Portable Collections Program

Fossils

Table of Contents

Checklist: Whats in the Case? 1

Information for the Teacher: 3

How to Handle and Look At Museum Specimens
An Introduction to Fossils
Information About the Specimens in the Case

Activities to Do with Your Students: 11

1 Introductory Activity: Paleo Puzzle
2 Examining and Classifying Fossils
3 Make a Fossil Cast
4 Footprint Forensics
5 Create A 3-D Geologic Time Model
6 Additional Activities and Curricular Connections

Resources and Reference Materials: 24

Vocabulary Words
Connections with New York State Learning Standards
Corresponding Field Trips
Bibliography and Web Resources

 CHECKLIST: WHATS IN THE CASE?

Whats in the Case?

Specimens

Ammonites (2)
#0996, 0997

Trilobites (2)
#0731, 0995

Brachiopods (3)
#0052, 0946

Tabulate coral
#658

Fossil fish
#1380

Pelecypod
#0978

Gastropod
#0042

Echinoderm
#0538

Shark tooth
#1283

Baculite
#0984, 0996, 0997

Ichthyosaurus vertebra
#1278

Eurypterid
#1117

Dinosaur footprint
#1343

Gastrolith
#1264

Oreodont jaw section

#1329

FOSSILS 1

 CHECKLIST: WHATS IN THE CASE?

Whats in the Case?

Specimens

Graveyard
#0658

Insect in amber
#0999

Fern leaf
#0908

Petrified wood
#1787

Tools & Resources

Geologic Time Chart (laminated poster) from Brooklyn Childrens Museum
Eyewitness: Fossil by Paul D. Taylor
Fossils Tell of Long Ago by Aliki Brandenberg

FOSSILS 2

 INFORMATION FOR THE TEACHER

Guidelines for Handling Museum Notes about Object-Based

Specimens
Learning and Inquiry
Learning to handle objects from the Museums natural
history collection with respect can be part of the
educational experience of the case. Please follow
these guidelines in handling objects in the case:
Students may handle the specimens, carefully,
under your supervision.
Hold larger specimens with two hands.
Hold them by the solid part of the body or by
the strongest area rather than by rims, edges or
protruding parts.
Do not shake objects or the plexiglass cases they
may be housed in.
Temperature differences, direct sunlight, and
water can be very harmful to museum objects.
Please keep the objects away from radiators and
open windows, and keep them secure.

Learning about paleontology by examining fossil

specimens is much different from reading about it
in a book. Specimens have the power to tell us
many things, provided we are willing to look at
them in detail and think about what those details
mean. Encourage your students to carefully
examine the fossils and touch them gently. Have
them describe the specimens shape, size, and color.
Ask them questions about what they see, and what
their observations might tell them. For example:
What do you see in the specimens? Describe
their shape, color, and structure. (It is important
that your students use visual clues based on their
observations when giving their answers.)
What do you want to know about them?
What else can you see?
You can assist this process by encouraging your
students to examine individual fossils in detail, and
to think about what those details might mean. Ask
them questions about what they see, and what that
might tell them. As the conversation begins to grow,
you can ask more questions about the specimen:
What does this fossil look like? How does it compare to other specimens in the case?
What kind of fossil is this? How was it preserved?
How can you tell?
Providing books and Internet access for researching
these and other questions encourages students to
make discoveries that further their knowledge about
fossils.

FOSSILS 3

 INFORMATION FOR THE TEACHER

An Introduction to Fossils
To the teacher
Millions of years ago, the world looked very different
from how it does now. Trilobites and ammonites lived
in New York City. Dinosaurs roamed Connecticut and
New Jersey. In Wyoming, there were ancient seas full
of fish where now there are grassy plains and hills.
How do we know all this? Through fossils!
Fossils provide us with a record of life on Earth from
its earliest times, a topic that has fascinated generations of children (and adults) and continues to inspire
movies, books, and even toys. The authentic fossil
specimens in this Portable Collections case let your
students hold in their hands a piece of ancient history.
You can use these fossils to fuel students curiosity
and enthusiasm about ancient life, and to introduce
its scientific side as well. The activities in this teacher
guide support exploration into how fossils are made,
discovered, and classified. Wherever possible, we have
also included connections to other curriculum areas,
including the arts and language arts.

What is a fossil?
A fossil is the remains of an organism (plant or
animal) that lived long ago. There are the two types
of fossils: body fossils, where the organism itself or
some part or impression of it was preserved, and
trace fossils, that preserve evidence of the
organisms presence but not the organism itself.
Trace fossils are more common, since a single
organism will move around and leave lots of
evidence over time, whereas it has only one body.

How are fossils created?

The methods by which fossils are formed are quite

varied and often dramatic, ranging from simple
footprints that have hardened into molds to actual,
whole bodies preserved by freezing.

Simple burial. The organism died and was buried

under successive layers of soil. Its hard parts

usually bones or shellswere all that survived
decay. Shark and mammal teeth and tusks are
good examples of unaltered fossils.
Alteration. This is a variation of burial in which the
hard parts are dissolved by circulating water and
are replaced by minerals. If this happens very
slowly, the microscopic structures of the organism
are duplicated. If it happens quickly, only the general form shows. Fossils formed by alteration are
called replacement fossils. Petrifaction, which
means turning to stone, and involves replacement of organic material by the mineral silica, is a
type of alteration.
Freezing. Organisms that froze after death and
have not changed are very rare and never very
old. They are usually mammoths and rhinoceroses
of the last ice age that fell into pits of ice and were
frozen. (There are no examples of frozen fossils in
the case.)
Compression or carbonization. Compression occurs
when layers of sediment press so hard on the
organic remains that they are flattened. At its most
extreme, the plant or animal is reduced to a shiny
black carbon film in the form of its original shape.
Many leaf fossils are the result of carbonization.
Molds and casts. Sometimes shells, tree stumps,
or other remains were trapped in sediment that

FOSSILS 4

 INFORMATION FOR THE TEACHER

An Introduction to Fossils (continued)

hardened. Eventually the dead organism decayed

and dissolved, leaving a cavity known as a natural
mold. It may fill up with other sediments, in which
case it becomes a cast.
Amber. Amber is the fossilized sap of ancient pine
trees. Sometimes it contains fossil insects or other
small animals that got trapped in the sticky sap.
Other methods. Animals caught in asphalt pits
(such as the La Brea tar pits in Los Angeles) are
fossils. So are animals that were mummified naturally in semi-arid climates.
Tracks, trails, burrows, and borings are impressions
left by an organisms movements. The most
famous fossils of this type are dinosaur footprints,
like the one in the case.
Gastroliths, coprolites, and eggs and nests are
other examples of trace fossils. They are evidence
of the organism, but not the organism itself.

Stone tools and weapons made by ancient peoples

are also sometimes called fossils, although they are
different from natural history fossils in that they were
made by humans instead of by nature. They have
been found in many parts of the world. Some of the
oldest artifacts belonged to hunters and have been
found with the bones of extinct animals.

The study of fossils is called paleontology.

Paleontologists study fossils to help us understand
the life of the distant past. They use their knowledge
of living organisms to bring life to fragments of bones
and shells millions of years old. They compare the
remains of ancient life with present-day plants and
animals in order to determine what the ancient creatures were like. Through their study of fossils, they
are able to identify plants and animals that flourished
millions of years ago and to reconstruct the environments they inhabited.
Fossils enable paleontologists to determine the
sequence of change and adaptation as the number of
species increased and became more complex. They
can document the evolution of elephants from pigsized creatures which lived 20 to 40 millions years
ago to the giants they are now. Fossils indicate that
horseshoe crabs and cockroaches, however, have
not changed in hundreds of millions of years.
Paleontologists also identify extinct creatures, such
as dinosaurs, which dominated life millions of years
ago, but are known today only through fossil
remains. The history of early humans is based on
fossil remains found in many parts of the world. Many
gaps in our knowledge of earlier life still exist, but
new discoveries are always possible as paleontologists
strive to complete the picture of the past.

Why are fossils important?

Throughout geologic time the earth has been in the
process of change. These changes have drastically
altered environmental conditions and all living organisms. The earth is still in the midst of many changes
that cannot be detected during the relatively short
span of our lives. Most geologic change must be considered in terms of millions, or even billions, of years.
Continents have drifted apart and together, glaciers
have advanced and retreated, mountains have formed
and eroded, groups of plants and animals have
appeared, flourished and disappeared. This is the
history of our planet, and its story has been recorded
for us in fossils.

Fossils are also important economically. Coal, oil, and

natural gas are all examples of fossil fuels. Coal is a
shiny black rock formed from the remains of great
trees, some 150 feet high, and other plants that
thrived in low swamps during the Carboniferous
period. Oil, which is millions of years old, is believed
to have formed from plant and animals remains.
Natural gas may have come from oil that heated up
inside the earth or from ancient plants that rotted in
swamps. The topic of fossil fuels can spark lively discussions of conservation, since we are rapidly depleting these non-renewable underground resources in
our quest for energy.

FOSSILS 5

 INFORMATION FOR THE TEACHER

An Introduction to Fossils (continued)

Where are fossils found?

How do we know how old a fossil is?

The majority of fossils are found in sedimentary rock.

Sedimentary rock is formed from pieces (sediments)
of mud, sand, and clay that settle in layers and gradually harden into rock. The sediments were produced
by the processes that wear down the earths surface.
Other rocks (igneous and metamorphic) are subject
to forces that usually destroy fossils. The materials in
sedimentary rock provide ideal conditions for preserving fossils. Remains of organisms are buried in the
sediment and lie undisturbed throughout the long
process of fossilization. In many places the sedimentary rock is covered with soil or glacial deposits, so
fossil-bearing rock lies deep beneath the surface.
Consequently, fossil hunting is restricted to places
where the sedimentary rock is exposed, such as cliffs,
riverbanks, road cuts and quarries. Paleontologists
organize expeditions similar to those of archaeologists
to dig for fossils in areas known for their scientific
significance. Some fossils of great importance, however, have been unearthed by chance during the
course of building construction, mining, or natural
disasters that expose layers of earth previously inaccessible to scientists.

The history of the Earth is told not in months, years,

or even centuries, but in millions of years. Scientists
estimate that the earth is 4-1/2 billion years old and
that life began to evolve from a few single-celled
organisms at least 3.4 billion years ago. This vast span
of time is known as geologic time. Geologists (the
scientists who study the entire history of the earth,
not just fossils) have devised a special time scale,
based on millions of years. By studying the rate at
which sediments form in bays and basins, they estimated how long it took for each layer of sedimentary
rock to form. They also use index fossilsfossils that
are found only in a particular layer of sedimentary
rockto prove that different layers of rock, miles or
even continents apart, were formed at the same time.
Finally they determined that the layers fit into four
great divisions called eras. The eras are divided into
smaller units called periods. The Geological Time
Scale poster in the case shows the eras and periods,
the changing life forms in each, and the relative scale
of the eras.

Even with this scale, however, geologists cannot date

individual fossils or rocks in years. Instead they use a
method based on the breakdown of radioactive elements (such as uranium) in the rocks around the
fossil. These elements have unstable atomic nuclei
that break down at a steady, measurable rate to form
more stable elements. By measuring the rate of the
unstable element to the stable element associated with
it, they can get an accurate measure of the age of
the rock. This is called the atomic clock method.

Words in boldface have been included in the

Vocabulary Words section on page 24.

FOSSILS 6

 INFORMATION FOR THE TEACHER

Information About the Specimens in the Case

AMMONITES

BRACHIOPODS

Ammonites are extinct marine

mollusks similar to the nautilus.
These small, soft-bodied creatures had a hard outer shell
divided into chambers. The
colorful, pearly luster of one
of the specimens is what
remains of the inside of the
animals shell. Another specimen is embedded in
rock (called the matrix). Ammonites lived from the
early Devonian period until the end of the Cretaceous
period (about 400 to 65 million years ago). They
thrived all over the earth and were easily preserved,
so they are very common fossils. They also evolved
into different species quite rapidly. These two facts
combine to make them a very useful index fossil for
paleontologists; since they know when different
species of ammonites existed, they can often determine the age of a layer of rock by looking at the
ammonites found within it.

Brachiopods are small marine

invertebrates with two shells
that encase the animals soft
body (like a modern clam).
Brachiopods are commonly
known as lamp shells because
many of them are shaped like
ancient Roman oil lamps.
There are about 325 living species and about 12,000
fossil forms. Brachiopods were a dominant form of
life in the oceans for much of the Paleozoic era, which
spanned millions of years. Brachiopods evolved into
many different species, and members of the largest
species grew to more than one foot in diameter.
Billions of their shells accumulated in sea beds and
fossilized. Since fossil brachiopods are so abundant
and diverse, paleontologists use them as index fossils
to determine the age of the rocks in which they are
found.

TABULATE CORAL
TRILOBITES
Trilobites are extinct members
of the arthropod family (which
includes spiders, insects, and
lobsters). They lived from the
beginning of the Cambrian
period through the end of the
Permian period (about 542 to
248 million years ago). These
small marine animals fed on the mud of the ocean
floor. A trilobite's body was divided into three parts
the head, thorax (middle section), and tailwhich
gave the animal its name ("tri" means "three" in
Latin). Trilobites are common and well-known fossils,
with more than 15,000 species documented in the
fossil record.

Corals are simple aquatic animals lacking advanced organ

systems. They live together in
colonies. Corals secrete a hard,
limy skeleton whose durability
accounts for the fact that they
are well represented in the
fossil record. Tabulate corals
were confined to the Paleozoic Era.

FOSSIL FISH
Sometime between 36 and 58
million years ago, this fossil fish
was buried in an ocean bed
located in what is now
Wyoming. It was preserved in
a mud shale matrix. The brown
color defining the shape of the
fish is a thin layer of carbon
left as the organic matter decayed. The backbone
and other parts of the skeleton are visible.

FOSSILS 7

 INFORMATION FOR THE TEACHER

Information About the Specimens in the Case (continued)

PELECYPOD

SHARK TOOTH

Pelecypods are marine bivalves

that count oysters, mussels
and clams among their living
members. This fossil pelecypod is between 13 and 25
million years old. The shell still
contains most of its original
material. It has lost much of
its color, but the hardy limy substance has changed
very little.

This sharks tooth is between

25 and 36 million years old.
The outer layers are all original
material. According to the
fossil evidence, sharks first
appeared in the Devonian
period (385 million years ago),
when marine life was especially
abundant. Since that time sharks evolved into a wide
range of shapes and sizes. Today there are over 1100
species of cartilaginous fishes, all of which evolved
from the earliest sharks.

GASTROPOD
Gastropods are mollusks, like
snails, clams, and other shelled
animals. Gastropods have a
well-developed head and a
muscular foot, and most have
a spiral-shaped shell. This fossil
gastropod dates from the
Cretaceous period. Nothing
remains of the animals soft body, but the gloss of
its shells inner layer can still be seen in some places.
The rest of the gastropod has been replaced by
other minerals.

ECHINODERM
Echinoderms are marine
animals whose bodies are
covered with hard plates or
spines. Starfish, sand dollars,
and sea urchins are echinoderms. This specimen is a sea
biscuit that lived during the
Carboniferous period. Small
hairs that covered the body are missing, and the
original shell material and its interior have been
replaced by other minerals. The tiny holes that form
the petal design on its surface were used for breathing. Sand dollars appeared in the Paleocene and, of
course, can still be found in warmer waters today.

BACULITE
Collected in South Dakota,
this fossil is a piece of a shell
belonging to a baculite that
lived during the Cretaceous
period. Baculites were marine
animals related to ammonites.
Most of the original material
from this shell has been
replaced by other minerals. The patterns of white,
squiggly lines are from sutures (the part of the shell
where the walls dividing it into chambers connected
with the inner surface of the shell wall).
Paleontologists use suture patterns to identify different
species of baculites.

ICHTHYOSAURUS VERTEBRA
This is an example of an
altered fossil, meaning that
the original bone matter dissolved and was replaced by
other minerals. Ichthyosaurs
(Greek for "fish lizards") were
carnivorous marine reptiles
that lived from the Triassic to
the Cretaceous period. They had streamlined, fish-like
bodies with a long snout, a large tail fin, and limbs
adapted for use as steering paddles. Although they
looked like fish, they werent; instead, ichthyosaurs
evolved from unidentified land reptiles that moved
back into the water.

FOSSILS 8

 INFORMATION FOR THE TEACHER

Information About the Specimens in the Case (continued)

EURYPTERID

GASTROLITH

Also known as a sea scorpion, a eurypterid is an extinct

animal whose closest living
relative is the horseshoe crab.
Eurypterids were hunters,
feeding on trilobites and
cephalopods. They could be
as big as six and a half feet
long, but most were much smaller. They had a fused
head and thorax with two pairs of eyes and six pairs
of appendages. Twelve tapering segments, usually
ending in a spike, completed the body. This specimen
shows some of those segments. Eurypterids lived in
the Paleozoic era, from the Ordovician to the Permian
periods. Their fossils are relatively rare, but have been
found on nearly every continent. The eurypterid is
the state fossil of New York State, where it lived in
the Silurian period.

Smooth, round pebbles like

this one have often been
found near dinosaur bones,
or even inside dinosaur rib
cages. Some dinosaurs (especially plant-eaters) did not
have teeth suitable for grinding up their food, so they
swallowed large, rough stones. The stones came to
rest in a dinosaur's stomach, where they pounded
food into smaller pieces to help the animal's digestion. That is how gastroliths (stomach stones) got
their name. Eventually the gastroliths would be worn
down to the point where they were too small or too
smooth to be useful for grinding. Then the dinosaurs
would get rid of the stones (by either vomiting them
up or passing them out in their dung), and swallow
new ones.

DINOSAUR FOOTPRINT

OREODONT JAW SECTION

This rock contains a footprint

left by a Tuberosis dinosaur
during the Jurassic period. The
dinosaur stepped in mud, and
over time the mud turned into
red sandstone. This specimen
was collected from a rock formation in Connecticut. Since
dinosaurs are now extinct, it is difficult for scientists
to know much about how they lived, moved, and
behaved. However, fossils like this footprint may provide paleontologists with a rare window into dinosaur
behavior. For example, the depth and shape of
footprints may demonstrate that certain species of
dinosaur walked upright or on all four legs. Also, the
distance between two footprints in a set of dinosaur
tracks may yield clues about that dinosaur's posture
or how fast it could run.

Oreodonts were sheep-sized

herbivores (plant eaters). This
specimen shows how their
broad, flat teeth were well
adapted for grazing.
Oreodonts thrived all over
North America from the
Eocene (55 million to 37
millions years ago) through the Pliocene (from 5
million to about 1.8 million years ago) epochs. It is
difficult to explain their appearance in terms of
modern animals; some scientists have compared
them to small deer with pig-like heads. These animals
also have a rather strange family tree; while they were
most closely related to the modern sheep, they were
distantly linked to both pigs and camels!

GRAVEYARD
Graveyard is the term for a
conglomeration of fossils. This
conglomeration of marine
fossils includes sponges, corals,
and crinoids, all preserved in
this one specimen.

FOSSILS 9

 INFORMATION FOR THE TEACHER

Information About the Specimens in the Case (continued)

INSECT IN AMBER
Millions of years ago, the
insect inside this piece of
amber landed on a tree and
got stuck in its sticky resin.
Over time, that resin (or sap)
grew harder and eventually
turned into a type of fossil
known as amber. The same
chemical processes that turned the fresh resin into
fossilized amber also preserved the insect trapped
within it. Many insects, spiders, and even small
animals (like frogs or lizards) have been preserved
this way.

You and your students can learn more about these

specimens and other objects from around the world by
visiting Collections Central Online at
www.brooklynkids.org/emuseum.

FERN LEAF
This fern fossil dates from the
Carboniferous period. It is a
mold of the original plant, and
was exposed when a fossil
hunter split the rock open. For
millions of years, ferns dominated the earth's greenery.
They covered the floors of
damp forests and swamps all around the globe. But
the majority of fern species that existed in the era of
this fossil fern are now extinct. For the most part,
modern ferns look the same as ferns that lived millions
of years ago. However, the fern in this specimen would
have looked more like a tree than a small plant. It
had a hard trunk and grew to a height of 13 feet!

PETRIFIED WOOD
This ancient piece of wood
has turned to stone after millions of years. The original
organic material dissolved and
was replaced by other minerals (probably a silicate, like
quartz). This process occurred
underground, when the wood
was buried under sediment. Mineral-rich water flowing through the sediment deposited minerals in the
woods cells, and as the plant decayed away, a stone
cast was left in its place.

FOSSILS 10

ACTIVITY 1

Introductory Activity: Paleo Puzzle

Grades 35
Related Specimens: All
Right or wrong, children tend to have already an assortment of knowledge about fossils. This class discussion is
intended to make that knowledge public and shared
among the group. It provides a starting place for the
next activity. The word puzzle introduces some basic
fossil terms, which you may define for students or ask
them to look up on their own and/or share.

Materials:
Blackboard or chart paper
A small selection of specimens from the case
Copies of Paleo Puzzle worksheet on the next page,
one per student

What To Do:
1 Lead a discussion on the topic of fossils. Start by asking
students what they know about fossils and about life
on earth millions of years ago. List their statements on
the board or chart paper, without comment or contradiction. Together the comments create a baseline of
information, imagery, and questions for the whole
class to pursue.
2 Ask the students the Discussion Questions below and
any others that you think will stimulate their thinking.
They will not have answers to everything, but even
paleontologists may not. Remind them that by asking
questions they are helping to define the scope of the
topic for the classs work.
3 Pass around one or two of the fossils from the case
(such as the eurypterid and a gastrolith) without
telling the class what they are. What makes each
object a fossil? What kind of fossil do they think it is?
Ask each student to come up with a question about
one (or both) of the fossils. List these in a second
column on the board or chart paper.

4 Hand out the Paleo Puzzle worksheet that introduces

fossil terms and have the students fill it out. After they
compare their results (the answers are below), you
can define the terms for them, or have students work
individually or in groups to look the terms up in books
or on the Internet.

Discussion Questions:

What is a fossil?
What kinds of things can be fossils?
Is a fossil a real animal or plant?
What parts of an animal might become fossils? Why
might some parts become fossils and not others?
What could a fossil be made of?
How old does something have to be to be considered
a fossil?
How do we know how old a fossil is? How might a
scientist be able to tell?

See page 25 for details on how this activity meets

New York State Learning Standards.

Worksheet Answer Key:

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Identify some of the questions generated by the discussion for students to

RESEARCH AND
LITERACY EXTENSION: research. They can share their answers in a subsequent discussion, or write
a short report on their findings.
GRADES 35

FOSSILS 11

Paleo
Puzzle
CIRCLE THE
FOLLOWING
TERMS:
Ammonite
Baculite
Cast
Cenozoic
Dinosaur
Eurypterid
Era
Gastrolith
Geological Time
Mold
Paleontology
Sedimentary
Trace

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ACTIVITY 2

Examining and Classifying Fossils

Grades 35
Related Specimens: All
This activity gives your students a chance to look closely
at real fossils and form hypotheses about what these
organisms were and how they survived to tell us about
the past.

Materials:
Fossils from the case
Timeline poster from the case
Copies of the What Can Specimens Tell Me? chart,
one per student OR, for a whole class exercise, a
transparency of the chart and an overhead projector
Blackboard OR chart paper for recording group
observations

What To Do:
1 Depending on the age and interests of your students
and the amount of time you would like to spend, you
can do this activity using a handful of specimens or
every specimen in the case. It can be done in small
groups or as a class, looking at the specimens in turn
and filling out the chart using an overhead projector
or large chart paper.
2 For small groups, prior to the presentation of the
lesson, set the classroom up into stations (make sure
there are enough stations that you have only 34
students working at each one). Place one or more
specimens at each station.
3 Distribute the What Can Specimens Tell Me? chart
and go over it with the students. Ask them to pay
special attention to the physical properties of each of
the specimens. You may want to practice with the
class, using one of the specimens to model the
activity, if you have not already done the Introductory
Activity.

SCIENCE
EXTENSION:
GEOLOGIC TIME

4 Have the students fill in their charts as they look at the

specimens. After a few minutes, the groups should
rotate to a new station. Repeat this step as many times
as you like.
5 Have the students reconvene as a class to discuss
their findings. You may want to use the chart paper
to make notes about the students observations.
6 When you feel they have gone as far as they can with
what they observed, introduce information from your
own knowledge, this guide, or other resources about
the different types of fossils (how they were made).
Then have students sort the fossils into categories
according to how they were made.

Discussion Questions:
How could a living organism (such as a plant or an
animal) turn into a rock? What might make that
happen?
How are some of the fossils alike or different?
Which fossils give a more complete image of the
organism? Why might that be?
Which fossils are the actual organism and which ones
are a print or impression of it?
Which fossils are the oldest? How might a paleontologist tell?
Why are gastroliths and sharks teeth considered
fossils?

See page 25 for details on how this activity meets

New York State Learning Standards.

Using the timeline poster provided, have students re-sort the fossils according
to geologic era and period. Which fossils are the earliest? (There will be a
number for which no clear date is possible. You can point out that
paleontologists face this dilemma, too. How do they figure out the dates?)

FOSSILS 13

What can
specimens
tell me?
What color and texture is
the background of the
fossil? Is the rock
layered?

What type of plant or

Is the fossil an actual
animal created this fossil? plant or animal, or a
print of it? Why do you
think so?

Use your senses to observe each specimen carefully, using a hand lens if necessary. What can
you tell about the fossil just by looking at the specimen in detail? Use this chart to record
what you discover.

What can you

see of the
original plant or
animal? What color is it?

PREDATORS AND PREY 14

What can
specimens
tell me?
What color and texture is
the background of the
fossil? Is the rock
layered?

What type of plant or

Is the fossil an actual
animal created this fossil? plant or animal, or a
print of it? Why do you
think so?

Use your senses to observe each specimen carefully, using a hand lens if necessary. What can
you tell about the fossil just by looking at the specimen in detail? Use this chart to record
what you discover.

What can you

see of the
original plant or
animal? What color is it?

PREDATORS
REPTILES
AND 15
PREY 15

What can
specimens
tell me?
What color and texture is
the background of the
fossil? Is the rock
layered?

What type of plant or

Is the fossil an actual
animal created this fossil? plant or animal, or a
print of it? Why do you
think so?

Use your senses to observe each specimen carefully, using a hand lens if necessary. What can
you tell about the fossil just by looking at the specimen in detail? Use this chart to record
what you discover.

What can you

see of the
original plant or
animal? What color is it?

REPTILES 16

What can
specimens
tell me?
What color and texture is
the background of the
fossil? Is the rock
layered?

What type of plant or

Is the fossil an actual
animal created this fossil? plant or animal, or a
print of it? Why do you
think so?

Use your senses to observe each specimen carefully, using a hand lens if necessary. What can
you tell about the fossil just by looking at the specimen in detail? Use this chart to record
what you discover.

What can you

see of the
original plant or
animal? What color is it?

REPTILES 17

ACTIVITY 3

Make a Fossil Cast

All Grades
Related Specimens: Brachiopod, tabulate coral,
pelecypod, baculite, eurypterid
This is a fun and simple way to demonstrate how some
body fossils are made!

6 Remove the cast from the cardboard container or tin

can (it may be easiest to open the bottom of the can
with a can opener and push the cast out), and clean
off the clay. Voila! Everyone now has a fossil cast of
the object they chose.

Materials:

Alternatives for Younger Students:

Plastic toy animals, coins, rocks, or other objects

Empty tuna cans or similar small, shallow containers;
alternatively, use strips of oak tag cut about 2 wide,
cardboard squares, and a stapler
Modeling clay
Plaster of Paris, water, container and spatula for mixing
Optional: can opener

What To Do:

Have students roll the clay into a ball and press it flat
on a cardboard square. Then have them press one
hand into the clay hard enough to make a print. Have
them hold their prints up to show and talk about how
animals and plants millions of years ago printed mud
and soft rocks in the same way and left their traces
for us to find.
Have students make a leaf print art by rubbing a
crayon over a piece of paper that has leaves
underneath it.

1 Introduce the activity by reviewing what a body fossil

is and telling the class that they will be creating a
fossil and making a cast of it.

Discussion Questions:

2 Give each student a can or, if using oak tag, have

them create a small container by stapling the ends of
the oak tag together to make a ring and place it on
a cardboard square.
3 Give each student a small piece of clay and have him
or her pick an object to fossilize. First have them
roll the clay into a ball and press the ball flat, filling
the bottom of the container to not less than one inch
in depth.
4 Ask students to pick one of the small objects to
fossilize, press it into the clay, and remove it, leaving
a fossil mold of the body.
5 Mix the plaster of Paris to the consistency of pancake
batter. Pour it into the containers on top of the clay
mold, and let it harden for at least 24 hours.

How is the toy (or other small object they use to

stand for the organism) different from a real specimen
after it dies? What happens to an animal after it dies
and is buried?
What is the difference between the way you made the
mold and the way a fossil mold would be created?
(Hint: The fossil mold would be created after the
organism was buried and then decayed, leaving a
cavity.)
How might a buried fossil mold be exposed so that
someone today could discover it?

See page 25 for details on how this activity meets

New York State Learning Standards.

Have students imagine themselves as paleontologists looking for fossils, and tell or
LITERACY
EXTENSION: write the story of how they came across the fossil they just made in the activity
above. What kind of land were they exploring? What adventures did they have
getting to where they were digging? How deep did they dig? What tools did they
use? What happened afterwards?

FOSSILS 18

ACTIVITY 4

Footprint Forensics

Grades 35
Related Specimen: Dinosaur footprint
By studying footprint patterns revealed in stages, students
examine the evidence and make hypotheses about the
story the footprints tell.

Materials:
Copies of each of the Footprint Patterns, one per
student (see page following this activity) OR an overhead transparency of each of the Footprint Patterns

What To Do:
1 To prepare for this activity, make copies of the
Footprint Pattern and cut the panels apart. You will
hand out these panels to your students one at a time.
Alternatively, you can copy each section onto a separate transparency for use with an overheard projector.
2 Ask the class what they know about reading evidence
to reconstruct an event. Have they seen movies or TV
programs where detectives or scientists find traces of
incriminating evidence? Or where skilled hunters have
interpreted footprints to track a person or an animal?
3 Explain that paleontologists use evidence to make
deductions about what happened millions of years
ago, and that they are going to do the same thing.
Emphasize that they will get the evidence in stages
and at each stage they will be forming a hypothesis
about what happened.
4 Hand out or project panel 1 of the Footprint Pattern.
Ask students to examine the panel closely. Can they
tell anything about the size or nature of the animals
that made the footprints? How many were there?
Were all the tracks made at the same time? How might
the students figure that out if they were paleontologist
working in the field? What might have happened?
Encourage students to point out what evidence supports their idea. Help them distinguish between what
they see and what they infer. For example, they might
state that the animals were walking around, that they
met each other (or didnt), that they were large or
small, etc.

5 Hand out copies of panel 2 (or project it overhead),

place it to the right of panel 1, and repeat the discussion. Now what do the students think happened?
What parts of their previous deductions still hold
water? What parts do they have to change? Elicit
alternative hypotheses. For example: Someone will
probably say the two animals fought, but there are
other possibilities, such as a mother picking up her
baby. Or perhaps the animals werent there at the
same time, but there was some reason for both to
circle around the same spot. Could there have been
a source of food or water there?
6 Finally, hand out or project panel 3, and place it to the
right of panel 2. Now what do your students think
might have happened? There is no one correct answer
to any of these questions.
7 Conclude by asking if the evidence supports any one
of the students hypotheses in particular. What other
evidence might shed light on the circumstances and
the events that created these footprints? What could
a paleontologist learn from this exercise? One lesson
should be that it is important to gather as much evidence as possible, and to remember that there might
be parts of the story that are not represented by the
evidence.

Discussion Questions:
In what directions did the animals move?
Did they change their speed and direction? How can
you tell?
Were there trees or bushes that might have kept the
animals from seeing each other?
Do we know if they were there at the same time?
How might you know what the climate was like?
What conditions were necessary for the preservation
of the footprints?

See page 25 for details on how this activity meets

New York State Learning Standards.

FOSSILS 19

ACTIVITY 4

Footprint Forensics (continued)

SCIENCE AND Take students outdoors on a damp day. Have them find animal tracks in a
nearby park and try to interpret them.
LITERACY
EXTENSIONS: Put large sheets of brown paper on the floor of the classroom. Have one or two
students sponge water on the soles of their shoes and then step on the paper,
leaving footprints. (You can use flour instead of water.) Then have them act out
a scenewalking along in opposite directions and stopping to greet each other,
for example, or just passing by. Have them think of other ways to interpret the
footprints. Extend the activity by having some students leave the room while
others act out a footprint story that the others interpret (out loud or in writing)
on their return to the room.
With pencil and paper, have students design their own footprint patterns. They
can use tracks of animals, birds, humans, marine creatures, and even leaf prints.
Have students share their footprint patterns with the class, or divide students
into teams and have them interpret each others stories out loud or in writing.

FOSSILS 20

Footprint
Pattern
Panel 1

Panel 2

Panel 3

ACTIVITY 5

Create a 3-D Geologic Time Model

Grades 35
Related Specimens: All
The purpose of this activity is to engage students in thinking about how the various layers of the Earth in which
fossils are found help us map geologic time.

Materials:
Geologic Time poster, from the case
3x5 cards or similar-sized paper and pencils
Tape measure

What To Do:
1 Introduce the activity by showing students the
Geologic Time poster, if you have not already done so.
Review the concept of eras and periods of geologic
time. Point out how eras and periods are shown on
the poster in uneven layers. The layout of the layers on
the poster is analogous to the layers within the Earth.
The earliest eras and periods are at the bottom.
2 Have the students re-imagine the classroom as representing different areas of the Earths landscape. If the
ceiling represents the present-day level of the earths
surface, then the heights of the rooms features
desks, chairs, tables, bookshelves, the floorall represent different layers beneath the surface of the Earth.
As a class, figure out what era or period each surface
should represent. In the classroom landscape, what
level represents the Paleozoic era? What level represents the Cenozoic era? [Note: These layers do not
have to be uniform throughout the classroomthe
layers within the earth are not all the same thickness
everywhere. A desk in one corner may represent the
Paleozoic, while a desk across the room may represent
the Cenozoic.]

4 Have students place the fossils and their labels on

shelves, bookcases, tabletops, or other surfaces around
the room, at the level of the classroom corresponding to their geologic era or period. Again, do not
worry about the levels being uniform around the
classroomthey are not uniform within the Earth
either!
5 As a class, sit back and study the results. Looking at
the landscape of fossils the students have created,
have them imagine they are paleontologists on a field
expedition. They encounter different fossils everywhere
and at different levels. They do not know the relationships among the fossils or how old any of them is.
How might they go about finding answers to their
questions?

Discussion Questions:
Do all specimens from the same period have to be at
the same height off the floor? What forces of nature
could cause them to be at different levels?
If you were a paleontologist, where would you look
for fossils, given that most of them are formed
underground?
Among the fossils in the case, are there more marine
organisms or more land organisms? Do you think
this is typical for all fossils? Why?
On the Geological Time poster, how does the proportion of marine and land animals change as time
goes on? When do plants appear?

See page 25 for details on how this activity meets

New York State Learning Standards.

3 Point out how the Geologic Time poster shows the

major life forms present in each era and period. Hand
out the specimens from the case and have students
write a label for each specimen with its name, geologic
era and, if available, its geologic period. This information can come from the Information About the
Specimens section of this guide (pages 710), the
Geologic Time poster, the books in the case, or other
library or Internet resources. If there are not enough
specimens for each student, you may also hand out
pictures of fossils or extinct creatures found in books
or on the Internet.

FOSSILS 22

ACTIVITY 6

Additional Activities and

Curricular Connections

Science: Archaeological Dig

Grades 15

Science: Research a Fossil

Grades 35

Simulate an archaeological dig in the classroom. In a

shallow plastic container or cardboard box, have children
bury chicken bones that have been boiled clean in unset
plaster of Paris. (You can bury them in a single layer of
plaster, but if you would like to simulate the different
layers found in the earth, you can also create layers by
adding food coloring to different bowls of plaster. Pour
each layer in one at a time, and allow it to set at least
partially before adding the next.) When the plaster sets,
the students can use spoons, chopsticks, and other dull
instruments to dig them out. Remind them to be gentle when digging around the bone itself, so as not to
damage their fossil.

Have students choose one of the geologic periods and

research its common plants and animals. Using the
Paleontology Portal (see
www.paleoportal.org/index.php), they can find out
where in the U.S. (or New York State) those plants and
animals lived. With this information, have them fill in a
map with those locations. Alternatively, they may draw
an imaginary scene of a landscape during the period
they selected, featuring all the plants and animals
belonging to it.

Literacy: Dinosaur Word Puzzle

Grades 45
Print out a copy of the dinosaur word puzzle at
www.sdnhm.org/kids/dinosaur/search/print.html,
and challenge your students to see who can finish first.

Science and Health: Edible Fossils

All Grades
Who knew that eating fossils could be so much fun? See
www.uky.edu/KGS/education/ceph_celery.htm for
recipes for making celery cephalopods, ammonites in a
blanket, and prehistoric desserts.

Literacy and Music: Create a Geological Rap

Grades 45
Have students put the names of geologic eras and periods
into a rap song. Since many of the terms have rhyming
endings, this should not be difficult. The lyric structure of
a rap song is a series of coupletstwo lines that end in a
rhyme, followed by two lines with a different rhyme, and
so on. Students can accompany themselves by making a
variety of percussive sounds with their bodies
(www.wiki.ehow.com/Be-a-Human-Beatbox tells you
how). If students would rather sing than rap, they can
write new words to go with a familiar tune (such as
Dem Bones, found at
www.niehs.nih.gov/kids/lyrics/bones.htm).

See page 25 for details on how these activities meet

New York State Learning Standards.

FOSSILS 23

 RESOURCES AND REFERENCE MATERIALS

Vocabulary Words
body fossil:

matrix:

a part of the actual animal or plant, or even its whole.

Things like bones, teeth, shells, and leaves are considered body fossils. Body fossils also include casts
and molds that reveal the external and internal structure of the organism.

the rock surrounding a fossil, in which it is embedded.

burrow:

organism:

a hole or holes in sedimentary rock that were dug by

an animal

any living thing, such as a plant or animal.

molten:

cast:

in a hot, viscous (thick liquid) state.

in paleontology, a positive version of a mold, i.e.,

when a mold has been filled in with sedimentary
material and takes on the shape of the organism that
made the mold.

paleontologist:

coprolites:

in geological time, a period is a unit of an era.

the fossil dung of an animal.

mold:
in paleontology, a mold is the hollow shape left in
sedimentary rock by a decayed organism.

a scientist who studies the history of life through its

fossil remains.

period:
petrifaction:

era:
a large unit of geologic time, each comprising millions of years and a number of sub-divisions called
periods. Some eras include the Pre-Cambrian,
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.

the state of being petrified, that is, the replacement

of organic matter by silica over a long period of time,
such that the original organism has become rock.

replacement fossil:

when all individuals of a species have died out, the

species is said to be extinct.

a fossil created when inorganic minerals gradually

replace the original organic material, at a molecular
level, so that the structure and form of the organism are retained.

fossil:

sedimentary rock:

extinction:

the remains or traces of organisms, including microscopic organisms, that lived at least 10,000 years ago.

fossilization:
the process by which a living organism, plant or animal, becomes a fossil.

gastrolith:
a smooth, rounded stone found with dinosaur
remains; long a mystery, such stones are now thought
to have been a digestive aid for dinosaurs who swallowed them to help grind up food in their stomachs.

geologic time

layered rock formed by sequential deposits by water,

wind, or ice of small rocks or organic matter, solidified by pressure, over a long period of time.

trace fossil:
includes things like footprints, burrows, and fossilized
dung, that trace the movements or activity of an
organism. A single animal can make thousands and
thousands of traces in its lifetime, but it will only
leave behind one body when it dies. Because of
this, trace fossils are much more common than
body fossils.

track:

the time in which the history of the Earth has

unfolded.

an impression, or trace, made by a single foot.

trail:

geologist:
a scientist who studies the entire history of the earth,
not just fossils.

an impression, or trace, made by an animal without

legs.

index fossil:
a fossilized creature that lived only in one specific
time period can be used as an indicator (index) of
the date of the rock in which it is found.

FOSSILS 24

 RESOURCES AND REFERENCE MATERIALS

Correlations with New York State Learning Standards

The activities included in this guide meet the following New York State Learning Standard Performance Indicators for elementary students (K5):

New York State Learning Standard Performance Indicators (Elementary Level)

Activity

Standard Area Standard #

1 2 3 4 5 6

Subject

Letter

Students will

Create short pieces consisting of sounds from a variety

of traditional, electronic, and nontraditional sound
sources

Arts

Music

Arts

Visual Arts

Experiment and create art works, in a variety of

mediums (drawing, painting, sculpture, ceramics,
printmaking, video, and computer graphics), based
on a range of individual and collective experiences

English
Language
Arts

Listening &
Reading

Gather and interpret information from children's

reference books, magazines, textbooks, electronic
bulletin boards, audio and media presentations, oral
interviews, and from such forms as charts, graphs,
maps, and diagrams

ELA

Listening &
Reading

Ask specific questions to clarify and extend meaning

ELA

Speaking &
Writing

Present information clearly in a variety of oral and

written forms such as summaries, paraphrases, brief
reports, stories, posters, and charts

ELA

Speaking &
Writing

Use details, examples, anecdotes, or personal experiences to explain or clarify information

ELA

Speaking &
Writing

Observe basic writing conventions, such as correct

spelling, punctuation, and capitalization, as well as
sentence and paragraph structures appropriate to
written forms

ELA

Speaking &
Writing

Create their own stories, poems, and songs using the

elements of the literature they have read and appropriate vocabulary

ELA

Speaking &
Writing

Observe the conventions of grammar and usage,

spelling, and punctuation

ELA

Speaking &
Writing

Listen attentively and recognize when it is appropriate for them to speak

ELA

Speaking &
Writing

Take turns speaking and respond to other ideas in

conversations on familiar topics

Math,
Science, &
Technology

Scientific
Inquiry

Ask "why" questions in attempts to seek greater understanding concerning objects and events they have
observed and heard about

MST

Scientific
Inquiry

Question the explanations they hear from others and

read about, seeking clarification and comparing them
with their own observations and understandings

MST

Scientific
Inquiry

Develop relationships among observations to construct descriptions of objects and events and to form
their own tentative explanations of what they have
observed

MST

Scientific
Inquiry

Carry out their plans for exploring phenomena

through direct observation and through the use of
simple instruments that permit measurements of
quantities (e.g., length, mass, volume, temperature,
and time)

FOSSILS 25

 RESOURCES AND REFERENCE MATERIALS

Correlations with New York State Learning Standards

The activities included in this guide meet the following New York State Learning Standard Performance Indicators for elementary students (K5):

New York State Learning Standard Performance Indicators (Elementary Level)

Activity

Standard Area Standard #

1 2 3 4 5 6

Subject

Letter

Students will

MST

Scientific
Inquiry

Organize observations and measurements of objects

and events through classification and the preparation
of simple charts and tables

MST

Scientific
Inquiry

Share their findings with others and actively seek their

interpretations and ideas

Physical
Setting

Describe the relationships among air, water, and land

on Earth

Physical
Setting

Observe and describe properties of materials using

appropriate tools

MST

MST

Physical
Setting

Describe chemical and physical changes, including

changes in states of matter

MST

Models

Analyze, construct, and operate models in order to

discover attributes of the real thing

MST

Models

Discover that a model of something is different from

the real thing but can be used to study the real thing

MST

Strategies

Work effectively-Contributing to the work of a brainstorming group, laboratory partnership, cooperative

learning group, or project team; planning procedures;
identifying and managing responsibilities of team
members; and staying on task, whether working alone
or as part of a group

FOSSILS 26

 RESOURCES AND REFERENCE MATERIALS

Corresponding Field Trips

Bibliography and Web Resources

In addition to the organizations below, look for

special National Earth Science Week activities held
annually in October.

The following books and websites may help you to

enrich your experience with the objects in the case.

American Museum of Natural History

Moss, Jeff. Bone Poems. New York, New York:

Workman Publishing, 1997.

79th and Central Park West, Manhattan

(212) 769-5200
The AMNH has the worlds most spectacular collection of fossils. Several corresponding websites for
educators offer downloadable guides to the galleries
and activities to go along with your visit:
www.amnh.org/education/resources/rfl.php?set=
b&topic_id=5&subtopic_id=80

Press, Judy. The Kids' Natural History Book:

Making Dinos, Fossils, Mammoths & More!
Charlotte, Vermont: Williamson Publishing
Company, 2000.

Rhodes, Frank H.T. and Paul R. Shaffer,

Herbert S. Zim, and Raymond Perlman. Fossils,
A Golden Guide. New York, New York: St. Martins
Press, 2001.

Fossil Walking Tour

Many buildings in the city are made of limestone, a
sedimentary rock, or marble, a metamorphic rock.
Lincoln Center, to name a prominent example, is
made of limestone and fossils are abundant in the
buildings. Scout out some local locations (perhaps
even your own school building has fossils in it) and
take your students on a walking tour to find the fossils. Once the students get the hang of looking for
them, theres no end to where they can use this skill.
The Brooklyn Childrens Museum also offers programs
on a variety of natural history topics. For a listing of
programs currently available, please see our website
at www.brooklynkids.org, or contact the Scheduling
Assistant at 718-735-4400, extension 118.

Ward, David. Fossils (Smithsonian Handbooks).

New York, New York: DK Adult, 2002.

The Paleontology Portal:

Good for looking up fossils by period or type of
organism; interactive map showing life in the U.S. in
geologic time.
www.paleoportal.org/index.php

Petrified Forest National Park Triassic World:

Reading and pictures for kids about what lived in the
Triassic period.
www.nps.gov/pefo/triassicweb.htm

Petrified Forest National Park Aetosaur

Virtual Dig:
A slide show illustrating a paleontologist digging up
an aetosaur.
www.nps.gov/pefo/vtour/aetodig/aetostart.htm

San Diego Natural History Museum Field

Guide to Fossils:
Find out more about individual fossils.
www.sdnhm.org/fieldguide/fossils/index.html

Indianapolis Childrens Museum Dinosphere:

Activities for kids, guides for teachers.
www.childrensmuseum.org/dinosphere/index.html

University of California, Berkeley:

Information and activities about fossils.
www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/forsec/Learning.html

Museum Victoria:
Information about dinosaurs.
www.museum.vic.gov.au/dinosaurs

The Natural History Museum, London:

Great information and activities on dinosaurs
www.internt.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/natureonline/dino-directory/about-teachers.dsml
FOSSILS 27

Acknowledgments
Beth Alberty
Chrisy Ledakis
Tim Hayduk
Nobue Hirabayashi
Whitney Thompson

Portable Collections Series Coordinator

Melissa Husby

Special Thanks
Daniel Dixon
The Teachers of the New York City Department of Education

Funding
The revision of this
Portable Collections Program caset guide is made possible
by a Learning Opportunities Grant from
the Institute for Museum and Library Services.

2006
Brooklyn Childrens Museum
145 Brooklyn Avenue
Brooklyn, New York 11213
718-735-4400 ext. 170
www.brooklynkids.org

For information about renting this or other Portable Collections Program cases,
please contact the Scheduling Assistant at 718-735-4400 ext. 118.