Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Grammar:
Progressive Tense – There are three forms of progressive tense and three forms
of perfect progressive tenses:
Present Progressive – Present progressive tense describes an ongoing
action that is happening at the same time the statement is written. This tense is
formed by using am/is/are with the verb form ending in -ing.
“They are cheating off of the smartest kid in the class.”
Past Progressive - Past progressive tense describes a past action which
was happening when another action occurred. This tense is formed by using
was/were with the verb form ending in -ing.
“They were trying to decide whose house they should meet at.”
Future Progressive - Future progressive tense describes an ongoing or
continuous action that will take place in the future. This tense is formed by using
will be or shall be with the verb form ending in -ing.
“They will be driving all day.”
Present Perfect Progressive - Present perfect progressive tense
describes an action that began in the past, continues in the present, and may
continue into the future. This tense is formed by using has/have been and the
present participle of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).
“He has been considering moving out of his parent’s house.”
Past Perfect Progressive - Past perfect progressive tense describes a
past, ongoing action that was completed before some other past action. This
tense is formed by using had been and the present perfect of the verb (the verb
form ending in -ing).
“We had been expecting a much easier APUSH midterm exam.”
Future Progressive Tense - Future perfect progressive tense describes a
future, ongoing action that will occur before some specified future time. This
tense is formed by using will have been and the present participle of the verb
(the verb form ending in -ing).
“By the year 2020, linguists will have been studying and defining the Indo-
European language family for more than 200 years.”
Rhetoric:
Speaker – a term used for the author, speaker, or person whose perspective
(real or imagined) is being advanced in a speech or piece of writing
Pathos – a Greek term that refers to suffering but has come to be associated with
a broader appeals to emotion; one of Aristotle’s three rhetorical appeals
Logos – a Greek term that means “word”; an appeal to logic; facts, statistical
data, examples, etc; one of Aristotle’s three rhetorical appeals
The Confirmation (Confirmatio): usually the major part of the test, includes the
development or the proof needed to make the writer’s case; contains the most
specific and concrete detail in the text; generally makes the strongest appeal to
logos
The Conclusion (Peroratio): brings the essay to a close. The writer usually
appeals to pathos and reminds the reader of the ethos established earlier. The
conclusion brings all the writer’s ideas together and answers the question, so what?
The last words and ideas of a text are the one’s the audience is most likely to
remember.
Cause and Effect: Casual analysis depends upon clear logic so it is important to
carefully trace a chain of cause and effect and to recognize possible contributing
causes. You do not want to jump to conclusion that there is only one cause and one
result, nor do you want to mistake an effect for an underlying cause. Cause and
effect is often signaled by a why in the title or opening paragraph.
Logical Fallacies:
Non Sequitur – “It does not follow”; Conclusion does not follow from the
argument
"Bill lives in a large building, so his apartment must be large."
Appeal for Sympathy – ignores the real issue by emotional appeal, or other
distractions may be appeals to the authority or to the masses
"I did not murder my mother and father with an axe! Please don't find me guilty; I'm
suffering enough through being an orphan."
Guilt (or Innocence) by Association – because you hang out with certain people,
you must be like them
“All dogs have four legs; my cat has four legs. Therefore, my cat is a dog.” – Sir
Humphrey Appleby
Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc – “After this, Because of this”; attempts to show that
a second event was necessarily caused by a first.
"President Jones raised taxes, and then the rate of violent crime went up. Jones is
responsible for the rise in crime."
Ignoring the Question – ignores the real issue by use of distracting information
that has no relations to the case
"The opposition claims that welfare dependency leads to higher crime rates -- but
how are poor people supposed to keep a roof over their heads without our help?"
Faulty Dilemma – all of the options are not taken into account in the solution
proposed
"Caldwell Hall is in bad shape. Either we tear it down and put up a new building, or
we continue to risk students' safety. Obviously we shouldn't risk anyone's safety, so
we must tear the building down."
Ad Hominem – “To the man”; ignores the real issue by turning attention to an
individual
"You can’t trust Freud -- he used cocaine!"
Terms
Tone: The attitude an author conveys about the subject he is writing. Rhetorical
shifts in tone are often signaled by changing paragraphs or stanzas, changing
pronouns, changing modes of prose, by key words like but or yet, by changing
speakers, by changing imagery, etc.
Tone & Humor:
o There must be an object to laugh at (person, thing, habit, situation,
custom, dialect)
o Laughter usually stems out of disproportion or incongruity; something
unexpected or out of the normal verbal errors (malapropisms)
o Unfamiliarity or newness – seeing something from the point of view of
someone who’s never seen anything like it
Tone & Irony:
o Definition: contradictory statements or situations
o Author trusts that the reader will pick up on the discrepancy.
o Not always “mean” – irony exists in everyday life. It can even add humor
to a situation, more depth, and even make it more realistic.
o Four Types of Irony:
1. Verbal – word play; you say one thing but you mean another
(understatement; overstatement/hyperbole; double entendre/double
meaning)
2. Situational – discrepancy between what we hope happens and what
actually happens.
3. Dramatic – when readers/viewers know certain information that the
characters don’t.
4. Cosmic – fate causes the unexpected; characters are caught in a web
of adverse circumstances from which there is no escape.
Diction: The choice of words an author uses to create an intended response and
to reflect a particular style.
Semiformal – language generally used in newspapers and magazines
“Beethoven was stirred to compose the Eroica by the spectacle (which he soon
came to despise) of Napoleon crashing around Europe…” - The Winds of Words
(Newsweek) by George Will
Informal – language used in letters and conversations with friends
“The State Banquet was very grand.” – Letters from Peking by Deila Jenner
Formal – language generally found in lectures and documents
“To that world assembly of sovereign states, the United Nations, our last best
hope in an age where the instruments of war have far outpaced the instruments
of peace…” - JFK’s Inaugural Address
Technical – language that is the specialized vocabulary of a particular
trade or profession
“We have investigated memory storage and the molecular structure of
associative-memory formation by analyzing , in the marine snail Hermissenda
crassicornis and …” – Memory Storage and Neutral Systems (Scientific
American) by Daniel Alkon
Doublespeak – language that pretends to communicate but really does
not.
o Euphemisms – words or phrases that soften unpleasant realities; they
can be used to deceive or mislead.
“I’m sorry – who were you going to marginalize?” – Dr. House
o Jargon – specialized language of members of a profession becomes
doublespeak when it is used in addressing or confusing nonmembers
“involuntary conversion of a 727” = a plane crash
o Bureaucratese – use of sheer volume of words or complicated syntax to
overwhelm the audience
“Upon receipt of this memo dated January 26th, 2008, please be herewith
informed that our new parking policy will be effectuated immediately.”
o Inflated Language – makes the ordinary extraordinary
car mechanics = automotive internists
Spin – used as a noun, a special point of view attached to an idea. Spin
might provide an added emphasis or individual interpretation.
Satire: “A literary manner which blends a critical attitude with humor and wit to the end
that human institutions or humanity may be improved … attempts through laughter not so
much to tear down as inspire remodeling.” - (Thrall, et al 436)
Satire deviates from ordinary literature because its purpose is not didactic.
Rather, satire looks to:
A) Critique a social norm the author thinks should change
B) Ridicules or attacks those conditions needing reformation (author’s opinion)
C) Serves a corrective purpose or intent
The best satire does not seek to do harm or damage by its ridicule; it seeks to
create a shock of recognition.
Satirical Elements:
Exaggeration – To enlarge, increase, or represent something beyond
normal bounds so that it becomes ridiculous and its faults can be seen.
Incongruity – To present things that are out of place or are absurd in
relation to its surroundings.
Reversal – To present the opposite of the normal order (e.g. the order of
events; hierarchal order)
Parody – To imitate the techniques and/or style of some person, place,
or thing
Vocab:
Simile - A comparison of two unlike things using the words “like” or “as.” (Ex.
“The sea roared like a wounded beast.”)
Onomatopoeia - A word that imitates the sound it represents. (Ex. “Click”; “Buzz”;
“Pow”)