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RichtermagnitudescaleWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Richtermagnitudescale
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

TheRichtermagnitudescale(alsoRichterscale)assignsamagnitudenumbertoquantifytheenergy
releasedbyanearthquake.TheRichterscaleisabase10logarithmicscale,whichdefinesmagnitudeasthe
logarithmoftheratiooftheamplitudeoftheseismicwavestoanarbitrary,minoramplitude.
Asmeasuredwithaseismometer,anearthquakethatregisters5.0ontheRichterscalehasashaking
amplitude10timesthatofanearthquakethatregistered4.0,andthuscorrespondstoareleaseofenergy
31.6timesthatreleasedbythelesserearthquake.[1]

Contents
1Development
2Details
3Richtermagnitudes
3.1Examples
4Magnitudeempiricalformulae
5Seealso
6References
7Externallinks

Development
In1935,theseismologistsCharlesFrancisRichterandBenoGutenberg,of
theCaliforniaInstituteofTechnology,developedthe(future)Richter
magnitudescale,specificallyformeasuringearthquakesinagivenareaof
studyinCalifornia,asrecordedandmeasuredwiththeWoodAnderson
torsionseismograph.Originally,Richterreportedmathematicalvaluestothe
nearestquarterofaunit,butthevalueslaterwerereportedwithonedecimal
placethelocalmagnitudescalecomparedthemagnitudesofdifferent
earthquakes.[1]Richterderivedhisearthquakemagnitudescalefromthe
apparentmagnitudescaleusedtomeasurethebrightnessofstars.[2]
Richterestablishedamagnitude0eventtobeanearthquakethatwould
showamaximum,combinedhorizontaldisplacementof1.0m
(0.00004in.)onaseismogramrecordedwithaWoodAndersontorsion
seismograph100km(62mi.)fromtheearthquakeepicenter.Thatfixed
measurewaschosentoavoidnegativevaluesformagnitude,giventhatthe
slightestearthquakesthatcouldberecordedandlocatedatthetimewere
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richter_magnitude_scale

CharlesRichter,c.1970
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aroundmagnitude3.0.However,theRichtermagnitudescaleitselfhasnolowerlimit,andcontemporary
seismometerscanregister,record,andmeasureearthquakeswithnegativemagnitudes.
(localmagnitude)wasnotdesignedtobeappliedtodatawithdistancestothehypocenterofthe
earthquakegreaterthan600km(373mi.).[3]Fornationalandlocalseismologicalobservatoriesthestandard
magnitudescaleistodaystill
.Thisscalesaturatesataround
=7,[4]becausethehighfrequency
wavesrecordedlocallyhavewavelengthsshorterthantherupturelengthsoflargeearthquakes.
Later,toexpressthesizeofearthquakesaroundtheplanet,GutenbergandRichterdevelopedasurface
wavemagnitudescale(
)andabodywavemagnitudescale(
).[5]Thesearetypesofwavesthatare
recordedatteleseismicdistances.Thetwoscaleswereadjustedsuchthattheywereconsistentwiththe
scale.Thatadjustmentsucceededbetterwiththe
scalethanwiththe
scale.Eachscalesaturates
whentheearthquakeisgreaterthanmagnitude8.0,and,therefore,themomentmagnitudescale(
)was
invented.
Theoldermagnitudescalesweresupersededbymethodsforcalculatingtheseismicmoment,fromwhich
derivedthemomentmagnitudescale.AbouttheoriginsoftheRichtermagnitudescale,C.F.Richtersaid:
Ifounda[1928]paperbyProfessorK.WadatiofJapaninwhichhecomparedlarge
earthquakesbyplottingthemaximumgroundmotionagainst[the]distancetotheepicenter.I
triedasimilarprocedureforourstations,buttherangebetweenthelargestandsmallest
magnitudesseemedunmanageablylarge.Dr.BenoGutenbergthenmadethenaturalsuggestion
toplottheamplitudeslogarithmically.Iwaslucky,becauselogarithmicplotsareadeviceof
thedevil.
CharlesRichterInterview,abridgedfromtheEarthquakeInformationBulletin,Vol.12,
No.1,JanuaryFebruary,1980.
(http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/people/int_richter.php)

Details
TheRichterscalewasdefinedin1935forparticularcircumstancesandinstrumentstheparticular
circumstancesrefertoitbeingdefinedforSouthernCaliforniaand"implicitlyincorporatestheattenuative
propertiesofSouthernCaliforniacrustandmantle,"[6]andtheparticularinstrumentusedwouldbecame
saturatedbystrongearthquakesandunabletorecordhighvalues.Thescalewasreplacedbythemoment
magnitudescale(MMS)forearthquakesadequatelymeasuredbytheRichterscale,numericalvaluesare
approximatelythesame.Althoughvaluesmeasuredforearthquakesnowareactually
(MMS),theyare
frequentlyreportedasRichtervalues,evenforearthquakesofmagnitudeover8,wheretheRichterscale
becomesmeaningless.Anythingabove5isclassifiedasariskbytheUSGS.
TheRichterandMMSscalesmeasuretheenergyreleasedbyanearthquakeanotherscale,theMercalli
intensityscale,classifiesearthquakesbytheireffects,fromdetectablebyinstrumentsbutnotnoticeableto
catastrophic.Theenergyandeffectsarenotnecessarilystronglycorrelatedashallowearthquakeina
populatedareawithsoilofcertaintypescanbefarmoreintensethanamuchmoreenergeticdeep
earthquakeinanisolatedarea.
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Thereareseveralscaleswhichhavehistoricallybeendescribedasthe"Richterscale",especiallythelocal
magnitude
andthesurfacewave
scale.Inaddition,thebodywavemagnitude,
,andthe
momentmagnitude,
,abbreviatedMMS,havebeenwidelyusedfordecades,andacoupleofnew
techniquestomeasuremagnitudeareinthedevelopmentstage.
Allmagnitudescaleshavebeendesignedtogivenumericallysimilarresults.Thisgoalhasbeenachieved
wellfor
,
,and
.[7][8]The
scalegivessomewhatdifferentvaluesthantheotherscales.The
reasonforsomanydifferentwaystomeasurethesamethingisthatatdifferentdistances,fordifferent
hypocentraldepths,andfordifferentearthquakesizes,theamplitudesofdifferenttypesofelasticwaves
mustbemeasured.
isthescaleusedforthemajorityofearthquakesreported(tensofthousands)bylocalandregional
seismologicalobservatories.Forlargeearthquakesworldwide,themomentmagnitudescaleismost
common,although
isalsoreportedfrequently.
Theseismicmoment,
,isproportionaltotheareaoftherupturetimestheaverageslipthattookplacein
theearthquake,thusitmeasuresthephysicalsizeoftheevent.
isderivedfromitempiricallyasa
quantitywithoutunits,justanumberdesignedtoconformtothe
scale.[9]Aspectralanalysisisrequired
toobtain
,whereastheothermagnitudesarederivedfromasimplemeasurementoftheamplitudeofa
specificallydefinedwave.
Allscales,except
,saturateforlargeearthquakes,meaningtheyarebasedontheamplitudesofwaves
whichhaveawavelengthshorterthantherupturelengthoftheearthquakes.Theseshortwaves(high
frequencywaves)aretooshortayardsticktomeasuretheextentoftheevent.Theresultingeffectiveupper
limitofmeasurementfor
isabout7[4]andabout8.5[4]for
.[10]
Newtechniquestoavoidthesaturationproblemandtomeasuremagnitudesrapidlyforverylarge
earthquakesarebeingdeveloped.OneoftheseisbasedonthelongperiodPwave,[11]theotherisbasedon
arecentlydiscoveredchannelwave.[12]
Theenergyreleaseofanearthquake,[13]whichcloselycorrelatestoitsdestructivepower,scaleswiththe32
poweroftheshakingamplitude.Thus,adifferenceinmagnitudeof1.0isequivalenttoafactorof31.6(
)intheenergyreleasedadifferenceinmagnitudeof2.0isequivalenttoafactorof1000(
)intheenergyreleased.[14]Theelasticenergyradiatedisbestderivedfromanintegration
oftheradiatedspectrum,butonecanbaseanestimateon
frequencywaves.

becausemostenergyiscarriedbythehigh

Richtermagnitudes
TheRichtermagnitudeofanearthquakeisdeterminedfromthelogarithmoftheamplitudeofwaves
recordedbyseismographs(adjustmentsareincludedtocompensateforthevariationinthedistancebetween
thevariousseismographsandtheepicenteroftheearthquake).Theoriginalformulais:[15]

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whereAisthemaximumexcursionoftheWoodAndersonseismograph,theempiricalfunctionA0depends
onlyontheepicentraldistanceofthestation, .Inpractice,readingsfromallobservingstationsare
averagedafteradjustmentwithstationspecificcorrectionstoobtainthe
value.
Becauseofthelogarithmicbasisofthescale,eachwholenumberincreaseinmagnituderepresentsatenfold
increaseinmeasuredamplitudeintermsofenergy,eachwholenumberincreasecorrespondstoanincrease
ofabout31.6timestheamountofenergyreleased,andeachincreaseof0.2correspondstoadoublingof
theenergyreleased.
Eventswithmagnitudesgreaterthan4.5arestrongenoughtoberecordedbyaseismographanywherein
theworld,solongasitssensorsarenotlocatedintheearthquake'sshadow.
Thefollowingdescribesthetypicaleffectsofearthquakesofvariousmagnitudesneartheepicenter.The
valuesaretypicalonlyandshouldbetakenwithextremecaution,sinceintensityandthusgroundeffects
dependnotonlyonthemagnitude,butalsoonthedistancetotheepicenter,thedepthoftheearthquake's
focusbeneaththeepicenter,thelocationoftheepicenterandgeologicalconditions(certainterrainscan
amplifyseismicsignals).

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Magnitude Description

Lessthan
2.0

Mercalli
intensity

Microearthquakes,notfelt,orfeltrarelyby
sensitivepeople.Recordedby
seismographs.[16]

Continual/several
millionperyear

ItoII

Feltslightlybysomepeople.Nodamageto
buildings.

Overonemillion
peryear

IItoIV

Oftenfeltbypeople,butveryrarelycauses
damage.Shakingofindoorobjectscanbe
noticeable.

Over100,000per
year

Light

IVtoVI

Noticeableshakingofindoorobjectsand
rattlingnoises.Feltbymostpeopleinthe
affectedarea.Slightlyfeltoutside.Generally
causesnonetominimaldamage.Moderateto
significantdamageveryunlikely.Some
objectsmayfalloffshelvesorbeknocked
over.

10,000to15,000
peryear

Moderate

Cancausedamageofvaryingseverityto
poorlyconstructedbuildings.Atmost,none
VItoVIII
toslightdamagetoallotherbuildings.Felt
byeveryone.

Micro

2.02.9
Minor
3.03.9

4.04.9

5.05.9

6.06.9

7.07.9

Averageearthquakeeffects

Average
frequencyof
occurrence
(estimated)

Strong

VIItoX

8.08.9
Great

Damagetoamoderatenumberofwellbuilt
structuresinpopulatedareas.Earthquake
resistantstructuressurvivewithslightto
moderatedamage.Poorlydesignedstructures 100to150per
receivemoderatetoseveredamage.Feltin
year
widerareasuptohundredsof
miles/kilometersfromtheepicenter.Strong
toviolentshakinginepicentralarea.
Causesdamagetomostbuildings,someto
partiallyorcompletelycollapseorreceive
severedamage.Welldesignedstructuresare
likelytoreceivedamage.Feltacrossgreat
distanceswithmajordamagemostlylimited
to250kmfromepicenter.

Major

Majordamagetobuildings,structureslikely
VIIIor
tobedestroyed.Willcausemoderateto
greater[17]
heavydamagetosturdyorearthquake
resistantbuildings.Damaginginlargeareas.
Feltinextremelylargeregions.

9.0and
greater

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richter_magnitude_scale

1,000to1,500
peryear

Nearorattotaldestructionseveredamage
orcollapsetoallbuildings.Heavydamage
andshakingextendstodistantlocations.
Permanentchangesingroundtopography.

10to20peryear

Oneperyear

Oneper10to50
years

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(BasedonU.S.GeologicalSurveydocuments.)[18]
Theintensityanddeathtolldependonseveralfactors(earthquakedepth,epicenterlocation,population
density,tonameafew)andcanvarywidely.
Minorearthquakesoccureverydayandhour.Ontheotherhand,greatearthquakesoccuronceayear,on
average.ThelargestrecordedearthquakewastheGreatChileanEarthquakeofMay22,1960,whichhada
magnitudeof9.5onthemomentmagnitudescale.[19]Thelargerthemagnitude,thelessfrequentthe
earthquakehappens.

Examples
ThefollowingtableliststheapproximateenergyequivalentsintermsofTNTexplosiveforcethoughnote
thattheearthquakeenergyisreleasedundergroundratherthanoverground.[20]Mostenergyfroman
earthquakeisnottransmittedtoandthroughthesurfaceinstead,itdissipatesintothecrustandother
subsurfacestructures.Incontrast,asmallatomicbombblast(seenuclearweaponyield)willnot,itwill
simplycauselightshakingofindooritems,sinceitsenergyisreleasedaboveground.
31.6227tothepowerof0equals1,31.6227tothepowerof1equals31.6227and31.6227tothepowerof2
equals1000.Therefore,an8.0ontheRichterscalereleases31.6227timesmoreenergythana7.0anda9.0
ontheRichterscalereleases1000timesmoreenergythana7.0.Thus,
.
Approximate
Approximate
TNTfor
Joule
Magnitude
Seismic
equivalent
EnergyYield

Example

0.2

7.5g

31.5kJ

0.0

15g

63kJ

0.2

30g

130kJ

0.5

85g

360kJ

1.0

480g

2.0MJ

1.2

1.1kg

4.9MJ

Singlestickofdynamite[DynoMaxPro]

1.4

2.2kg

9.8MJ

Seismicimpactoftypicalsmallconstructionblast

1.5

2.7kg

11MJ

2.0

15kg

63MJ

2.1

21kg

89MJ

2.5

85kg

360MJ

3.0

480kg

2.0GJ

3.5

2.7metric
tons

3.87

9.5metric

Energyreleasedbylighting30typicalmatches
Largehandgrenade

Westfertilizerplantexplosion[21]
OklahomaCitybombing,1995
PEPCONfuelplantexplosion,Henderson,Nevada,1988

11GJ

40GJ

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richter_magnitude_scale

Irving,Texasearthquake,September30,2012
ExplosionatChernobylnuclearpowerplant,1986
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tons
MassiveOrdnanceAirBlastbomb
11metric
tons

46GJ

4.0

15metric
tons

63GJ

4.3

43metric
tons

3.91

St.Patrick'sDayearthquake,Auckland,NewZealand,2013
[22][23]

Johannesburg/SouthAfrica,November18,2013
KentEarthquake(Britain),2007

180GJ

EasternKentuckyearthquake,November2012
Lincolnshireearthquake(UK),2008

5.0

480metric
tons

2.0TJ

OntarioQuebecearthquake(Canada),2010[24][25]
LittleSkullMtn.earthquake(Nevada,USA),1992

5.5

2.7kilotons

11TJ

AlumRockearthquake(California),2007
ChinoHillsearthquake(SouthernCalifornia),2008
Newcastle,Australia,1989

5.6

3.8kilotons

16TJ

Oklahoma,2011
Pernik,Bulgaria,2012
DoubleSpringFlatearthquake(Nevada,USA),1994

6.0

15kilotons

63TJ

ApproximateyieldoftheLittleBoyAtomicBombdropped
onHiroshima(~16kt)
Rhodesearthquake(Greece),2008

6.3

43kilotons

180TJ

Jerichoearthquake(BritishPalestine),1927
Christchurchearthquake(NewZealand),2011
Kaohsiungearthquake(Taiwan),2010

6.4

60kilotons

250TJ

Vancouverearthquake(Canada),2011
Caracasearthquake(Venezuela),1967

6.5

85kilotons

360TJ

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richter_magnitude_scale

Irpiniaearthquake(Italy),1980
Eurekaearthquake(California,USA),2010
ZumpangodelRioearthquake(Guerrero,Mexico),2011[26]

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6.6

120kilotons

500TJ

SanFernandoearthquake(California,USA),1971

6.7

170kilotons

710TJ

Northridgeearthquake(California,USA),1994
Nisquallyearthquake(AndersonIsland,WA),2001

6.8

240kilotons

1.0PJ

GreatHanshinearthquake(Kobe,Japan),1995
Gisborneearthquake(Gisborne,NZ),2007
SanFranciscoBayAreaearthquake(California,USA),
1989

6.9

340kilotons

1.4PJ

Pichilemuearthquake(Chile),2010
Sikkimearthquake(NepalIndiaBorder),2011
Javaearthquake(Indonesia),2009

7.0

480kilotons

2.0PJ

Haitiearthquake,2010
Messinaearthquake(Italy),1908

7.1

680kilotons

2.8PJ

SanJuanearthquake(Argentina),1944
Canterburyearthquake(NewZealand),2010
Vranceaearthquake(Romania),1977

7.2

950kilotons

4.0PJ

1980AzoresIslandsEarthquake
BajaCaliforniaearthquake(Mexico),2010
Kashmirearthquake(Pakistan),2005

7.5

2.7megatons

11PJ

Antofagastaearthquake(Chile),2007
Nicoyaearthquake(CostaRica),2012

7.6

3.8megatons

16PJ

Oaxacaearthquake(Mexico),2012
Gujaratearthquake(India),2001
zmitearthquake(Turkey),1999
Jijiearthquake(Taiwan),1999
Sumatraearthquake(Indonesia),2010

7.7

5.4megatons

22PJ

HaidaGwaiiearthquake(Canada),2012
Tangshanearthquake(China),1976

7.8

7.6megatons

32PJ

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richter_magnitude_scale

Hawke'sBayearthquake(NewZealand),1931
Luzonearthquake(Philippines),1990
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1015
megatons

7.9

4263PJ

Tunguskaevent
1802Vranceaearthquake
GreatKantoearthquake(Japan),1923
MinoOwariearthquake(Japan),1891

8.0

15megatons

63PJ

SanJuanearthquake(Argentina),1894
SanFranciscoearthquake(California,USA),1906
QueenCharlotteIslandsearthquake(B.C.,Canada),
1949
ChinchaAltaearthquake(Peru),2007
Sichuanearthquake(China),2008
Kangraearthquake,1905
MxicoCityearthquake(Mexico),1985

8.1

21megatons

89PJ

8.35

50megatons

210PJ

8.5

85megatons

360PJ

Sumatraearthquake(Indonesia),2007

8.6

120megatons 500PJ

Sumatraearthquake(Indonesia),2012

8.7

170megatons 710PJ

Sumatraearthquake(Indonesia),2005

8.75

200megatons 840PJ

8.8

240megatons 1.0EJ

Chileearthquake,2010,

9.0

480megatons 2.0EJ

Lisbonearthquake(Portugal),AllSaintsDay,1755
TheGreatEastJapanearthquake,March2011

9.15

800megatons 3.3EJ

Tobaeruption75,000yearsagoamongthelargestknown
volcanicevents.[29]

9.2

950megatons 4.0EJ

Anchorageearthquake(Alaska,USA),1964
SumatraAndamanearthquakeandtsunami
(Indonesia),2004

9.5

2.7gigatons

11EJ

Guamearthquake,August8,1993[27]
TsarBombaLargestthermonuclearweaponevertested.
Mostoftheenergywasdissipatedintheatmosphere.The
seismicshockwasestimatedat5.05.2[28]

Krakatoa1883

Valdiviaearthquake(Chile),1960

13.00

100teratons

420ZJ

YucatnPeninsulaimpact(creatingChicxulubcrater)65
Maago(108megatonsover41029ergs=400
ZJ).[30][31][32][33][34]

22.88or32

310yottatons

1.31039J

Approximatemagnitudeofthestarquakeonthemagnetar
SGR180620,registeredonDecember27,2004.

Quakesusingthemoremodernmagnitudescaleswilldenotetheirabbreviations:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richter_magnitude_scale

and

.
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Thosethathavenodenotedprefixare

.Pleasebeadvisedthatthemagnitude"number"(example

7.0)displayedforthosequakesonthistablemayrepresentasignificantlygreaterorlesserreleasein
energythanbythecorrectlygivenmagnitude(example

).

Magnitudeempiricalformulae
TheseformulaeareanalternativemethodtocalculateRichtermagnitudeinsteadofusingRichter
correlationtablesbasedonRichterstandardseismicevent(
=0,A=0.001mm,D=100km).
TheLillieempiricalformula:

Where:
Aistheamplitude(maximumgrounddisplacement)ofthePwave,inmicrometers,measuredat
0.8Hz.
istheepicentraldistance,inkm.
Fordistancelessthan200km:

Fordistancebetween200kmand600km:

whereAisseismographsignalamplitudeinmm,Ddistanceinkm.
TheBisztricsany(1958)empiricalformulaforepicentraldistancesbetween4to160:

Where:
ismagnitude(mainlyintherangeof5to8)
isthedurationofthesurfacewaveinseconds
istheepicentraldistanceindegrees.
TheTsumuraempiricalformula:

Where:
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isthemagnitude(mainlyintherangeof3to5).
isthetotaldurationofoscillationinseconds.
istheepicentraldistanceinkilometers.
TheTsuboi,UniversityofTokyo,empiricalformula:

Where:
isthemagnitude.
istheamplitudeinum.
istheepicentraldistanceinkilometers.

Seealso
1935inscience
JapanMeteorologicalAgencyseismicintensityscaledoesthesamethingastheMercalliScale,but
indifferentnumbers
Largestearthquakesbymagnitude
MercalliintensityscaleMeasurestheintensityofanearthquake
Momentmagnitudescale
Orderofmagnitude
RohnEmergencyScaleformeasuringthemagnitude(intensity)ofanyemergency
Seismicscale
Seismite
TimelineofUnitedStatesinventions(18901945)

References
1. TheRichterMagnitudeScale(http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/measure.php)
2. Reitherman,Robert(2012).EarthquakesandEngineers:AnInternationalHistory
(http://www.asce.org/Product.aspx?id=2147487208&productid=154097877).Reston,VA:ASCEPress.pp.208
209.ISBN9780784410714.
3. "USGSEarthquakeMagnitudePolicy"(http://earthquake.usgs.gov/aboutus/docs/020204mag_policy.php).USGS.
March29,2010.
4. Woo,Wangchun(September2012)."OnEarthquakeMagnitudes"
(http://www.weather.gov.hk/education/edu02rga/article/eleEarthquakeMagnetude_e.htm).HongKong
Observatory.Retrieved18December2013.
5. WilliamL.Ellsworth(1991)."SURFACEWAVEMAGNITUDE(
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richter_magnitude_scale

)ANDBODYWAVEMAGNITUDE
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5. WilliamL.Ellsworth(1991)."SURFACEWAVEMAGNITUDE(

)ANDBODYWAVEMAGNITUDE

(mb)"(http://www.johnmartin.com/earthquakes/eqsafs/safs_694.htm).USGS.Retrieved20080914.
6. "ExplanationofBulletinListings,USGS"
(http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqarchives/mineblast/definitions.php).
7. Richter,C.F.(1935)."Aninstrumentalearthquakemagnitudescale"
(https://www2.bc.edu/~ebel/Richter1935.pdf).BulletinoftheSeismologicalSocietyofAmerica(Seismological
SocietyofAmerica)25(12):132.
8. Richter,C.F.,"ElementarySeismology",edn,Vol.,W.H.FreemanandCo.,SanFrancisco,1956.
9. Hanks,T.C.andH.Kanamori,1979,"Momentmagnitudescale",JournalofGeophysicalResearch,84,B5,
2348.
10. "Richterscale"(http://earthquake.usgs.gov/hazards/qfaults/glossary.php).Glossary.USGS.March31,2010.
11. DiGiacomo,D.,Parolai,S.,Saul,J.,Grosser,H.,Bormann,P.,Wang,R.&Zschau,J.,2008.Rapid
determinationoftheenrgymagnitudeMe,inEuropeanSeismologicalCommission31stGeneralAssembly,
Hersonissos.
12. Rivera,L.&Kanamori,H.,2008.RapidsourceinversionofWphasefortsunamiwarning,inEuropean
GeophysicalUnionGeneralAssembly,pp.A06228,Vienna.
13. MariusVassiliouandHirooKanamori(1982):"TheEnergyReleaseinEarthquakes,"Bull.Seismol.Soc.Am.
72,371387.
14. WilliamSpence,StuartA.Sipkin,andGeorgeL.Choy(1989)."MeasuringtheSizeofanEarthquake"
(http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/measure.php).EarthquakesandVolcanoes21(1).
15. Ellsworth,WilliamL.(1991)."TheRichterScale

,fromTheSanAndreasFaultSystem,California

(ProfessionalPaper1515)"(http://www.johnmartin.com/earthquakes/eqsafs/safs_693.htm).USGS.pp.c6,p177.
Retrieved20080914.
16. ThisiswhatRichterwroteinhisElementarySeismology(1958),anopinioncopiouslyreproducedafterwardsin
Earth'sscienceprimers.Recentevidenceshowsthatearthquakeswithnegativemagnitudes(downto0.7)can
alsobefeltinexceptionalcases,especiallywhenthefocusisveryshallow(afewhundredmetres).See:
Thouvenot,F.Bouchon,M.(2008).Whatisthelowestmagnitudethresholdatwhichanearthquakecanbefelt
orheard,orobjectsthrownintotheair?,inFrchet,J.,Meghraoui,M.&Stucchi,M.(eds),ModernApproaches
inSolidEarthSciences(vol.2),HistoricalSeismology:InterdisciplinaryStudiesofPastandRecentEarthquakes,
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Externallinks
IRISRealtimeSeismicMonitoroftheEarth(http://www.iris.edu/seismon/)
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USGS:19901999Earthquakesworldwide(http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eqlists/info_1990s.html)
AlaskaRailroadEarthquake(http://www.alaskarails.org/historical/earthquake/earthquake
richter.html)withatableofyieldtomagnituderelations.
EarthquakeEnergyCalculator(http://www.alabamaquake.com/energy.html)withseismicenergy
approximatedineverydayequivalentmeasures.
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