for the light they shed on the issues discussed in the main text surrounding them. There are three main sections to the book. The first, ‘Cultural sign introduces some of the texts, looks at some o book out to other sorts of research, debate and investigation in cul ies. Tiiutnres, Lory, hapssiare wie When Ptales, Latedverty Coftral ond lets WGI, AOD2, fap (- 2F. Ltdex. (2 fernati biypriach, flpondon ve » MAT Approaching cultural and media studies ‘Sources and further reading 4 Culture ‘on, goverment or the like ~ there's an pian romance, which does as much. A cerns with the practices of meaning, culture overiaps into ‘and governmental areas. It is nat at all clear where one the other begin, Perhaps, then, rather than tale meaning and ictly defined area within the social world, we should ‘an emphasis, a point from whieh to see things. Constructed (governmentProduction, circulation and consumption of wealth, some of the things cultural studies will be interested in might include how wealth acts ass ‘meaningful sign, the various meanings it produces, and the ways in which those meanings are circulated and exchanged. site of the production of meanings, not the expression exist elsewhere. Meanings come ebout in and through those among people, groups, classes, institutions, structures d because they are produced, circulate and are exchanged Within the social world, these meanings are never entirely ftuad. Some meen- ings may be e, of course, but others may be highty and rapidly vai- hat although meanings always come about in a sovial context, we must also say that they ae never wholly determined by that conten. Meanings migrate from one context to another, sometimes ending Up very far fiom where they started ~ they are always getting displaced? diverted, reworked and exchanged. This isnot something which goes wrong igs. Rather, its itself the very process of mean- 3 we dont know its author or A photograph makes sense for it, This is not to say that mean- ingis ever free from conten: all it means is that a knowledge of the author or the sitters provides a differens sort of context Lastly, we should simply add that culture is nota single unified process, bat an ensemble of practices. These may work together very tightly but i other cases they may be in considerable conflict with one another, We shall have to keep the disparate natures of cultural practices clearly in mind as we proceed. even if we've never met the people p Framing the question Here we will examine some of the ways in which meanings operate in thett social usages. From that, we will ask how these processes can best be described in terms, in a model, Often, especially in older textbooks, you will find meaning described in terms of the communication of a message between two points, something like this: sender —p—____ receiver message There are quite afew variations on this, and quite afew reasons why we find them all unsatisfactory here, The most obvious one is chat this model simply doesn't answer the question we're interested in, of how meanings come to be solid projectile. Delther does i help to modify this model to take into account possible interferences with the projectile: noise | sender >_>. receiver message This sll doesnt help us understand hov meanings come about, and though it nods in th of the ways in which meanings alter in cireulstion ‘much use to us in trying to figure out how it is that ‘meanings can be so enormously flexible and varied, or how it is that those variations may nevertheless have considerable, if complex, regularity. Jn shore, what we will be interested in here is all the ways in which mean- ing is a mote complex matter than the accurete and efficient transinission of ractvty. From these, we wil try to put together some different is happening, in an attempt to account for some of that vai- ety: We will teat these models critically At each stage, we will want to know not only where they can usefully be called into play, and where they seem to provide some genuine understanding of the processes they model, but also shere their limits are. What questions do each of the models ellow us to ask? Just as important, what questions do they not provide foc? And hows, as we try toaak atthe end ofeach chapter, ean we get to ask new questions? ‘We want to encourage a critical attitude not only to all the disparate phenomena of culture, but also to the models which provide ways of think- ing about them, It's necessary to know some af the main conceptual schemas Which inform the enormous volume of literature on cultural studles, an also something about how they work, and why: The esitical approach we'd like to foster here would be one which is also capable of opening up other approaches, raising other questions: approaching things differently.the orly way of approaching cultural large! tic stream which developed historically out cs. Though semiotics is far from uncontested, it is sill the basis for much leading quickly to hands-on and it has generated a varied and valuable body of critique. ‘approach here wil! initially be semiotic, though as the eek to open that out to others, many of which extend well beyond the semiotic as originally conceived, We are not trying to advo- cate a particular theoretical model, which it will be the zeader’s job to apply dutifully and accurately to a number of actual situetions. We use some clas- sical semiotics to raise questions about what signs do within the social world, and, just as itiportantly, bout how these might be thought through. ‘Other questions include the conceptual tools that might need to be devel- oped to do that, and the limits of their use. What kinds of concepts do we reed and what do we want them to do? How da we go about developing them? Raymond Williams's Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (London: Fontana, 1988) has a valuabie short essay on the many and vatied meanings. hich Williams suggests (p. 8: An Introduction, 2nd edn (New York: Routledge, 1996). ‘The sender-message-ecelver model is generally known as Shannon and ‘Weaver's model. Claude Shannon was ari American engineer who in 1948 published an influential technical paper on the mathematics of telecommunica- . This was a highly technical piece, which addressed a very practical prob- construction of telephone systems: how much information can be sent without distortion dova of given characteristics? In the following year, Shannion and Weaver published theit book, The Mathematical Theory of Communicetion, fram which this model comes. Most use of the Shanon and 1 hurnan sciences is content to take the diagram and ignore the mathematics. You will ind the technicalities of Shannon's theories Now and in the Future’ at the University he conference drew papers from some of the best-known names in cultural studies inthe Engl'stspeaking world, some 42 volume of almost 800 pages. Si The Cultural Studies Reader (London: Routledge, During, and Contemporary Literary Criticism and Cultural Stuate Longman, 1998), edited by Robert Con Davis and Ronald Sct at the University of Wales, a6. ukimedia) is one of the best and most comprehen on serniotics and textual analysis, TV, ages, and a lot more, The assessment. There ate links and suggestions for further reading, in print and online, and the whole site is searchable and thoroughly indexed. Similarly rich and wide-ranging sites are PopCultures, Sarah Zupko's Cultural Studies Centre (waw.popcultures.com}, Robin Markowitz’s Cultural Studies tucles.net), Rob van Kranenburg’s Scholé geared to student needs, and The Voice of the Shuttle is a huge collection humanities, put together by Alan Liu at the University of Calfornia at Santa Barbara; ts cultural studies listings are at vos.uesb.edu/shuttle/euttural.html. ‘an enormous vanity net account can publish almost anything they tory and observes copy- right, There are no ‘ecitorial standards or requirements of accuracy. ‘You wil find all sorts of material on the Web. Some of itis very valuable; a lot of it isn't; and some of it can be downright misleading 4s a resuly, itis absolutely important chat you know fust what weight youshould give if any — to material you find online. In general, you have to ‘exercise mote scepticism and discernment than you do with print. The New Mexico State University Libraries have a fine page on Web evaluation, along with a series of examples co try yourself on: ‘The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: or Why Irs a Good Idea to Evaluate Web Sources’ (ibamsu.edu! instruction/eval.htmn). While we have been very selective in our choice of ‘Web resources for this book, the Web's capacity for rapid change means that nothing absolves you from the need to evaluate for yourself any of the sites we mention, or to which they link in their turn, All of the Web resources listed in this book were current atthe time of preparation of this book. Hacerawtnedim a — Cultural signsa ‘Some aspects of signs CONTENTS ‘An opening move: the sign 9 Content 10 Codes 10 Format 15 Address 16 Context 19 ‘The seven functions 21 Exercises 23 Sources and further reading 28 ‘An opening move: the sign In the Introduction, we set a very broad agende for cultural studi of study will be the social production of meanings. Here we had ‘with the actual location of meaning: A sign is anything which produces meanings. us to keep in mind the discussion. They might ‘act as guiding principles in our investigation: 1 Signs are not just comments on the vrorld, but are themselves chings in the world — and specifically, inthe social world. 2 Signs do not just convey meanings, but praduce them. wey some of the ie two examples ‘ways signs func- are complex, compound signs — texts of signs, in fact = but they are also commonplace. It's that banality of meaning we want to ‘examine here.Content ‘One of the more obvious things a sign can do is refer to something. In differ- cent ways and to varying extents, each of the letters in Figures concerned with conveying certain information about certain copies, such as life, from his address to his educational quali- not the point here: what we will cali the sign’s referential funetion is simply the way in which ic proposes something to be the case. A sign's referential function is its ability to invoke a content. relationships. Codes As you read the two texts, you no doube very quickly become aware of what sort of text they are. They are both lewers (one printed, one electronic), anscripts of interviews, juments. In fact, you almost cextinly realised not be adhered to, nor do they have to be cons rauch as satisfy the expectations it sets up, and this plays of meanings. Figure 1.1 23 Avenue Road Springfield 14037 25 Octobe, 2001 ‘Ms Lauren Hazard Personnel Manager UnityBank 3142A Mawson Street Chisholm 10066 Deat Ms Hazard Application for position of Technology Policy and ‘Development Officer, ref UB/BMT/102001 | would like to apply for this position. T have enclosed my CY, academic record, and the requested list of three referees. ‘This year I shall be completing my studies at Chisholm University of Technology, where I've been majoring in Business Studies and Technologies, and English (Communications and Cultural studies) As the enclosed copy of my academic record shows, my results have been consis- tently good. Ihave a particular interest in online commerce, and Web database and security design. Becanse I’ve been interested in a career in banking, last year | decided to investigate, as a semester-long self-directed research project for oredit within my BST major, the impact of e-commerce on the relationships of bank branches and ‘ocal community in my home town of Springfield. I wanted to know what services were most used by the customers of these banks, and in particular how banks were working with small businesses to help them expand or improve their online financial management and facilites, I this, I worked closely with the manager of the Shelbyville Central branch of UnityBank, Mr David Field, I presented Mr Field with a copyof the final document, and over the next six montas was, employed as a part-time consultant under the UnityBank Branch Initiative Scheme, iraplementing as a trial several of the measures I had investigated in the project. This has been vwaitten up favourably in UnityBank’s UnityNews, and 1 understand several other branches are now undertaking simi- lar trials. I have included details of the project, and of the later consultancy work. As well as this, over the last two years T have working part- time as a freelance consultant in Web design for a number of local businesses. The details are listed in my CY, along with ‘using world processors, Web editors, desk-lop publishing, and ‘most of the major accounting software packages, T’d particularly enjoy working for UnityBank because its forward-looking approach to the new technologies in an envi- roument in which the customer is always the focus of atten- tion. I am familiar with and ara excited by the recommendations outlined in the UnityBank report on Initiatives in Technology, and fee] I have a lotto offer in achieving those goals. I would be more than happy to discuss this with you further at an interview. ‘Yours faithfully Samuel G West Samuel G, West Enclosures: * Curriculum vitae + List of referees: + Academic record % Dossier of research project Some aspects of signs 13 Figure 1.2 Samuel West, 10:17am 10/25/01 + 9000, ob, nothing mich Subject: oh, nothing much quest to arrive howe after a hard day in the Library and find a breath of canada waiting for me. :) hay, @ zeal live letter, on “paper* and allt you might be gesting out varm clothes ond sesing ‘that you micht even get some skiing in before you cone back!) 90 how does it feel now that you've not only the oacasionai thought for me slogging on here at hone. i'm almost finished here, too: two more Printed for Vivian Carter LuSamol West, 10:17AM 10/25/01 + 9000, oh, nothing much intensive days in the Library should do it, and ‘then there aze only the exane to worry about, but they'll be gine. just wanted to get a quick message off to you to Say i'd got yours, and how great it vas—as always—to hear from you. once i've got this Library werk out of the way in a couple of days, 4/11 sit down and weite you a proper letter back, a long one, get you up to date (‘up to date’, it’s only a week since the lest one, do : ve Just. been doing @ job application at one of the terminals in the student union, and thought 4 might as well Keep going with a quick note to you. more bout that later.) watch the mails. anyway, take care of yourself, and roll on decen~ ber! can’t wait, as always, all my love sam f= ¢ Write me: = Samuel West 8t33407¢studentmail.cu.ed Printed for Vivian Carter 2 Some aspects af signs 15, which dominate them are those of spoken rather than written language. But because they nevertheless are written, they lack all of the cues which normally go with speech: tone of voice, gestures, facial expressions. To get round this, they often use a sange of smileys and other graphic signs intended to stond in for these, ‘This email, though, seems to be suggesting that emails even a little too a handwritten letter might provide that extra sense of just because of the little bit of extra work involved in it, or something to be actively worked out or negotiated, and always subject to renegotiation. A sign’s metalingual function suggests the codes by which the sign might be understood. “The idea of code is quite a crucial one in any study of signs, and we will be elaborating on it throughout the book, particularly in Chapters 2 and 3. In Chapter 5, we sill tum to a mote detailed examination of gence and the roles it plays. Format Before you even started reading Figure 1.1, vatious aspects of its Formal layout probably suggested to you that here was a letter of some sort — features such as the indented address and date, and the opening and closing salutations. Other features — the font, the blocked paragraphs, even the use of the space of the sheet of paper ~ suggest 2 business letter in particular, But these are purely jormal aspeets of the docurn depend not onwhat is said, but on how its said: how the sign deploys its formal features, including the space and medium in which it exists. A sign’s formal functions involve its formal structure and the format which it takes. ‘The formal functi what it is made of, tied closely to the material support of the sign: supports are cepable of produci ten language and static im: image, but with motion and so different propor recognise the printout of an email by the header and signature block, che lack of punctuation, the smileys and ASCII art. In both cases, one sort of meaning frst gets cued in by the formal func- tion, and then this immediately gets taken up by the metalingual function. Address, Another very important set of Functions involved in al sign activity is that of their address. Signs address, Consider some of the problems involved in address. Signs may go astray, and be received by other than those for whom they were intended. The letters in our examples are addressed to ‘Ms Lauren Hazard’ and ‘Vivian’ but their actual receivers include you reading this book, whom they do not address. Nor do signs necessarily come from where they say they do, Letters sender. (These letters are addressed from ‘Sam West’, but it’s quite possible they were weitten by the authors of this book) between the actual sender and receiver of « communication, on the one hand, and the ways these are represented in it, on the other. ‘The addresser of a text is the position it constructs as its source: where it says itis from. ‘The sender is its actual source. Some aspects of signs 17 “The addressee of a text is the position it constructs as its destination: where it says itis going. The recelver is its actual destination. Sender and receiver are actual people. Addresser und addressee, on the other hand, are purely constructions of signs. They are like fictional charac- is fondly counting the days until Vivian arrives home, Each of them constructs a Sam, and a ¢ and prospective employee on is these constructed figures of addresser and addressee we react to, and which make the text in even if we do not have any access to the real sender and receiver. in this case how could we? For all we know, Sam, Lauren Heard ‘and Vivian may be entirely fictitious characters.) “The relationships between these two sets of terms, sender and receiver on the one hand, and addresser and addressee on the other, may be quite complex. Different senders may share the same addresser. For instance, the agony column of 2 magazine may always appear under the same proper rame, but the actual writers may vary from week to week. Likewise, difes- ent receivers may share the same addressee: think ofthe thousands of actual readers addressed by a newspaper headline, or the thousands of viewers who hear a television newsreader’s ‘Good evening. On the other hand, the one sender may produce a number of different addzessers: we construct ourselves dillerently in our words, depending on ‘whether we ave applying fora job or writing to an absent loved one. And corte- spondingly, one receiver may be addressed as a nurnber of different addressees: any one person plays a number of different roles (friend, colleague, parent, spouse, daughter or son), each of ‘different mode of address. ‘To speak of sender and rec: ese eases, then, we would have to know (or guess at) what is happening in the minds of actual people, and this knowledge may not be available to us. When we speak of addresser and addres though, we ate speaking of something that happens in texts, igns, which we have right front of us. We are speaking of how up and construct certain roles or positions within the text, th sender and receiver to occupy. Sender and receiver are actual people; addresser and addressee are not people at all, but ways texts have of addressing us. The two sets of terms are logically quite distinct from each other, and belong to two different orders of being,‘Though these may seem fine distinctions, they are crucial. They suggest that we may be able to talk about what happens in texts in specifically axrual ‘ways, without having recourse heses shout what their sender may have intended them to mean, hhaving to guess about what their effects on a single given receiver might be. In short, the separation of addresser from sender and addressee from receiver is what lets us do semni- oties rather then psychology. ‘A sign’s expressive function is its construction of an dresser. ‘A sign’s conative function is its construction of an addressae. ‘There is another very important factor to consider here, As well as constructing the positions of addresser and addressee, any sign must also establish a relationship between the two. may work to open up or close off an interchange. There are more complex examples in the two letters perhaps fi addressee (the unknown ‘Ms Hazard’) A sign's phatie functions are the ways in which it constructs a relationship between addresser and addressee. In its expressive and conative functions, the sign delineates @ group including both addresser and addressee. The phatic effect of this is to mark ‘out something like 2 community within which the exchange is taking place, even if this community should be a temporary one with only two people in it. The phatic is what binds addresser and addressee together in the act of the exchange of signs. Conversely, though, in marking out a group like this, the phatic also excludes those who are not part of it. The phatic function links addressers and addressees in all socts of degrees of social inclusion and exclusion. ‘Some aspects of signs 19 Some sort of phatic functioning is unavoidable in any sign activity. If an ‘exchange of signs implies a common code within which the exchange can take place, then that exchange will on the broadest scale those with access to the code and exclude those with phatic functions it might have, a letter in English wil users. A particular way of speaking may bind a group immediately recognizable identity, to itself and others. Phatic functions can be enormously complex and subtle ways of disceming insiders, and the dogree of their belonging. lewer to Vivien sets up is much narcower: its references 1 the pulse rela: tionship between them, and the experiences they share, tend to narrow that ‘community down to two. ‘The conative, expressive and phatic functions are the sign's functions of address. ‘As Figure 13 shows, signs which are visual and representational may often display considerable complexity in their functions of address, particu: larly through the gaze. We shall be dealing with further aspects of the func: tions of address in Chapters 8 and 9 in particulsr. Context Teonly remains to say that all of these functions depend on the social context of the sign. ‘The social situations in which a sign is used may determine the appropriate content, type of sign and coding, who is being addressed, by ‘whom and how, and the phatic community it constructs. ‘A sign’s contextual functions indicate the context in which it operates. One of the key questi we develop in this book into account the compl tobe asked ofall che various conceptual models ’be the extent to which they are capable of taking ies of contextuality.Figure 1.3 The gaze, the gift To say that this advertisement is sent by a perfume company to women who are potential customers of its product would be to say little of the actual complexities ofits address The bodies of the man and the woman form a plar contains most of the focal points of the photograph. out in particular by the man’s face (exactly side-on, ing along this very plane}, the womar’ by the pads of her suit) and her left arm, with its hand or her hip): The woman's body thus meets your gaze as viewer: she addresses you in her bodily stance, Some aspects of signs 21 OF the two characters, the man's attention is given wholly to the tion is directed away from hi and thus seemingly directly out of where each of you mataneous in the position of addresser and addressee, you are in complicity, sharing knowledge. Somewhat in front of this plane the two bodies mark out, the the woman holding the bottle addresses you with her gesture. Heer hand holds the perfume out from the plane of the two Tovers, between them and you. tis 2 git, for you. Her gaze empha- ing directly at the bottle of perfume. Hi gone from perfume to you. What she man next to her, who is unaware ofthis complicity between the two of you, but whom you cannot help but see in the background plane the product itself, offering itself to you in a conspiracy of pleasure.) The seven functions igure 1.4 shows how we can now summarise and diagram these various functions. There are several points we sbould note about them. First, all these functions are necessary for any sign activity to take place, That is, a siga must: ‘+ work within a system of references and codings; © be describable in terms of formal attributes which allow us to distinguish it from other signs; * set up relationships of addvess; end © operate within, and vary according to, specific concrete situations.Figure 1.4. The functions of the sign FUNCTIONS OF SIGNIFICANCE referential (content) metalingual (code) formal (form) expressive phatic conative laddresser) (contact) (addressee) FUNCTIONS OF ADDRESS contextual {situation} |-known model by the inal. model, which is frequently cited it functions rather than our seven. Fol al addresser constructed by its exp dispassionate and unemotional,) po Some aspects of signs 23 Second, though all of them are necessary for thereto bea sig, in any given leagues in a laboratory will certainly require an emphasis on the phatic. ‘Third, these functions ate never independent of each other, but are constantly interrelating, Some of the possiblities are: © Certain functions may work together very closely Expressively the addresser of the second lever is constructed as fond, thoughtful, solicitous, teassuriig, and looking forward to che addressees return, Conatively, the addressee is constructed as an abject of affection, hardworking, intelligent, deserving. Phatically, the letter constructs che rela- tionship between addresser anc addzessee 2s one of close affection, even love, In this ease, chose three functions work together in a strongly cohesive way Certain functions may overlap to a degree, In the job application, the referential and che expressive functions largely coincide: an application has to convey a certain amount of information, and that information h cide, however, As ‘expressive function conveying information abou: the addresser, che concerned with constructing the addresser as eagerness, earnestness, intelligence, politeness, © Some functions may even work agains others. The email message appropriate. ‘The email recognises this, though, and in its referential and metalingual functions even tres to defuse the possibility of an ‘coding by drawing attention to and openly contradicting the effects formal function, (...a *real* letter rather than all these emails © One function may srigger off another. ‘The font and layout of the application letter axe part of its formal function. This, however, immediately tiggers off certain metalingual functions, ‘which suggest what sort of letter this is and thus what sorts of codes might bbe appropriate to bring to bear on it Wamp Examine the ways in which the folowing examples wort, in terms ofthe seven functions we have develoged in this chapter. How do the metalingual and forrnal functions work in with the referential function? What sorts of address are these examples raking? What contextual determinants and effects are there?Some aspects of signs 25 Figure 1.5 Figure 1.7 Figure 1.6Figure 1.8 Figure 1.10 ei‘The classic statement of Jakobson's model 's the first few pages of his paper “Linguistics and Poetics’. Here Jakobson's main purpose ~ which is net ours ~ is te account for what he argues are the properties peculiar to poetic language. which draws aiso on Dell Hymes's use Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1974), More information on Jakobson can also be found at the Semiotics site of the University of Colorado at Denver (carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryeer/tc_data/semiatics.htmi#jakobson) which is ‘Studies site at www.aber.ac.uk/media/Functions/mes. html, Signs and systems contents Building a model 29 ‘Sign and referent 30 ‘Signifier and signified 31 Difference and value 36 System and acts. 38 Codes 40 ‘Synchrony and diachrony 41 The organisation of the system 41 A commutation test 42 Paradigm and syntagm 43 ‘Semictic systems in general 44 Exercises 45 Sources end futher reading. 46 Building a model In this chapter, we to systematise some of these ideas about language processes. We will develop a detailed model of with all mocel-mnaking, this will inevitably involve simplifying things some~ what, so there are bound to be aspects left out. We will try to pay attention should be developed in the work of the posthumous Course ir Genera been taken up in many fields of the human sciences under the genera! texm of structuralism, ‘Though we are going to end up a considerable distance