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Chapter 3
Electric circuits
Key knowledge and skills
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By the end of this chapter, you will have covered the following key knowledge and skills:
03_VCE_PHYSICS_SBCD_1&2.indd 47
Model simple electrical circuits such as car and household (AC) electrical
systems as simple direct current (DC) circuits.
Model household electricity connections as a simple circuit comprising
fuses, switches, circuit breakers, loads and earth.
Identify causes, effects and treatment of electric shock in homes, relating
these to approximate danger thresholds for current and time.
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AC quantities
The power delivered by an AC voltage supply
is the energy delivered per unit of time. An AC
voltage supply delivers energy per charge
when the voltage is positive and when it is
negative. The average voltage that delivers the
power is called the root mean square or rms
voltage, Vrms. Vrms is less than the highest or
peak voltage, Vpeak, of the supply, but greater
than half the peak voltage. In fact,
Vrms 0.7Vpeak. (Finding averages for timevarying quantities requires a little sophisticated mathematics!) The household power is
240
240Vrms, which means Vpeak ___
340 V.
0.7
This means that you can replace an AC supply
with a peak voltage of 340 V with a DC supply
of constant voltage equal to 240 V and get the
same power output.
There are many electric devices around home that are powered by either
the mains supply (240 V AC 50 Hz) or batteries. AC power is more cost
effective than batteries; however, you cannot carry around an AC supply
such as a battery for your iPod, MP3 player or torch.
Electric currents transfer energy from one place to another through
wires. For a conventional current to flow, the circuit must be completed;
that is, there must be a continuous current path.
In its simplest form, a circuit consists of two sections:
Symbol
wires crossed
not joined
Device
Symbol
earth or ground
+
cell
wires joined,
junction of conductor
battery of cells
fixed resistor
Energy source
or
alternative for
battery
Energy sink
capacitor
load that uses energy
rheostat or
resistor with
moving contact
potentiometer
or voltage
divider
galvanometer
ammeter
voltmeter
signal lamp or
indicator
fuse
filament lamp
switch
diode
AC supply
Series connection
circuit elements connected so
that the current is the same in
each element and the potential
difference is shared between
elements
Parallel connection
circuit elements are connected so
that the current is shared between
elements, and the potential
difference is the same across each
element
series connection
parallel connection.
Thevenins Theorem
Thvenins Theorem
all circuits can be reduced to a
single source and a single sink
03_VCE_PHYSICS_SBCD_1&2.indd 48
All circuits, even if they have several energy sources and several energy
sinks, can always be reduced to the simplest of forms one source that is
the equivalent of all the sources, and one sink that is the equivalent of all
the sinks. This is Thvenins Theorem.
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Unit 1
Chapter 3 \\ Electric circuits
49
load or
energy
drain
e.g. light,
motor or
heater
energy
source
e.g.
battery
Figure 3.2 All circuits can be reduced to the simplest arrangement of one equivalent source and one
equivalent sink.
The amount of energy transferred from the source to the load depends
on the potential energy per charge, that is, the potential difference,
produced by the source. The flow of charge, the current, can be controlled
by devices placed in the circuit, such as a switch, a microphone or a
variable resistor. The wires connecting the components and any measuring devices placed in the circuit can also have some effect, although most
circuits are designed to minimise this effect.
In Figure 3.2, which comprises a battery, a switch and a globe, the energy
from the source (battery) is completely used up in the sink (light globe).
Input transducer
Output transducer
Switch
Light globes
Meters
Thvenin
Phototransistor
Electromagnet
Output transducer
03_VCE_PHYSICS_SBCD_1&2.indd 49
Resistance
quantity that affects current flow;
V
voltage-to-current ratio, R __
I
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Ohms Law
Ohmic device
V
R __
I constant; hence, V IR
Non-ohmic device
Oersted
Ohms Law
V IR
Current through an ohmic conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across it. This is known as Ohms Law, where R is the
constant resistance.
A characteristic V-I graph for an ohmic resistor is shown in Figure 3.3(a).
Ohmic conductors have constant resistance, and the gradient of the
straight-line graph gives the value of the resistance. The V-I graph of a
non-ohmic device is shown in Figure 3.3(b). It is not a straight line, the
resistance is not a constant and the gradient is not the resistance value.
Voltage
Voltage
V
R __
I non-constant value
computed for each operating value
of V and I
Current
Current
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.3 (a) The V-I graph of an ohmic resistor is a linear graph; (b) the V-I graph of a non-ohmic
resistor is a non-linear graph.
but P VI I (IR )
1 P I 2R
(b)
V 1 I __
V
R __
I
R
V
but P VI V __
R
2
___
1PV
R
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Unit 1
Chapter 3 \\ Electric circuits
51
Resistivity,
property of a material, related to
its ability to control current
Material
Resistivity at 20C ( m)
Copper
1.8 108
Constantan
49 108
Nichrome
110 108
Carbon
5.0 105
Porcelain
3.0 1012
\\ WORKED EXAMPLE
Question 1
A wire has a cross-sectional area of 2.0 mm2 and is 10.0 m long. If the
resistance of the wire is 60 m, what is the resistivity of the wire?
Answer
R __
A
R 60 103 , 10.0 m,
A 2.0 mm2 2.0 (m 103 )2 2.0 106 m2
Thus, R __
A
10.0
1 60 103 _________
2.0 106
60 103 2.0 106
1 ____________________
10.0
1 1.2 108 m (0.12 m)
Problem set 3A
Question 1
An electric soldering iron draws a current of 2.0 A when connected
to a 240 V supply.
What is the resistance of the soldering iron?
Question 2
A 3.0 resistor and a 6.0 resistor are connected in series with a
12 V battery. Find:
a
b
c
d
the
the
the
the
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Question 3
The resistivity of nichrome wire is 1.1 m. What length of wire
of diameter 0.079 mm is required to provide a resistance
of 1.0 k?
Question 4
Complete the table to show how changes in the physical properties
of a wire (, A ) change the value of the resistance.
Worksheet 3.1
Length
Area
Resistance
2
R...
...
R3
__1
2
R...
A2
R...
A3
R...
A...
R2
3
A __1
2
R......
Proportionality
R...
R1
. . .
___
___
1
R ___
...
R1 ___
A
__
...
R. . .
R2
. . .
A ...
R1 ___
...
...
__
1 ___2
R2
. . .2
. . .1
Non-ohmic devices
A number of different devices with non-constant resistance are used in
electric circuits. These include thermistors, light-dependent resistors
(LDRs) and diodes.
Thermistors
Thermistor
temperature-dependent resistor
(a)
thermistor
Resistance (M7)
(b)
25
20
15
10
5
10
20
30
Temperature (C)
40
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Unit 1
Chapter 3 \\ Electric circuits
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LDRs
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is made of a semiconductor material
such as cadmium sulfide, whose resistance changes with the intensity
of the light. As the intensity of the light falling on the surface of the
LDR increases, the resistance of the semiconductor material decreases
(Figure 3.5).
Resistance (k7)
(b)
(a)
12
10
8
6
4
2
4 61
r 101
LDR
4 61
r 102
4 61
r 103
Illumination (lux)
Diodes
A diode is an electronic device made from semiconducting materials.
When used in a circuit, a diode allows current to flow in one direction
only. Diodes can be connected to a circuit in two ways. The triangle in the
circuit symbol shows the direction in which conventional current can
flow. When connected to allow current to flow, the diode is forward biased
(Figure 3.6(a)). When reverse biased (Figure 3.6(b)), the diode prevents
current flow and only an extremely small leakage current (Figure 3.6(c))
flows in it.
Diode
one-way valve
Forward biased
connection to allow current flow
Reverse biased
connection to prevent current flow
Current (mA)
Reverse bias 40
Diode
20
100
Voltage (V)
0.6 0.8
Forward bias
Forward biased
current flows globe lights
Reverse biased
no current flow
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3.6 Diodes can be (a) forward biased, and (b) reverse biased. In reverse bias, there is a small
residual current, even for very high bias voltages (c).
Series circuits
The energy per charge provided by a battery is all used in the circuit
elements. If there is one resistor in a circuit, then all the energy per charge,
the voltage, is across the resistor, and is used in that resistor (Figure 3.7(a)).
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If two resistors are placed end to end (Figure 3.7(b)), then the energy per
charge is shared between the two resistors. The current is the same in
each resistor.
V1
Vin
VR VR Vin
Vin
V2
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.7 (a) A simple circuit comprising a voltage source and one resistor. The potential difference
across the resistor is the same as the potential difference across the source. (b) A series circuit
comprising a voltage source and two resistors in series. The potential difference across both resistors is
the same as the potential difference across the source. The potential difference is shared between the
resistors; the current is the same in both resistors.
Current in series and parallel
V1 ___
V
__s ___
2
I1
I2
1 Req R1 R2
The Thvenin equivalent circuit comprises a potential difference, V,
and the equivalent resistance, Req.
Note that this result arises from the definition of resistance as the
ratio of potential difference to current. It is applicable to all resistances
in series.
Using Figure 3.7(b), we can show that the ratio of the potential differences
across each resistor is equal to the ratio of the resistances. The current is
the same in each resistor, so:
V
V
I ___1 ___2
R1 R2
V
R
1 ___2 ___2
V 1 R1
This shows that the voltage is divided in the ratio of the resistances.
Voltage divider
Voltage dividers
A voltage divider takes advantage of the way a series circuit divides the
potential between resistors. The simplest voltage divider uses two
resistors (as shown in Figure 3.7(b)). The potential drop across both
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Unit 1
Chapter 3 \\ Electric circuits
55
resistors adds to the sum of the supply voltage, Vin. In a voltage divider
the output voltage, Vout, is the potential difference across one of the
resistors and so is less thanVin.
variable
resistor
Vin
Vout
Figure 3.8 A simple voltage divider: If one resistance can be changed by an external energy source
(hand, light, heat, pressure), the output voltage changes. This affects devices connected across the
output terminals.
In Figure 3.8, take the input voltage as12 V, the fixed resistance across the
output as100 , and the resistance of the variable resistor to be 10 , 100
or 1000 .
Question 2
Calculate Vout for each value of the variable resistance.
Answer
Rvariable 10
Rvariable 100
Rvariable 1000
100 12
Vout ________
10 100
100
12
Vout _________
100 100
100
12
Vout _________
1000 100
100 12
1 Vout ___
110
100 12
1 Vout ___
200
100 12
1 Vout ____
1100
1 Vout 11 V
1 Vout 6.0 V
1 Vout 1.1 V
Parallel circuits
The energy per charge provided by a battery is all used in the circuit
elements. If two resistors are placed side by side, so that the current is
shared, the elements are in parallel (Figure 3.9). Because the source of
energy per charge is across both resistors, both resistors use up the same
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amount of energy per charge. The energy per charge (potential difference)
is the same for both resistors. The current is shared between the resistors.
I
Potential difference in
series and parallel
I1
Vin
V1
R1
I2
R2
V2
I I1 I2
Vin V1 V2
Kirchhoffs Laws
The analysis of series and parallel circuits
relies on two conservation laws. These laws
are associated with Robert Kirchhoff (1824
1887), whose claim to fame includes working
with Wilhelm Bunsen (18111899) on the
characteristic coloursspectraemitted when
elements are heated.
Ip I1 + I2
Altogether, we can deduce the equivalent resistance:
V
V, I __
from R __
I
R
thus, Ip I1 I2
Vp Vp Vp
becomes ___ ___ ___
Req R1 R2
1 ___
1
1 ___
1 ___
Req R1 R2
Note that this result arises from the definition of resistance as the
voltage-to-current ratio. It is applicable to all resistors in parallel.
Using Figure 3.9, we can show that the ratio of the current in each
resistor is equal to the inverse ratio of the resistances. The potential
difference across each resistor is the same, so:
V I1 R1 I2 R2
I
R
1 __1 ___2
I2 R1
Compound circuits
Compound circuit
elements connected in series and
in parallel groups
03_VCE_PHYSICS_SBCD_1&2.indd 56
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Unit 1
Chapter 3 \\ Electric circuits
57
R1
parallel section
find (Requivalent)
Vin
R2
R3 (R )
eq
R2R3
R2 R3
\\ WORKED EXAMPLE
Question 3
Find the total equivalent resistance.
HINT: It is usually best to plug the numbers in as soon as possible, rather than
trying to remember another algebraic relation.
Answer
1 ___
1 ___
1
____
400 100
400 100 80
1 (Req) _________
400 100
Now, Req 80 200
(Req)
1 Req 280
03_VCE_PHYSICS_SBCD_1&2.indd 57
Battery
series of cells
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battery
V 12 V
headlamps
tail-lights
other
devices
in parallel
battery (nominally 12 V), six cells are joined in series. These are
continually recharged through the alternator when the car engine is
operating. If they are allowed to go flat they can be charged with a
battery charger, but safety precautions must be followed. When
charging, explosive hydrogen is released, so recharging should occur in
a well-ventilated place. Both rapid charging and overcharging damage
the battery plates.
Alternator
Alternator
AC generator
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Unit 1
Chapter 3 \\ Electric circuits
59
metallic underground
water piping system
pole type
junction box
supply meter
consumer
switchboard
mains
service lines
Active
connection to the 240 V household
supply
Neutral
zero potential in a household
wiring system
Fuse
temperature-dependent wire that
melts if an overload occurs;
safety protection against overload
Earth
connection back to substation
earth electrode
(bonded to a
metallic
underground
water piping
system)
main earthing
conductor
point of attachment
fused mains
connection box
From the fuse box, a cable which contains three wires is connected
around the house to the power points and lights. The switches for these
are on the active side. Light fixtures without metal parts may not have the
earth wire (Figure 3.14).
The power points and lights are connected in parallel. If they were not,
then all the switches would have to be turned on to operate any power
point or light!
earthing system for a domestic installation
active
main
switch
neutral
bar
main
earthing
conductor
neutral
circuit fuses
general purpose
outlet
insulated cable
circuit earthing
conductor
switch
earth electrode
earth clip
Figure 3.14 Wiring diagram from household main switch showing earth connection.
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control element
switch
active
element
neutral
the appliance switch and then to the relevant circuit. The conducting path
is completed with the wire back to the neutral. The earth wire is connected
to the metal frame of the appliance so that as soon as a fault develops a
large current flows to earth and causes the fuse to blow, thus isolating the
appliance (Figure 3.15).
Power points in homes accept three pins from a plug. The wiring is
colour-coded to ensure the correct pin is connected to the active, neutral
or earth wire (Figure 3.16).
earth
active
neutral
earth
red
active
brown
green
earth
green-yellow
international
Figure 3.16 Colour code for a three-pin plug in a three-point power point.
Fuse
A fuse in the active circuit wire is a short piece of wire selected so that it
will melt or blow when the current through it exceeds a certain value
(Figure 3.17). Fuses for domestic power supply are typically rated at 30 A
for appliance circuits and 15 A for lighting circuits.
Circuit breaker
Circuit breaker
electromechanical switch that
trips when there is an overload;
safety protection against overload
Fuseboard
location of household fuses, main
switches and meters
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Unit 1
Chapter 3 \\ Electric circuits
61
Double insulation
Equipment and appliances are said to be double insulated if two layers of
insulation are used:
Failure of either part will not result in a current path to the outside of
the appliance, and failure of both is almost impossible without
complete mechanical fracture. Exposed metal on the outside of the
appliance is isolated from the internal parts and is not connected to
earth. Any fault that develops should not be able to give the user a
shock. These devices are not connected to the earth wire and only have
a two-pin plug.
Safety
If a fuse blows or a circuit breaker operates, the cause of the fault should
always be found and rectified. Never be tempted to use a fuse with a
higher rating. If you use a higher rating fuse, the electrical wires in your
house effectively become the fuse. If they overheat, they can set fire to
your ceiling, where most of the wires can be found. The first you will know
of a fire will be when the roof is alight and starts to fall in on top of you!
In Australia, an estimated 60% of deaths from electric shock each year
are due to wrongly wired three-pin plugs.
Only a licensed electrician should carry out wiring alterations, repairs
and the installation of appliances and fittings which are permanently
connected to the house wiring. Unqualified people should never make
their own extension cords. Power cords, extension leads and fittings that
show signs of wear should always be promptly repaired by a qualified
person, or replaced.
Switches
Nearly all electrical devices are controlled by a switch. These range from
simple on-off switches to complex light, pressure or heat-controlled
switches.
Aa
Ba
Single-pole switch
When the switch is turned on, the two contacts A and B are joined, allowing
current to flow. If a single-pole switch is incorrectly wired, the casing of an
appliance can still be live even though the switch is turned off. This is why
you should always turn off and unplug an appliance before investigating
a suspected fault (Figure 3.18).
Single-pole switch
on/off connection between two
terminals
Double-throw switches
A double-throw switch connects both the active and neutral wires at the
same time. In so doing, it always isolates both active and neutral connections
(Figure 3.19).
Double-throw switch
safe switch that isolates active
and neutral
Two-way switch
A two-way switch can be used to turn lights on if the lights are off, or off if
the lights are on from switches on either side of a room, at either end of
a hall or from the top and bottom of a staircase (Figure 3.20).
03_VCE_PHYSICS_SBCD_1&2.indd 61
Two-way switch
switch that operates lights from
either of two locations
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switch 1
switch 2
globe
Short circuits
Short circuit
connection between two points that
allows current to flow with
negligible resistance
Electric shock
Electric shock
biological effect of being
connected across a potential
difference
Electric shock is the effect produced on the body, and in particular on the
nervous system, by an electric current.
Electricity has three effects: electrolysis, heating and the stimulation of
nerves. The seriousness of these effects on the human body depends on
the magnitude and frequency of the current.
Electrolytic effects
Electrolytic
effect of electrical stimulation
of the charged ions in cells
Heating
Heating is an effect at higher frequencies or higher currents. Burns can be
caused by the passage of a high current through the body.
Stimulation of nerves
Nerve or muscle stimulation is the most dangerous form of electric
shock. It can cause the victim to stop breathing or interfere with
heart function. Nerves accept stimulation over a short period of time,
then have a short recovery time before they can be stimulated again
(Figure 3.21).
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Unit 1
Chapter 3 \\ Electric circuits
63
Stimulation
AC stimulation
response
1
s
50
response
collapse
Time
recovery
1
Figure 3.21 Nerve response and recovery time is about __
of 1 second. A stimulus during recovery
50
has no effect. A 50 Hz AC current will repeatedly stimulate the nerve just after it has recovered. Fairly
soon, the nerve collapses.
If a nerve is given a first stimulus and then a second one during the
recovery phase, nothing happens; however, if the stimuli occur in about
the same period of time as the stimulus/recovery cycle, then the nerve
will fairly soon collapse and refuse to accept any stimuli. The period of the
1
stimulus/recovery time is about __
s, which is the same as the period of
50
the Australian domestic supply, so it is really quite dangerous, even at
currents as slow as 1 mA. In other countries, the frequency is 60 Hz, which
means that, when nerves are struck, they have time to recover before the
next pulse strikes.
10100 k
1 k
Wet skin
1 k
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An energy source provides a potential difference between two points. This allows current
to flow.
An energy sink uses the energy available.
Series connection
Circuit elements share the potential difference (voltage), but the current is the same in each element:
Vs V1 V2
Is I1 I2
Req R1 R2
For a simple voltage divider:
V2 __
R
__
2
V1
R1
Rout
Vout ___________
V
R variable Rout in
Parallel connection
Circuit elements share the current, but the potential difference (voltage) is the same across each
element.
Vp V1 V2
Ip I1 I2
1 __
1 __
1
___
Req R1 R2
Transducers: carry energy into a circuit (input transducer) or send energy out from the circuit
(output transducer). Examples of transducers include:
Electricity has three main biological effects: electrolysis, heating and the stimulation of nerves.
The seriousness of these effects on the human body depends on the magnitude and frequency of
the current.
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Unit 1
Chapter 3 \\ Electric circuits
Review questions
65
Test Yourself
Question 1
When a potential difference of 16 V is applied across the ends of a wire, the current
flowing in the wire is 2.4 A.
Word Check
Theory Summary
What potential difference is needed to make a current of 3.0 A flow through the
wire?
Question 2
Worksheet 3.2
Podcast Revision
What is the potential drop across a 1.8 k resistor in which a current of 240 mA flows?
Question 3
Two wires A and B of the same material have resistances of 6.0 and 54.0 ,
respectively. The length of A is double the length of B.
a
If the two wires are connected in parallel across a 6.0 V battery, what is the
current in each wire?
Question 4
Figure 3.22 shows four different combinations of resistors. What is the total or
effective resistance of each combination?
b
4.0 7
a
4.0 7
10.0 7
16.0 7
15.0 7
d
24.0 7
c
9.0 7
12.0 7
18.0 7
8.0 7
Figure 3.22
Question 5
Figure 3.23 shows two combinations of resistors. What is the total or effective
resistance of each combination?
b
a
5.0 7
15.0 7
5.0 7
5.0 7
10.0 7
40.0 7
Figure 3.23
Question 6
Two 12.0 resistors and one 6.0 resistor are connected in series across a 6.0 V
battery.
a
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Question 7
Two 12.0 resistors and one 6.0 resistor are connected in parallel across a
6.0 V battery.
a
Question 8
Three conductors of resistances 10.0, 15.0 and 25.0 are connected in series to a
32 V supply. Find:
a
Question 9
A battery of emf 1.5 V has an internal resistance of 0.10 .
a
Calculate the current in a circuit when the terminals of the battery are connected
by an external resistance of:
i
0.9
ii
9.9
iii
99.9
What is the potential drop across the external resistance in each case?
Question 10
The element of an electric oven is designed to produce 9.6 kW of heat energy when
connected to a 240 V supply. What current does the element draw?
Question 11
A water heater converts 2.4 kJ of electrical energy into heat every second when
connected to a 240 V supply.
a
Question 12
The graphs of current against potential difference for a resistor X and diode device D
are shown in Figure 3.24.
a
b
A
X
V
X
A
D
I
(mA) 4
I
(mA) 4
400
200
p.d. (V)
400
200
p.d. (V)
Figure 3.24
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Unit 1
Chapter 3 \\ Electric circuits
67
X and D are connected in series, as shown in Figure 3.24(a), and the ammeter
registers a current of 2.0 mA.
i
ii
For the same connections as in Figure 3.24(a) the voltmeter reads 1000 V.
i
ii
X and D are connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 3.24(b), and the voltmeter
reads 300 V.
i
ii
Question 13
a
If three 100 W globes are connected in parallel, what is the total current in the
supply?
How many globes can be connected in parallel before a 7.5 A fuse wire blows?
Question 14
A service station charges a car battery using a battery charger that draws a steady
current of 4.5 A for 8.0 hours. How many coulombs of charge pass through the
battery in this time?
Question 15
Birds are often seen perched on a high-voltage power line. Why arent the birds
electrocuted?
Question 16
An inexperienced electrician repairs two of the heating elements of an electric stove
and connects them in series, instead of in parallel, across a 240 V supply. If the two
heating elements have the same resistance, what happens to the amount of heat that
they now produce compared to the amount of heat they produced when connected
correctly?
Question 17
Define the following effects of the passage of electricity in a person: electrolysis,
heating and the stimulation of nerves. How do these differ from each other?
Question 18
A wet person acts like a short circuit.
a
Explain what this statement means by defining what a short circuit is, and how the
person models this situation.
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Question 4
How much energy does a 12.0 V car battery supply to every electron in the battery?
[3 min]
A current of 2.0 A flows from a dry cell when a light globe is connected across the
terminals of the cell. The potential drop across the terminals is 6.0 V.
6.0 V
Question 5
How much electrical charge flows in the globe each second?
Question 6
How much energy is given to each coulomb of charge in the battery?
Question 7
How long does it take the battery to supply 480 J?
Question 8
In order to deliver 480 J, how many coulombs of charge will pass through the battery
in this time?
[6 min]
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Unit 1
Area of study 2 review
69
When a potential difference of 16 V is applied across the ends of a wire, the current
flowing in the wire is 2.4 A.
Question 9
What is the resistance of the wire?
Question 10
What potential difference is needed to make a current of 3.0 A flow in the wire?
[3 min]
Question 11
Two 12 resistors and a 6.0 resistor are connected in series across a 6.0 V
battery. Draw a circuit diagram to show this arrangement. On this diagram show:
a
Question 12
Three 100 resistors are connected in parallel across a 6.0 V battery.
100 7
100 7
100 7
15 7
30 V
20 7
25 7
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Question 15
Find the total resistance.
Question 16
Deduce the current in each conductor.
Question 17
What is the potential drop across each conductor?
[6 min]
Two conductors each of resistance 12 are connected in parallel and the
combination is joined in series with a 6 resistor and placed across a 6 V battery.
6.0 7
6.0 V
12 7
12 7
Question 18
Find the equivalent resistance.
Question 19
What is the total current in the circuit, and the current in each component?
Question 20
What is the potential drop across the parallel combination?
[8 min]
Question 21
What amount of heat is generated when a heating element is subjected to a potential
difference of 12 V for 6.0 minutes? The current in the wire is 1.8 A.
[5 min]
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