) min khi:
Z
k
1 Nc
Zj
( Xi Zk ) = 0 ==> Zk = Nc
j 1
i 1
(6.10)
Cng thc 6.10 l gi tr trung bnh ca lp Ck v iu ny l gii tn ca

phng php.
b)Thut ton
Chn Nc phn t (gi thit c Nc lp) ca tp T. Gi cc phn t trung tm ca
cc lp l: X1, X2,..., XNc v k hiu l Z1, Z2,..., ZNc.
Thc hin phn lp

X Ck nu D(X,Zk) = Min D(X,Zj)(1), j =1,..., Nc. (1) l ln lp th nht.
Tnh tt c Zk theo cng thc 6.10.
Tip tc nh vy cho n bc q.
X Gk(q-1) nu D(X,Zk(q-1)) = min l D(X,Zl(q-1)).
Nu Zk(q-1) = Zk(q) thut ton kt thc, nu khng ta tip tc thc hin phn lp.
6.2.4.3. Thut ton ISODATA

ISODATA l vit tt ca t Iteractive Self Organizing Data Analysis. N l thut
ton kh mm do, khng cn c nh cc lp trc. Cc bc ca thut ton c m t
nh sau:
87
Chng 6:Nhn dng nh
La chn mt phn hoch ban u da trn cc tm bt k. Thc nghim

chng minh kt qu nhn dng khng ph thuc vo phn lp ban u.
Phn vng bng cch sp cc im vo tm gn nht da vp khong cch

Euclide.
Tch i lp ban u nu khong cch ln hn ngng t1.
Xc nh phn hoch mi trn c s cc tm va xc nh li v tip tc xc nh

tm mi.
Tnh tt c cc khong cch n tm mi.
Nhm cc vng vi tm theo ngng t2.
Lp cc thao tc tc trn cho n khi tho tiu chun phn hoch.
IT
6.3. NHN DNG DA THEO CU TRC

6.3.1. Biu din nh tnh
Ngoi cch bin din theo nh lng nh m t trn, tn ti nhiu kiu i
tng mang tnh nh tnh. Trong cch biu din ny, ngi ta quan tm n cc dng v
mi quan h gia chng. Gi thit rng mi i tng c biu din bi mt dy k t.
Cc c tnh biu din bi cng mt s k t. Phng php nhn dng y l nhn dng
l gc, da v hm phn bit l hm Bool. Cch nhn dng l nhn dng cc t c cng
di.
Gi s hm phn bit cho mi k hiu l ga(x), gb(x),..., tng ng vi cc k hiu a,

b,.... d dng hnh dung, ta gi s c t "abc" c biu din bi mt dy k t X = {x1,
x2, x3, x4}. Tnh cc hm tng ng vi 4 k t v c:
ga(x1) + gb(x2) + gc(x3) + gc(x4)
Cc php cng y ch php ton OR. Trn c s tnh gi tr cc i ca hm phn

bit, ta quyt nh X c thuc lp cc t "abc" hay khng. Trong cch tip cn ny, i
tng tng ng vi cu.
6.3.2. Phng php ra quyt nh da vo cu trc
6.3.2.1. Mt s khi nim
Th tc phn loi v nhn dng y gm 2 giai on: Giai on u l giai on
xc nh cc quy tc xy dng, tng ng vi vic nghin cu mt vn phm trong mt
ngn ng chnh thng. Giai on tip theo khi c vn phm l xem xt tp cc dng c
c sinh ra t cc dng khng? Nu n thuc tp coi nh ta phn loi xong. Tuy
nhin, vn phm l mt vn ln. Trong nhn dng cu trc, ta mi ch s dng c
mt phn rt nh m thi.
Nh trn ni, m hnh cu trc tng ng mt vn phm G:G = {Vn, Vt, P, S}.
C rt nhiu kiu vn phm khc nhau t chnh tc, phi ng cnh,... y, xin gii thiu
mt ngn ng c th c p dng trong nhn dng cu trc: l ngn ng PLD (Picture
Language Description).
88
Chng 6:Nhn dng nh
V d: Ngn ng PLD
Trong ngn ng ny, cc t vng l cc vch c hng. C 4 t vng c bn:
a:
b:
c:
d:
Cc t vng trn cc quan h c nh ngha nh sau:

+: a + b
-: a - b
x: a x b
*: a * b
Vn phm sinh ra cc m t trong ngn ng c nh ngha bi:
GA = {Vn, VT, P, S}
IT
vi Vn = {A, B, C, D, E} v VT = {a, b, c, d}. S l k hiu bt u v P l tp lut sn

xut. Ngn ng ny thng dng nhn dng cc mch in.
6.3.2.2. Phng php nhn dng

Cc i tng cn nhn dng theo phng php ny c biu din bi mt cu
trong ngn ng L(G). Khi thao tc phn lp chnh l xem xt mt i tng c thuc
vn phm L(G) khng? Ni cch khc n c c sinh ra bi cc lut ca vn phm G
khng? Nh vy s phn lp l theo cch tip cn cu trc i hi phi xc nh:
Tp Vt chung cho mi i tng.
Cc quy tc sinh P sn sinh ra mt cu v chng khc nhau i vi mi lp.
Qu trnh hc vi cc cu biu din cc i tng mu l nhm xc nh vn

phm G.
Qu trnh ra quyt nh: xc nh mt i tng X c biu din bi mt cu

lx. Nu lx nhn bit bi ngn ng L(Gx) th ta ni rng X Ck.
Ni cch khc, vic ra quyt nh phn lp l da vo phn tch cu Gk biu din lp

Ck. php ca vn phm. Cng nh trong phn tch c php ngn ng, c phn tch trn
xung, di ln, vic nhn dng theo cu trc cng c th thc hin theo cch tng t.
89
Chng 6:Nhn dng nh
6.4. NHN DNG DA THEO MNG NRON

Mng n ron l h thng bao gm nhiu phn t x l n gin (n ron) hot ng
song song. Tnh nng ca h thng ny tu thuc vo cu trc ca h, cc trng s lin kt
n ron v qu trnh tnh ton ti cc n ron n l. Mng n ron c th hc t d liu mu
v tng qut ha da trn cc d liu mu hc.Trong mng n ron, cc n ron n nhn tn
hiu vo gi l n ron vo v cc n ron a thng tin ra gi l n ron ra.
6.4.1. Mng Hopfield
Nm 1982 nh vt l ngi M J.J. Hopfield xut m hnh mng n ron mt
lp NN cho php to nh x d liu t tn hiu vo sang tn hiu ra theo kiu t kt hp
(auto-association) tc l nu tn hiu vo l X thuc min gi tr D no th ra kt qu Y
cng thuc vo min D .
Nh vy, mt vect tn hiu vo X b thiu thng tin hoc bin dng c th c
phc hi dng nguyn bn ca mnh.
IT
Trong ng dng, mng Hopfield m phng c kh nng t kt hp (hi tng)

ca b no ngi, nhn ra ngi quen sau khi nhn thy nhng nt quen thuc trn khun
mt. Ngoi ra, vi mt s ci bin mng Hopfield cn c dng gii quyt cc bi ton
ti u, bi ton x l d liu trong iu khin t ng.
a) Kin trc mng

Mng Hopfield c mt lp ra, vi s n ron bng s tn hiu vo. Cc lin kt n ron
l y .
Hnh 6.2. Mng Hopfield

Nu c m tn hiu vo th ma trn trng s W s c kch c m x m: W=(wij) trong
wij l trng s lin kt n ron th j lp vo sang n ron th i lp ra (Cc hng tng
ng vi n ron ra, cc ct tng ng vi n ron vo).
Mng n ron Hopfield yu cu cc tn hiu vo c gi tr lng cc -1 v 1. Trng
hp u vo x nh phn c th dng hm bin i x'=2x-1.
Hm kch hot c dng ti cc n ron l hm du.
m
out j sign Net j sign w ji x i

i 1
(6.11)
90
Chng 6:Nhn dng nh
b) Hun luyn mng

Mng Hopfield HF hc da trn nguyn tc c gim st. Gi s c p mu hc tng
ng vi cc vect tn hiu vo Xs, s=1,p. Mng s xc nh b trng s W sao cho
Xs = Tinh (Xs, W) vi mi s=1,p
(6.12)
Ta xy dng ma trn trng s W nh sau:

p
x x
sj
W = (w ij) vi
Nu i j
si
s 1
(6.13)
wji =
0
y Xs = (xs1,...,xsm).
Nu i=j
Mt cch trc quan, trng s lin kt ji s tng thm mt lng l 1 (tng ng vi

s hng xsj.xsi) nu c hai thnh phn th i v th j ca mu hc Xs bng nhau. Khi c mu
hc mi Xp+1 ta ch cn xt cc thnh phn th i v th j ca n cp nht gi tr cho wji
(6.13). C th chng minh c vi ma trn W c xc nh nh trong (6.12), ta s c
c (6.11). Ni cch khc, mng "hc thuc" cc v d mu {Xs}.
IT
c) S dng mng
Gi s a vo mng vect tn hiu X. S dng mng tnh u ra tng ng vi
tn hiu vo X l qu trnh lp bao gm cc bc:
Ban u, t X(0) = X. Gi Y(t) l vect tn hiu ra tng ng vi mt ln cho X(t)
lan truyn trong mng.
Y(t) = out(t) = Tinh (HF, X(t))
Nu Y(t) X(t) th tip tc bc lp vi t=t+1 v X(t+1) = Y(t) = out(t)
Nu Y(t) = X(t) th dng v khi X(t) c coi l kt qu x l ca mng khi c

tn hiu vo X.
im ch quan trng l ma trn W khng thay i trong qu trnh s dng mng.
Mt vi tnh hung ny sinh
1. Mng khng hi t. Mng c th a ra lun phin mt vi mu hc (hoc nh
ngc ca chng).
2. Mng hi t v X(t) = X. Vect X c on nhn ng da trn mu hc
{Xs} hay ni cch khc, X c th suy ra t mu hc.
3. Mng hi t v X(t) = Xs vi Xs l mu no hc. Mng phc hi dng
nguyn bn Xs ca X.
4. Mng hi t vi X(t) Xs vi mi mu hc Xs. ch ra mt vect mi, c th xem
l mu hc v s c dng cp nht ma trn trng s.
5. Mng hi t vi X(t) no nh trong mc 2, 3, 4. nhng l nh ngc (1 thnh 1 v ngc li).
91
Chng 6:Nhn dng nh
6.4.2. Mng Kohonen

Cch x l thng tin trong cc mng trn thng ch quan tm ti gi tr v du ca
cc thng tin u vo, m cha quan tm khai thc cc mi lin h c tnh cht cu trc
trong ln cn ca cc vng d liu mu hay ton th khng gian mu.
Chng hn, vi 2 thnh phn: 1 tam gic, 1 hnh ch nht,
ta c th to thnh hnh ngi nh khi chng c phn b k gip vi nhau theo mt

trt t nht nh.
Teuvo Kohonen (1989) xut mt tng rt ng ch v nh x cc c
trng topo t t chc (theo ngha khng cn c mu hc) nhm bo ton trt t sp xp cc
mu trong khng gian biu din nhiu chiu sang mt khng gian mi cc mng n ron
(mt hoc hai chiu). Trong mng Kohonen, cc vect tn hiu vo gn nhau s c nh
x sang cc n ron trong mng ln cn nhau.
IT
a) Cu trc mng
Mng Kohonen rt gn gi vi kiu cu trc mng n ron sinh hc c v cu to ln
c ch hc. Mng Kohonen thuc vo nhm mng mt lp cc n ron c phn b trong
mt phng hai chiu theo kiu li vung, hay li lc gic.
Phn b ny phi tho mn yu cu; Mi n ron c cng s n ron trong tng lp

lng ging. tng c bn ca Kohonen l cc u vo tng t nhau s kch hot cc n
ron gn nhau v khong khng gian. Mi quan h tng t (theo khong cch) c th tng
qut ho cho mt lp tng i rng cc quan h tng t gia cc tn hiu u vo.
Mt cch trc quan, c th xem thut
gii hun luyn mng Kohonen nhm bin
i khng gian tn hiu vo sang mng n
ron ging nh cc th tc kiu nh "lm
trn" hay "to hnh" d liu.
p ng yu cu cc n ron c
cng s n ron ln cn trong mi lp lng
ging, ngi ta thng dng cc php cun
ch s t c hiu ng ci sm xe.
Chng hn, to (xi, yi) ca cc n ron
thuc lp lng ging th k ca n ron c to
(x, y) trong mng n ron 2 chiu c kch
thc pq c cho trong th tc sau:

Hnh 6.3. Li cc n ron
trong mt phng hai chiu
92
Chng 6:Nhn dng nh

for
i:=-k to k do
for
j:=-k to k do
begin
xi:=mod(x+i+p-1,p) + 1;
yi:=mod(y+j+q-1,q) + 1;
if (i=k) or (j=k) then
n ron (xi, yi) thuc vo lp lng ging th k
else
n ron (xi, yi) thuc vo lp lng ging th r
r<k; r c xc nh bi max(xi,yi)
end;
Trng hp lp nron Kohonen l mt dy, cch cun trn mng n ron to thnh
mt ng trn.
IT
Tt c cc n ron lp kch hot c lin kt y vi lp vo. im quan trng

nht trong mng Kohonen l vi mt vect tn hiu vo, n ch cho php cc phn hi
mang tnh cht a phng ngha l u ra ca mi n ron khng c ni vi tt c cc n
ron khc m ch vi mt s n ron ln cn. S phn hi mang tnh a phng ca nhng
iu chnh (nu c) to ra hiu ng l cc n ron gn nhau v v tr s c hnh vi tng t
khi c nhng tn hiu ging nhau c a vo.
b) Hun luyn mng

Qu trnh hc c s dng trong mng Kohonen da trn k thut cnh tranh,
khng cn c tp mu hc. Khc vi trng hp hc c gim st, cc tn hiu u ra c th
khng bit c mt cch chnh xc. Ti mi thi im ch c mt n ron duy nht C trong
lp kch hot c la chn sau khi a vo mng cc tn hiu Xs. N ron ny c
chn theo mt trong hai nguyn tc sau:
Nguyn tc 1
N ron c c tn hiu ra cc i
outc max(outj) = max ((xsi wji)

Nguyn tc 2
(6.14)
Vect trng s ca n ron c gn vi tn hiu vo nht
errc min(errj) = min ((xsi - wji)2)
(6.15)
Sau khi xc nh c n ron c, cc trng s wci c hiu chnh nhm lm cho u

ra ca n ln hn hoc gn hn gi tr trng s mong mun. Do vy, nu tn hiu vo xsi
vi trng s wci to kt qa ra qu ln th phi gim trng s v ngc li. Cc trng s ca
cc nron lng ging j cng phi c hiu chnh gim, tu thuc vo khong cch tnh t
c. Ta a vo hm t l a(.) = a(dcj), y dcj l khong cch topo gia n ron trung tm c
v n ron j ang xt. Trn thc t hm a(.) c th l hng s, hm t l nghch hoc hm c
im un. m bo yu cu, do c nhiu mu tham gia qu trnh hun luyn, ta a vo
h s (t):
93
Chng 6:Nhn dng nh
f = (t). a(dcj),
tmax - t
(t) = (amax - amin) _________ + amin
(6.16)
tmax - 1
y t l s i tng mu dng luyn mng
tmax l s mu ti a
amax, amin tng ng l gi tr cc i, cc tiu ca hm a(.)
Tu thuc vo n ron trung tm c c la chn theo nguyn tc 1 hoc nguyn tc 2
ta c cch hiu chnh cc trng s wji tng ng:
wji = wji + (t) a(dcj)(1 - xi wji)
(6.17)
hoc wji = wji + (t) a(dcj) (xi - wji)
(6.18)
n
Sau , chun ho cc trng s sao cho:
2
ji
i 1
IT
Theo kinh nghim, cn phi to ra phn b ngu nhin cc trng s trong khong 0.1 n 0.1 hoc -1/m n 1/m, y m l s trng s ca mng v chun ho d liu vo,
ra bng -1 hoc 1.
Tuy nhin cng phi ch mt iu l vic la chn tiu chun chun ho, nh c
d liu ph thuc rt nhiu vo bn cht bi ton.
c) S dng mng
Gi s hun luyn mng nhn c ma trn trng s W. Khi a vo mng
mt vector X, ton b ma trn W li c cp nht theo cc cng thc (6.17) hoc (6.18)
tu thuc vo s dng nguyn tc 1 hay nguyn tc 2.
Nh vy, mng Kohonen cho chng ta bit c s phn b v quan h tng i v
mt "a l" gia cc mu trong khng gian biu din.
94
Chng 7:
NN D LIU NH
7.1. GII THIU

Nn d liu nhm lm gim lng thng tin d tha trong d liu gc v do vy,
lng thng tin thu c sau khi nn thng nh hn d liu gc rt nhiu. Vi d liu
nh, kt qu thng l 10:1. Mt s phng php cn cho kt qu cao hn. Theo kt qu
nghin cu c cng b gn y ti Vin K thut Georfie, k thut nn fratal cho t s
nn l 30:1. Ngoi thut ng nn d liu, do bn cht ca k thut ny n cn c mt s
tn gi khc nh: gim d tha, m ha nh gc.
IT
T hn hai thp k nay, c rt nhiu k thut nn c cng b trn cc ti liu v

nn v cc phn mm nn d liu xut hin ngy cng nhiu trn thng trng. Tuy
nhin, cha c phng php nn no c coi l phng php vn nng (Universal) v n
ph thuc vo nhiu yu t v bn cht ca d liu gc. Trong bi tp ny, chng ta khng
th hy vng xem xt tt c cc phng php nn. Hn th na, cc k thut nn d liu
chung c trnh by trong nhiu ti liu chuyn ngnh. y, chng ta ch cp cc
phng php nn c c th ring cho d liu nh.
C nhiu cch phn loi cc phng php nn khc nhau. Cch th nht da vo
nguyn l nn. Cch ny phn cc phng php nn thnh hai h ln:
Nn chnh xc hay nn khng mt thng tin: h ny bao gm cc phng php
nn m sau khi gii nn ta thu c chnh xc d liu gc.
Nn c mt thng tin: h ny bao gm cc phng php m sau khi gii nn ta

khng thu c d liu nh bn gc. Phng php ny li dng tnh cht ca mt
ngi, chp nhn mt s vn xon trong nh khi khi phc li. Tt nhin, cc
phng php ny ch c hiu qu khi m vn xon chp nhn c bng mt
thng hay vi dung sai no y.
Cch phn loi th hai da vo cch thc thc hin nn. Theo cch ny, ngi ta
cng phn thnh hai h:
Phng php khng gian (Spatial Data Compression): Cc phng php thuc
h ny thc hin nn bng cc tc ng trc tip ln vic ly mu ca nh trong
min khng gian.
Phng php s dng bin i (Transform Coding): gm cc phng php tc

ng ln s bin i ca nh gc m khng tc ng trc tip nh h trn.
C mt cch phn loi khc na, cch phn loi th ba, da vo trit l ca s m
ha. Cch ny cng phn cc phng php nn thnh hai h:
Cc phng php nn th h th nht: Gm cc phng php m mc tnh

ton l n gin, v d vic ly mu, gn t m,.v.v.
Cc phng php nn th h th hai: da vo bo ha ca t l nn.
95
Chng 7:Nn d liu nh
7.2. CC PHNG PHP NN TH H TH NHT

7.2.1. Phng php m ha lot di
Phng php m ha lot di lc u c pht trin dnh cho nh s 2 mc: mc
en (1), v mc trng (0) nh cc vn bn trn nn trng, trang in, cc bn v k thut.
Nguyn tc ca phng php l pht hin mt lot cc bt lp li, v d nh mt lot
cc bt 0 nm gia hai bt 1, hay ngc li, mt lot bt 1 nm gia hai bt 0. Phng php
ny ch c hiu qu khi chiu di dy lp ln hn mt ngng no . Dy cc bt lp gi
l lot hay mch (run). Tip theo, thay th chui bi mt chui mi gm 2 thng tin:
chiu di chui v bt lp (k t lp). Nh vy, chui thay th s c chiu di ngn hn
chui cn thay.
Cn lu rng, i vi nh, chiu di ca chui lp c th ln hn 255. Nu ta dng
1 byte m ha th s khng . Gii php c dng l tch cc chui thnh hai
chui: mt chui c chiu di 255, chui kia l s bt cn li.
Phng php RLC c s dng trong vic m ha lu tr cc nh Bitmap theo
dng PCX, BMP.
IT
Phng php RLC c th chia thnh 2 phng php nh: phng php dng chiu
di t m c nh v phng php thch nghi nh kiu m Huffman. Gi s cc mch gm
M bits. tin trnh by, t M = 2m 1. Nh vy mch c c thay bi mch mi gm
m bits.
Vi cch thc ny, mi mch u c m ha bi t m c cng di. Ngi ta
cng tnh c, vi M = 15, p = 0,9, ta s c m = 4 v t s nn l 1,95.
Vi chiu di c nh, vic ci t thut ton l n gin. Tuy nhin, t l nn s

khng tt bng chiu di bin i hay gi l m RLC thch nghi.
7.2.2. Phng php m ha Huffman

Phng php m ha Huffman l phng php da vo m hnh thng k. Da vo
d liu gc, ngi ta tnh tn sut xut hin ca cc k t. Vic tnh tn sut c thc
hin bi cch duyt tun t tp gc t u n cui. Vic x l y tnh theo bit. Trong
phng php ny ngi ta gn cho cc k t c tn sut cao mt t m ngn, cc k t c
tn sut thp t m di.
Ni mt cch khc, cc k t c tn sut cng cao c gn m cng ngn v ngc
li. R rng vi cch thc ny, ta lm gim chiu di trung bnh ca t m ha bng
cch dng chiu di bin i. Tuy nhin, trong mt s tnh hung khi tn sut l rt thp, ta
c th khng c li mt cht no, thm ch cn b thit mt t bit.
Thut ton
Thut ton bao gm 2 bc chnh:
Giai on th nht:
o Tnh tn sut ca cc k t trong d liu gc: duyt tp gc mt cch tun
t t u n cui xy dng bng m.
o Tip sau l sp xp li bng m theo th t tn sut gim dn.
96
Chng 7:Nn d liu nh
Giai on th hai: m ha:

o Duyt bng tn sut t cui ln u thc hin ghp 2 phn t c tn
sut xut hin thp nht thnh mt phn t duy nht. Phn t ny c tn
sut bng tng 2 tn sut thnh phn.
o Tin hnh cp nht li bng v ng nhin loi b 2 phn t xt. Qu
trnh c lp li cho n khi bng ch c mt phn t.
o Qu trnh ny gi l qu trnh to cy m Huffman v vic tp hp c
tin hnh nh mt cy nh phn 2 nhnh. Phn t c tn sut thp bn
phi, phn t kia bn tri. Vi cch to cy ny, tt c cc bit d liu/k
t l nt l; cc nt trong l cc nt tng hp.
o Sau khi cy to xong, ngi ta tin hnh gn m cho cc nt l. Vic
m ha rt n gin: mi ln xung bn phi ta thm 1 bit 1 vo t m;
mi ln xung bn tri ta thm mt bit 0. Tt nhin c th lm ngc li,
ch c gi trn m thay i cn tng chiu di l khng i. Cng chnh do
l do ny m cy c tn gi l cy m Huffman nh trn gi.
K t
Tn sut
Xc sut
152
1532
0.2770
323
602
0.1088
412
536
0.0969
226
535
0.0967
385
112
0.0746
602
385
0.0696
92
323
0.0585
112
315
0.0569
87
226
0.0409
1532
220
0.0396
536
152
0.0275
220
112
0.0203
315
92
0.0167
535
87
0.0158
4
5
Tn sut
K t
IT
Qu trnh gii nn tin hnh theo chiu ngc li kh n gin. Ngi ta cng phi
da vo bng m to ra trong giai on nn (bng ny c gi li trong cu trc ca tp
nn cng vi d liu nn). V d, vi mt tp d liu m tn sut cc k t cho bi.
Bng tn sut
Bng tn sut theo th t gim dn
97
Chng 7:Nn d liu nh
Lu rng, trong phng php Huffman, m ca k t l duy nht v khng m no

l phn bt u ca m khc. V vy, khi c tp nn tng bit t u n cui ta c th
duyt cy m cho n mt l, tc l k t c gii nn.
Bng t m gn cho cc k t bi m Huffman
0
10
0110
010
11110
001
11011
000
111111
1110
111110
1100
110101
0111
110100
IT
7.2.3. Phng php LZW

Khi nim nn t in c Jacob Lempel v Abraham Ziv a ra ln u tin vo
nm 1997, sau pht trin thnh mt h gii thut nn t in LZ. Nm 1984, Terry
Welch ci tin gii thut LZ thnh mt gii thut mi hiu qu hn v t tn l LZW.
Phng php nn t in da trn vic xy dng t in lu cc chui k t c tn sut lp
li cao v thay th bng t m tng ng mi khi gp li chng. Gii thut LZW hay hn
cc gii thut trc n k thut t chc t in cho php nng cao t l nn.
Gii thut nn LZW c s dng cho tt c cc loi file nh phn. N thng c

dng nn cc loi vn bn, nh en trng, nh mu, nh a mc xm v l chun nn
cho cc dng nh GIF v TIFF. Mc hiu qu ca LZW khng ph thuc vo s bt
mu ca nh.
Phng php
Gii thut nn LZW xy dng mt t in lu cc mu c tn sut xut hin cao
trong nh. T in l tp hp nhng cp t vng v ngha ca n. Trong , t vng s l
cc t m c sp xp theo th t nht nh. Ngha l mt chui con trong d liu nh.
98
Chng 7:Nn d liu nh
T in c xy dng ng thi vi qu trnh c d liu. S c mt ca mt chui con

trong t in khng nh rng chui tng xut hin trong phn d liu c. Thut
ton lin tc tra cu v cp nht t in sau mi ln c mt k t d liu u vo.
Do kch thc b nh khng phi v hn v m bo tc tm kim, t in ch
gii hn 4096 phn t dng lu ln nht l 4096 gi tr ca cc t m. Nh vy di
ln nht ca t m l 12 bits (4096 = 212). Cu trc t in nh sau:
256 t m u tin theo th t t 0255 cha cc s nguyn t 0255. y l
m ca 256 k t c bn trong bng m ASCII.
T m th 256 cha mt m c bit l m xa (CC Clear Code). Mc ch

vic dng m xa nhm khc phc tnh trng s mu lp trong nh ln hn 4096.
Khi mt nh c quan nim l nhiu mnh nh, v t in l mt b t in
gm nhiu t in con. C ht mt mnh nh ngi ta li gi mt m xa bo
hiu kt thc mnh nh c, bt u mnh nh mi ng thi khi to li t in
cho mnh nh mi. M xa c gi tr l 256.
T m th 257 cha m kt thc thng tin (EOI End Of Information). M ny

c gi tr l 257. Nh chng ta bit, mt file nh GIF c th cha nhiu nh.
Mi mt nh s c m ha ring. Chng trnh gii m s lp i lp li thao tc
gii m tng nh cho n khi gp m kt thc thng tin th dng li.
Cc t m cn li (t 258 n 4095) cha cc mu thng lp li trong nh. 512

phn t u tin ca t in biu din bng 9 bit. Cc t m t 512 n 1023 biu
din bi 10 bit, t 1024 n 2047 biu din bi 11 bit v t 2048 n 4095 biu
din bi 12 bit.
w = null;
Thut ton nn LZW:
IT
while ( c k t k ) {
if k l EOI hoc EOF
in ra m ca w;
}elseif wk tn ti trong t in {
w = wk;
}else{
thm wk vo t in;
in ra m ca w;
w = k;
}
}
99
Chng 7:Nn d liu nh
T tng ca thut ton trn c th hiu nh sau: nu cn d liu u vo th tip tc

c. Mt chui mi s c to ra t chui c (chui ny ban u trng, chui ny phi l
chui tn ti trong t in) v k t va c vo. Sau kim tra xem chui mi c
trong t in cha. Mc ch ca cng vic ny l hi vng kim tra xem chui c s k t
ln nht tn ti trong t in. Nu tn ti ta li tip tc c mt k t tip theo v lp li
cng vic. Nu cha c trong t in, th gi chui c ra ngoi v thm chui mi vo t
in. C th xem li phn v d hiu r hn.
Chui
null
258
AB
259
BC
260
CB
BC
259
261
BCA
B
C
258
262
ABC
263
CA
264
ABCD
u ra
IT
V d minh ha c ch nn ca LZW. Cho chui u vo l ABCBCABCABCD

(M ASCII ca A l 65, B l 66, C l 67) T in ban u gm 256 k t c bn v hai m
CC v EOI.
AB
A
AB
B
C
ABC
262
EOF
Chui u ra s l 65 66 667 259 258 67 262

u vo c kch thc: 12x8 = 96 bt (Mi k t ASCII cn 8 bt). u ra c kch
thc l: 7x9 = 63 bt (Mi k t cn 9 bt m ha, t in ban u c 258 k t). T
l nn l 96: 63 1,52
Gii nn d liu nn bng LZW
Gii thut gii nn gn nh ngc li vi gii thut nn. Vi gii thut nn, mt t
m ng vi mt chui s c ghi ra tp khi chui ghp bi chui trn vi k t va c
cha c mt trong t in. Ngi ta cng cp nht ngay vo t in t m ng vi chui
to bi chui c vi k t va c. K t ny ng thi l k t u tin trong chui tng
100
Chng 7:Nn d liu nh
ng vi t m s c ghi ra tip theo. y l im mu cht cho php xy dng thut

ton gii nn. Thut ton c m t nh sau:
c k t k;
in k;
w = k;
while (c k t k )
/*k c th l k t hoc m*/
{
entry = ngha ca k;
in entry;
thm w + entry[0] vo t in;
w = entry;
}
Chui
258
AB
IT
V d minh ha c ch gii nn ca LZW vi d liu c nn trn 65 66

667 259 258 67 262.
259
BC
259
BC
260
CB
258
AB
261
BCA
262
ABC
262
ABC
263
CA
ABC
264
ABCD
B
C
BC
AB
u ra
A
EOF
Trng hp ngoi l v cch x l

i vi gii thut LZW tn ti mt trng hp c sinh ra nhng chng trnh gii
nn c th khng gii m c. Gi s c l mt k t, S l mt chui c di ln hn 0.
Nu m k ca t in cha gi tr l cS. Ngay sau k c dng thay th cho cSc. Trong
chng trnh gii nn, k s xut hin trc khi n c nh ngha. Rt may l t m va
c trong trng hp ny bao gi cng c ni dung trng vi t hp ca t m c vi k t
u tin ca n. iu ny gip cho qu trnh ci t chng trnh khc phc c trng
hp ngoi l mt cch d dng.
101
Chng 7:Nn d liu nh
7.2.4. Phng php m ha khi

Phng php ny lc u c pht trin cho nh s 2 mc xm, sau hon thin
thm bi cc phng php thch nghi v m rng cho nh s a cp xm.
Cho mt nh s I(x, y) kch thc MxN. Ngi ta chia nh nh s thnh cc khi
hnh ch nht kch thc kx1, (k, 1) l rt nh so vi M, N. Nh vy nh gc coi nh gm
cc khi con xp cnh nhau v c N x M/(k x 1) khi con.
Ta c th dng phng php m ha Huffman cho tng khi ca nh gc, ngha l
gn cho mi t khi mt t m nh phn nh phn trn. Mt kh khn gp phi khi dng
m ha ti u Huffman l s lng khi qu ln. Gii php y l dng m ha gn
ti u, n gin hn thc hin m ha.
Gi thit cc khi l c lp nhau v s cu hnh l 2kl. Gi p(I, k, l) l xc sut xut
hin cu hnh I, entropy tng ng l:
Gi tr H(k,l) c th c din gii l s bit / khi.
IT
Cc t m gn cho cc khi kl c to bi cc im trng (cu hnh tri) l 0.

Cc t m gn cho cc khi k x l khc gm kl mu (1 cho en, 0 cho trng) i
tip sau bit 1 tin t 1.
Vic m ha theo s khi cng c s dng nhiu trong cc phng php khc nh
phng php dng bin i s trnh by trong mc 8.3 gim bt khng gian lu tr.
Thut ton
Gi s p(0, k, x) l xc sut ca khi ch to bi cc im trng bit, t s nn c
th tnh c d dng. Xc sut ny c th c thit lp bi m hnh l thuyt cho mt
khi c bit. Do vy, ta chia khi lm hai loi: khi mt chiu v khi hai chiu.
Khi mt chiu: Xc sut P(0, k, l) tnh c nh vo m hnh ca qu trnh Markov
bc mt. Qu trnh ny c biu din nhiu ma trn dch chuyn trng thi :
Vi:
p(t/t) l xc sut c in kin trng sang trng.
p(d/d) l xc sut c iu kin en sang en. Cc xc sut khc c ngha

tng t.
(0, , 1) = ( ) ( / )
iu ny c th gii thch nh sau: xc sut xut hin mt khi k x 1 ch gm cc
im trng bng xc sut xut hin mt im trng tip theo k - 1 dch chuyn trng sang
trng.
102
Chng 7:Nn d liu nh
Da vo cc quan h trn, ta tnh c t s nn Cr.

=
1
1 ( )
( / )
+1
Khi hai chiu:

Xc sut p(0, k, l) ca cc khi ton trng cng tnh c mt cch tng t
nh trn:
(0, , ) = ( ) ( / )
[ ( / ) ( / = ,
= )
Mi quan h ny tng ng:

(0, , ) = ( ) ( / )
( / ) ( / = ,
= )(
)(
V t s nn s cho bi cng thc:

1
=
1 ( )
( / )
Thc t, khi ci t ngi ta hay chn khi vung v gi tr thch hp k t 4 n 5
IT
7.2.5. Phng php thch nghi

Thut ng thch nghi thng dng ch s thch hp ca cc t m theo mt
ngha no y. Nh trong phng php RLC trn, thay v dng chiu di t m c nh
m bt, ngi ta dng chiu di bin i v trn c s c phng php RLC thch hp.
Trong phng php m ha khi, ngi ta s dng chiu di khi c nh gm k x l

im nh. Tuy nhin, vi nh khng thun nht, phng php m ha ny bc l nhiu
nhc im. V rng, vi nh khng ng nht, chnh s khng thun nht ca nh quyt
nh s thch nghi vi iu kin cc b.
Mt ci tin cho vn ny l c nh mt kch thc ca khi, cn kch thc kia
coi nh l hm ca mt tc ng trung bnh theo hng (vi l = 1) hay theo mt nhm hng
(l > 1). Tc ng c quan tm cng ging nh cc phng php l s dch chuyn cc
im trng sang en trn hng.
Mt cch l thuyt ngi ta cng tnh c gi tr ti u ca k(kotp):
N l s im nh trn hng.
Trn c s ny, ngi ta p dng m ha khi t ng thch nghi cho mt s
ng dng
M on hay khi k1 t ng thch nghi vi tc ng cc b.
M on hay khi k1 t ng thch nghi 1 chiu.
M khi k1 t ng thch nghi 2 chiu.
103
Chng 7:Nn d liu nh
7.2.6. Bin i Cosin v chun nn JPEG

JPEG l vit tt ca Joint Photographic Expert Group (nhm cc chuyn gia pht
trin nh ny). Chun JPEG c cng nhn l chun nh quc t nm 1990 phc v cc
ng dng truyn nh cho cc lnh vc nh y hc, khoa hc, k thut, nh ngh thut
Chun JPEG c s dng m ha nh a mc xm, nh mu. N khng cho kt
qu n nh lm vi nh en trng. Chun JPEG cung cp gii thut cho c hai loi nn l
nn khng mt mt thng tin v nn mt mt thng tin. Trong phn di y, chng ti
trnh by chi tit v mt trong cc dng nn bin i chp nhn mt mt thng tin dng
bin i Cosin ca chun JPEG: Bin i Cosin tun t (Sequential DTC - based). Bin
i Cosin tun t l k thut n gin nht nhng c dng ph bin nht v n p ng
c hu ht cc c tnh cn thit cho hn ln cc ng dng.
IT
M ha JPEG bao gm nhiu cng on, s thut ton nn v gii nn c m t

di y:
S thut ton nn JPEG
Qu trnh gii nn s c lm ngc li, ngi ta gii m tng phn nh nn tng

ng vi phng php nn s dng trong phn nn nh cc thng tin lin quan ghi trong
phn Header ca file nn. Kt qu thu c l h s lng t. Cc h s ny c khi
phc v gi tr trc khi lng t ha bng b tng t ha. Tip em bin i Cosin
ngc ta c nh ban u vi trung thc nht nh.
104
Chng 7:Nn d liu nh
S thut ton gii nn JPEG
IT
Bng m v bng lng t trong s gii nn c dng ln nh nhng thng tin

ghi trong phn cu trc u tp (Header) ca file nh nn. Qu trnh nn chu trch nhim
to ra v ghi li nhng thng tin ny. Phn tip theo s phn tch tc dng ca tng khi
trong s .
Phn khi
Chun nn JPEG phn nh ra cc khi 8x8. Cng on bin i nhanh Cosin hai
chiu cho cc khi 8x8 t ra hiu qu hn. Bin i Cosin cho cc khi c cng kch thc
c th gim c mt phn cc tnh ton chung nh vic tnh h s C ij cho 3 tng (8 = 23),
s cc h s l: 4 +2 + 1 = 7.
Nu vi mt nh 1024 x 1024, php bin i nhanh Cosin mt chiu theo hng
ngang hoc hng dc ta phi qua 10 tng (1024 = 210). S cc h s C ij l: 512 + 256 +
128 + 64 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 1021. Thi gian tnh ton cc h s C ij vi ton b nh 1024 x
1024 ln gp 150 ln so vi thi gian tnh ton cc h s ny cho cc khi.
Bin i Cosin i vi cc khi c kch thc nh s lm tng chnh xc khi tnh
ton vi s du phy tnh, gim thiu sai s do lm trn sinh ra.
Do im nh hng xm c tng quan cao hn, do php bin i Cosin cho
tng khi nh s tp trung nng lng hn v mt s t cc h s bin i. Vic loi bt
mt s h s nng lng thp trong cc khi ch to ra mt mt thng tin cc b gip nng
cao cht lng nh.
nh s c chia lm B khi:
Cc khi c xc nh bi b s (m,n) vi m = [0MB-1] v n = [0NB-1], y

m ch th t ca khi theo chiu rng, n ch th t ca khi theo chiu di. Phn tch khi
thc cht l xc nh tng quan gia ta ring trong khi vi ta thc ca im nh
105
Chng 7:Nn d liu nh
trong nh ban u. Nu nh ban u k hiu Image[i,j] th ma trn biu din khi (m,n) l
x[u, v] c tnh:
x[u,v] = Image[mk + u,nl + v]
Bin i Cosin
Bin i l mt trong nhng cng on ln trong cc phng php nn s dng php
bin i. Nhim v ca cng on bin i l tp trung nng lng vo mt s t cc h s
bin i.
Cng thc bin i cho mi khi l:
IT
Trong :
Thut ton bin i nhanh Cosin hai chiu cho mi khi trong trng hp ny s bao
gm 16 php bin i nhanh Cosin mt chiu. u tin, ngi ta bin i nhanh Cosin mt
chiu cho cc dy im nh trn mi hng. Ln lt thc hin cho 8 hng. Sau em
bin i nhanh Cosin mt chiu theo tng ct ca ma trn va thu c sau 8 php bin
i trn. Cng ln lt thc hin cho 8 ct. Ma trn cui cng s l ma trn h s bin i
ca khi tng ng.
Trong s gii nn ta phi dng php bin i Cosin ngc. Cng thc bin i
ngc cho khi 88:
trong :
Lng t ha
Khi lng t ha trong s nn ng vai tr quan trong v quyt nh t l nn
ca chun nn j. u vo ca khi lng t ha l cc ma trn h s bin i Cosin ca cc
khi im nh.
106
Chng 7:Nn d liu nh
gim s b lng t, ngi ta tm cch quy cc h s cc khi v cng mt

khong phn b. Chun nn j ch s dng mt b lng t ha. Gi s rng cc h s u
c hm tnh xc sut xut hin nh nhau.
Chng ta s cn chnh li h s yj bng php gn:
Vi j l trung bnh cng ca h s th j

j l lch c bn ca h s th j.
IT
Nh vy chng ta s ng nht c mc quyt nh v mc to li cho tt c cc h

s. Do , cc h s c biu din cng bng mt s lng bit. C nhiu cch tip cn
tnh c cc mc quyt nh v mc to li. Lloyd Max a ra gii thut sau:
Trong qu trnh ci t to ra mt b lng t ha, Lloyd v Max c nhiu ci

tin tnh ton d dng hn. Xc nh d1 bng cng thc trong bc 2a c tin hnh
theo phng php Newton-Raphson. Sau y l cc bc m t ton b cng vic ca khi
lng t ha tc ng ln cc h s bin i Cosin:
107
IT
Chng 7:Nn d liu nh
Thnh phn mt chiu s khng lng t ha. n y, ta chuyn sang bc nn.

Nn d liu
u vo ca khi nn gm hai thnh phn: thnh phn cc h s mt chiu v thnh
phn cc h s xoay chiu.
Thnh phn cc h s mt chiu Ci(0, 0) vi i = 0,1,,63 cha phn ln nng lng
tn hiu hnh nh. Ngi ta khng nn trc tip cc gi tr Ci(0, 0) m xc nh lch ca
Ci(0, 0): di = Ci+1(0, 0) Ci(0, 0) di c gi tr nh hn nhiu so vi Ci nn trong biu din
du phy ng theo chun IEE754 thng cha nhiu chui bit 0 nn c th cho hiu sut
nn cao hn. Gi tr C0(0, 0) v cc lch d1, c ghi ra mt tp tm. Tp ny c nn
bng phng php nn Huffman.
108
Chng 7:Nn d liu nh
Thnh phn cc h s xoay chiu C1(m, n) vi 1m7, 1n7 cha cc thng tin
chi tit ca nh. nng cao hiu qu nn cho mi b h s trong mt khi, ngi ta xp
chng li theo th t ZigZag.
Tc dng ca sp xp li theo th t ZigZag l to ra nhiu loi h s ging nhau.
Chng ta bit rng nng lng ca khi h s gim dn t gc trn bn tri xung gc di
bn phi nn vic sp xp li cc h s theo th t ZigZag s to iu kin cho cc h s
xp x nhau (cng mc lng t) nm trn mt dng.
Mi khi ZigZag ny c m ha theo phng php RLE. Cui mi khi u ra
ca RLE, ta t du kt thc khi EOB (End Of Block). Sau , cc khi c dn li v
m ha mt ln bng phng php m Huffman. Nh c du kt thc khi nn c th phn
bit c hai khi cnh nhau khi gii m Huffman. Hai bng m Huffman cho hai thnh
phn h s tt nhin s khc nhau.
c th gii nn c, chng ta phi ghi li thng tin nh: kch thc nh, kch
thc khi, ma trn Y, lch tiu chun, cc mc to li, hai bng m Huffman, kch
thc khi nn mt chiu, kch thc khi nn xoay chiu v ghi ni tip vo hai file
nn ca thnh phn h s.
IT
Ci t gii thut cho nn thc s phc tp. Chng ta phi nm c cc kin thc
v nn RLE, Huffman, bin i Cosin, xy dng b lng t ha Lloyd-MaxNn v gii
nn hi chm nhng b li, thi gian truyn trn mng nhanh hn do kch thc tp
nn nh.
Vi nhng u im ca mnh c ISO chp nhn l chun nh quc t v c bit

n di m s ISO 10918-1.
7.3. CC PHNG PHP NN TH H TH HAI

7.3.1. Phng php Kim t thp Laplace (Pyramide Laplace)
Phng php ny l t hp ca hai phng php: M ha thch nghi v bin i. T
s nn l kh cao, thng l 10:1. V nguyn tc, phng php ny da vo m hnh phn
cp quan st ca con ngi.
Bt u t nh gc x(m, n) qua b lc di thp ta thu c tn hiu x1(m, n). B lc
ny c thit k tnh trung bnh cc b da vo p ng xung 2 chiu gn vi ng
cong Gauss. B lc ny ng vai tr d on vi sai s e1(m, n) tnh bi:
e1(m, n) = x(m, n) x1(m, n)
(7.31)
Nh vy l m ha ca x1(m, n) v e1(m, n) l tng ng vi m ha ca x(m, n).

Vi cch bin i nh trn e1(m, n) thuc loi di cao. V mt ngi t cm nhn c tn
hiu vi tn s cao nn ta c th dng mt lng bit t hn m ha cho n. Mt khc tn
hiu x1(m, n) thuc loi di thp, nn theo l thuyt s ly mu s mu s t hn.
Qu trnh ny c lp li bng cch dng cc b lc thp khc nhau v ta s thu
c cc tn hiu xi(m, n), i=1,2, Vi mi ln lp kch thc ca nh s gim i mt
lng bng fi /fi+1. Theo cch ny, ta c mt cu trc xp chng t nh cu trc Kim t
thp m kch thc gim dn t gc n nh. Nhn chp Gauss c dng y c kch
thc 5x5. Cc tn hiu ra sau c lng ha v mu ha.
109
Chng 7:Nn d liu nh
Theo kt qu cng b [6] vi b lc gii thp mt chiu tch c vi cc trng

s: g(0) = 0,7, g(-1) = g(1) = 0,25 v g(-2) = g(2) = 0,1. T s nn dao ng t 6/1 n
32/1. Tuy nhin, nu t s nn cao th nh kt qu s c bin dng.
7.3.2. Phng php m ha da vo biu din nh
Nh bit, trong x l nh ty theo cc ng dng m ta cn ton b nh hay ch
nhng c tnh quan trng ca nh. Cc phng php phn vng nh trong chng su nh
hp vng, tch, tch v hp l rt hu ch v c th nn nh. C th c nhiu phng
php khc, song di y chng ta ch cp n hai phng php: vng gia tng v
phng php tch hp.
7.3.2.1. M ha da vo vng gia tng
K thut vng gia tng thc cht l hp cc vng c cng mt tnh cht no . Kt
qu ca n l mt nh c phn on ging nh mt trong tr xp ch (Puzzle). Tuy
nhin, cn lu rng tt c cc ng bao thu c khng to nn mt nh ging nh gc.
IT
Vic xc nh tnh cht min ng nht xc nh phc tp ca phng php.

n gin, tiu chun chn y l khong mc xm. Nh vy, min ng nht l tp hp
cc im nh c mc xm thuc khong chn. Cng cn lu thm rng, nh gc c
th c ng bao v cc kt cu (Texture). Trong min texture, xm bin i rt chm.
Do vy, nu khng ch s chia nh thnh qu nhiu min v gy nn cc bao gi. Gii
php khc phc hin tng ny l ta dng mt b lc thch hp hay lc trung v.
Sau giai on ny, ta thu c nh phn on vi cc ng vin kn, rng 1

pixel. loi b cc ng bao gi, ta c th dng phng php gradient (xem chng
nm). Sau khi thu c cc ng bao ng, ngi ta tin hnh m ha (xp x) ng
bao bi cc ng cong trong hnh hc, v d bi cc on thng hay ng cong. Nu nh
gc c phn gii khng thch hp, ngi ta dng khong 1,3 bit cho mt im bin.
Phng php ny th hin u im: l m hnh tham s. Cc tham s y l s
vng, chnh xc m t. Tuy nhin, tham s khong mc xm l quan trng nht v n c
nh hng n t s nn. Mt tham s cng khng km phn quan trng l s im ca cc
ng bao b coi l gi. Thng s im ny khng vt qu 20 im.
7.3.2.2. Phng php tch hp
Cng nh ch ra trong chng su, phng php tch hp khc phc c mt
s nhc im ca phng php phn vng da vo tch vng hay hp vng. Trong
phng php m ha ny, ngi ta thay tiu chun chn vng n gin trn bng mt
tiu chun khc hiu qu hn.
Nguyn tc chung ca phng php m hnh bin texture. Nhn chung ng bin
d nhy cm vi mt ngi, cn texture th t nhy cm hn. Ngi ta mong mun rng
ng phn ranh gia cc vng l ng nht vi cc ng bao. Lu rng cn quyt nh
phn vng mt phn ca nh sao cho n khng c vt cho ng bao. y l mt tiu
chun kim tra quan trng. Cc ng bao thng nhn c bi cc b lc thng cao,
ng hng.
110
Chng 7:Nn d liu nh
c th qun l cc im thuc mt vng mt cc tt hn, tiu chun kim tra th

hai cng c xem xt l du: cc im nm v mt pha ca ng bao c cng du.
Nhn chung, phng php gm hai giai on. giai on u thc hin vic tch vng,
giai on sau thc hin vic hp vng.
Qu trnh tch thc hin trc. Ngi ta chia nh gc thnh cc vng nh kch thc
99. Tip theo, tin hnh xp x cc vng nh bng mt a thc c bc nh hn 3. Sau
qu trnh tch ta thu c trong mt s vng ca nh cc hnh vung lin tip. chng s to
nn mt min gc ln v khng nht thit vung. Nh vy, trong trng hp ny phi xp
x bng rt nhiu cc a thc ging nhau. R dng l vic m ha ring bit cc a thc l
iu kin hiu qu v ngi ngh n hp cc vng gim d tha ny.
Qu trnh hp c tin hnh nh sau: nu hai vng c th c xp x bi 2 a thc
tng t, ngi ta hp chng lm mt v ch dng mt a thc xp x. Nu mc thay
i l thp, ta s c nhiu cp vng tng t. c th nhn c kt qu khng ph
thuc vo ln hp u, ngi ta xy dng th vng k cn. Cc nt ca th ny l
cc vng v cc lin h biu din mi khng tng ng. S lin h vi mc khng tng
ng thp ch ra rng hai vng cn hp li.
IT
Sau bc hp ny, th c cp nht li v qu trnh hp c lp li cho n khi

tiu chun l tha mn. Qu trnh hp dng c th quyt nh bi cht lng nh nn hay
mt tiu chun no khc.
Ta c th thy rng phng php ny kh phc tp song b li n cho t s nn kh

cao 60:1.
111
Chng 7:Nn d liu nh
Cu 1: Thc hin m ha nh sau bng thut ton Huffman. c bit nh c
chia lm cc khi kch thc 2x2 lm n v m ha (Mi khi ny s nh l mt ch
ci ca bc nh).
1
1
1
I
0
1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
Cu 2: Thc hin m ha sau gii m nh sau bng k thut LZW. c bit nh

c chia lm cc khi kch thc 1x2 lm n v m ha. V t in gc bao gm 4
n v m ha sau 00, 01, 10, 11 tng ng vi gi tr t 0 n 3, t in s c xy
dng tip theo t gi tr 4. Bc nh s c c t tri qua phi v t trn xung di. Coi
t in l ln khng thiu ch.
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
IT
1
1
I
1
112
TI LIU THAM KHO
[1]. Nng Ton, Phm Vit Bnh (2008), Gio trnh x l nh H Thi Nguyn,
Nxb Khoa hc v k thut, 2008.
[2]. Phm Vit Bnh, Cao L Mnh H, Nng Ton (2005), Mt cch tip cn mi
trong pht hin bin ca nh a cp xm, K yu Hi tho Quc gia ln th 8 - Mt
s vn chn lc ca Cng ngh Thng tin v Truyn thng, Hi Phng 25-27/08
/2005, Nxb KH&KT, H Ni 2006, 92-102.
[3]. Nguyn Quc Trung (2004), X l tn hiu v lc s, Nxb v K thut, 2004.
[4]. Lng Mnh B, Nguyn Thanh Thy (2003), Nhp Mn X l nh s, Nxb Khoa
hc v K thut, 2003.
[5]. Nguyn Kim Sch (1997), X l nh v Video s, Nxb Khoa hc v K thut, 1997.
[6]. J.R.Paker (1997), Algorithms for Image processing and Computer Vision. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
[7]. Randy Crane (1997), A simplified approach to image processing, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
IT
[8]. John C.Russ (1995), The Image Procesing Handbook. CRC Press, Inc.
[9]. Adrian Low (1991), Introductory Computer Vision and Image Processing, Copyright
(c) 1991 by McGrow Hill Book Company (UK) Limited.
[10]. Anil K.Jain (1989), Fundamental of Digital Image Processing. Prentice Hall,
Engwood cliffs.
[11]. T. Pavlidis (1982), Algorithms for Graphics and Image Processing, Computer
Science Press.
113

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HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH

Chnh sa ln 1, Thng 11 nm 2013

Khong hn mi nm tr li y, phn cng my tnh v cc thit b lin quan c

Trong hon cnh , x l nh l mt lnh vc ang c quan tm v tr thnh

Gio trnh c chia lm 7 chng: Chng 1, trnh by Tng quan v x l nh, cc

2.2. LY MU V LNG T HO ................................................................................................................... 11

2.3. MT S PHNG PHP BIU DIN NH ......................................................................................... 12

2.4. CC NH DNG NH C BN .................................................................................................................. 13

3.1.6. Bin i cp xm tng th ........................................................................................................................... 32

4.1. KHI QUT V BIN V PHN LOI CC K THUT D BIN C BN ..... 43

4.3. D BIN THEO QUY HOCH NG ....................................................................................................... 53

5.3.3. Cc phng php phn vng bi hp .................................................................................................. 75

6.2. NHN DNG DA THEO MIN KHNG GIAN ............................................................................ 84

6.3. NHN DNG DA THEO CU TRC .................................................................................................... 88

6.4. NHN DNG DA THEO MNG NRON.......................................................................................... 90

1.1. TNG QUAN V H THNG X L NH

nh c th xem l tp hp cc im nh v mi im nh c xem nh l c trng

Hnh 1.2. Cc bc c bn trong mt h thng x l nh

Khi tin x l: c nhim v x l nng cao cht lng nh nh gim nhiu,

Khi hu x l: c nhim v x l cc c im trch chn, c th lc b

Khi h quyt nh v lu tr: c nhim v a ra quyt nh (phn loi) da

Khi kt lun: a ra kt lun da vo quyt nh ca khi quyt nh

1.2. NHNG VN C BN TRONG X L NH

Hnh 1.3. nh thu nhn v nh mong mun

khc phc ngi ta s dng cc php chiu c xy dng trn tp cc im iu

Thng thng cc im iu khin c ly bng cch chp nhng nh c cu trc

Nhiu h thng: l nhiu c quy lut c th kh bng cc php bin i

Nhiu ngu nhin: vt bn khng r nguyn nhn c th khc phc bng cc

Gim s mc xm: Thc hin bng cch nhm cc mc xm gn nhau thnh mt

1.2.5. Phn tch nh

c im bin i: Cc c im loi ny c trch chn bng vic thc hin

c im bin v ng bin: c trng cho ng bin ca i tng v do

Phn loi c mu (supervised classification): v d phn tch phn bit

Phn loi khng c mu (unsupervised classification hay clustering): Cc mu

Nn nh khng gian: K thut ny da vo v tr khng gian ca cc im nh

Nn nh s dng php bin i: y l k thut tip cn theo hng nn khng

Nn nh Fractal: S dng tnh cht Fractal ca cc i tng nh. Tnh cht

2.1. CC THIT B THU NHN NH

Cm bin: bin i nng lng quang hc thnh nng lng in (giai on

Tng hp nng lng in thnh nh (giai on lng t ha)

Xt nh lin tc c biu din bi hm I(x, y), gi x l khong cch gia hai im

x c gi l chu k ly mu theo trc x v y.

Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

Vi nh a cp xm th L=256, f(m,n) = g 0, 255

Vi nh 24 bit th L=224, f(m, n) = g 0, 2 24 1

2.3. MT S PHNG PHP BIU DIN NH

Gim thi gian x l

nh c biu din theo hai m hnh c bn, nh Raster v nh Vector.

2.3.1. M hnh Raster

Hnh 2.1. Qu trnh hin th v chnh sa, lu tr nh thng qua DIB

Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

2.3.2. M hnh Vector

Hnh 2.2. S chuyn i gia cc m hnh biu din nh

2 byte tip theo: cha di mu tin. l di ca dy cc byte k lin nhau

4 byte tip: m t kch c pixel.

2 byte tip: s pixel trn mt dng nh.

2 byte cui: s dng nh trong nh.

Loi 2: Gi cc dy ging nhau. Quy cch gi tin ny nh sau: 0x00 Count.

Loi 3: Dy cc Pixel khng ging nhau, khng lp li v khng nn c.

Chng 2: Thu nhn nh

Loi 4: Dy cc Pixel ging nhau. Tu theo cc bt cao ca byte u tin c

Cc gi tin ca file IMG rt a dng do nh IMG l nh en trng, do vy ch cn 1

1 byte: ch ra kiu nh dng.Nu l PCX/PCC th n lun c gi tr l 0Ah.