Definition and measurement.

The
fracture toughness,

, (units: MPa

m1/2 or MN/m1/2) measures the

resistance of a material to the
propagation of a crack. It is measured
by loading a sample containing a
deliberately-introduced contained
crack of length
of length

or a surface crack

(Figure 1), recording the

tensile stress

or the bending load

at which the crack suddenly propagates. The quantity

is then calculated, respectively, from

or
where Y1 and Y2 are geometric factors, near unity, that depend on details of the sample geometry,
E is Youngs modulus and b and w are the beam thickness and depth, as in the figure. Measured in
this way KIc has well defined values for brittle materials (ceramics, glasses, and brittle polymers).
In ductile materials a plastic zone develops at the crack tip. If this is small compared to all
dimensions of the test sample the measurement remains valid; if not, a more complex
characterization is required. If the plastic zone size exceeds the sample thickness the crack does not
propagate at all; the sample yields before it breaks.

Ph hy trong iu kin ti trng tnh

1) Ph hy do v ph hy gin
Ti trng tnh l ti trng c tc tng ti rt chm v qu trnh tng ti din ra t t,
n nh.
Trong iu kin ti trng tnh, khi ng sut vt qu gii hn nht nh (R m, b) chi tit
s b ph hy. Cn c vo lng bin dng do ca mu (hoc chi tit) trc khi ph hy
ngi ta phn ra ph hy do v ph hy gin. Ph hy do l s ph hy xy ra sau khi

mu c bin dng do tng i ln; ph hy gin l s ph hy xy ra khi mu cha

kp bin dng do hoc lng bin dng do rt t. Tnh cht ph hy do hay gin c th
quan st thy ngay trn c trng cc dng mt gy ca mu th ko (hnh 3.20).

Hnh 3.20. Cc dng mt gy in hnh ca mu th ko:

Dng mt gy hnh 3-20 a,b l ph hy do ca cc vt liu do c do rt cao,
tng i cao, Cc vt liu c do thp mt gy c dng chn - a (dng ci chn t
trn a) (hnh 3.20c). Loi vt liu gin mu b ph hy hu nh khng c co tht, mt t
gy bng phng nm ngang (hnh 3.20d).
Ph hy gin khi bn ngoi khng c biu hin g v bin dng lm cho ngi ta khng
bit trc, nn rt nguy him, do vy nu phi xy ra th bao gi ngi ta cng mong mun
ph hy l do c th bit trc m thay th hay sa cha. Ph hy gin xy ra vi tc
rt nhanh (khong 1000m/s), mt gy thng ct ngang cc ht (mt gy nhn) hay theo bin
ht (mt gy ni ht).
Ph hy do hay gin ch yu ph thuc vo loi vt liu, v d thp trng thi
thng b hy do, gang xm thng b ph hy gin. Tuy nhin vt liu do hay gin cng
ch l tng i, n cn ph thuc vo nhit , tc t ti trng v trng thi ng sut.
- nh hng ca nhit : khi h thp nhit , mi vt liu c tnh u bin i theo
chiu hng tng bn gim do (hnh 3-21a), ti nhit T50- c gi l nhit bin
gin (hay chuyn bin ha do - gin), gii hn bn (Rm) v gii hn chy (Re) bng nhau,
gin di (A) gn nh bng khng. Khi th nhit thp hn T 50, do gii hn bn nh
hn gii hn chy (Rm<Re) nn ph hy xy ra trc khi bin dng do. Trong thc t lun
lun mong mi vt liu c nhit bin gin thp hn nhit s dng bnh thng v cng
m cng tt.
- Tc t ti: khi tng tc t ti trng hay tng tc bin dng, vt liu c
khuynh hng tr nn gin, tc lm cho nhit bin gin nng cao (hnh 3.21b).
Nh vy ngay c khi vt liu do vn c th b ph hy gin nu lm vic nhit
m hoc chu ti trng tng t ngt (ti trng xung, va p).

- Trng thi ng sut: cc yu t tp trung ng sut nh vt kha, nt, tit din hay gc
ln thay i t ngt lm ng sut cc b tng vt, nhanh chng vt qua gii hn ph
hy, lm tng khuynh hng ph hy gin ca vt liu.

Hnh 3.21. nh hng ca nhit (a) v tc bin dng (b) n ph hy gin v

do ( 1 < 2 < 3 )

2) C ch ph hy
Nghin cu qu trnh ph hy cho thy ph hy bao gi cng bt u t to thnh cc
vt nt t vi, cc vt nt pht trin, mt s trong t ln kch thc ti hn s tip
tc pht trin nhanh dn ti ph hy mu hoc chi tit.
a- C ch hnh thnh cc vt nt t vi
Cc vt nt t vi c th tn ti sn trong vt liu nh l r, bt kh, nt khi kt tinh hay
cc pha bn qa thp trong t chc vt liu, v d nh graphit trong gang ... Vt nt c
th hnh thnh ngay trong qu trnh bin dng do do s tp trung s lng ln lch bin trn
bin ht hay ni tip gip pha th hai, do s tp trung nhiu khuyt tt im dng nt trng

ch no hay s tp trung ng sut cc b, nht l s tp trung ng sut cc b trc mt

pha gin.
b- S pht trin ca vt nt t vi.
Khng phi mi vt nt t vi trong vt liu u s l nguyn nhn a n ph hu kim
loi. Ngi ta tnh ton c rng, ng vi gi tr ng sut bn ngoi cho th ch c
nhng vt nt c kch thc bng hoc ln hn mt gi tr ti hn no th vt nt mi
pht trin nhanh chng dn ti ph hu. Kch thc ti hn (C th) ca vt nt trc ht ph
thuc vo tnh do ca vt liu. Vt liu cng gin, hiu ng tp trung ng sut u vt nt
cng cao, do Cth s cng nh. i vi vt liu c tnh do tt (phn ln kim loi v vt
liu plyme c tnh do tt) u c bin dng do trc khi ph hu, iu lm cho nh
vt nt tr nn t (bt sc nhn), bn knh cong u vt nt tng ln, nh m hiu
sut tp trung ng sut gim, do C th s ln hn. Ngay c sau khi vt nt c kch thc ti
hn tip tc pht trin th tc pht trin ny s chm hn trong vt liu c tnh do tt do
mt phn nng lng tp trung u vt nt phi tiu hao cho qu trnh bin dng do cc
b y.

3.4.2. Ph hu trong iu kin ti trng thay i theo chu k

Chi tit my lm vic trong iu kin ti trng thay i theo chu k tun hon s d b
ph hu hn khi lm vic trong iu kin ti trng tnh, s ph hu ny gi l s ph hy
mi.
Trong qu trnh ph hu mi, vt nt t vi thng sn sinh u tin t b mt chi tit
ni chu ng sut ko ln nht, thun li cho s hnh thnh v pht trin vt nt.

Hnh 3.22. S sn sinh vt nt t vi trn b mt chi tit sau mt chu k tc ng ca ng

sut ngc chiu.
Vt nt t vi trn b mt c th l c sn nh l r, bt kh, tp cht rn, vt xc,
sn si b mt. Ngoi cc vt nt c sn, vt nt c th sinh ra do bc trt ngc chiu trn
hai mt trt song song k nhau do tc dng ca ng sut o chiu to nn (hnh 3.22).
V c ch pht trin vt nt trong ph hu mi tuy cha c nghin cu y , song
ngi ta bit c ph hu mi ph thuc vo cc yu t sau:

- ng sut tc dng: gi tr ng sut cng ln, s ph hu mi cng d xy ra. i vi

ti trng bin i theo chu k, gi tr ng sut cn xem xt l bin ng sut.
- S chu k tc dng ca ti trng: s chu k tc dng cng ln, kh nng xy ra ph
hu mi ng sut cng nh, tuy nhin theo kinh nghim khi s chu k tc dng ca ng
sut t n 107 108 m chi tit cha b ph hu th c th coi ng sut khng gy
ph hu mi.
- H s phn i xng ca ng sut i chiu r:
r=

min
max

Trong min v max l ng sut nh nht v ln nht trong mt chu k (hnh 3.23).

+
m

chu k

ax

Thi gian

min
-
Hnh 3.23. ng cong ng sut thay i theo chu k
Thng thng trong iu kin chu k i xng (r = -1), gii hn mi (-1) c gi tr b
nht:
-1 = (0,3 0,5) b
- Yu t tp trung ng sut: ph hu mi rt nhy cm vi cc yu t gy tp trung ng
sut, c bit l cc khuyt tt (l r, rnh kha, vt xc, tp cht rn, thot cacbon b mt),
nhng g bc trn b mt c gc ln nh v.v. Do tng bng b mt khi gia cng c
kh c ngha c bit chng ph hu mi. Cng c th thng qua s l b mt nh ln mit,
phun bi phun ct, thm nit, thm cacbon v.v. to nn trng thi ng sut nn trn lp b
mt, do gim nguy c xut hin vt nt hnh thnh t lp b mt, qua nng cao bn
mi.
Ngoi ra cng cn lu nhng mi trng lm hot ho b mt, v d nc i vi
thp bn cao, khng kh m i vi hp kim nhm bn cao, nc mui i vi hp
kim titan, amnic i vi hp kim latng..., lm tng nguy c xut hin vt nt mi t lp
b mt.
3.4.3. Ph hu nhit cao (ph hu do)

 nhit cao, khng nhng trng ng sut tc dng ln hn gii hn chy m ngay
c khi ng sut nh hn gii hn chy tc dng trong thi gian lu di cng c th gy nn
bin dng do t t theo thi gian. Hin tng c gi l ro hay b.
Nu ng sut ca ngoi lc khng ln v nhit thp th tc bin dng rt chm
khng ng k. y cn quan tm ti trng hp chu ti nhit cao (T > 0,5T c), khi
kh nng khuch tn ca nguyn t rt ln, nh hng mnh ti qu trnh do. Nu nh
nhit thng bin gii ht c bn cao hn bn thn ht th nhit cao ngc li,
bin gii ht c bn km hn bn thn ht. Bin gii ht c nguyn t sp xp khng trt
t gn ging cu trc v nh hnh, nhit cao chng bin mm, d bin dng do dng
chy nht. Lc cc ht c th trt ln nhau theo bin gii, ng thi s hnh thnh vt
nt v ph hu do theo bin gii ht xy ra theo cc c ch sau:
- Qu trnh cc ht trt ln nhau theo bin gii, ni tip gip gia ba ht c s tp
trung ng sut rt ln, to ra vt nt (hnh 3.24).

Hnh 3.24. S to thnh vt nt ti ni tip gip gia ba ht

- Cc nt trng tch t trn bin gii ht to nn cc l hng c kch thc nh, sau
chng lin kt vi nhau to thnh vt nt ln.
Cc vt nt t vi c pht trin nh s di chuyn b sung vo n nhng nt trng, khi
vt nt t kch thc ti hn s nhanh chng pht trin m rng di tc dng ca ngoi
lc. Kh nng xut hin v tc pht trin ca vt nt do cng ln khi tng nhit v
ng sut.
3.5. CC BIN PHP HO BN VT LIU
1. Bin dng do
Nh nghin cu mc 3.3 ca chng ny, bin dng do ngui lm tng mt
khuyt tt mng, c bit s tng mt lch v t chc siu ht gy nn hiu ng ho bn
(hin tng gia cng bin cng). Nh cc nguyn cng bin dng do ngui rt thng dung
nh dp, g, un, ko vut, p chy, cn c th lm tng cng, bn ca kim loi v
hp kim mt cch r rt. Tuy nhin cn ch , ng thi vi s tng bn th do gim.
2. Hp kim ho
Hp kim ho l a thm nguyn t khc vo kim loi nguyn cht. Hp kim ho l
bin php ho bn kim loi rt hiu qu c p dng rt rng ri. Hp kim ho ho bn kim

loi c th thng qua ba c ch sau: c ch ho bn dung dch rn, c ch ho bn bng to

pha cng phn tn hay ho bn tit pha v c ch ho bn do lm nh ht.
- C ch ho bn dung dch rn:
Khi nguyn t th hai ho tan vo mng tinh th kim loi to nn dung dch rn (thay
th hoc xen k) lm tng x lch mng do lm tng bn v cng. Hiu ng ho
bn dung dch rn thng km theo s gim do v dai ca hp kim, cho nn ngi ta
thng chn hm lng phn trm nguyn t hp kim a vo sao cho ti u c c s
ho bn cao nht nhng khng lm xu i do, dai ca hp kim.
- To cc pha cng phn tn hay ho bn tit pha:
Mt s nguyn t a vo hp kim (thng vi hm lng nh) c th to thnh cc
pha hp cht cng kch thc rt nh v phn tn cao c tc dng nh cc cht cn tr s
chuyn ng ca lch, gy hiu ng tng bn v cng, ng thi lm gim do ca
hp kim.
- Lm nh ht:
Hp kim ho c th lm t chc t vi ca hp kim c cc ht tinh th kch thc nh
hn. Cc tinh th bin nh lm tng tng din tch b mt bin gii ht, gy hiu ng tng
bn nh cp ti trong biu thc Hall-Petch ni ting (cng thc 3.7 mc 3.3). u im
ni bt ca c ch tng bn do lm nh ht l lm tng u tt c cc ch tiu bn, do,
dai ca hp kim, bi v ht nh th nguy c sn sinh vt nt trn bin gii ht do s tp
trung ng sut cc b v s tp trung cc ng lch cng gim.
3. Nhit luyn
Thng thng sau khi hp kim ho to nn cc loi thp hp kim v cc hp kim
ni chung, hiu qu ho bn s c pht huy cao nht bng nhit luyn hp l.
Nh nhit luyn c th to nn dung dch rn qu bo ho, v d ti thp thnh
mactenxit, cho bn, cng rt cao. Cng c th thng qua nhit luyn to ra cc pha
cng phn tn hoc s tit pha phn tn gy hiu ng ho bn, v d ho gi hp kim nhm
uara l phng php ho bn dng ny.
Ngoi ra, thng qua nhit luyn c th to nn t chc ht tinh th nh do nng cao
c cc ch tiu c tnh tng hp cho hp kim.
Mt s dng nhit luyn c bit nh ho nhit luyn to nn hiu qu ho bn tng
hp ca hiu ng hp kim ho v nhit luyn; c nhit luyn to nn hiu qu ho bn tng
hp ca bin dng do v nhit luyn.