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ResearchParadigm

WebsterDictionarydefinesparadigmas"anexampleorpattern:small,selfcontained,simplified
examplesthatweusetoillustrateprocedures,processes,andtheoreticalpoints."Themostquoted
definitionofparadigmisThomasKuhn's(1962,1970)conceptinTheNatureofScienceRevolution,i.e.
paradigmastheunderlyingassumptionsandintellectualstructureuponwhichresearchanddevelopment
inafieldofinquiryisbased.Theotherdefinitionsintheresearchliteratureinclude:
1. Patton(1990):Aparadigmisaworldview,ageneralperspective,awayofbreakingdownthe
complexityoftherealworld.
2. Paradigmisaninterpretativeframework,whichisguidedby"asetofbeliefsandfeelingsaboutthe
worldandhowitshouldbeunderstoodandstudied."(Guba,1990).DenzinandLincoln(2001)
listedthreecategoriesofthosebeliefs:
Ontology:whatkindofbeingisthehumanbeing.Ontologydealswiththequestionofwhatisreal.
Epistemology:whatistherelationshipbetweentheinquirerandtheknown:"epistemologyisthe
branchofphilosophythatstudiesthenatureofknowledgeandtheprocessbywhichknowledgeis
acquiredandvalidated"(Gall,Borg,&Gall,1996)
Methodology:howdoweknowtheworld,orgainknowledgeofit?
Whenchallengingtheassumptionsunderlyingpositivism,LincolnandGuba(2000)alsoidentifiedtwo
morecategoriesthatwilldistinguishdifferentparadigms,i.e.beliefsincausalityandoxiology.The
assumptionsofcausalityassertsthepositionofthenatureandpossibilityofcausalrelationshipoxiology
dealswiththeissuesaboutvalue.Specificassumptionsaboutresearchincludetheroleofvaluein
research,howtoavoidvaluefrominfluencingresearch,andhowbesttouseresearchproducts(Baptiste,
2000).
DillandRomiszowski(1997)statedthefunctionsofparadigmsasfollows:
Definehowtheworldworks,howknowledgeisextractedfromthisworld,andhowoneistothink,
write,andtalkaboutthisknowledge
Definethetypesofquestionstobeaskedandthemethodologiestobeusedinanswering
Decidewhatispublishedandwhatisnotpublished
Structuretheworldoftheacademicworker
Provideitsmeaninganditssignificance
Twomajorphilosophicaldoctrinesinthesocialscienceinquiryarepositivismandpostpositivism.The
followingisacontrastoftheresearchapproachthatareentailedfromthesetwodifferentphilosophical
paradigms.

Philosophical
Inquiry

Research
Design

http://www.personal.psu.edu/wxh139/paradigm.htm

Positivism

Postpostivism

Thephysicalandsocial
realityisindependentof
thosewhoobserveit
Observationofthis
reality,ifunbiased,
constitutesscientific
knowledge.
Behavioralresearchers
ineducationand
psychologyexemplify
anapproachtoscientific
inquirythatisgrounded
inpositivist
epistemology.

Socialrealityisconstructedby
theindividualswhoparticipate
it.
Itisconstructeddifferentlyby
differentindividuals.
Thisviewofsocialrealityis
consistentwiththeconstructivist
movementincognitive
psychology,whichpoststhat
individualsgraduallybuildtheir
ownunderstandingsoftheworld
throughexperienceand
maturation.
Themindisnottabularasa
(blankslate)uponwhich
knowledgeiswritten.

Theinquiryfocuseson
thedeterminationofthe
generaltrendsofa
definedpopulations.
Thefeaturesofthe
socialenvironment

Thescientificinquirymustfocus
onthestudyofmultiplesocial
realities,i.e.thedifferentrealities
createdbydifferentindividuals
astheyinteractinasocial
environment.
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retainahighdegreeof
constancyacrosstime
andspace.
Localvariationsare
considered"noise"
Studyofsamplesand
population
Generalization:first
definingthepopulation
ofinterest,selecta
representativeofthe
population,the
researchergeneralizes
thefindingsobtained
fromstudyingthe
sampletothelarger
populationusingthe
statisticaltechniquesto
determinethe
likelihoodthatsample
findingsarelikelyto
applytothepopulation.

Findawaystogetindividualsto
revealtheirconstructionsof
socialrealities,includingthe
personbeingstudiedandthe
researcher.
Reflexivity:focusonthe
researcher'sselfasanintegral
constructorofthesocialreality
beingstudied
Thestudyofindividuals'
interpretationsofsocialreality
mustoccuratthelocal,
immediatelevel.
Studyofcases:haveyoulearned
somethingabouthiscasethat
informsusaboutanothercases?
Generalizationofcasestudy
findingsmustbemadeonacase
bycasebasis.Inotherwords,itis
thereaderwhomadethe
generalizationbasedonhisor
herowninterpretation:Thefocus
isonthetransferabilityinsteadof
generalization.

Data
Collection
andDesign

Theuseofmathematics
torepresentandanalyze
featuresofsocialreality
isconsistentwith
positivistepistemology:
aparticularfeaturecan
beisolatedand
conceptualizedasa
variable.
Thevariablescanbe
expressedasanumerical
scales.
Deductiveanalysis:
identifyunderlying
themesandpatterns
priortodatacollection
andsearchingthrough
thedataforinstancesof
them:hypothesistesting

Focusesonthestudyof
individualcasesandbymaking
"thick"verbaldescriptionsof
whattheyobserve.
Analyticinduction:search
throughdatabitbybitandthen
infersthatcertaineventsor
statementsareinstancesofthe
sameunderlyingthemesor
patterns

Viewof
causality

Amechanisticcausality
amongsocialobjects

Individuals'interpretationof
situationscausethemtotake
certainactions

LincolnandGuba(2000)madethefollowingdistinctionsbetweenpositivistandnaturalistinquiries.
Positivist
Realityissingle,tangible,
andfragmentable.
Dualism:theknowerandthe
knownareindependent.
Timeandcontextfree
generalization
Realcauses,temporally
precedenttoorsimultaneous
withtheireffects(causal
http://www.personal.psu.edu/wxh139/paradigm.htm

Naturalist
Realitiesaremultiple,constructed,
andholistic.
Theknowerandtheknownare
interactiveandinseparable.
Onlytimeandcontextbound
workinghypothesesarepossible.
Allentitiesareinastateofmutual
simultaneousshaping,sothatitis
impossibletodistinguishcausesfrom
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relationship)
Inquiryisvaluefree.

effects.
Inquiryisvaluebounded.

References:
Baptiste,I.(2000).Calibratingthe"instrument":Philosophicalissuesframingtheresearcher'srole.
ClassnotesinADTED550.
Dills,C.R.,&Romiszowski,A.J.(1997).Theinstructionaldevelopmentparadigm:Anintroduction.In
C.R.Dills,andA.J.Romiszowski(Eds).,Instructionaldevelopmentparadigms.Englewood,NJ:
EducationalTechnologyPublications,Inc.
Gall,M.D.,Borg,W.R.,&Gall,J.P.(1996).EducationalResearch:AnIntroduction(6thed.).White
Plains,NY:Longman.
Lincoln,Y.S.,&Guba,E.,G.(2000).Paradigmaticcontroversies,contradictionsandemerging
confluences.InN.K.Denzin&Y.S.Lincoln(Eds.),HandbookofQualitativeResearch(2nded.,pp.
163188).ThousandOaks,CA:SagePublications,Inc.
Patton,M.Q.(1990).QualitativeEvaluationandResearchMethods(2nded.).NewburyPark,CA:
Sage.
Smith,P.,&Ragan,T.J.(1999).InstructionalDesign.2nded.John,Wiley&Sons,Inc.

http://www.personal.psu.edu/wxh139/paradigm.htm

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