Learn about AC motors used in aerospace with this guide

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Module 3 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Category Aerospace/Avionics
Sub Module 3.18 AC Motors
MODULE 3
Sub Module 3.18
AC MOTORS
ISO 9001:2008 Certified
3.18
For Training Purpose Only
CAA Approval No: HQCAA/2231/44/AW Dated: 11th Sept, 09
Rev. 00
Nov 2009
Training Centre
Contents
INTRODUCTION --------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
PRODUCTION OF A ROTATING FIELD ------------------------------------------ 1
TYPES OF AC MOTOR -------------------------------------------------------------- 3
THE SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR ---------------------------------------------------- 3
INDUCTION MOTORS -------------------------------------------------------------- 4
TWO-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR ---------------------------------------------- 6
SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS ------------------------------------------ 8
SHADED-POLE INDUCTION MOTOR ------------------------------------------- 11
HYSTERESIS MOTORS ------------------------------------------------------------- 13
SINGLE-PHASE COMMUTATOR MOTOR ------------------------------------- 13
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INTRODUCTION
The basic principles of magnetism and electromagnetic
induction are the same for both ac and dc motors, but the
application of the principles is different because of the rapid
reversals of direction and changes in magnitude characteristic
of alternating current. Certain characteristics of ac motors make
most types more efficient than dc motors, therefore such motors
are used commercially whenever possible. During recent years,
ac power systems have been developed for large aircraft with
the result that a much larger amount of electrical power is
available on aircraft than would be available with dc systems of
the same weight. Thus one of the main advantages of the ac
power system is that it provides more power for less weight.
PRODUCTION OF A ROTATING FIELD
A rotating field may be produced by applying a three-phase
supply to a three-phase stator. The field produced is of
unvarying strength and its speed of rotation depends upon the
frequency of the supply.
Fig 1(a) shows a typical three-phase stator. The two windings

in each phase (for example A and A1) are connected in series
and are so wound that current flowing through the two windings
produces a North pole at one of them and a South pole at the
other. So, if a current is flowing in the A phase in the direction
from the A to the A1 terminals, pole piece A becomes a North
Pole and A1 a South pole.
The three-phase stator is connected in delta, so that only three
terminals, each common to two of the windings, are provided for
the three-phase ac input.
At any instant, the magnetic field generated by one particular
phase is proportional to the current in that phase. Therefore, as
the current alternates, so does the magnetic field. As the
currents in all three phases are 120 out of phase with each
other, then so must the magnetic fields be and the resultant
magnetic field will be the vector sum of these three.
FIG 1 TYPICAL THREE-PHASE STATOR

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C1 and the current in the B phase is negative and flows in the

direction B to B1. Equal currents therefore flow in opposite
directions through the B and C windings and magnetic poles are
established as shown in Fig 2. The shortest path for the
magnetic lines of flux is such that the lines leave B1 (North Pole)
and go to C1 (South Pole) with a similar result for C to B.
Because the magnetic fields of the B and C phases are equal in
amplitude (due to equal currents) the resultant field lies in the
direction of the arrow.
Moving on to position 2, where the supply cycle has advanced
by 60, the current in C is now zero, A is positive and B is
negative. The resultant magnetic field is produced in the same
way as described for position 1, and the other positions show
the conditions at intervals of 60. Thus, the magnetic field
rotates one complete revolution (in a clockwise direction in this
case) during one complete cycle of three-phase supply, so it is
in time with, or synchronous with, the ac input.
FIG 2 OUTPUT FROM THREE-PHASE STATOR
From earlier studies, it will be remembered that the flux path
follows the line of least resistance and this can be clearly seen
in Fig 2. At position 1, phase A of the input supply is inactive
with both B and C phases providing an output. The two flux
paths B-C and B1-C1 are the lines of least reluctance and
magnetically form a single resultant axis with which any
permeable material located within its sphere of influence would
tend to align.
Example
An input frequency of 50 Hz produces a field rotating at 50
revolutions per second or 3000 rpm.
Staying with position 1, the current in the A phase is zero, the

current in the C phase is positive and flows in the direction C to
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TYPES OF AC MOTOR
There are three principal types of ac motors. They are the
commutator motor, the induction motor and the synchronous
motor.
When the speed of the driven rotor approaches that of the

rotating magnetic field, the rotor and the field lock together and
the rotor then rotates synchronously with the field of its own
accord.
THE SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

The ac generator, like the dc generator, is a reversible machine;
if supplied with electrical energy, it runs as a motor. Thus
synchronous motors have the same construction as rotatingfield ac generators.
The input alternating current is applied to the stator and the
rotor carries the magnetic field windings which are supplied with
dc from a separate source.
NOTE:
The rotor may in theory (and practice) be either a

permanent magnet or a wound rotor separately
excited from a dc source.
If the rotor is energised with dc it acts like a bar magnet and will
therefore try to line itself up with the magnetic field produced by
the stator. In the synchronous motor the three-phase ac
produces a rotating magnetic field, which causes the rotor to
follow the field, (assuming that the motor is already running).
The synchronous motor will not start of its own accord, because
the rotating magnetic field moves too quickly to provide a
starting force. The inertia of the rotor does not allow it to
respond to the rapidly rotating field. It has to be started and run
up to speed by another motor, usually a small induction motor.
FIG 1 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR CHARACTERISTIC

The synchronous motor is a single-speed machine, its speed
of rotation being determined by the speed of the rotating
magnetic field which, in turn, is decided by the frequency of the
three-phase ac input to the stator windings. The synchronous
motor is therefore most useful for applications requiring
constant speed, eg. fans for ventilation and gyroscopes.
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Equally, it is clear that the synchronous motor is most

appropriate to light mechanical loads, because if the load
became excessive, the synchronous lock would be broken and
the motor would stop.
field moves from right to left, the change of flux through the
conductor induces a voltage in it. If the conductor is part of a
closed circuit, current flows in the conductor in the
INDUCTION MOTORS
The ac motor most commonly used on aircraft is the induction
type and, dependant upon application, may be designed for
operation from a three-phase, two-phase or single phase power
supply
It is robust, simple and cheaper than other types. The basic
three-phase induction motor has no slip rings or commuter and
has little to go wrong.
Fig 2(a) shows the stator of the induction motor, which is almost
the same as that of the synchronous motor, ie. it has threephase windings and associated pole pieces, which as usual
produce a rotating magnetic field when supplied with threephase ac.
The rotor in Fig 2(b) consists of a series of heavy copper bars
connected at each end by a copper or brass ring. No insulation
is required between the bars and the core on which they are
mounted because of the very low voltages induced in the rotor
bars. This type of rotor is a squirrel-cage and no external
electrical connections are made to it.
The basic principle of operation of the induction motor may be
explained by Fig 3 below, where a conductor is set at right
angles to a magnetic field. If the conductor is stationary and the
FIG 2 THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

direction shown (the right hand rule for generators). This
current-carrying conductor in the magnetic field then
experiences a force tending to move it in the same direction as
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Training Centre
the fields motion (the left-hand rule for motors). The conductor
therefore tends to follow the movement of the field.
two is reduced, so also is the voltage induced in the rotor bars;

this reduces the rotor current and the turning force acting on the
rotor. The rotor speed is automatically adjusted to something
less than that of the rotating field, otherwise there would be no
relative motion, no current and no movement of the rotor. Thus
in practice the rotor runs slightly slower than the rotating
magnetic field, the amount depending upon the load. The
difference in the two speeds is the slip speed and the ratio of
slip speed to the speed of the rotating field, is the slip.
For example, if the magnetic field is rotating at 1000 rpm, the
rotor may be running to 960 rpm.
The slip speed is:
1000 960 rpm,

and the slip is;
Fig 3 Movement of a Conductor in a Field
Applying this principle to the squirrel-cage induction motor we
see that the rotating magnetic field produced by the stator
induces a voltage in the bars of the rotor. Because the bars are
thick and have a low resistance, a large current flows in them
which set up a magnetic field. The rotor field interacts with the
stator field and, as usual when a current-carrying conductor is
placed in magnetic field, causes the rotor to turn so as to line up
the two magnetic fields. However, since the stator field is
rotating, the rotor never quite catches up but follows a little
behind.
As the rotor follows the field, the relative motion between the
40
100 4%
1000
This is a typical value of slip. As noted earlier, the slip depends
upon the load; the larger the load, the greater is the slip. But in
practice very little speed change occurs between a light and a
heavy load and the main use of an induction motor is as a
constant speed drive to a load.
This motor is only started under no load conditions. The speed
varies little between no load and full load when running and
makes the motor suitable for driving such machines as lathes,
bench drills and small generators.
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The starting current of all squirrel-cage motors is heavy (4-6

times the running current). This is because, if the stator
windings are energised from the three-phase supply whilst the
rotor is stationary, the slip is maximum and so also is the emf
induced in the rotor. The low resistance of the rotor gives rise
to a large rotor current which produces a magnetic field
opposing and weakening the stator flux (Lenzs Law).
TWO-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

A rotating magnetic field is also produced if two phases, 90 out
of phase with each other are used instead of a three-phase
supply. A two-phase induction motor is illustrated below in Fig
4.
The back emf induced in the stator windings by the changing

flux is therefore reduced so that a heavy current is taken by the
stator on starting.
FIG 4 TWO-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The production of a rotating magnetic field from a two-phase
supply, 90 out of phase, is shown in Fig 5. It is a similar idea to
the one previously drawn and described for a three-phase
supply, and its action may be deduced in a similar manner.
Two-phase induction motors are less efficient than three-phase
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types and the latter are used, where possible, in preference to

two-phase motors.
Typically, two-phase induction motors find their greatest
applications in systems requiring a servo control of synchronous
devices, for example as servomotors in power follow up synchro
systems. In this instance the windings are also at 90 to each
other but, unlike the motors thus far described, they are
connected to different voltage sources. One source is the main
supply for the system and, being of constant magnitude, it
serves as a reference voltage. The other source serves as a
control voltage and is derived from a signal amplifier in such a
way that it is variable in magnitude and its phase can either lead
or lag the reference voltage, thereby controlling the speed and
direction of rotation of the field and rotor.
FIG 5 ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD FROM A TWO-PHASE SUPPLY
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SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Single-phase induction motors are used extensively in lowpower applications such as blowers and switch motors used in
communication equipment.
A single-phase induction motor has only one stator winding so it
is not capable of producing a rotating magnetic field of the type
described earlier. The field produced by the single-phase
winding alternates according to the frequency of the supply, and
can be said to alternate along the axis of the single winding,
rather than to rotate.
As the field changes polarity every half cycle, it induces currents
in the rotor which tries to turn it through 180, but as the force is
exerted through the axis shown, there is no turning force on the
rotor.
This type of motor cannot, therefore be self-starting. If the rotor
is given a start however, it will be given a push every half cycle
that will keep it rotating. Since the field is pulsating, rather than
rotating, single-phase induction motors produce a pulsating
torque and are not as smooth running as two or three-phase
motors.
FIG 6 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

It is impracticable to start a motor by turning it over by hand, so
an electric device must be incorporated into the stator circuit
such that it will cause a rotating field to be generated on
starting. Once the motor has started, this device can be
switched out of the stator, since the rotor and stator together
will generate their own rotating field to keep the motor turning.
The starting device takes the form of an auxiliary stator winding
spaced 90 from the main winding, and connected in series with
an impedance to the main supply. This impedance is chosen to
produce as great a phase displacement as possible between
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the currents in the main and auxiliary windings so that the

machine starts up virtually as a two-phase motor.
The impedance device used can be inductive or capacitive, or a

combination of both.
A switch, usually operated by centrifugal action, cuts out the

auxiliary winding when approximately 75% of synchronous
speed has been attained and the machine continues to run on
the main stator winding.
Consider Fig 8 below, which shows a simplified schematic of a

typical capacitor start motor.
Alternatively, contacts in the auxiliary winding circuit may be

closed by the high stator current which flows through a relay coil
when the supply is switched on; the contacts opening as the
motor current falls during acceleration from rest.
FIG 7 ELECTRIC STARTER USING AN AUXILIARY WINDING
The stator consists of the main winding, and a starting winding

which is connected in parallel with the main winding and spaced
at right angles to it. The 90 electrical phase difference
between the two windings is obtained by connecting the
auxiliary winding in series with a capacitor and starting switch.
FIG 8 SCHEMATIC OF A CAPACITOR STARTER MOTOR
3.18 - 9
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On starting, the switch is closed, placing the capacitor in series

with the auxiliary winding. The capacitor is of such a value that
the auxiliary winding is effectively a resistive-capacitive circuit in
which the current leads the line voltage by approximately 45.
The main winding has enough inductance to cause the current
to lag the line voltage by approximately 45. The two currents
are therefore 90 out of phase, and so are the magnetic fields
which they generate. The effect is that the two windings act like
a two-phase stator and produce the revolving field required to
start the motor.
A disadvantage of this type of split-phase motor is the high

starting current (nearly four times the full load current).
The direction of rotation can be change by reversing the
connections to either of the stator windings.
When nearly full speed has been attained, a device cuts out the
starting winding and the motor runs as a plain single-phase
induction motor.
Since the special starting winding is only a light winding, the
motor does not develop sufficient torque to start heavy loads.
Because a two-phase induction motor is more efficient than a
single-phase motor, it is often desirable to keep the auxiliary
winding permanently in the circuit so that the motor will run as a
two-phase induction motor. The starting capacitor is usually
made quite large, in order to allow a large current to flow
through the auxiliary winding. The motor can thus build up a
large starting torque.
When the motor comes up to speed, it is not necessary that the
auxiliary winding shall continue to draw the full starting current,
and the capacitor can be reduced, therefore two capacitors are
used in parallel for starting and one is cut out when the motor
comes up to speed. Such a motor is called capacitor-start,
capacitor-run induction motor
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SHADED-POLE INDUCTION MOTOR

The single-phase motors considered in the preceding sections
all employed stators having uniform air gaps with respect to
their rotor and stator windings, which are uniformly distributed
around the periphery of the stator. The starting methods
employed thus far were generally based on a split-phase
principle of producing a rotating magnetic field to initiate rotor
rotation.
The great virtue of this motor lies in its utter simplicity; a singlephase rotor winding, a cast squirrel-cage rotor, and special pole
pieces. No centrifugal switches, capacitors, special starting
windings, or commutators are used. With but a single-phase
winding it is inherently self-starting. There must be some
auxiliary means of producing the effect of a rotating magnetic
field, therefore, with a single-phase supply and only one stator
winding.
Figure 9 shows the general construction of a two-pole shadedpole motor.
FIG 9
As shown in Fig 10b, when the flux in the field poles tend to
increase, a short-circuit current is induced in the shading coil,
which by Lenzs law opposes the force and the flux producing it.
Thus, as the flux increases in each field pole, there is a
concentration of the flux in the main segment of each pole,
while the shaded segment opposes the main field flux.
The special pole pieces are made up of laminations, and a

short-circuited shading coil (or a single-turn solid copper ring) is
wound around the smaller segment of the pole piece. The
shading coil, separated from the main ac field winding serves to
provide a phase-splitting of the main field flux by delaying the
change of flux in the smaller segment.
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Training Centre
been to produce a sweeping motion of flux across the pole face

representing a clockwise rotation. The flux in the shaded
segment is always lagging the flux in the main segment in time
as well as in physical space (although a true 90 relation does
not exist between them). The result is that a rotating magnetic
field is produced and the rotor always turns in the direction of
the rotating field.
For the type of shaded-pole motor shown in Fig 9, the rotation is
clockwise since the flux in the shaded segment lags the main
flux. In order to reverse the direction of rotation, it would be
necessary to unbolt the pole structure and reverse it physically.
The shaded-pole motor is rugged, inexpensive, and small in
size, and it requires little maintenance. Unfortunately, it has a
very low starting torque, low efficiency, and a low power factor.
The last two considerations are not serious in a small motor.
FIG 10
At point c shown in Fig 10a, the rate of change of flux and of
current is zero, and there is no voltage induced in the shaded
coil. Consequently, the flux is uniformly distributed across the
poles. When the flux decreases, the current reverses in the
shaded coil to maintain the flux in the same direction, as in Fig
10d. The result is that the flux crowds in the shaded segment of
the pole.
An examination of Figs 10b, c and d will reveal that at intervals
b, c and d, the net effect of the flux distribution in the pole has
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Training Centre
HYSTERESIS MOTORS
SINGLE-PHASE COMMUTATOR MOTOR
A Hysteresis motor works on the principle that in a material with

a large Hysteresis loop, the magnetic flux lags behind the
current which produced it by almost 90, while in a material with
a small Hysteresis loop the two are almost in phase.
The synchronous and induction types of ac motor all have one

thing in common - they are essentially single-speed or constantspeed motors, their running speed being determined by the
frequency of the supply. Constant speed motors have many
uses, but where a variable speed is required some other type of
motor must be used.
A stator of small Hysteresis loop material is supplied with a

polyphase input, as is the rotor which is made of large
Hysteresis loop material (usually cobalt steel). The result is that
the flux in the rotor lags that in the stator by almost 90. The
rotor will then move in an attempt to line up its field with that of
the stator. Thus, as the stator field rotates, the rotor follows it.
The effect on the rotor of the rotating stator field is that if the
rotor is stationary, or turning at a speed less than the
synchronous speed, every point on the rotor is subjected to
successive magnetising cycles. As the stator field reduces to
zero during each cycle, a certain amount of flux remains in the
rotor material, and since it lags on the stator field it produces a
torque at the rotor shaft which remains constant as the rotor
accelerates up to the synchronous speed of the stator field.
This latter feature is one of the principle advantages of
Hysteresis motors and for this reason they are chosen for such
applications as autopilot servomotors, which produce
mechanical movements of an aircrafts flight control surfaces.
When the rotor reaches synchronous speed, it is no longer
subjected to successive magnetising cycles and in this condition
it behaves as a permanent magnet.
The commonest single-phase variable-speed motors are series

or commutator motors. They are used as blower motors in
communication equipment.
In an ordinary dc motor the direction of rotation depends upon
both the direction of the current in the armature windings and
the direction of current in the field coils. If one changes
direction, the direction of rotation is reversed, if both change
direction together, the direction of rotation is not altered.
When alternating current is applied to a series motor, the
current through the armature and field change simultaneously
and, therefore, the motor will rotate in one direction.
The number of field turns in the ac series motor is less than in
the dc series motor, in order to decrease the reactance of the
field so that the required amount of current will flow. Cutting
down the size of the field reduces the motor torque.
The characteristics of the ac series motor are similar to those of
the dc series motor. It is a varying-speed machine, with low
speed for large loads and high speeds for light loads. The
starting torque is also very high.
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Training Centre
SINCE THE AC SERIES MOTOR HAS THE SAME GENERAL

CHARACTERISTICS AS THE DC SERIES MOTOR, A SERIES
MOTOR HAS BEEN DESIGNED WHICH CAN OPERATE
BOTH ON AC AND DC. THIS AC/DC MOTOR IS CALLED A
UNIVERSAL MOTOR AND FINDS WIDE APPLICATION IN
SMALL ELECTRIC APPLIANCES. UNIVERSAL MOTORS
OPERATE AT A LOWER EFFICIENCY THAN EITHER THE AC
OR DC SERIES MOTOR AND ARE BUILT IN SMALL SIZES
ONLY.
3.18 - 14
Rev. 00
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Training Centre

Module 3 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

Sub Module 3.18 AC Motors

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

For Training Purpose Only

CAA Approval No: HQCAA/2231/44/AW Dated: 11th Sept, 09

Module 3 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

Sub Module 3.18 AC Motors

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

For Training Purpose Only

CAA Approval No: HQCAA/2231/44/AW Dated: 11th Sept, 09

Module 3 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

Sub Module 3.18 AC Motors

Fig 1(a) shows a typical three-phase stator. The two windings

FIG 1 TYPICAL THREE-PHASE STATOR

For Training Purpose Only

CAA Approval No: HQCAA/2231/44/AW Dated: 11th Sept, 09

Module 3 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

Sub Module 3.18 AC Motors

C1 and the current in the B phase is negative and flows in the

Staying with position 1, the current in the A phase is zero, the

For Training Purpose Only

CAA Approval No: HQCAA/2231/44/AW Dated: 11th Sept, 09

Module 3 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

Sub Module 3.18 AC Motors

When the speed of the driven rotor approaches that of the

THE SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

The rotor may in theory (and practice) be either a

FIG 1 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR CHARACTERISTIC

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

For Training Purpose Only

CAA Approval No: HQCAA/2231/44/AW Dated: 11th Sept, 09

Module 3 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

Sub Module 3.18 AC Motors

Equally, it is clear that the synchronous motor is most

FIG 2 THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

For Training Purpose Only

CAA Approval No: HQCAA/2231/44/AW Dated: 11th Sept, 09

Module 3 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

Sub Module 3.18 AC Motors

two is reduced, so also is the voltage induced in the rotor bars;

1000 960 rpm,

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

For Training Purpose Only

CAA Approval No: HQCAA/2231/44/AW Dated: 11th Sept, 09

Module 3 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

Sub Module 3.18 AC Motors

The starting current of all squirrel-cage motors is heavy (4-6

TWO-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The back emf induced in the stator windings by the changing

FIG 4 TWO-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

For Training Purpose Only

CAA Approval No: HQCAA/2231/44/AW Dated: 11th Sept, 09

Module 3 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

Sub Module 3.18 AC Motors

types and the latter are used, where possible, in preference to

FIG 5 ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD FROM A TWO-PHASE SUPPLY

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

For Training Purpose Only

CAA Approval No: HQCAA/2231/44/AW Dated: 11th Sept, 09

Module 3 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

Sub Module 3.18 AC Motors