Grading

1. GRADING BASICS
2. IMPORTANCE OF GRADING
3. PRINCIPLES OF GRADING TECHNIQUE
4. GRADING PLANS
5. GRADIENT
C 6. SPOT ELEVATION
7. INTERPOLATION
O 8. FIELD SURVEY AND PLOTTING CONTOURS
N 9. GRADING OF DEFINED AREA
10. GRADING OF OPEN AREAS
TE 11. IMPLEMENTATION AND CONSTRUCTION
N 12. FINAL GRADING PLAN
13. CUT ANF FILL
TS 14. RECOMMENDED GRADINGS

 15. EARTHWORK COMPUTATIONS
– Average Depth Method
– Average End area Method
– The Contour Method
16. REMOVAL OF WATER FROM SITE
17. GRADING AND DRAINAGE
18. SUBSURFACE SYSTEMS AND STRUCTURES
19. SURFACE SYSTEMS AND STRUCTURES
20. GUIDELINES FOR GRADING PLANS
21. GRADING FOR STREETS AND ROADS
22. PAVEMENTS AND PAVINGS
23. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
•
G  Grading is the process of modification of
existing landform to accommodate new
R structures, parking and circulation and
A to ensure positive drainage.
Consideration must be given to
DI


utilities such as: water, gas, power,

N communication services, and sewerage for
disposal of wastewater, and storm water.
G  Grading process requires a careful change
B of contours so that they support the
integration of building with the site.
A
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C
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P
O  The land nay be graded or adjusted to suit the
architectural or engineering requirements, or
R the architecture may be adopted to meet
T variations in the ground level so that the
original surface is disturbed the least.
A  Extensive alterations in the landform may lead
N to unstable conditions resulting in erosion,
landslides, floods, and a complete destruction
C of ecosystem.
 Knowledge of grading technology is useful in
E site planning process. It is needed to make
O detailed leveling between building and the
landscape on any site.
F  Site planning grading takes care of the
adjustment necessary between fixed levels,
G structures, and use areas within the
R boundaries of a site.
 In many cases the grading scheme is a primary
A determinant in the total design.
DI •
N •
E
1. The ground surface must be suitable for the
S intended purpose or use.
O 2. The visual result should be pleasing.
F 3. The result of any grading must have positive
drainage.
G 4. The grading plans should attempt to keep new
R levels as close as possible to the original
state of the land.
A 5. When ground is reshaped it should be done
DI positively and at the scale of the
machinery.
N 6. Top soil must be conserved wherever possible.
G 7. The quantity of cut should be approximately
TE equal to the quantity of the fill.
C •
H
N
 Three principal goals in development
of a grading plan are :
– Keep unwanted water from entering a
building.
– Keep surface run off from creating
damage to property or people during
periods of heavy rainfall and
subsequent runoff.
– To accommodate the structure on site
with disturbing the site to minimum.
  These are the technical documents and
instruments by which we show and calculate
G changes to the 3d surface of the land. These
are a result of the grading process.
R
 Contour lines are used to indicate the extent
A of that change.
DI  Existing contours are shown in dashed line and
the new form is shown by solid lines drawn
N where this varies from the existing form.
G  The process of developing grading plans
involves manipulation of three factors:
PL – Gradient. (G)
A – Horizontal distance. (H)
– Difference in elevation between two points. (D)
N  G = D/H
S 


 The quantities of Cut and Fill are
calculated from these drawings.
 The drawings must be accurate to deliver
exact cost estimates.
 Landscape architects, engineers, and
architects who do grading plans, as well
as the contractor who does the actual
grading, should understand a common
terminology.
•
•
•
  Gradient refers to the changing elevation
along the Earth's surface or the rate of
the slope.
 It is expressed in % or ratio or degrees.
G – 1% slope = 100:1
R – 10% slope = 10:1 = 6o
A  Percentage of slope is expressed as the
number of meters (feet) rise in 100 m (100
DI ft) of horizontal distance, typically
referred to as rise/run.
E  If the slope rises2 m (2 ft) in 100 m (100 ft),
N it is considered a 2 percent slope. The
percentage of slope can be calculated by the
T following formula:
 Where
 D=vertical rise, mm (ft)
 L=horizontal distance, mm (ft)
 G = gradient, %
•
Elevation of point B=48 347
mm Elevation of point A =47
463 mm
Vertical difference D=884 mm
Horizontal difference L= 35
357 mm
There fore:
 Proportion of Slope can also be expressed
as a ratio of the horizontal distance to the
vertical rise , such as three to one (3:1).
The ratio method is used typically for
slopes 4:1 (25%) or steeper.
 Degree of Slope is expressed in degrees only
on larges scale earth-moving projects such
as strip mining and other extractive
operations.
•
  Spot elevations provide additional
SP information beyond that given by the
O contour lines. They indicate Micro
grading.
T  Spot elevations are used to establish
limits of slope, to locate contour lines,
EL and to provide detail for establishing
E control points that cannot be obtained
via contour lines.
V  Typical locations for taking spot
elevations are:
A  Top and bottom of steps.
TI  Tops of retaining wall.
 Outside entrances to buildings.
O  Inside floor levels of buildings.
N 

Corners of all structures.
Beak points.
S  Centers of all swales.

  The elevation of any point on an accurately
drawn contour plan may be determined by
interpolation.
IN  In the figure, point A lies about 7/10 the
TE distance from contour 53 to contour 54; thus,
A has an approximate elevation of 53.7.
R •
P •
O
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O
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 U
R  All intersection points of a grid are marked
on the ground with temporary stakes.
V  The elevations of each intersection point are
EY taken with a transit or level and the
elevation data is plotted on a gridded plan
& of the site.
PL  The elevations of critical high or low points
that fall between the intersections are also
O located on the plan.
TT  Once all spot elevations have been determined,
contours at regular intervals [typically 1
IN 000 mm, 500 mm, or 250 mm (5 ft, 2 ft, or 1
ft)] can be located and plotted on a map, as
G shown in Figure ahead.
C  Often this can be done by eye, since few
contour maps require great precision.
O •
N •
T •
TRANSIT SURVEY GRID
CONTOURS INTERPOLATED FROM GRID
 A
DI
N
 Slopes of less than about 2 percent in the
G open landscape appear flat to the human eye.
F However, in areas adjacent to built
structures, even the slightest slope becomes
O noticeable because of the relationship of
the grade to mortar joints, roof lines and
R other level architectural features.
D
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IN
E
D
A
R
Perimeter Edge Level:
Figures schematically illustrate alternative
methods for manipulating a surface for drainage
while allowing at least one peripheral edge to
remain level.
Two Perimeter Edges Level:
Figures schematically illustrate drainage
schemes applicable when two perimeter edges need
to be level.
 Entire Area Level:
 Some circumstances, such as rooftop
landscapes or enclosed courtyards, require that
the entire surface of the enclosed area be
level.
 Figure ahead illustrates two ways that an
area can remain level and still drain properly
by the use of porous surface material, such as
sand/gravel the use of individually elevated
Each case requires an adequate system beneath
the pavers to carry required rainfall
effectively.
These alternatives are applicable to relatively
flat surfaces as tennis courts and other types of
courts.
A
TI  Preparing site grading plan
C – Grading of a site should be thoughtful
systematic process that begins with an
G analysis and understanding of the site
R and ends with an overall detailed
Grading plan.
A – Site Analysis:
DI  Study the general lay of the land by
using topographic maps and site visits.
N  1. Determine high points, low points,

G ridges, and valleys.

 2. Note natural drainage systems and

F directions of flow that exist on the

O site.
– Site use concept:
R  Determine how existing landforms would
O affect proposed use areas, such as building
locations, roads, parking areas, walkways,
PE plazas, and lawn areas.
N –
SITE ANALYSIS
(EXAMPLE)
SITE USE CONCEPT (EXAMPLE)
 Schematic grading plans:
 Define general use areas, set building

floor a areas by spot elevations, and

diagram drainage flow using slope arrows
pointing along the direction of flow.
This will help in the following
procedures:
 1. Developing a general landform concept.
 2. Locating swales and surface water flow.

 3. Locating drainage receptacles.

 4. Calculating water runoff for various

areas.
 5, Defining an area that could be altered

(raised or lowered) with limited impact

on drainage or existing trees. This area
could be used to help balance any
surplus cut or fill.
–
BASIC AREA GRADING
 Grading by spot elevations
 Grade by spot elevations and form
preliminary contouring, using the following
steps in the order shown (always strive to keep
disturbed areas as small as possible):
1. Set tentative gradients and spot grades on

roads, walks, and swales. Establish critical

spot elevations.
2. Set the building grade circuit, i.e., floor

elevation, steps, walls, terraces, etc.

3.Draw in preliminary contours at 1 500 mm or 30

000 mm (5- or 10-ft) intervals, depending upon

the scale of the project and topographic
change. Make certain that all gradients and
slopes are within the maximum/minimum criteria
for a particular use, i.e., lawn, roadway,
terrace, and cut slope or embankment.
4. Complete all contour alterations within the

property line or project limits.

•
GRADE BY SPOT ELEVATIONS (EXAMPLE)
 Preliminary Cut-and-Fill Calculations:
 Do preliminary calculations (if needed) to
determine whether there is a balance between the
amount of earth to be cut out and the amount of
earth needed for fill.
 Final Grading Plan:
1. Prepare final road profiles.
2. Indicate changes in direction or rate of
slopes.
3. Show spot elevations for all critical points,
including manholes, inverts, drainage
structures, tops and bottoms of all walls,
steps, and curbs at intersections and/or
other critical points.
4. Draw proposed contours and complete The final
grading plan
5. Complete an estimate of the amount of cut and
fill based upon the proposed Grading plan,
and, if needed, adjust the Amount of one or
both to make them Balance.
E
N The following steps should be highlighted in the
specifications regarding the construction
T process:
A 1. Collect and submit soil samples for all areas
to be disturbed.
TI 2. Erect tree protection fencing to encompass all
O feeder roots within the drip zone of
existing trees designated to remain.
N 3. Protect all existing pavements and site
& structures designated to remain.
4. Strip existing sod to a 2-1/2- to 4-inch depth
C and either compost or stockpile for future
O use.
5. Strip and stockpile topsoil separately.
N 6. Erect temporary erosion control structures to
ST halt the flow of sediments off the property
or onto existing paved surfaces and
R structures.
U
7. Install gravel aprons at all egress points off
the property to lessen the tracking of soil
and debris onto roadways.
8. Remove any unsuitable soils and debris from
the site.
9. Prior to filling, scarify subgrade to a depth
of 6 inches; and moisture-condition to
obtain the desired compaction.
10.When filling, place soil in 8-inch lifts.
Moisture-condition each layer of soil, and
compact before additional fill is placed.
11.Allow for settlement and shrinkage of soil
when determining final grade.
12.After final sub-grade elevations have been
established.
•
 Following conditions must be avoided
or re - evaluated :
– Grading that results in radical loss
of vegetation and/or topsoil.
– Grading that interrupts in natural
drainage.
– Grading that results in aesthetic
degradation.
– Grading on difficult slopes(excess of
25%) in floodplains, estuaries, or
bogs, or in other environmentally
unique conditions.
– Grading in areas susceptible to
natural disasters, such as mud
slides or along earth quake fault
lines.
T
H
 The essential information that a grading
E plan includes:
FI 1. Existing and proposed contours.
2. Spot elevations at the corners of all
N structures such as buildings, walks,
walls, parking lots, and streets.
AL  the corners are referred as reference
G points, and the slopes are uniform between
unless noted otherwise.
R 3. Spot elevations at all high points and low
points.
A 4. Contours that cross pavements are uniform
DI mechanical lines while contours on the
surface of ground are drawn freehand.
N 5. Spot elevations at top and bottom of steps
and ramps.
G 6. The elevation of ground before the entrance.
PL 7. Spot elevations at drainage inlets marked as
“rim” elevations and the “invert”
A elevations

N 6.
  The process of removal of earth from one
part of site to achieve required grading
and the place and using the dug up earth
C to achieve required grading by filling
it at another place on the same sit.
U
 The amount of material from cuts roughly
T matches the amount of fill needed to
A make nearby embankments, so minimizing
the amount of construction labor.
N •
D
FI
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 When soil is dug or blasted it looses the
original position and adds to the bulk
result in increase of volume, this is
termed as a swell.
 When the soil placed in new location with
nominal compaction, the voids present
there are filled and this is called as
shrinkage.
Standards for grading around a typical
building.
Surface drainage can be achieved by


pitching surfaces to natural drainage

feature and systems.

Grading to create berms. Berms can be created


for noise and wind barriers or for additional soil

depth above unfavorable sub-grade conditions, such
as a high groundwater table.

Grading to create level areas .


Relatively flat gradients are needed for

sports fields, outdoor terraces, and
sometimes for areas near buildings.

Grading to modify existing landforms . Deep


gullies, narrow ridges, or steep slopes can be

modified to create more useful and attractive
landforms.

Grading for increased site interest .


Grading can help emphasize a site's topography

or add interest to an otherwise flat site.

Grading related to good


views.

Grading to expose


vistas
Grading related to bad


views.

Grading to fit structures to


sites.
Grading to facilitate better plant


growth
Grading to emphasize or control


circulation.

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Schematic grading
for outdoor
basketball court
Schematic grading
for outdoor tennis
court
Schematic Grading of football/Soccer/hockey
field
T
H  Earth work computations require measuring
irregularly shaped areas on plans and
W sections. The quickest way to do this
manually is to use an instrument called
O compensating polar Planimeter.
R  There are three methods used to estimate
K earthwork volumes:
1. The average depth method,
C 2. Average end area method and,
O 3. The contour method.

M


P
U
T
A
TI
V
 It is most often employed to estimate
E excavation quantities.
R 1. A grid is placed over area that is to
have the earth work quantities
A estimated.
G 2. The existing elections are estimated from
the topographic plan, or the original
E survey grid may be used if available.
3. The new elevation are recorded for each
D point.
EP 4. The difference in the elevations are
found for each point in the grid.
T 5. The differences in elevation are then
H averaged for each corner of the grid
square to find n average depth for
M that grid.
ET 6. This is repeated for each grid.
 Very accurate. Suitable for small areas.
H
–
O
E
R  It utilizes sections cut through the site at
A regular intervals.
 The end area of cross section, is averaged with
G the adjacent section and then multiplied by
the distance between the sections to obtain
E the volume.
E  Cut and Fill:
N – The new profiles after the cut or fill
are placed over existing ones and the
D are to be cut and filled in the
section are calculated and the
A multiplied separately with distance
between two contours to get the
R volumes.
E
A
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ET
H
T
H
E
C
 It uses existing and proposed contour pairs to
O estimated volume.
N  This method is not as accurate as the others.
 Does not require use of grid or preparation of
T section .
O  The area between existing contour and the
proposed contour is calculated.
U  This area is multiplied by the value of
R contour interval to obtain volume.

M
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D
M
O One of the principle objective of grading
V plan is to collect transfer, and dispose of
surface water.
AL There are various methods of removal of water

O from a site . They are as follows:

1 . Surface runoff
F – It is the first and most visible
W method of removing water from a
site.
A
– The precipitation that is not
TE absorbed into the soil accumulates
R across the site the site and is
collected in swales or into
F subsurface storm sewer systems.
R – Ultimately all of the runoff in a
watershed is combined into
O freshwater tributaries which find
M their way into the sea.
M
O 1 . Subsurface runoff
V – It is the second method of removing
water from a site.
AL – In this method the water is allowed
O to percolate through the soil and
become a part of ground water
F supply or an aquifer.
W 2 . Evaporation
A – Includes evaporation of water from
water bodies, plants and other
TE sources of surface water.
R 3 . Transpiration
F – The fourth method is absorption of
water by plants for photosynthesis.
R
O
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 The drainage process begins with three
primary considerations:
– Determine where the water is coming from
– Where it needs to go
– How it traverses the site
 An analysis of the site its context
relative to the development of a grading
plan should document, as minimum :
1. The topographical characteristics of the
site.
2. Any unusual type soil type.
3. Fixed elevations or points.
4. Areas to be kept dry and their corresponding
elevations.
5. Location and extent of existing sewer system.
R
A 

 To avoid problems associated with drainage

DI the designer must not leave anything to
N chance. Though each site is different,
following the criteria mentioned below,
G some of drainage problems may be solved.
A – Ensure that the water flows downhill,
and perpendicular to the contours.
N – Combination of natural methods of
D removal of water from site must be
identified and combined with the
D artificial ones.
R 

AI 

N 

A
G
 E  The most common techniques for estimating
runoff are :
ST – Soil conservation method
IM – Runoff curve number method
A – Rational method
– The small storm hydrology WQV method.
TI  The SCS Runoff method is more sophisticated
N model useful for larger watersheds and larger
design storms.
G  The rational method is more commonly used for
R small watersheds.
 Modified rational method:
U – This method for calculating runoff rate assumes-
N 1. Rainfall intensity is uniform throughout the duration
of the storm.
2. Precipitation falls on the entire drainage area for
O duration of the storm
3. Peak discharge of the rainfall is equal to at the time
FF of concentration.
4. Time of concentration is atleast six minutes.

  STEP1: choose an appropriate design storm,
R delineate the watershed, identify outlet and
calculate watershed area (A) in hectares.
A  STEP 2: determine app. Runoff coefficient (C)
TI based on land cover characteristics and
hydrologic soil group. In landscapes with
O several soil types, composite value of C is
N used. If the design storm return period is
greater tan 10 years, multiply runoff
AL coefficient (cf).
 STEP 3: calculate the time of concentration for
M the watershed (Tc) in minutes, using Kirpich
ET formula.
 STEP 4: Calculate rainfall intensity using
H Steel formula
O  STEP 5: calculate the peak discharge (Q) using
the formula:
D – Q=KCIA



 F
A
 Subsurface runoff is collected in area drains,
C catch basins, and trench drains.
E  The are drain should be located at the lowest
point in a drainage area. It is conceptually
SY like a big shower drain through which all of
the water falling in a specified area
ST passes.
E • Trench drain is
term that has been
M given to any linear
S drain, this
structure is often
A used at bottom of
the slope where
N water needs to be
D collected to
protect an adjacent
ST area.
R
U
 The catch basin is also a drain but it is
designed to catch debris in its base
below the pipe that transfers the water
to a point of disposal. When the lid of
the catch basin is lifted, the debris and
sediment would otherwise have clogged
the drainage system can be removed.
 Subsurface collection is often accomplished
with perforated pipe set in ditches
filled with gravel


•
Dry wells provide an
underground disposal system
for surface runoff: but
their effectiveness is in
direct proportion to the
porosity of surrounding
soils, and they are
efficient only for draining
small areas. High rainfall
runoff rates cannot be
absorbed at the rather low
percolation rates of most
soils, so the difference is
stored temporarily in a dry
well. Efficiency is reduced
during extended periods of
wet weather when receiving
soils are saturated and the
well is refilled before it
drains completely.
R
F
 Surface drainage systems intercept and collect
A storm water runoff and convey it away from a
building and site with the use of large
C inlets and storm drains.
E  Surface and Subsurface systems typically
require discharge either through a pumping
D station or by gravity drainage to an
R adequate outfall.
 Surface drainage systems are designed to
AI collect and dispose of rainfall runoff to
prevent the flow of water from damaging
N building structures (through foundation
A leakage), site structures, and the surface
grade (through erosion).
G •
E •
SY
ST
E
 The two basic types of surface drainage are:
– The open system and
– The closed system.
 The open system, which utilizes a ditch/swale
and culvert, is used in less densely
populated, more open areas where the flow of
water above grade can be accommodated fairly
easily.
 The closed system, which utilizes pipes, an
inlet/catch basin, and manholes, is used in
more urban, populated areas, where land must
be used efficiently and water brought below
the surface quickly to avoid interference
with human activity. The two systems are
commonly combined where terrain, human
density, and land uses dictate.

 Swales are shallow channels with parabolic
cross section. They may be very wide at
times. They are used to divert water
around a building. They are not used
where wind flow is more than 1.2 m/s.
 Ditches are also channels with a deeper
section. They are used wind velocities
are higher.


•
 A pervious or porous paving system is often
used for parking and other hard site
surfaces. This drainage system allows water
to percolate through the paved surface into
the soil, similar to the way the land would
naturally absorb water.
•
Porous Type Paving
z
D
EL
1. New runoff must never be purposefully
IN diverted from its natural course on one
E property so as to become a nuisance to
other property.
F 2. Always consider some method to retard the
O velocity of the water so that it might
be absorbed into the soil.
R 3. Design the grading and drainage plan as to
G respect, reinforce and duplicate the
existing natural systems.
R
4. While on occasions there are few
A alternative, a drainage plan with more
DI than one outlet course is considered
good planning.
N 5.
G
PL
A
5. Avoid draining large paved area across
pedestrian paths. Catch basins and trench
drains can be used to collect the
substantial quantities of runoff created by
parking lots. Or pedestrian plazas.
6. Identify any areas that appear to be
appropriate for drainage structures. Sinks,
depressions, or long channels are always
primary candidates for a catch basin or
drains.
7. In the design, subsurface systems begin at
higher elevation of the site and work their
way towards the lower elevations.
Surface drainage systems are generally preferred

to underground systems for two reasons:

– Cost
– Ecology
•
•
 Avoid the following while providing
drainage to site:
– System that necessitates the location
of drainage line that ruptures a
foundation or passes under a slab.
– Avoid cutting a hole in a ground beam
for a pipe.


–
N
G  The road has a constant slope and thus
F presents more problem.
 The function of the road is to serve as an
O path for vehicles and as an adjunct to
R the drainage system.
 A road must be designed:
ST – in conformance to strict design
R standards, maintaining appropriate
grades, curvatures and sight
E distances.
ET – To minimize fluctuations across
S variable terrain.
– To have a constant slope or gradient.
A – To provide shortest route possible.
N – To minimize cut and fill.
D – As far as possible parallel to the
contour lines.
R
–
  Pavement:
 Pavements are classified as being either
flexible or rigid and as either monolithic or
unit. Additionally, they are porous or non-porous.
P 

A 

V


E
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TS
 The pavement material receives traffic wear and
transfers loads to the base and sub grade.
 They may be classified in three ways:
– Material
 Soft cover
 Hard cover
– Construction
 Flexible pavement
 Rigid pavement
– Porosity
 Porous
 Non porous
– Structure
 Unit
 monolithic
•

 Flexible Pavements:
– Flexible monolithic pavements consist of
aggregates. shredded rubber, or polymers
which are mixed with an asphalt or
proprietary binder and placed on a
prepared base to create a seamless
monolithic surface.
– These pavements may be porous or non.
porous, and firm or resilient, depending
on aggregate and binder composition.
– Asphalt and resilient athletic surfacing
are common examples and are typically 40-
100 mm (1 1/2- 4 In) thick,
– Flexible unit pavements typically consist
of dry-laid, sand swept, butt jointed
concrete. brick, stone. or synthetic
paving units placed on a sand setting bed
and d prepared aggregate base.
– These pavement by virtue of their butt
joint construction are porous to semi-
porous.
 Rigid Pavements:
– Rigid pavements (i.e. reinforced cone are
structurally different than flexible
pavements, Pavement loads are
distributed internally within the Rigid
pavement and transferred to the sub-
grade over a broad area, in a manner
similar to that found in a concrete
spread footing.
– Rigid monolithic pavements are typically
constructed as cast-in-place reinforced
concrete slabs. Rigid unit pavements
require paver to be mortared or glued to
a reinforced concrete base.



TYPES OF PAVINGS
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U
1. LAWS OF CONTOUR
E 2. METHOD OF CALCULATING CUT AND FILL VOLUMES
N 3. CONSIDERATIONS OF WORKING ON A SLOPING SITE
TL 4. SLOPES FOR OUTDOOR FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
5. IMPORTANCE OF GRADING
Y 6. STEPS OF GRADING
A 7. KINDS OF PAVINGS
8. CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF PAVINGS
S 9. INTERPOLATION
K 

E
D
Q
U
E
ST
 1. Time saver standards : landscape architecture
2. Landscape architecture graphic standards
BI 3. Landscape architecture construction :
BL  Harlowe C. Landphair
4. Landscape architecture : Michael Laurie
IO
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