IDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS




e

v
e




e

i-

vd

v+

i+

HH

HH

HH

HH
H
H





+ 



+


o




io

Example:

b


i-


e



Voltage Follower (Buffer, Isolating Amplifier)





vo



OP-AMP

2






vin

vd
+

HH

HH

HH

HH
H





b




+ 


i+

vo





.................................................................................................

inverting input terminal

Find vo in terms of vin

.................................................................................................

non-inverting input terminal

output terminal

.................................................................................................

i = 0 ,

Ideal Op-Amp:

i+ = 0 ,

vd = 0

ideal op-amp:

i = 0
i+ = 0
vd = v+ v = 0

virtual
shortcircuit
model

KVL





   

vin vd vo = 0

.................................................................................................

Note:

vo = vin
4

io 6= 0

   

Example:

Inverting Amplifier

Example:

Non-inverting Amplifier
Rf

Rf


3

b



R1

1
i-

b

v
+ d
b
2

i



vin

HH

HH

HH

+ 








b

4

b

R1

vo

i+



Find vo in terms of vin

i = 0 ,

i+ = 0 ,

vd = 0

G 1 ( e1 e3 ) + Gf ( e1 e4 ) + i = 0

vo





vo = e 4

vo =

i = 0 ,

i+ = 0 ,

v d = e2 e1 = 0 ,
vin = e2 ,

i = i+ = 0

vo = e 4

plug the extra equations into KCL at node 1 and solve for e4
.................................................................................................

G1 vin Gf vo = 0

( G 1 + Gf ) e 1 = Gf e4
=

G1
Rf
vin =
vin
Gf
R1

vo =

( G1 + Gf )
G1
vin = ( 1 +
) vin
Gf
Gf
vo = ( 1 +

4
3

vd = 0

G 1 e1 + Gf ( e 1 e 4 ) + i = 0

node 1)
extra equations:

plug the extra equations into KCL at node 1 and solve for e4
.................................................................................................

G 1 e3 G f e4 = 0



.................................................................................................
node analysis:

v d = e 2 e 1 = 0 , e 2 = 0 , i = i+ = 0
vin = e3 ,

b
b


Find vo in terms of vin

.................................................................................................
Ideal Op-Amp:

.................................................................................................
Lets use node analysis: When using node analysis to find output voltage of op-amp
circuits, write node equations at inverting or/and non-inverting terminals; avoid writing a KCL at
a node that has a voltage source connected (when possible).
.................................................................................................

extra equations:



.................................................................................................

.................................................................................................

node 1)

HHHH

+ 

.................................................................................................

Ideal Op-Amp:

HH

vin

2 b + vd 


Rf
) vin
R1
4

Example:

Algebraic Summer



R2


b

THEOREMS FOR LINEAR CIRCUITS



1
i-

b

v
+ d
b
2

i


vs2

+

vs1

SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
The responses



R1

 
b

Rf

HHHH

+ 





due to


b

several independent voltage and current sources acting all together

is equal to the
SUM of the responses due to each independent source acting alone .

vo

.................................................................................................
Therefore, we can solve for circuit variables by

activating each independent source one at a time.

.................................................................................................

Find vo in terms of vs1 and vs2

.................................................................................................
Ideal Op-Amp:

i = 0 ,

i+ = 0 ,

( circuit variables---branch voltages, branch currents,

node voltages, mesh currents, ...)

vd = 0

add the individual responses to obtain the

total response due to all of them operating together.

Finally, we

? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

activate independent sources one at a time means all other independent sources
are TURNED-OFF , i.e., SET EQUAL TO ZERO
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

.................................................................................................
node analysis:
node

when independent voltage source is turned-off, then

b

1) G1 ( e1 e3 ) + G2 ( e1 e4 ) + Gf ( e1 e5 ) + i = 0
?

extra equations:

v d = e 2 e 1 = 0 , e 2 = 0 , i = i+ = 0
vs1 = e3 ,

vs2 = e4 ,

vo = e 5

plug the extra equations into KCL at node 1 and solve for e5
.................................................................................................

G1 e3 G2 e4 Gf e5 = 0 = G1 vs1 G2 vs2 Gf vo = 0
=

= 0

short-circuit
b

.................................................................................................

when independent current source is turned-off, then is

b

set is

= 0

= 0

then it becomes an

?
is 

set vs

then it becomes a



Rf
Rf
vs1
vs2
R1
R2



G1
G2
vo =
vs1
vs2
Gf
Gf

vo =

vs



vs = 0

open-circuit
b

Example:

Find va using the Superposition Theorem

10

vs1

10


s2

b
+


Step 2:
b

va

vs1 = 6 cos 4 t V ,

Example continued:


6

is

vs1 active,
b

10

vs1

10


vs2 = 30 V ,

is = 10 A

vs1

10


v 0a

Step 3:

10

10 k 10 = 5

Voltage divider:
va00 =

5
vs2 = 10 V
15

set vs1 = 0 , vs2 = 0

4

10

va

4
+

6
b
b

va

va0 =

5
vs1 = 2 cos 4 t V
15

6
b

10 k 10 = 5


6

5+4=9

is



Current divider:

000

Voltage divider:

000

10

is active,

10
b

10 k 10 = 5

.................................................................................................

=
10

6 + 4 = 10



va00

s2

b
+


s2


6 + 4 = 10

va00

10

set vs2 = 0 , is = 0
b

set vs1 = 0 , is = 0

v 0a

10



.................................................................................................

Step 1:

vs2 active,


6

is



i=

6
is = 4 A
15

va000 = 5 i = 20 V

.................................................................................................
Finally:

ADD: By Superposition,

va = va0 + va00 + va000 = 2 cos 4 t + 10 + 20 = 2 cos 4 t + 30 V

4
8

Example: Find i3 using Superposition

r i3

+ @@
@




@
@
b



Do NOT turn off

i3

R3

ix



set vs = 0


r i3


b

+ @@
@

Node analysis:
eo = 0 , e 1 = 0

R2






@
@
b


b

b 

i03

R1

G2(e2 e3) ix = 0

R3

extra: e1 e2 = ri3 = rG3 e3

1
0
Therefore,
G2 +G3 (1+rG2 ) is = i3 = G3 e3
.................................................................................................

@
@

R1

@
@
@

i003

b
' $

ia
6

set is = 0
b



+
vs



b

i-

R2

Mesh analysis:
= ib

i003

KVL mesh a)

' $

?i00
3

ib


3

R1 ia vs = 0



voc

ib =

1
vs
r + R2 + R3

.................................................................................................
R2
1
0
00
is +
vs 4
By Superposition, i3 = i3 + i3 =
r + R2 + R3
r + R2 + R3
9


b





@
I
@

Circuit N replaced by its Th

evenin equivalent circuit
.................................................................................................

iisc


6


KVL mesh b)

vs r i003 R2 ib R3 ib = 0



+
v
b





vs active,

Req

G3e3 + G2(e3 e2) is = 0

0
e2 = r G3 e3 = e3 =

Step 2:

No coupling between circuits N and M

KCL node 3)



.................................................................................................

KCL node 2)

is



is active,



@
I
@

Circuit

v
b

dependent sources

.................................................................................................

Step 1:

Circuit

is

+
vs


R1

R2

THEVENIN
& NORTON THEOREMS:

a
i- 
b
Linear
Any
+

Req




b

+
v
b



@
I
@



Circuit N replaced by its Norton equivalent circuit

.................................................................................................
voc
open-circuit voltage or Thevenin voltage

isc

short-circuit current

Req = Rt

or

Norton current

equivalent resistance
10

or

Thevenin resistance

Open-circuit voltage voc

Example:



b

( oc = 0 )
-

Linear

+
voc
b

Circuit
N

an open-circuit
6



.................................................................................................

Short-circuit current isc



Linear
Circuit
N

+
( vsc


b
?

=0)

isc

b



6





2A



1

b

replaced by
a short-circuit

.................................................................................................

Thevenin resistance Req

Set all independent sources in the circuit N equal to zero.



b

turn-off all



independent

+ vt



N0

b


b


Req

11










6



apply test voltage vt

then:

Req =

vt
it

ix



6V





ioc


b

2A

3
b

= 0 
b

+ 
voc

b



1
1
1

1)
e1 i x 2 = 0

e1 + e2 = 2

3
6
1

=
e
e
2) ix + e2 = 0

1
2 6 =

e2 = 6 V = voc

extra) e2 e1 = 6
........................................................................
Step 2: Find the short-circuit current isc




b

.................................................................................................

voc = Req isc

Node equations:

it

.................................................................................
Step 1: Find the open-circuit voltage voc



sources

6V
+



replaced by



Find Thevenin and Norton

equivalent circuits
 
a
b
as seen at terminals 



6




ix



6V




b

2A

3
b



?
b

12



isc





Example continued:

Example:

Find Thevenin & Norton equivalents of circuit

1
5
1
e1 i x 2 = 0
e1 + e2 = 2
6
6
6
1
1
e2 = 3 V =
2) ix + e2 + e2 = 0

3
2

isc = 0.5 e2 = 1.5 A

extra) e2 e1 = 6
........................................................................
Step 3: Find the equivalent resistance Req
1)

All independent sources are turned off (i.e., current source becomes open-circuit, voltage

N
R





b 

?
is 



vt



3
b

b 

Req



Req = 4

.................................................................................................

4


6V +



1.5 A
b



6



b



voc


b 

@
@

6
?
@
is 
@

KCL 1)

i1 5 i 1 + i s = 0

+
KVL outer loop
voc
vs + R i1 voc = 0


b

5 i1

b


i1





isc


b 

@
@

6
?
@
is 
@

5 i1

?
b

Req

@
6@
b



it

@
@

Norton equivalent circuit

13

i1



R

+

vs 

i1



Thevenin equivalent circuit

b


Step 3: Find the equivalent resistance



RL

isc



voc = vs + R

KCL 1)

i1 5 i1 + is + isc = 0
KVL outer loop

vs + R i 1 = 0

4
R vs A
.................................................................................................




b

Step 2: Find the short-circuit current

( 6 = 4 1.5 ! )


+
vL

5 i1

1
4 is V
.................................................................................................

.................................................................................................
Check:

voc = Req isc

@
@

Step 1: Find the open-circuit voltage



2 + 2 = 4

.................................................................................................

R

+

vs 

6k3 = 2

@
6@

vL


b



vs 

source becomes short-circuit when set equal to zero).

it

1

. Then find



Node equations:

b 



5 i1


+ vt



Req







isc = is

KCL 1)

i1 5 i 1 i t = 0
KVL outer loop

R i1 v t = 0
vt
R
Req =
=
it
4

.................................................................................................
check:
voc = Req isc
14

Example continued:



Req


b

+
vL



voc +



Example continued:



RL

b



sc 6


+
Req v
L

RL
4

b



Thevenin equivalent circuit



8i

voc

isc =
(Req

4
vs i s A
R
Req = 0.25 R

.................................................................................................

Example: Find Thevenin & Norton equivalent circuits seen by R L and find iL




b
?

iL

RL

vs = 32



 ?

b 

i
2


b

+@
@

i
? sc

ia

ib



b 

i = ib

mesh

a) 4 ia + 8 ib = 0

mesh

b) vs 2 ib = 0

= ib = 0.5 vs
ia = 2 i b = v s

0
isc = ia ib = 0.5 vs = 16 A

.................................................................................................

8i
@

+@
@




b

@
'
$

Req

i = i a ib
a)
4ia + 8(ia ib) 2(ia ib) = 0
Mesh equations: with

it

mesh

t
' $

b) 2 (ia ib) vt = 0
= ia = 3 ib , 4 ib = vt


b
vt

Req =
= 4
0

it
i
=

i
t
b
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...................
v
=
R
i
check:
4
oc
eq
sc
1
1



6ia

+
vL

64 V

+



Current divider:

15

 ?
' $

@
'
$

6ib

RL

iL =

0

4
RL 4

mesh



16 A
6



b


Thevenin



Step 3: equivalent resistance

voltage divider:

8i

2 KVL voc 8 i + 4 i = 0

Mesh equations: with

vs = 32


RL
RL
=
voc =
( vs + 0.25 R is ) V
RL + Req
RL 0.25 R

@
+@

= i = 0.5 vs

isc



8i

may be negative when the circuit contains dependent sources)

                                      
Now find vL from either one of the equivalent circuits:

vL

2 i + vs 8 i + 4 i = 0

voc = 4 i = 2 vs = 64 V
0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
...................................................................

Norton equivalent circuit

From the Thevenin equivalent circuit using



Step 2: short-circuit current

voc = vs + 0.25 R is

 ?

KVL

vs = 32




@
+@



voc

Step 1: open-circuit voltage


b

Norton

isc =

64
RL 4
16

+
4 vL

RL

b




SOURCE TRANSFORMATIONS

Req
b






voc +



isc
equivalent to

b


Thevenin


6



b

Req

b


Norton



voc = Req isc



isc = Geq voc

Transformations between these two circuits sometimes simplifies circuit analysis.

.................................................................................
Example: Find i using source transformations
b


6

6A

18 V
+





2
12 V
+





16/3 V
+



Now all we need is one KVL:

12 2 i 4 i 2 i 16/3 = 0 =

i = 5/6 A

                                      

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER



 L
b
-

4A



i
+
vL

Req


RL

voc +



b




a i
+
vL

L
b -

RL

b






What is the value of load resistance RL so that maximum power is delivered to RL ?


6

8/3 A



3 k 6 = 18/9 = 2
17

12 V + 2






6



8V
+



2 + 1 = 3
b

3 k 6 = 18/9 = 2
i
-

Example continued:

vL =

RL
voc
RL + Req

p L = i l vL =

2
vL2
RL voc
=
RL
( RL + Req )2

2
d pL
v 2 ( RL + Req )2 2 ( RL + Req ) RL voc
= oc
4
d RL
( RL + Req )

d pL
2
= 0 = RL2 = Req
=
d RL

RL = Req

Therefore, for maximum power transfer to load, RL = Req

and the maximum power delivered is
pL =

2
voc
4 Req

18

Example: Find RL that would absorb maximum power;

R1



1

b

v
+ d
b

vs
+



2

b

i+



R2

QQQ
+

b 
b

R3

vs= 30 V, is = 5m A

R4 

b 



RL

is

b



R1 = 5 k , R2 = 10 k , R3 = 1 k , R4 = 10 k
.................................................................................................
Find Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit:

Step 1: open-circuit voltage

vs

R1







1

b

v
+ d
b
2


Ideal op-amp:

i+

R2

QQQQ
+

vs

R1



1

b

2


i+



b 
b

R3





i+ = i = 0 , vd = 0 = e1 = e2 = 0

Node equations: at 1) G1 ( e1 vs ) + G2 ( e1 e3 ) = 0
= e3 = (G1 /G2) vs = (R2/R1 ) vs

= voc = ea = e3 + R4 is = 10 V
.................................................................................................

R3

R4 

b 
b

?
s

isc

b






1

b

v
+ d
b
2

b

Node equations: at

i+

Req
Q

R2

QQQQ
+



3 b

R3

R4



it

b 

b




vt



b

1) G1 ( e1 0 ) + G2 ( e1 e3 ) = e3 = 0

at a) G4 ( ea e3 ) it = 0 , where ea = vt
= vt = R4 i4 = Req = R4 = 10 k
.................................................................................................
check:
voc = Req isc
10 k

(inverting amplifier)

at a) G4 ( ea e3 ) is = 0

19

R1

voc



b 
b

= isc = G4 e3 + is = 1 m A
.................................................................................................

a
+



QQQ
+

at a) G4 ( ea e3 ) is + isc = 0 , where ea = 0



b 
b




R2

Node equations: at 1) G1 ( e1 vs ) + G2 ( e1 e3 ) = 0
= e3 = (G1 /G2 ) vs = (R2 /R1 ) vs (inverting amplifier)

R4

is

v
+ d
b

Step 3: equivalent resistance

voc

isc

Step 2: short-circuit current

10 V





Thevenin



For maximum power transfer


b

+
vL

b




RL = Req = 10 k
RL

and the maximum power absorbed by RL

pL =

2
voc
100
=
= 2.5 m W
4 Req 40 103
4

20