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Chapter 3
Electric circuits
Key knowledge and skills

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By the end of this chapter, you will have covered the following key knowledge and skills:

Model resistance in series and parallel circuits using:


potential difference versus current (V-I ) graphs
resistance as the potential difference to current ratio, including
V
 constant for ohmic devices
R_
I
equivalent effective resistance in arrangements in
series: RT  R1  R2  R3  . . .  Rn and
1  __
1 + __
1 + __
1 + . . .  __
1
parallel: __
RT R1 R2 R3
Rn

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Model simple electrical circuits such as car and household (AC) electrical
systems as simple direct current (DC) circuits.
Model household electricity connections as a simple circuit comprising
fuses, switches, circuit breakers, loads and earth.
Identify causes, effects and treatment of electric shock in homes, relating
these to approximate danger thresholds for current and time.

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AC quantities
The power delivered by an AC voltage supply
is the energy delivered per unit of time. An AC
voltage supply delivers energy per charge
when the voltage is positive and when it is
negative. The average voltage that delivers the
power is called the root mean square or rms
voltage, Vrms. Vrms is less than the highest or
peak voltage, Vpeak, of the supply, but greater
than half the peak voltage. In fact,
Vrms  0.7Vpeak. (Finding averages for timevarying quantities requires a little sophisticated mathematics!) The household power is
240
240Vrms, which means Vpeak  ___
 340 V.
0.7
This means that you can replace an AC supply
with a peak voltage of 340 V with a DC supply
of constant voltage equal to 240 V and get the
same power output.

There are many electric devices around home that are powered by either
the mains supply (240 V AC 50 Hz) or batteries. AC power is more cost
effective than batteries; however, you cannot carry around an AC supply
such as a battery for your iPod, MP3 player or torch.
Electric currents transfer energy from one place to another through
wires. For a conventional current to flow, the circuit must be completed;
that is, there must be a continuous current path.
In its simplest form, a circuit consists of two sections:

an energy source, for example, battery, solar cell, power supply or


generator
an energy sink or load, for example, resistor, light globe, motor or heater.

Circuit components are represented by a set of widely accepted symbols


(Figure 3.1).
Device

Symbol

wires crossed
not joined

Device

Symbol

earth or ground
+

cell

wires joined,
junction of conductor

battery of cells
fixed resistor

Energy source

or
alternative for
battery

supply of energy per charge (V )


variable resistor

Energy sink

capacitor
load that uses energy

rheostat or
resistor with
moving contact
potentiometer
or voltage
divider

galvanometer
ammeter

voltmeter

signal lamp or
indicator

fuse

filament lamp

switch

diode

AC supply

Series connection
circuit elements connected so
that the current is the same in
each element and the potential
difference is shared between
elements

Figure 3.1 Conventional symbols used in electric circuits.

Parallel connection
circuit elements are connected so
that the current is shared between
elements, and the potential
difference is the same across each
element

There are two basic ways of joining conductors together:

series connection
parallel connection.

Most practical circuits consist of combinations of series and parallel circuits.

Thevenins Theorem
Thvenins Theorem
all circuits can be reduced to a
single source and a single sink

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All circuits, even if they have several energy sources and several energy
sinks, can always be reduced to the simplest of forms one source that is
the equivalent of all the sources, and one sink that is the equivalent of all
the sinks. This is Thvenins Theorem.

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Unit 1
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49

load or
energy
drain
e.g. light,
motor or
heater

energy
source
e.g.
battery

Figure 3.2 All circuits can be reduced to the simplest arrangement of one equivalent source and one
equivalent sink.

The amount of energy transferred from the source to the load depends
on the potential energy per charge, that is, the potential difference,
produced by the source. The flow of charge, the current, can be controlled
by devices placed in the circuit, such as a switch, a microphone or a
variable resistor. The wires connecting the components and any measuring devices placed in the circuit can also have some effect, although most
circuits are designed to minimise this effect.
In Figure 3.2, which comprises a battery, a switch and a globe, the energy
from the source (battery) is completely used up in the sink (light globe).

Input and output transducers


A device that collects energy from a source and converts that energy to
electrical form is an input transducer. A microphone collects energy in
the form of sound from a person speaking or singing, and converts it to
potential differences. A loudspeaker system takes these input potential
differences and uses them to amplify the signal, which are then broadcast
as sound. The loudspeaker is an output transducer.

Input transducer

Output transducer

Switch

Light globes

Light-dependent resistor, LDR

Meters

Lon Charles THVENIN


(18571926)
In 1853 Hermann von Helmholtz showed
that all circuits could be reduced to a single
source and single sink, but it was not until
35 years later that Thvenin rediscovered and
published it with due recognition of Helmholtz.
Other engineers, particularly Hans Mayer
(18951980) in Germany and Edward Norton
(18981983) in the United States also reported
this result in 1926, the year of Thvenins death.
Mayer was strongly anti-Nazi during World
War II, imprisoned in Dachau, but released. He
eventually took up engineering and academic
positions in America. In Europe, Thvenins
Theorem is referred to as Helmholtzs Theorem,
while the influence of America has ensured that
Mayer and, particularly, Norton are remembered
along with Thvenin. Helmholtz has plenty of
other reasons to be remembered in science
(physiology, psychology, electrodynamics,
thermodynamics, aesthetics).

Thvenin

Heat-dependent resistor, thermistor

Liquid crystal display, LCD


Input transducer

Phototransistor

Electromagnet

device that takes energy from the


environment and converts it for
use in an electric circuit

Output transducer

Resistance: the voltage-tocurrent ratio


Resistance is the quantity that affects the flow of current in a circuit. For a
given potential difference at the source a small, circuit resistance means a
high current, and a large, circuit resistance means a small current.

03_VCE_PHYSICS_SBCD_1&2.indd 49

device that uses energy from an


electric circuit to convert to energy
to be sent into the environment

Resistance
quantity that affects current flow;
V
voltage-to-current ratio, R __
I

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Resistance is defined in terms of the voltage-to-current ratio:


V
R  __
I
The unit of resistance is ohm, .
1 volt  ___
1 V  1 V A1
1 ohm  1   _________
1 ampere 1 A

Ohms Law
Ohmic device

A device for which resistance remains constant over a wide range of


operating voltages and currents is an ohmic device. For ohmic resistors:
V  constant
R  __
I

V
R  __
I  constant; hence, V  IR

Non-ohmic device

Ohm was born in Bavaria, now part of


Germany, in 1787. After a solid education in
the sciences, he taught mathematics and
physics. Ohm conducted experiments in a
high school laboratory on electromagnetism
after hearing about its discovery in 1820 by
Oersted (17771851). In 1825 and 1826 he
published two papers on electrical conduction
and in 1827 he wrote a book that gave a
complete mathematical theory of electricity.
His theory was strongly based on the results
of experiments and included what is now
referred to as Ohms Law: R  _VI . Much of
Ohms work related to the relationship
between the electromagnetic force exerted by
a current-carrying wire and the physical
characteristics of the wire.

Oersted

Ohms Law

V  IR
Current through an ohmic conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across it. This is known as Ohms Law, where R is the
constant resistance.
A characteristic V-I graph for an ohmic resistor is shown in Figure 3.3(a).
Ohmic conductors have constant resistance, and the gradient of the
straight-line graph gives the value of the resistance. The V-I graph of a
non-ohmic device is shown in Figure 3.3(b). It is not a straight line, the
resistance is not a constant and the gradient is not the resistance value.

Voltage

Georg Simon OHM (17871854)

This can be transposed to become:

Voltage

V
R  __
I  non-constant value
computed for each operating value
of V and I

Current

Current

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.3 (a) The V-I graph of an ohmic resistor is a linear graph; (b) the V-I graph of a non-ohmic
resistor is a non-linear graph.

Instead of the graph of V against I, we sometimes use the graph of I


I
against V. In this case, you need to take care not to compute the __
ratio,
V
which gives the reciprocal value of the resistance.

Energy, power and Ohms Law


V
From R  __
 constant, we can deduce new relationships between power,
I
voltage and current.
V 1 V  IR
(a)
R  __
I

but P  VI  I  (IR )
1 P  I 2R
(b)

V 1 I  __
V
R  __
I
R
V
but P  VI  V   __
R
2
___
1PV
R

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Unit 1
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51

Factors affecting the


resistance of uniform wire
wound resistors
The resistance of a wire depends upon its length, , cross-sectional area, A,
and the type of material from which the wire is made the resistivity, .
The longer the wire, the greater the resistance:
R

Resistivity,
property of a material, related to
its ability to control current

The thicker the wire, the smaller the resistance:


1
R  __
A

Altogether, R  __
A
where is the resistivity of the material (see Table 3.1).

Table 3.1 Some values of resistivity of materials


commonly used in electric circuits

Material

Resistivity at 20C ( m)

Copper

1.8  108

Constantan

49  108

Nichrome

110  108

Carbon

5.0  105

Porcelain

3.0  1012

\\ WORKED EXAMPLE

Question 1
A wire has a cross-sectional area of 2.0 mm2 and is 10.0 m long. If the
resistance of the wire is 60 m, what is the resistivity of the wire?

Answer

R  __
A
R  60  103 ,   10.0 m,
A  2.0 mm2  2.0 (m  103 )2  2.0  106 m2

Thus, R  __
A

10.0
1 60  103  _________
2.0  106
60  103  2.0  106
1  ____________________
10.0
1  1.2  108  m (0.12  m)

Problem set 3A
Question 1
An electric soldering iron draws a current of 2.0 A when connected
to a 240 V supply.
What is the resistance of the soldering iron?

Question 2
A 3.0  resistor and a 6.0  resistor are connected in series with a
12 V battery. Find:
a
b
c
d

the
the
the
the

current in the battery


power dissipated in the 3.0  resistor
power dissipated in the 6.0  resistor
power output of the battery

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VCE Units 1&2

Question 3
The resistivity of nichrome wire is 1.1  m. What length of wire
of diameter 0.079 mm is required to provide a resistance
of 1.0 k?

Question 4
Complete the table to show how changes in the physical properties
of a wire (, A ) change the value of the resistance.

Worksheet 3.1

Length

Area

Resistance

2

R...

...

R3

  __1
2

R...

A2

R...

A3

R...

A...

R2

3

A  __1
2

R......

Proportionality

R...

R1
. . .
___
 ___

1
R  ___
...

R1 ___
A
__
 ...

R. . .

R2

. . .

A ...

R1 ___
...
...
__
 1  ___2
R2

. . .2

. . .1

Non-ohmic devices
A number of different devices with non-constant resistance are used in
electric circuits. These include thermistors, light-dependent resistors
(LDRs) and diodes.

Thermistors
Thermistor
temperature-dependent resistor

Thermistors, or temperature-dependent resistors, are used to detect


changes in heat energy (temperature). The electrical changes caused by
physical changes are used to control devices such as heaters or airconditioners. They are non-ohmic resistors (Figure 3.4).

(a)

thermistor

Resistance (M7)

(b)
25
20
15
10
5

10

20
30
Temperature (C)

40

Figure 3.4 Thermistor symbol and characteristic graph.

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Unit 1
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53

LDRs
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is made of a semiconductor material
such as cadmium sulfide, whose resistance changes with the intensity
of the light. As the intensity of the light falling on the surface of the
LDR increases, the resistance of the semiconductor material decreases
(Figure 3.5).

Light-dependent resistor (LDR)


resistance depends on illumination

Resistance (k7)

(b)

(a)

12
10
8
6

Ohmic and non-ohmic devices

4
2
4 61
r101

LDR

4 61
r102

4 61
r103

Illumination (lux)

Figure 3.5 LDR symbol and characteristic graph.

Diodes
A diode is an electronic device made from semiconducting materials.
When used in a circuit, a diode allows current to flow in one direction
only. Diodes can be connected to a circuit in two ways. The triangle in the
circuit symbol shows the direction in which conventional current can
flow. When connected to allow current to flow, the diode is forward biased
(Figure 3.6(a)). When reverse biased (Figure 3.6(b)), the diode prevents
current flow and only an extremely small leakage current (Figure 3.6(c))
flows in it.

Diode
one-way valve

Forward biased
connection to allow current flow

Reverse biased
connection to prevent current flow

Current (mA)
Reverse bias 40

Diode

20
100
Voltage (V)
0.6 0.8
Forward bias
Forward biased
current flows globe lights

Reverse biased
no current flow

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 3.6 Diodes can be (a) forward biased, and (b) reverse biased. In reverse bias, there is a small
residual current, even for very high bias voltages (c).

Series circuits
The energy per charge provided by a battery is all used in the circuit
elements. If there is one resistor in a circuit, then all the energy per charge,
the voltage, is across the resistor, and is used in that resistor (Figure 3.7(a)).

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If two resistors are placed end to end (Figure 3.7(b)), then the energy per
charge is shared between the two resistors. The current is the same in
each resistor.

V1
Vin

VR VR  Vin

Vin

Vout Vout  Vin V1 V2

V2

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.7 (a) A simple circuit comprising a voltage source and one resistor. The potential difference
across the resistor is the same as the potential difference across the source. (b) A series circuit
comprising a voltage source and two resistors in series. The potential difference across both resistors is
the same as the potential difference across the source. The potential difference is shared between the
resistors; the current is the same in both resistors.
Current in series and parallel

Any series circuit can be reduced, using Thvenins Theorem, to a single


source and a single equivalent resistor.
In a series circuit, the potential difference is shared:
Vs  V1  V2
In a series circuit there are no junctions, so the current in each resistor
is the same:
Is  I1  I2
Altogether, we can deduce the equivalent resistance:
V
Is

V1 ___
V
__s  ___
 2
I1

I2

1 Req  R1  R2
The Thvenin equivalent circuit comprises a potential difference, V,
and the equivalent resistance, Req.
Note that this result arises from the definition of resistance as the
ratio of potential difference to current. It is applicable to all resistances
in series.
Using Figure 3.7(b), we can show that the ratio of the potential differences
across each resistor is equal to the ratio of the resistances. The current is
the same in each resistor, so:
V
V
I  ___1  ___2
R1 R2
V
R
1 ___2  ___2
V 1 R1
This shows that the voltage is divided in the ratio of the resistances.
Voltage divider

Voltage dividers

device used to vary voltage at the


output depending on a control
resistor

A voltage divider takes advantage of the way a series circuit divides the
potential between resistors. The simplest voltage divider uses two
resistors (as shown in Figure 3.7(b)). The potential drop across both

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Unit 1
Chapter 3 \\ Electric circuits

55

resistors adds to the sum of the supply voltage, Vin. In a voltage divider
the output voltage, Vout, is the potential difference across one of the
resistors and so is less thanVin.

variable
resistor
Vin
Vout

Figure 3.8 A simple voltage divider: If one resistance can be changed by an external energy source
(hand, light, heat, pressure), the output voltage changes. This affects devices connected across the
output terminals.

The voltage divider equation can be deduced from Ohms Law:


Vout
Vin
I  ____________
 ____
Rvariable  Rout Rout
Rout
1 Vout  ____________
V
Rvariable  Rout in
Voltage dividers can be used as control circuits. For example, when you turn
the volume control on a TV or radio, you change the resistance in a voltage
divider (Figure 3.8). As you turn the resistance down, the volume comes up
because Vout , which is connected across the loudspeaker, increases.
\\ WORKED EXAMPLE

In Figure 3.8, take the input voltage as12 V, the fixed resistance across the
output as100 , and the resistance of the variable resistor to be 10 , 100
or 1000 .

Question 2
Calculate Vout for each value of the variable resistance.

Answer
Rvariable  10

Rvariable  100

Rvariable  1000

100  12
Vout  ________
10  100

100
 12
Vout  _________
100  100

100
 12
Vout  _________
1000  100

100  12
1 Vout  ___
110

100  12
1 Vout  ___
200

100  12
1 Vout  ____
1100

1 Vout  11 V

1 Vout  6.0 V

1 Vout  1.1 V

Parallel circuits
The energy per charge provided by a battery is all used in the circuit
elements. If two resistors are placed side by side, so that the current is
shared, the elements are in parallel (Figure 3.9). Because the source of
energy per charge is across both resistors, both resistors use up the same

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amount of energy per charge. The energy per charge (potential difference)
is the same for both resistors. The current is shared between the resistors.
I
Potential difference in
series and parallel

I1

Vin

V1

R1

I2

R2

V2

I I1 I2
Vin V1 V2

Kirchhoffs Laws
The analysis of series and parallel circuits
relies on two conservation laws. These laws
are associated with Robert Kirchhoff (1824
1887), whose claim to fame includes working
with Wilhelm Bunsen (18111899) on the
characteristic coloursspectraemitted when
elements are heated.

Figure 3.9 In parallel circuits, current is shared between devices.

Kirchhoffs First Law:


Conservation of charge

In a parallel circuit, the total current in the circuit is shared between


each resistor:

The total current into a junction  the total


current out of the junction
Iin  Iout

Kirchhoffs Second Law:


Conservation of energy
The total of all voltage sources  the total of
all voltage sinks
Vin  Vout

Kirchhoffs First Law


current conservation at a
junction; Iin  Iout

Kirchhoffs Second Law


energy conservation; Vin  Vout

Any parallel circuit can be reduced, using Thvenins Theorem, to a


single source and a single, equivalent resistor.
In a parallel circuit, the potential difference is the same across each
resistor:
Vp  V1  V2

Ip  I1 + I2
Altogether, we can deduce the equivalent resistance:
V
V, I  __
from R  __
I
R
thus, Ip  I1  I2
Vp Vp Vp
becomes ___  ___  ___
Req R1 R2
1  ___
1
1  ___
1 ___
Req R1 R2
Note that this result arises from the definition of resistance as the
voltage-to-current ratio. It is applicable to all resistors in parallel.
Using Figure 3.9, we can show that the ratio of the current in each
resistor is equal to the inverse ratio of the resistances. The potential
difference across each resistor is the same, so:
V  I1 R1  I2 R2
I
R
1 __1  ___2
I2 R1

Compound circuits
Compound circuit
elements connected in series and
in parallel groups

03_VCE_PHYSICS_SBCD_1&2.indd 56

Figure 3.10 shows a compound circuit. This circuit is a combination of


series and parallel circuits. Each section needs to be simplified by using
the rules for series and parallel resistors.
First reduce the parallel resistances to a single resistance, then add this
to the other resistance, which is in series with the equivalent of the parallel
resistances:
1  ___
1  ___
1
_____
(Req) R2 R3
R2 R3
1 (Req)  _______
R2  R3

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Unit 1
Chapter 3 \\ Electric circuits

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Now, Req  R1  (Req)


R2 R3
1 Req  R1  _______
R2  R3

R1

parallel section
find (Requivalent)

Vin

R2

R3 (R ) 
eq

R2R3
R2  R3

Series and parallel circuits

(Req) R1(Req) in series


circuit

Figure 3.10 A compound circuit is analysed section by section.

\\ WORKED EXAMPLE

In Figure 3.10, the resistances are:


R1  200 , R2  400 , R3  100

Question 3
Find the total equivalent resistance.
HINT: It is usually best to plug the numbers in as soon as possible, rather than
trying to remember another algebraic relation.

Answer
1  ___
1  ___
1
____

400 100
400  100  80
1 (Req)  _________
400  100
Now, Req  80  200
(Req)

1 Req  280

Car electrical systems


A cars electrical system can be considered as an energy source, the battery,
and a set of energy sinks, such as lights and related switches, in parallel
(Figure 3.11).
The car body is the ground or zero of potential, so that you cannot be
shocked by effectively touching the battery terminals when you touch the
car (Figure 3.12).

The car battery


A leadacid type battery is fitted to a car. They have high current
capabilities and are relatively cheap. A leadacid battery usually consists
of a lead and litharge (lead oxide) anode (positive terminal) and a lead
and red-lead cathode (negative terminal) immersed in a liquid electrolyte
of dilute sulfuric acid. This is usually surrounded by a rubber or
polypropylene case.
These batteries are available in a wide variety of sizes and power.
When fully charged and not in use, the potential difference across the
terminals (called the no-load terminal voltage) of one leadacid cell is
about 2.32.4 V. This drops to about 2.0 V when under full load. In a car

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Battery
series of cells

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Figure 3.11 The wiring system or loom of a car.

car battery, V 12 V

battery
V 12 V

headlamps

tail-lights

other
devices
in parallel

car body, V 0

Figure 3.12 A simplified model of a car electrical system.

battery (nominally 12 V), six cells are joined in series. These are
continually recharged through the alternator when the car engine is
operating. If they are allowed to go flat they can be charged with a
battery charger, but safety precautions must be followed. When
charging, explosive hydrogen is released, so recharging should occur in
a well-ventilated place. Both rapid charging and overcharging damage
the battery plates.

Alternator
Alternator
AC generator

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The alternator generates AC current by converting the mechanical energy


from the motor via the fan belt. This AC current is converted to DC current
(by using diodes), which recharges the battery and supplies energy to the
cars electrical circuits. If the battery is not recharged continually, the
battery will go flat quite quickly. There is also a regulator in the circuit to
ensure that the battery is not overcharged.

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Unit 1
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59

Household electrical systems


The electricity supplied to houses is 240 V (peak 340 V) 50 Hz, single
phase. There are two wires in the cable to the house one is the active or
phase wire and the other is the neutral wire. These come to a mains
connection box that contains a fuse in the active wire. From there, the
cable goes to the fuse box or switchboard. The active lead is attached
through a meter (an energy meter) to the main switch and from there to
a number of fuses. The neutral is connected to a metal bar called the
neutral bar, which is connected back to earth via the metallic,
underground water pipes. The neutral wire is also earthed at the
substation (Figure 3.13).

metallic underground
water piping system

pole type
junction box

supply meter
consumer
switchboard
mains

service lines

Active
connection to the 240 V household
supply

Neutral
zero potential in a household
wiring system

Fuse
temperature-dependent wire that
melts if an overload occurs;
safety protection against overload

Earth
connection back to substation

earth electrode
(bonded to a
metallic
underground
water piping
system)

main earthing
conductor

point of attachment

fused mains
connection box

Figure 3.13 Typical household electrical supply system.

From the fuse box, a cable which contains three wires is connected
around the house to the power points and lights. The switches for these
are on the active side. Light fixtures without metal parts may not have the
earth wire (Figure 3.14).
The power points and lights are connected in parallel. If they were not,
then all the switches would have to be turned on to operate any power
point or light!
earthing system for a domestic installation
active

main
switch

neutral
bar

main
earthing
conductor

neutral

circuit fuses
general purpose
outlet
insulated cable

circuit earthing
conductor

switch

earth electrode
earth clip

Figure 3.14 Wiring diagram from household main switch showing earth connection.

Appliances are connected to the power point through a three-pin plug,


unless the appliance is double insulated. The active wire is connected to

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control element
switch

active

element
neutral

the appliance switch and then to the relevant circuit. The conducting path
is completed with the wire back to the neutral. The earth wire is connected
to the metal frame of the appliance so that as soon as a fault develops a
large current flows to earth and causes the fuse to blow, thus isolating the
appliance (Figure 3.15).
Power points in homes accept three pins from a plug. The wiring is
colour-coded to ensure the correct pin is connected to the active, neutral
or earth wire (Figure 3.16).

earth

active

neutral

Figure 3.15 Circuit for a simple toaster or heater


showing connections to the active, neutral and earth
wires.

earth

black neutral blue


existing
fuse carrier

red

active

brown

green

earth

green-yellow

international

Figure 3.16 Colour code for a three-pin plug in a three-point power point.

Fuses and earthing


Single-phase wiring, which is common around the home, uses three wires.
Under normal conditions, no current flows in the earth wire. If a fault
develops, a current flows in the earth wire. The low resistance of the earth
return means the current is large. This high current will quickly blow a
fuse or trigger a circuit breaker to cut off the power supply to the faulty
device.
thin fuse
wire

Figure 3.17 Ceramic fuse carrier and fuse wire.

Fuse
A fuse in the active circuit wire is a short piece of wire selected so that it
will melt or blow when the current through it exceeds a certain value
(Figure 3.17). Fuses for domestic power supply are typically rated at 30 A
for appliance circuits and 15 A for lighting circuits.

Circuit breaker
Circuit breaker
electromechanical switch that
trips when there is an overload;
safety protection against overload

A circuit breaker is an electromechanical device that automatically opens


a switch if overload occurs. It contains an electromagnet that becomes
more powerful as the current increases. When the current reaches a
certain value, the electromagnet is powerful enough to force apart a
contact and so break the circuit. It can do this in a very short time less
than it takes for a piece of wire to burn through. It is simple to reset.

Residual current interrupt (RCI)


Residual current interrupt (RCI)
earth leakage protection device;
safety protection against overload

Fuseboard
location of household fuses, main
switches and meters

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Residual current interrupt (RCI) or earth leakage protection provides an


extra safety feature.
This consists of a relay that breaks the circuit if the current between the
active and neutral wires exceeds a specified cut-off value, usually 50 mA.
These relays are designed to cut the power very quickly, typically in about
30 ms. Earth leakage protection circuits may be wired into the fuseboard,
or they may be fitted to individual power outlets. Portable units are also
available for use with extension cords.

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Unit 1
Chapter 3 \\ Electric circuits

61

Double insulation
Equipment and appliances are said to be double insulated if two layers of
insulation are used:

the functional insulation, which is around the live parts such as


insulation on wires
the protective insulation, which is external and robust.

Failure of either part will not result in a current path to the outside of
the appliance, and failure of both is almost impossible without
complete mechanical fracture. Exposed metal on the outside of the
appliance is isolated from the internal parts and is not connected to
earth. Any fault that develops should not be able to give the user a
shock. These devices are not connected to the earth wire and only have
a two-pin plug.

Safety
If a fuse blows or a circuit breaker operates, the cause of the fault should
always be found and rectified. Never be tempted to use a fuse with a
higher rating. If you use a higher rating fuse, the electrical wires in your
house effectively become the fuse. If they overheat, they can set fire to
your ceiling, where most of the wires can be found. The first you will know
of a fire will be when the roof is alight and starts to fall in on top of you!
In Australia, an estimated 60% of deaths from electric shock each year
are due to wrongly wired three-pin plugs.
Only a licensed electrician should carry out wiring alterations, repairs
and the installation of appliances and fittings which are permanently
connected to the house wiring. Unqualified people should never make
their own extension cords. Power cords, extension leads and fittings that
show signs of wear should always be promptly repaired by a qualified
person, or replaced.

Figure 3.18 Single-pole switch.


A

Switches

Nearly all electrical devices are controlled by a switch. These range from
simple on-off switches to complex light, pressure or heat-controlled
switches.

Aa
Ba

Single-pole switch
When the switch is turned on, the two contacts A and B are joined, allowing
current to flow. If a single-pole switch is incorrectly wired, the casing of an
appliance can still be live even though the switch is turned off. This is why
you should always turn off and unplug an appliance before investigating
a suspected fault (Figure 3.18).

Figure 3.19 Double-throw switch.

Single-pole switch
on/off connection between two
terminals

Double-throw switches
A double-throw switch connects both the active and neutral wires at the
same time. In so doing, it always isolates both active and neutral connections
(Figure 3.19).

Double-throw switch
safe switch that isolates active
and neutral

Two-way switch
A two-way switch can be used to turn lights on if the lights are off, or off if
the lights are on from switches on either side of a room, at either end of
a hall or from the top and bottom of a staircase (Figure 3.20).

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Two-way switch
switch that operates lights from
either of two locations

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switch 1

switch 2

globe

Figure 3.20 Two-way switch.

Short circuits
Short circuit
connection between two points that
allows current to flow with
negligible resistance

The most spectacular type of overloading occurs in a short circuit. A short


circuit occurs when there is a current pathway between active and neutral,
so that the current is able to bypass the appliance and use a far less
resistive pathway. The effect is that, for much smaller resistance, the
current becomes much greater than it is in normal use. This brings into
play the fuse or other safety, tripping device.
A short circuit can occur, for example, when the insulation of two
wires (active and neutral) in a cord wears through and the two bare
wires touch each other. Alternatively, a bare active wire may touch a
metal component on an appliance that is earthed. If you touch a live
appliance, you may provide the conduction path to earth. The result
may be fatal.
Accidents can be prevented by careful and regular attention to all
electrical appliances and leads. It is essential that worn cords are
replaced, that earth wires are properly connected and that care is taken
at all times.

Electric shock
Electric shock
biological effect of being
connected across a potential
difference

Electric shock is the effect produced on the body, and in particular on the
nervous system, by an electric current.
Electricity has three effects: electrolysis, heating and the stimulation of
nerves. The seriousness of these effects on the human body depends on
the magnitude and frequency of the current.

Electrolytic effects
Electrolytic
effect of electrical stimulation
of the charged ions in cells

DC currents of only a few hundred microamperes will have an electrolytic


effect and cause small ulcers on the skin at the points where electrodes
are connected. AC currents of low frequency (<1 Hz) do not appear to
have the same effect.

Heating
Heating is an effect at higher frequencies or higher currents. Burns can be
caused by the passage of a high current through the body.

Stimulation of nerves
Nerve or muscle stimulation is the most dangerous form of electric
shock. It can cause the victim to stop breathing or interfere with
heart function. Nerves accept stimulation over a short period of time,
then have a short recovery time before they can be stimulated again
(Figure 3.21).

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Unit 1
Chapter 3 \\ Electric circuits

63

Stimulation

AC stimulation

response
1
s
50

response
collapse

Time

recovery

1
Figure 3.21 Nerve response and recovery time is about __
of 1 second. A stimulus during recovery
50
has no effect. A 50 Hz AC current will repeatedly stimulate the nerve just after it has recovered. Fairly
soon, the nerve collapses.

If a nerve is given a first stimulus and then a second one during the
recovery phase, nothing happens; however, if the stimuli occur in about
the same period of time as the stimulus/recovery cycle, then the nerve
will fairly soon collapse and refuse to accept any stimuli. The period of the
1
stimulus/recovery time is about __
s, which is the same as the period of
50
the Australian domestic supply, so it is really quite dangerous, even at
currents as slow as 1 mA. In other countries, the frequency is 60 Hz, which
means that, when nerves are struck, they have time to recover before the
next pulse strikes.

Resistance of the skin


The size of the current affecting a shock victim depends on the supply
voltage and the resistance of the human body. The resistance of the skin
varies according to whether it is wet or dry (Table 3.2).
Great care must be taken with all equipment that is connected to
humans, as these low currents may not be felt by a doctor or nurse when
connecting the electrodes. Often high-resistance leads are used up to
100 M to ensure currents are kept within safe limits.
There have been suggestions that the maximum potential drop across
portable lamps be limited to 25 V. Although a shock of 40 V poses no great
danger to the heart or nervous system, it can be felt. Portable lamps are
usually used in confined spaces and by workers up ladders, and in these
places it could be dangerous to recoil from an unexpected electric shock.
Both heating effects and nerve stimulation can be used with beneficial
effect by trained medical staff for the treatment of injuries or in the case
of pacemakers the regular supply of impulses to trigger the functioning
of the heart. It can also be used to restart a heart that has, for some reason,
stopped functioning.

Table 3.2 Estimates of the resistance of skin and body


tissue
Dry skin

10100 k

Moist, sweaty skin

1 k

Wet skin

Internal body tissue

1 k

Simple safety rules


1
2
3
4
5
6

Do not attempt electrical repairs unless qualified.


Never use electricity in a wet or damp situation, because water is a
good conductor of electricity.
Replace all defective appliances and frayed cords.
Keep clear of power lines.
Do not meddle with appliances that are switched on.
Have sound knowledge of first-aid procedures.

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Summary of electric circuits


All circuits comprise energy sources and energy sinks:

An energy source provides a potential difference between two points. This allows current
to flow.
An energy sink uses the energy available.

Potential difference is energy per charge.


Current is the rate of flow of charge.
Resistance: the quantity that affects the flow of current in a circuit:
V
R ()  __
I
Ohmic device: a device for which the voltage-to-current ratio is constant:
V  constant
R  __
I
Power: rate of energy transfer into or from a circuit element:
2
P  I 2 R  V__
R
Kirchhoffs First Law: current conservation at a junction; Iin  Iout
Kirchhoffs Second Law: energy conservation; Vin  Vout
Thvenins Theorem: All circuits, even if they have several energy sources and several energy
sinks, can always be reduced to the simplest of forms one source that is the equivalent of all the
sources, and one sink that is the equivalent of all the sinks.

Series connection
Circuit elements share the potential difference (voltage), but the current is the same in each element:
Vs  V1  V2
Is  I1  I2
Req  R1  R2
For a simple voltage divider:
V2 __
R
__
 2
V1

R1

Rout
Vout  ___________
V
R variable  Rout in

Parallel connection
Circuit elements share the current, but the potential difference (voltage) is the same across each
element.
Vp  V1  V2
Ip  I1  I2
1  __
1  __
1
___
Req R1 R2
Transducers: carry energy into a circuit (input transducer) or send energy out from the circuit
(output transducer). Examples of transducers include:

thermistor: temperature-dependent resistor


switch (single-throw, double-throw, two-way)
light-dependent resistor (LDR): resistance depends on illumination
diode: one-way valve.

Electricity has three main biological effects: electrolysis, heating and the stimulation of nerves.
The seriousness of these effects on the human body depends on the magnitude and frequency of
the current.

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Unit 1
Chapter 3 \\ Electric circuits

Review questions

65

Test Yourself

Question 1
When a potential difference of 16 V is applied across the ends of a wire, the current
flowing in the wire is 2.4 A.

Word Check
Theory Summary

What is the resistance of the wire?

What potential difference is needed to make a current of 3.0 A flow through the
wire?

Question 2

Worksheet 3.2
Podcast Revision

What is the potential drop across a 1.8 k resistor in which a current of 240 mA flows?
Question 3
Two wires A and B of the same material have resistances of 6.0 and 54.0 ,
respectively. The length of A is double the length of B.
a

What is the ratio of the diameter of A to the diameter of B?

If the two wires are connected in parallel across a 6.0 V battery, what is the
current in each wire?

Question 4
Figure 3.22 shows four different combinations of resistors. What is the total or
effective resistance of each combination?
b
4.0 7
a

4.0 7

10.0 7

16.0 7

15.0 7
d

24.0 7
c

9.0 7

12.0 7

18.0 7

8.0 7

Figure 3.22

Question 5
Figure 3.23 shows two combinations of resistors. What is the total or effective
resistance of each combination?
b

a
5.0 7

15.0 7

5.0 7

5.0 7
10.0 7

40.0 7

Figure 3.23

Question 6
Two 12.0 resistors and one 6.0 resistor are connected in series across a 6.0 V
battery.
a

Draw a circuit diagram to show this arrangement.

What is the total resistance of the circuit?

What current flows through the 6.0 resistor?

What is the potential drop across each resistor?

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Question 7
Two 12.0 resistors and one 6.0 resistor are connected in parallel across a
6.0 V battery.
a

Draw a circuit diagram to show this arrangement.

What is the total resistance of the circuit?

What is the potential drop across the 6.0 resistor?

What is the current in each resistor?

Question 8
Three conductors of resistances 10.0, 15.0 and 25.0 are connected in series to a
32 V supply. Find:
a

the total resistance

the current in each conductor

the potential drop across each conductor

Question 9
A battery of emf 1.5 V has an internal resistance of 0.10 .
a

Calculate the current in a circuit when the terminals of the battery are connected
by an external resistance of:
i

0.9

ii

9.9

iii

99.9

What is the potential drop across the external resistance in each case?

Question 10
The element of an electric oven is designed to produce 9.6 kW of heat energy when
connected to a 240 V supply. What current does the element draw?
Question 11
A water heater converts 2.4 kJ of electrical energy into heat every second when
connected to a 240 V supply.
a

What is the power of the water heater?

What current does the water heater draw?

How long must the water heater operate to supply 60 kJ of energy?

Question 12
The graphs of current against potential difference for a resistor X and diode device D
are shown in Figure 3.24.
a

b
A
X

V
X

A
D

I
(mA) 4

I
(mA) 4

400
200
p.d. (V)

400
200
p.d. (V)

Figure 3.24

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Unit 1
Chapter 3 \\ Electric circuits

67

X and D are connected in series, as shown in Figure 3.24(a), and the ammeter
registers a current of 2.0 mA.
i

What is the reading on voltmeter V?

ii

What is the maximum reading that the ammeter could have?

For the same connections as in Figure 3.24(a) the voltmeter reads 1000 V.
i

What does the ammeter read?

ii

What are the potential differences across X and D?

X and D are connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 3.24(b), and the voltmeter
reads 300 V.
i

What does the ammeter read?

ii

If the voltmeter reads 500 V, what would the ammeter read?

Question 13
a

What is the current in a 100 W globe connected to a 240 V supply?

If three 100 W globes are connected in parallel, what is the total current in the
supply?

How many globes can be connected in parallel before a 7.5 A fuse wire blows?

Question 14
A service station charges a car battery using a battery charger that draws a steady
current of 4.5 A for 8.0 hours. How many coulombs of charge pass through the
battery in this time?
Question 15
Birds are often seen perched on a high-voltage power line. Why arent the birds
electrocuted?
Question 16
An inexperienced electrician repairs two of the heating elements of an electric stove
and connects them in series, instead of in parallel, across a 240 V supply. If the two
heating elements have the same resistance, what happens to the amount of heat that
they now produce compared to the amount of heat they produced when connected
correctly?
Question 17
Define the following effects of the passage of electricity in a person: electrolysis,
heating and the stimulation of nerves. How do these differ from each other?
Question 18
A wet person acts like a short circuit.
a

Explain what this statement means by defining what a short circuit is, and how the
person models this situation.

Why is this dangerous?

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Area of study review Electricity


You should only attempt these questions after you have finished your study of this area. It
covers the more important topics and you should complete it as a timed test. It is
recommended that you spend about 50 minutes attempting all questions. The approximate
time for each question is given at the end of the question. If you take considerably more
time than 50 minutes, then you may need to revise or study the area again.

A current of 0.50 A flows for 10 minutes in an electrical conductor.


Question 1
Calculate the number of coulombs of charge that pass a given point.
Question 2
Find the number of electrons that pass a given point.
[3 min]
Question 3
The figure below shows three ammeters A, B and C in three wires as part of a
continuous circuit. If ammeter A reads 1.40 A and ammeter B reads 0.50 A, what is
the reading on ammeter C?
[2 min]
B
C
A

Question 4
How much energy does a 12.0 V car battery supply to every electron in the battery?
[3 min]
A current of 2.0 A flows from a dry cell when a light globe is connected across the
terminals of the cell. The potential drop across the terminals is 6.0 V.

6.0 V

Question 5
How much electrical charge flows in the globe each second?
Question 6
How much energy is given to each coulomb of charge in the battery?
Question 7
How long does it take the battery to supply 480 J?
Question 8
In order to deliver 480 J, how many coulombs of charge will pass through the battery
in this time?
[6 min]

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Unit 1
Area of study 2 review

69

When a potential difference of 16 V is applied across the ends of a wire, the current
flowing in the wire is 2.4 A.
Question 9
What is the resistance of the wire?
Question 10
What potential difference is needed to make a current of 3.0 A flow in the wire?
[3 min]
Question 11
Two 12  resistors and a 6.0  resistor are connected in series across a 6.0 V
battery. Draw a circuit diagram to show this arrangement. On this diagram show:
a

the effective resistance of the circuit

the current in the 6.0  resistor

the potential drop across each resistor


[7 min]

Question 12
Three 100  resistors are connected in parallel across a 6.0 V battery.

100 7

100 7

100 7

What is the current in each resistor?


[3 min]
An electric radiator element draws a current of 4.8 A when connected to a 240 V supply.
Question 13
What is the resistance of the heating element of the radiator?
Question 14
If electricity is charged at 15 cents per kilowatt-hour, what is the cost of running the
radiator for 2 hours.
[4 min]
Three conductors of resistances 15 , 20  and 25  are connected in series to a
30 V supply.

15 7

30 V

20 7

25 7

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Question 15
Find the total resistance.
Question 16
Deduce the current in each conductor.
Question 17
What is the potential drop across each conductor?
[6 min]
Two conductors each of resistance 12  are connected in parallel and the
combination is joined in series with a 6  resistor and placed across a 6 V battery.

6.0 7

6.0 V
12 7

12 7

Question 18
Find the equivalent resistance.
Question 19
What is the total current in the circuit, and the current in each component?
Question 20
What is the potential drop across the parallel combination?
[8 min]
Question 21
What amount of heat is generated when a heating element is subjected to a potential
difference of 12 V for 6.0 minutes? The current in the wire is 1.8 A.
[5 min]

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