Cpo Skillsheets

Skill and Practice Worksheets
Skill Sheets
Skill sheets are numbered according to textbook chapter. If more than one skillsheet goes with
a particular chapter, the chapter number is followed by a letter.
Unit One: Forces and Motion
Unit Six: Properties of Matter
Speed Problems
16
Acceleration Problems
17-A Density
3-A
Newton's Second Law
17-B Ratios and Proportions
3-B
Mass vs Weight
17-C Buoyancy
3-C
Momentum
17-D Gases and Pressure
3-D
Applying Newtons Laws of Motion
18-A Atoms, Isotopes, and Ions
Indirect Measurement
Unit Two: Work and Energy
18-B Electrons and the Periodic Table
4-A
Mechanical Advantage
Unit Seven: Changes in Matter
4-B
Gear Ratios
19-A Dot Diagrams
5-A
Work
19-B Chemical Formulas
5-B
Power
19-C Naming Chemical Compounds
5-C
Potential and Kinetic Energy
19-D The Mole and Avogadros Number
Unit Three: Electricity and Magnetism
19-E Calculating Formula Mass
7-A
Using an Electric Meter
20-A Chemical Equations
7-B
Voltage, Current, and Resistance
20-B Predicting Product in a Reaction
8-A
Ohm's Law
21-A Predicting Chemical Equations
8-B
Electrical Power
Unit Eight: Water and Solutions
8-C
Electrical Power and Ohm's Law
23-A Solubility
9-A
Parallel and Series Circuits
23-B Making Solutions
9-B
Open and Closed Circuits
25-A Calculating pH
9-C
Electric Circuit Project
Unit Nine: Heating and Cooling
Unit Four: Sound and Waves
26-A Temperature Scales
11
Harmonic Motion
26-B Specific Heat
12
Waves
28-A Calorimetry
Unit Five: Light and Optics

15-A Ray Diagrams
15-B The Law of Reflection
Skill Builders
Skill builders are organized alphabetically and are meant to be used when students need to
practice basic skills.
Calculating Slope
Making Graphs
Dimensional Analysis
Problem Solving with Rates
Fractions Review
Reading Strategies
International System of Measurements
Science Vocabulary
Internet Research Skills
Scientific Processes
Interpreting Graphs
Significant Digits
Lab Report Format
Solving Equations
Working with Quantities and Rates
Name:
Skill Sheet 1
Speed Problems
This skill sheet will allow you to practice solving speed problems. To determine the speed of an
object you need to know the distance traveled and the time taken to travel that distance.
However, by rearranging the formula for speed, v = d/t, you can also determine the distance
traveled or the time it took for the object to travel that distance, if you know the speed. For
example,
Equation
Gives you
If you know
v = d/t
speed
time and distance
d=vt
distance
speed and time
t = d/v
time
distance and speed
1. Solving problems
Solve the following problems using the speed equation. The first problem is done for you.
1. What is the speed of a cheetah that travels a total of 112.0 meters in 4.0 seconds?
d
112.0 m
28 m
speed = -- = ---------------- = ---------t
4.0 sec
sec
2. A bicycle rider travels 60.0 kilometers in 3.5 hours. What is the cyclist's average speed?
3. What is the average speed of the car that traveled a total of 300.0 miles in 5.5 hours?
4. How much time would it take for the sound of thunder to travel 1,500 meters if sound travels
at the speed of 330 m/s?
5. How much time would it take for an airplane to reach its destination if it traveled at an
average speed of 790 kilometers/hour for a distance of 4,700 kilometers?
Skill Sheet 1 Speed Problems
6. How far can a person run in 15 minutes if they run at an average speed of 16 km/hr? (Hint:
Remember to convert minutes to hours)
7. A snail can move approximately 0.30 meters per minute. How many meters can the snail
travel is 15 minutes?
2. Unit conversion
So far we have been mostly using the metric system for our problems. Now lets try to convert to
the English System of measurement so that we can better understand the meaning of our answers
to the questions above. Remember that there are 1,609 meters in one mile. Don't forget to include
all units and cancel appropriately. These questions refer to problems in part 1.
1. In problem 1.1, what is the speed of the cheetah in miles/hour?
28 m 1 mile 3600 sec
miles
---------- --------------- -------------------- = 63
-----------------sec 1609 m
1 hour
hour
2. In problem 1.5, what is the speed of the airplane in miles/ hour?
3. In problem 1.6, what is the distance traveled in miles?
4. You now know that there are 1,609 meters in a mile. There number of feet in a mile is 5,280
feet. Use these equalities to answer the following problems.
a. How many centimeters equals one inch?
b. What is the speed of the snail in problem 1.7 in inches per minute?
Name:
Skill Sheet 2
Acceleration Problems
This skill sheet will allow you to practice solving acceleration problems. Remember that
acceleration is the rate of change in the speed of an object. In other words, at what rate does
and object speed up or slow down? A positive value for acceleration refers to the rate of
speeding up, and negative value for acceleration refers to the rate of slowing down. The rate
of slowing down is also called deceleration. To determine the rate of acceleration you use the
formula:
Final speed Beginning speed
Acceleration = ---------------------------------------------------------------Change in Time
1. Solving acceleration problems

Solve the following problems using the equation for acceleration. Remember the units for
acceleration are meters per second per second or m/sec2. The first problem is done for you.
1. A biker begins to move from a speed of 0.0 m/s to a final speed of 25.0 m/s in 10 seconds. What
is the acceleration of the biker?
25.0 m 0.0 m
25.0 m
-------------- -----------------------sec
sec
sec
2.5 m
acceleration = ------------------------------- = -------------- = ----------10 sec
10 sec
2
sec
2. A skater increases her velocity from 2.0 m/s to 10.0 m/s in 3.0 seconds. What is the
acceleration of the skater?
3. While traveling along the highway a driver slows from 24 m/s to 15 m/s in 12 seconds. What is
the driver's acceleration? (Remember that a negative value indicates a slowing down or
deceleration.)
4. A parachute on a dragster racing-car opens and changes the speed of the car from 85 m/s to
45 m/s in a period of 4.5 seconds. What is the acceleration of the car?
5. The fastest land mammal, the cheetah, can accelerate from 0 mi/hr to 70.0 mi/hr in
3.0 seconds. What is the acceleration of the cheetah?
Skill Sheet 2 Acceleration Problems
6. The Lamborghini Diablo sports car can accelerate from 0 km/hr to 99.2 km/hr in 4.0 seconds.
What is the acceleration of this car?
7. Which has a greater acceleration, the cheetah or the Lamborghini Diablo? (To figure this out,
you must remember that there are 1.6 km in one mile) Be sure to show your calculations.
2. Solving for other variables

Now that you have practiced a few acceleration problems, let's rearrange the acceleration formula
so that we can solve for other variables such as for time and final speed.
Final speed = beginning speed + ( acceleration time )
speed Beginning speedChange in Time = Final
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------Acceleration
1. A cart rolling down an incline for 5.0 seconds has an acceleration of 4.0 m/s2. If the cart has a
beginning speed of 2.0 m/s, what is its final speed?
2. A car is accelerated at a rate of 3.0 m/s2. If its original speed is 8.0 m/s, how many seconds will
it take the car to reach a final speed of 25.0 m/s?
3. A car traveling at a speed of 30.0 m/s encounters an emergency and comes to a complete stop.
How much time will it take for the car to stop if its rate of deceleration is -4.0 m/s2?
4. If a car can go from 0.0 mi/hr to 60.0 mi/hr in 8.0 seconds, what would be its final speed after
5.0 seconds if its starting speed were 50.0 mph?
Name:
Skill Sheet 3-A
Newton's Second Law
As you work through the problems on this skill sheet, you will develop your understanding of
Newtons second law of motion and how it relates to Newtons first law of motion. The second
law states that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force acting on
the object and indirectly proportional to the mass of the object.
1. Newtons first law of motion

Newton's first law of motion (the law of inertia) states that the motion of an object will continue
until an outside force changes this motion. The amount of force needed to change the motion of an
object depends on the amount of inertia an object has. The inertia of an object is related to its
mass. You need more force to move or stop an object with a lot of mass or inertia, than you need
for an object with less mass or inertia.
In Newton's second law, the acceleration of an object is directly related to the force on an object,
and inversely related to the mass of an object. This is shown the the formula below.
acceleration = Force
---------------mass
Units for acceleration are m/sec2. Units for force the units are newtons (N). One newton is
equivalent to 1 kg-m/sec2. Units for mass are kilograms (kg). The equation for acceleration
illustrates that acceleration is equal to the ratio of force to mass. This means that the force on an
object causes it to accelerate, but the objects mass is a measure of how much it will resist
acceleration.
2. Three ways to write Newtons second law of motion

1. In the formula for the second law of motion, acceleration equals force divided by mass. What
does mass equal? What does force equal? Rearrange the equation to solve for mass.
What do you want to know?
What do you know?
acceleration (a)
Force (F) and mass (m)
mass (m)
acceleration (a) and Force (F)
Force (F)
acceleration (a) and mass (m)
The formula you will use
---------------mass
Skill Sheet 3-A Newton's Second Law
3. Solving problems using Newtons second law

Solve the following problems using Newtons second law. The first two problems are done for you.
1. How much force is needed to accelerate a truck with a mass of 2,000 kg, at a rate of 3m/sec2?
3m
m
F = m a = 2,000 kg --------2- = 6,000 kg --------- = 6,000 N
2
sec
sec
2. What is the mass of an object that requires 15 N to accelerate it at a rate of 1.5 m/sec2?
15 kg-m
---------------2
F
15 N
sec
m = -- = ----------- = ----------------- = 10 kg
a
1.5 m
1.5 m
------------------2
2
sec
sec
3. What is the rate of acceleration of a 2,000-kg truck if a force of 4,200 N is used to make it start
moving forward?
4. What is the acceleration of a 0.3 kg ball that is hit with a force of 25 N?
5. How much force is needed to accelerate a 68 kg-skier at a rate of 1.2 m/sec2?
Skill Sheet 3-A Newton's Second Law
6. What is the mass of an object that requires a force of 30 N to accelerate at a rate of 5 m/sec2?
7. What is the force on a 1,000 kg-elevator that is falling freely under the acceleration of gravity
only?
8. What is the mass of an object that needs a force of 4,500 N to accelerate it at a rate of
5 m/sec2?
9. What is the acceleration of a 6.4 kg bowling ball if a force of 12 N is applied to it?
Name:
Skill Sheet 3-B
Mass vs Weight
What is the difference between mass and weight? Why is it important to know these terms?
This skill sheet will help you understand and correctly use mass and weight in problem solving.
mass
weight
Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object. Mass is not related to

gravity. The mass of an object does not change when it is moved from one place
to another in the universe. Mass is commonly measured in grams or kilograms.
Weight is a measure of the gravitational force between two objects. The weight
of an object does change when the amount of gravitational force changes, as
when an object is moved from Earth to the moon. Weight is commonly measured
in newtons or pounds.
1. Why do mass and weight seem interchangeable?

People often talk about pounds and kilograms as if they are two units used to measure the same
thing. They might say, for example, that a new baby weighs 8 pounds, or 3.63 kilograms. This
statement implies that 8 pounds = 3.63 kilograms. This conversion makes sense as long as the
baby stays on the surface of Earth.
On Earths surface, the force of gravity acting on one kilogram is 2.22 pounds. So, if an object has
a mass of 3.63 kilograms, the force of gravity acting on that mass on Earth will be:
2.22 pounds
3.63 kg -------------------------- = 8.06 pounds
kg
On the moons surface, however, the force of gravity acting on one kilogram is about 0.370 pounds.
The same newborn baby, if she traveled to the moon, would still have a mass of 3.63 kilograms,
but her weight would be just 1.33 pounds.
1. What is the weight (in pounds) of a 7.0-kilogram bowling ball on Earths surface?
2. What is the weight of a 7.0-kilogram bowling ball on the surface of the moon?
3. What is the mass of a 7.0-kilogram bowling ball on the surface of the moon?
Skill Sheet 3-B Mass vs Weight
2. What does it mean when we say that weight is a force?

In everyday language, we think of weight as a measure of how heavy something is. A 25-pound
toddler, for example, is a lot heavier to carry around than an 8-pound newborn.
Force, on the other hand, is defined as a push, pull, or any action that has the ability to change
motion. So what does pushing or pulling have to do with weight?
To understand why we say that weight is a force, it helps to look at the scales used to measure
weight. Grocery stores often have scales in the produce section. To use the scale, you put your
produce (a bunch of bananas, for example) in a basket hanging from a spring. The force of gravity
acting on the bananas pulls on the spring, causing it to stretch. The dial at the top measures how
much the spring stretches. The dial shows the amount of pulling force in pounds.
Bathroom scales work much the same way, except that when you stand on the scale, you compress
(push) the spring instead of pulling on it.
Balances, which are used to measure mass, work differently. A balance is like a see-saw with a
pan on each end. In one pan, you put the object to be measured. In the opposite pan you put
objects whose masses are known. When the two pans are balanced, you know the two sides have
equal mass.
1. Describe what would happen to the spring in a bathroom scale if you were on the moon when
you stepped on it. How is this different from stepping on the scale on Earth?
2. Would a balance function correctly on the moon? Why or why not?
Skill Sheet 3-B Mass vs Weight
3. What is free fall?

If you were too jump off of a 10-meter diving board with a scale attached to your feet, what would
the scale read?
Until you hit the water, the scale would read zero pounds, even though you are very definitely still
under the influence of gravity. Its just that you and the scale are falling at the same time, so
there is nothing for your feet to push against.
A similar situation occurs when a space shuttle orbits the earth. The space shuttle is not so far
away from Earth as to escape Earths gravity. To understand what is happening, think about
throwing a baseball. The baseball curves toward Earth due to the influence of gravity. Now think
about throwing the baseball a little farther, and a little farther. What would happen if you could
throw the baseball so hard that it kept falling around Earth? Then it would be like a space shuttle
in orbit. The astronauts and everything inside the space shuttle seem to be weightless because
they are in constant free fall.
4. Try this!
Take a bathroom scale into an elevator. Step on the scale.
1. What happens to the reading on the scale as the elevator begins to move upward?
2. What happens to the reading on the scale when the elevator stops moving?
3. What happens to the reading on the scale when the elevator begins to move downward?
4. Why does your weight appear to change, even though you never left Earths gravity?
Name:
Skill Sheet 3-C
Momentum
This skill sheet will help you practice solving problems that involve momentum. The momentum
of an object is equal to its mass times its velocity. When two objects collide, their momentum
before the collision is equal to their momentum after the collision. This statement is called
the law of conservation of momentum.
1. What is momentum?
A baseball bat and a ball are a pair of objects that collide with each other. Because of Newtons
third law of motion, we know that the force the bat has on a baseball is equal to, but opposite in
direction to the force of the the ball on the bat. The bat and the baseball illustrate that action and
reaction forces come in pairs.
Similarly, the momentum of the bat before it hits the ball will affect how much momentum the
ball has after the bat and ball collide. Likewise, the momentum of the ball coming toward the bat,
determines how much force you must use when swinging the bat to get a home run. What is
momentum?
The momentum (kg-m/sec) of an object is its mass (kg) multiplied by its velocity (m/sec). The
equation for momentum where P equals momentum, m equals mass, and v equals velocity, is:
P = mv
P = mass in kilograms speed in meters/sec
2. The law of conservation of momentum

The law of conservation of momentum states momentum is conserved. This means that the
momentum of the bat and ball before the collision is equal to the momentum of the bat and ball
after the collision:
In other words, for two objects, 1 and 2, the momentum of object 1 is equal to the momentum of
object 2. The two colliding objects represent a system. These formulas will help you complete this
skill sheet.
momentum of object 1 = momentum of object 2
m1 v1 = m2 v2
This formula can also be written as:
m1 v1 m2 v2 = 0
The momentum of a system before a collision = The momentum of a system after a collision
m 1 v 1 initial m 2 v 2 (initial) = m 1 v 1 (final) m 2 v 2 (final)
Skill Sheet 3-C Momentum
3. Solving momentum problems

Find the momentum of the following objects. The first two problems have been done for you.
1. A 0.2-kg steel ball that is rolling at a velocity of 3.0 m/sec.
3m
m
momentum = m v = 0.2 kg ------- = 0.6 kg -----sec
sec
2. A 0.005-kg bullet with a velocity of 500 m/sec.
500 m
m
momentum = m v = 0.005 kg ------------- = 2.5 kg -----sec
sec
3. A 100-kg football player, a fullback, moving at a velocity of 3.5 m/sec.
4. A 75-kg football player, a defensive back, running at a velocity of 5 m/sec.
5. In questions 3 and 4 above, if the fullback collided with the defensive-back, who would get
thrown backwards? Explain your answer.
6. If a ball is rolling at a velocity of 1.5 m/sec and has a momentum of 10.0 kg-m/sec, what is the
mass of the ball?
7. What is the velocity of an object that has a mass of 2.5 kg, and a momentum of
1,000 kg-m/sec?
Skill Sheet 3-C Momentum
4. Problems involving the law of conservation of momentum

Use the law of conservation of momentum formula, m1v1 = m2v2, to answer the following
problems. The first problem has been done for you.
1. A 0.5-kg ball with a velocity of 2.0 m/sec hits another ball with a mass of 1.0 kg. What is the
velocity of the second ball after the collision?
2.0 m
( 0.5 kg ) ----------- = ( 1.0 kg ) ( v 2 )
sec
2.0 m
( 0.5 kg ) ----------sec
1.0 m
--------------------------------- = ------------ = v 2
1.0 kg
sec
2. A 1.0-kg ball with a velocity of 5 m/sec hits another 1.0-kg ball that is stationary. What is the
momentum of each ball before the collision?
3. In question 2 above, what is the total momentum before and after the collision?
4. A 20-kg cart with a velocity of 20 m/s heading right collides with a 25-kg cart with a velocity of
10 m/s heading left. What is momentum of each cart?
5. In question 4 above, what is the total momentum before and after the collision?
6. In question 5 above, if the speed of the 20-kg cart is 10 m/sec after the collision, what is the
speed of the 25-kg cart after the collision?
7. In question 6 above, in which direction will each cart travel after the collision?
Name:
Skill Sheet 3-D
Applying Newtons Laws of Motion
In this skill sheet you will use Newtons laws of motion to solve application problems.
1. Reviewing Newtons law of motion

In the table below, state each of Newtons laws of motion. Use your own wording. For each law,
describe an example of how each law is illustrated in real life.
Newtons laws
of motion
Write the law here in your own

words
The first law
The second law
The third law
Example of the law
Skill Sheet 3-D Applying Newtons Laws of Motion
2. Practice using Newtons laws of motion

1. When Jane drives to work, she always places her purse on the passengers seat. By the time
she gets to work, her purse has fallen on the floor in front of the passenger seat. One day, she
asks you to explain why this happens in terms of physics. What do you say?
2. During your conversation with Jane, you mention that she could decrease her chance of injury
in a car accident if she secured her wallet in the glove box and placed her purse and other
loose items (such as compact disk cases and books) in the trunk. Why would this practice be
safer? Why is it important to secure both small and large items? Explain your answer in terms
of Newtons first and second laws of motion.
3. You are waiting in line to use the diving board at your local pool. While watching people dive
into the pool from the board, you realize that using a diving board to spring into the air before
a dive is a good example of Newtons third law of motion. In the space below, explain how a
diving board illustrates Newtons third law of motion.
4. You shopping cart has a mass of 65 kilograms. In order to accelerate the shopping cart down
an aisle at 0.3 m/sec2, what force would you need to use or apply to the cart?
5. A small child has a wagon with a mass of 10 kilograms. The child pulls on the wagon with a
force of 2 newtons. What is the acceleration of the wagon?
Name:
Skill Sheet 4-A
Mechanical Advantage
Mechanical advantage (MA) can be defined as the ratio of output force to input force for a
machine In other words, MA tells you how many times a machine multiplies the force put into
it. Some machines provide us with more output force than we applied to the machinethis
means MA is greater than one. Some machines produce an output force smaller than our
effort force, and MA is less than one. We choose the type of machine that will give us the
appropriate MA for the work that needs to be performed.
1. What is mechanical advantage?

Mathematically, mechanical advantage may be expressed:
F
MA = ----oFi
or
forceMA = output
---------------------------------input force
If we look at the force unit involved in the calculation, the newton (N), we see that it is present in
both the numerator and the denominator of the fraction. Since units behave like numbers in
mathematical calculations:
newtons
N
------------------- = --- = 1
newtons N
The units cancel each other, leaving the value for mechanical advantage as a unit-less quantity.
2. Calculating mechanical advantage

The following set of problems are designed to provide you with practice using the mechanical
advantage formula. The first one is done for you.
1. A force of 200 N is applied to a machine in order to lift a 1,000-newton load. What is the
mechanical advantage of the machine?
output force
1000 N
MA = --------------------------- = --------------- = 5
input force
200 N
2. A machine is required to produce an output force of 600 N. If the machine has a mechanical
advantage of 6, what input force must be applied to the machine?
Skill Sheet 4-A Mechanical Advantage
3. An input force of 35 N is applied to a machine with a mechanical advantage of 0.75. What is

the size of the load this machine could lift (how large is the output force)?
4. A machine is designed to push an object with a weight of 12 N. If the input force for the
machine is set at 4 N, what is the mechanical advantage of the machine?
3. Looking ahead
Machines make work easier. Remember that, work is force times distance (W = F d). The unit
for work is the newton-meter, which is often called the joule. Remembering that a joule is the
same as a newton-meter will help you cancel units as you work through the problems in this
section.
We put work into a machine (work input), and the machine produces work for us in return (work
output). The work output is never greater than the work input. In fact, work output is always less
than work input because of friction. Friction reduces the amount of energy available to the
machine. Less energy for the machine means less work done by the machine.
In spite of the loss of work due to friction, the machine still makes work easier because machines
can provide mechanical advantage (MA).
Machines can multiply your input force (when MA is greater than 1) so that you can lift a very heavy
object. Machines can also diminish your input force (when MA is less than 1) so you can handle a
very delicate object that the force of your fingers could damage. Therefore, knowing a machines
MA helps us choose a machine to perform a specific task.
Use the equations for work and mechanical advantage to solve the following problems. The first
one is done for you.
1. A force of 30 N is applied to a machine through a distance of 10 meters. The machine is
designed to lift an object to a height of 2 meters. If the total work output for the machine is
18 joules, what is the mechanical advantage of the machine?
input force = 30 N
output force = ( work distance ) = ( 18 j 2 m ) = 9 N

output force 9 N
MA = --------------------------- = ---------- = 0.3
input force 30 N
2. An input force of 50 N is applied through a distance of 10 meters to a machine with a

mechanical advantage of 3. If the work output for the machine is 450 joules and this work is
applied through a distance of 3 meters, what is the output force of the machine?
3. 200 joules of work is put into a machine over a distance of 20 meters. The machine does 150
joules of work as it lifts a load 10 meters high. What is the MA of the machine?
Name:
Skill Sheet 4-B
Gear Ratios
A gear ratio is used to figure out the number of turns each gear in a pair will make based on
the number of teeth each gear has. In this skill sheet you will use gear ratios to solve
problems that involve gears.
1. What is a gear ratio?

The workings of many machines involve rotating motion. Gears are important for the transfer to
rotating motion from one place to another in a machine. For example, rotating engine parts in a
car transfer motion to the wheels. The reason that gears are so useful has to do with the teeth
around the edges of the gear. The teeth of two neighboring gears can lock together so that rotating
motion is transferred from one place to another effectively.
Knowing something about gears allows you to build
machines to do specific kinds of work. Clock makers
utilize gear ratios to figure out how to get the rotating
parts of the hour hand and the second hand to work.
To calculate the gear ratio for a pair of gears that are
working together, you need to know the number of teeth
on each gear. The formula below demonstrates how to
calculate a gear ratio. Notice, that knowing the number of
teeth on each gear allows you to figure out how many
turns each gear will take. Why would this be important in
figuring out how to design a clock that has a minute and
hour hand?
Skill Sheet 4-B Gear Ratios
2. Two-gear problems
Use the gear ratio formula to help you solve these problems. The first one is done for you.
Remember that knowing the number of teeth for a pair of gears helps you figure out the number
of turns.
1. A gear with 48 teeth is connected to a gear with 12 teeth. If the 48-tooth gear makes one
complete turn, how many times will the 12-tooth gear turn?
Turns of output gear?
48 input teeth
------------------------------------------------------------- = ---------------------------------One turn for the input gear
12 output teeth
48 teeth 1 turn
Turns of output gear? = ------------------------------------- = 4 turns
12 teeth
2. A 36-tooth gear turns three times. It is connected to a 12-tooth gear. How many times does the
12-tooth gear turn?
3. A 12-tooth gear is turned two times. How many times will the 24-tooth gear that it is
connected to turn?
4. Use the gear ratio formula to help you fill in the table below.
Table 1: Using the gear ratio to calculate number of turns
Input Gear
(# of teeth)
Output
Gear
(# of teeth)
24
24
36
12
24
36
48
36
24
48
Gear ratio
(Input Gear: Output
Gear)
How many turns

does the output
gear make if the
input gear turns 3
times?
How many turns

does the input gear
make if the output
gear turns 2 times?
3. Three-gear problems
The problems in this section involve three gears stacked on top of each other. Once you have filled
in Table 2, answer the question that follow. Use the gear ratio formula to help. Remember,
knowing the gear ratios allows you to figure out the number of turns for a pair of gears.
Table 2: Set up for three gears
Set up
Gears
Number
of teeth
Top gear
12
Middle gear
24
Bottom gear
36
Top gear
24
Middle gear
36
Bottom gear
12
Top gear
12
Middle gear
48
Bottom gear
24
Top gear
24
Middle gear
48
Bottom gear
36
Ratio
Ratio 2
Total gear ratio
(top gear:
middle gear)
(middle gear:
bottom gear)
(Ratio 1 x Ratio 2)
1. As you turn the top gear to the right, what direction does the middle gear turn? What
direction will the bottom gear turn?
2. How many times will you need to turn the top gear (input) in set up 1 to get the bottom gear
(output) to turn once?
3. If you turn the top gear (input) in set up 2 two times, how many times will the bottom gear
(output) turn?
4. How many times will the middle gear (output) in set up 3 turn if you turn the top gear (input)
two times?
5. How many times will you need to turn the top gear (input) in set up 4 to get the bottom gear
(output) to turn 4 times?
Name:
Skill Sheet 5-A
Work
In science, work is defined with an equation. Work is defined as the amount of force applied
over distance. By measuring how much force you have used to move something over a certain
distance, you can calculate how much work you have accomplished. This skill sheet reviews the
work equation and provides problems for you to practice using this equation.
1. What is work?
As you recall, in science work is defined as force acting through a
distance. That is, a force acts upon an object to move it a certain
distance. However, to do work according to this definition, the
force must be applied in the same direction as the movement. For
example, if you lift a box off a table, the force applied is up, and the
distance is also upward. This means that you have done work.
However, if you lift the box off the table and then carry it to a
bookshelf, only the lifting is work. Carrying the box is not work
because the force on the box is up, and the distance is horizontal.
However, you would be doing work if you pushed the box across
the floor. Why?
Remember, the only time when work is done is when the
force and the distance are in the same direction. So, in
scientific terms, work is the force that is applied to an object in the
same direction as the motion. The formula for work is:
Work (joules) = Force (newtons) distance (meters)
W = Fd
You should note that a joule of work is actually a newton-meter; both units represent the same
thing: work! In fact, one joule of work is defined as a force of one newton that is exerted on an
object to it a distance of one meter.
1.0 joule = 1.0 N 1.0 meter = 1.0 newton-meter
2. Applying your knowledge

1. In your own words, define work in scientific terms. Be complete in your definition.
2. How are work, force, and distance related?
3. What are two different units that represent work?
Skill Sheet 5-A Work
3. Solving work problems

Solve the following problems using the formula for work. The first problem is done for you.
1. How much work is done on a 10 N block that is lifted 5 meters off the ground by a pulley?
work = F d = 10 N 5 meters = 50 newton-meters = 50 joules
2. A woman lifts her 100-newton child up 1 meter and carries her for a distance of 50 meters to
her bedroom. How much work does the woman do?
3. You pull your sled through the snow a distance of 500 meters with a force of 200 newtons.
How much work did you do?
4. An ant sits on the back of a mouse. The mouse carries the ant across the floor for a distance of
10 meters. Was there work done by the mouse? Explain.
5. You did 170 joules of work lifting a 140 N backpack. How high did you lift the backpack?
6. In problem 5, how much did the backpack weigh in pounds? (Hint: there are 4.448 newtons in
one pound)
7. A crane does 62,500 joules of work to lift a boulder a distance of 25.0 meters. How much did
the boulder weigh? (Hint: The weight of an object is considered to be a force.)
Skill Sheet 5-A Work
8. You lift a 45 N bag of mulch 1.2 meters and carry it a distance of 10 meters to the garden.
How much work was done?
9. A 455-N gymnast jumps upward a distance of 1.50 meters to reach the uneven parallel bars.
How much work did she do before she even began her routine?
10. .It took a 500.0-newton ballerina a force of 250 joules to lift herself upward through the air.
She landed a total of 2.5 meters to the left after completing her jump. How high did she jump?
11. A people-moving conveyor-belt moves a 600-newton person a distance of 100 meters through
the airport. How much work was done?
12. A 600 N person lifts his 100 N carry-on bag upward a distance of 1 meter. They travel
100 meters by riding on the people mover. How much work was done in this situation?
Name:
Skill Sheet 5-B
Power
In science, work is defined as the force needed to move an object a certain distance. Suppose
that you and a friend needed to move two 500-newton piles of potting soil to a garden that
was 100 meters away. You accomplished this task in 10 minutes while your friend took
30 minutes. Both of you did the same amount of work (force distance), but you did the work
in a shorter amount of time. The amount of work done per unit of time is called power. In the
example, you had more power than your friend. This skill sheet will give you practice with how
to calculate power.
1. What is power?
Both you and your friend did the same amount of work.
W = Fd
W = 500 N 100 m = 50,000 joules
However, you had more power than your friend.
Work (joules)
Power (watts) = -------------------------------Time (seconds)
Lets do the math to see how this is possible.
Step one: Convert minutes to seconds.
60 seconds
10 minutes ------------------------ = 600 seconds (You)
minute
60 seconds
30 minutes ------------------------ = 1, 800 seconds (Friend)
minute
Step two: Find power.
50,000 joules
------------------------------ = 83.3 watts (You)
600 seconds
50,000 joules
-------------------------------- = 27.7 watts (Friend)
1, 800 seconds
As you can see, the same amount of work that is done in less time produces more power. You are
familiar with the word watt from a light bulb. It is now clear to you why a 100-watt bulb is more
powerful than a 40-watt bulb. So, now it is time for you to practice solving some problems
involving work and power.
Skill Sheet 5-B Power
2. Solving problems
Solve the following problems using the power and work equations. The first problem is done for
you.
1. A motor does 5,000 joules of work in 20 seconds. What is the power of the motor?
work
5000 joules
250 joules
power = ---------- = ------------------------- = ---------------------- = 250 watts
time
20 sec
sec
2. A machine does 1,500 joules of work in 30 seconds. What is the power of this machine?
3. A sleigh weighs 2,000 N and is pulled by a horse a distance of 1.0 kilometer (thats 1,000
meters) in 45 minutes. What is the power of the horse? (Hint: Convert time to seconds.)
4. A wagon weighs 1,800 N and is pulled by a horse at a speed of 0.40 meters/second. What is the
power of this horse?
5. Suppose a force of 100 N is used to push an object a distance of 5 meters in 15 seconds. Find
the work done and the power for this situation.
6. A force of 100 N is used to move an object a distance of 15 meters with a power of 25 watts.
Find the work done and the time it takes to do the work.
7. If a small machine does 2,500 joules of work on an object to move it a distance of 100 meters in
10 seconds, what is the force needed to do the work? What is the power of the machine doing
the work?
8. A machine uses a force of 200 N to do 20,000 joules of work in 20 seconds. Find the distance
the object moved and the power of the machine. (Hint: A joule is the same as a Newton-meter.)
9. A machine that uses 200 watts of power moves an object a distance of 15 meters in 25 seconds.
Find the force needed and the work done by this machine.
Name:
Skill Sheet 5-C
Potential and Kinetic Energy
In this skill sheet, you will review the forms of energy and formulas for two kinds of energy-potential and kinetic. After having worked through this skill sheet, calculating the amount of
kinetic or potential energy for an object will be easy!
1. Forms of energy
Energy can be used or stored. When talking about motion, energy that is stored is called potential
energy. Energy that is used when an object is moving is called kinetic energy. Other forms of
energy include radiant energy from the sun, chemical energy from the food you eat, and electrical
energy from the outlets in your home. Energy is measured in joules or newton-meters.
2
m
1 joule = 1 kg --------2- = 1 N m
sec
m
1 N = 1 kg ---------2
sec
2. Potential energy
The word potential means that something is capable of becoming active. Potential energy
sometimes is referred to as stored energy. This type of energy often comes from the position of an
object relative to the Earth. A diver on the high dive has more energy than someone who dives
into the pool from the low dive.
The formula to calculate the potential energy of an object is the mass of the object times the
acceleration of gravity times its height of the object.
E p = mgh
The mass of the object times the acceleration of gravity (g) is the same as the weight of the object
in newtons. The acceleration of gravity is equal to 9.8 m/sec2.
9.8 m
mass of the object (kilograms) ----------- = weight of the object (newtons)
2
sec
3. Kinetic energy
The second category of energy is kinetic energy, the energy of motion. Kinetic energy depends on
the mass of the object as well as the speed of that object. Just think of a large object moving at a
very high speed. You would say that the object has a lot of energy. Since the object is moving, it
has kinetic energy. The formula for kinetic energy is:
2
E k = -1- mv
2
To do this calculation you need to square the velocity value. Next, multiply by the mass, and then,
divide by 2.
Skill Sheet 5-C Potential and Kinetic Energy
4. Solving problems
Now it's time for you to practice calculating potential and kinetic energy. Make sure to show your
work with all units present in your calculations as well as your answer. The first two problems
have been done for you.
1. A 50 kg boy and his 100 kg father went jogging. Both ran at a rate of 5 m/s. Who had more
kinetic energy? Show your work and explain.
Although the boy and his father were running at the same speed, the father has more kinetic
energy because he has more mass.
The kinetic energy of the boy:
5m
1
-- ( 50 kg ) ------sec
2
m
= 625 kg --------2sec
The kinetic energy of the father:

5m
1
-- ( 100 kg ) ------sec
2
m
= 1, 250 kg --------2sec
2. What is the potential energy of a 10 N book that is placed on a shelf that is 2.5 meters high?
The books weight (10 newtons) is equal to its mass times the acceleration of gravity.
Therefore, you can easily use this value in the potential energy formula:
potential energy = mgh = ( 10 N ) ( 2.5 m ) = 25 N m
3. Determine the amount of potential energy of a 5 N book that is moved to 3 different shelves on
a bookcase. The height of each shelf is 1.0 meter, 1.5 meters, and 2.0 meters.
4. Two objects were lifted by a machine. One object had a mass of 2 kg, and was lifted at a speed
of 2m/s. The other had a mass of 4 kg and was lifted at a rate of 3 m/s. Which object had more
kinetic energy while it was being lifted? Show all calculations.
5. In problem 4, which object had more potential energy when it was lifted a distance of
10 meters? Show your calculation. (Remember that gravity = 9.8 m/s2)
6. You are on roller blades on top of a large hill. Your potential energy is equal to 1,000 joules.
The last time you checked your mass was 60 kg.
a. What is your weight in newtons?
b. What is the height of the hill?
c. If you start skating down this hill, your potential energy will be converted to kinetic energy.
At the bottom of the hill, your kinetic energy will be equal to your potential energy at the
top. What will be your speed at the bottom of the hill?
7. Answer the following:

a. A 1 kg ball is thrown into the air with an initial velocity of 30 m/s. How much kinetic
energy does the ball have?
b. How much potential energy does the ball have when it reaches the top of its ascent?
c. How high into the air did the ball travel?
8. What is the potential energy of a 3 kg-ball that is on the ground?
9. What is the kinetic energy of a 2,000 kg boat moving at 5 m/s?
10. What is the velocity of an 500 kg elevator that has 4000 joules of energy?
11. What is the mass of an object that creates 33, 750 joules of energy by traveling at 30 m/s?
Name:
Skill Sheet 7-A
Using an Electric Meter
What do you measure in a circuit and how do you measure it? This skill sheet gives you useful
tips to help you use an electric meter and understand electrical measurements.
1. The digital multimeter

Most people who work with electric circuits use a digital multimeter to measure electrical
quantities. These measurements help them analyze circuits. Most multimeters measure voltage,
current, and resistance. A typical multimeter is shown below:
Skill Sheet 7-A Using an Electric Meter
2. Using the digital multimeter

This table summarizes how to use and interpret any digital meter in a battery circuit. Note: A
component is any part of a circuit, such as a battery, a bulb, or a wire.
Measuring Voltage
Measuring Current
Measuring Resistance
Circuit is ON
Circuit is ON
Circuit is OFF
Turn meter dial to voltage,
Turn meter dial to current,
Turn meter dial to resistance,

labeled
Connect leads to meter

following meter instructions


Place leads at each end of

component (leads are
ACROSS the component)
Break circuit and place leads

on each side of the break
(meter is IN the circuit)
Place leads at each end of

component (leads are
ACROSS the component)
Measurement in VOLTS (V)
Measurement in AMPS (A)
Measurement in OHMS ()
Battery measurement shows

relative energy provided
Measurement shows the value

of current at the point where
meter is placed
Measurement shows the

resistance of the component
Component measurement
shows relative energy used by
that component
Current is the flow of charge

through the wire
When the resistance is too

high, the display shows OL
(overload) or (infinity)
3. Meter practice
Build a series circuit with 2 batteries and 2 bulbs.
1. Measure and record voltage across each battery:
2. Measure and record voltage across each bulb:
3. Measure and record voltage across both batteries:
4. Draw a circuit diagram or sketch that shows all the posts in the circuit (posts are where wires
and holders connect together).
5. Break the circuit at one post. Measure current and record the value below. Repeat until you
have measured current at every post.
6. Create a set of instructions on how to use the meter to do a task. Find someone unfamiliar
with the meter. See if they can follow your instructions.
7. A fuse breaks a circuit when current is too high. A fuse must be replaced when it breaks a
circuit. Explain how measuring the resistance of a fuse can tell you if it is defective.
8. You suspect that a wire is defective but can't see a break in it. Explain how measuring the
resistance of the wire can tell you if it has a break.
Name:
Skill Sheet 7-B
Voltage, Current, and Resistance
This skill sheet reviews the role of voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit, and
provides practice in calculating these values using Ohms Law. Understanding these three
terms will greatly enhance your understanding of electricity. Lets begin our review!
1. What is voltage?
You know that water will flow from a higher tank through a hose
into a lower tank. The water in the higher tank has greater
potential energy than the water in the lower tank. A similar thing
happens with the flow of charges in an electrical circuit.
Charges flow in a circuit when there is a difference in energy level
from one end of the battery (or any other energy source) to the
other. This energy difference is measured in volts. The energy
difference causes the charges to move from a higher to a lower
voltage in a closed circuit.
Think of voltage as the amount of push the electrical source
supplies to the circuit. A meter is used to measure the amount of
energy difference or push in a circuit. The meter reads the
voltage difference (in volts) between the positive and the negative
ends of the power source (the battery). This voltage difference
supplies the energy to make charges flow in a circuit.
What is the difference between placing a 1.5-volt battery in a
circuit and a placing a 9-volt battery in a circuit?
2. What is current?
Current describes the flow of electric charges. Current is the actual measure of how many charges
are flowing through the circuit in a certain amount of time. Current is measured in units called
amperes.
Just as the rate of water flowing out of a faucet can be fast or slow, electrical current can move at
different rates. The type, length, and thickness of wire all effect how much current flows in a
circuit. Resistors slow the flow of current. Adding voltage causes the current to speed up.
Skill Sheet 7-B Voltage, Current, and Resistance
1. What could you do to a closed circuit consisting of a battery, a light bulb, and a switch that
would increase the amount of current flow? Explain your answer.
2. What could you do to a closed circuit consisting of a battery, a light bulb, and a switch that
would decrease the amount of current flow? Explain your answer.
3. What is resistance?
Resistance is the measure of how easily charges flow through a circuit. High resistance means it
is difficult for current to flow. Low resistance means it is easy for current to flow. Electrical
resistance is measured in units called ohms (abbreviated with the symbol ).
Resistors are items that reduce the flow of charge in a circuit. They act like speed bumps in a
circuit. A light bulb is an example of a resistor.
Describe one thing that you could do to the wire used in a circuit to decrease the amount of
resistance presented by the wire.
4. How are voltage, current, and resistance related?

When the voltage (push) increases, the current (flow of charges) will also increase, and when the
voltage decreases, the current likewise decreases. These two variables, voltage and current, are
said to be directly proportional.
When the resistance in an electrical circuit increases, the flow of charges (current) decreases.
These two variables, resistance and current, are said to be inversely proportional. When one goes
up, the other goes down, and vice versa.
The law that relates these three variables is called Ohms Law. The formula is:
V Voltage (volts)
Current (amps) I = --------------------------------------------------R Resistance (ohms, )
Skill Sheet 7-B Voltage, Current, and Resistance
In your own words, state the relationship between resistance and current, as well as the
relationship between voltage and current.
5. Solving problems
Now you will have the opportunity to demonstrate your understanding of the relationship
between current, voltage and resistance. Answer each of the following questions and show your
work. The first problem is done for you.
1. In a circuit, how many amps of current flow through a resistor such as a 6-ohm light bulb
when using four 1.5-volt batteries as an energy supply?
4 1.5 volts 6 volts
Current = --------------------------- = --------------6 ohms
6 0hms
Current = 1 amp
2. How many amps of current flow through a circuit that includes a 9-volt battery and a bulb
with a resistance of 6 ohms?
3. How many amps of current flow through a circuit that includes a 9-volt battery and a bulb
with a resistance of 12 ohms?
4. How much voltage would be necessary to generate 10 amps of current in a circuit that has 5
ohms of resistance?
5. How many ohms of resistance must be present in a circuit that has 120 volts and a current
flow equal to 10 amps?
Name:
Skill Sheet 8-A
Ohm's Law
Building and testing series circuits has helped you understand the relationship between
voltage, resistance, and current. You know that if the voltage (energy) in a circuit increases,
so does the current (flow of charges). You also understand that if the resistance increases,
the current flow decreases. A German physicist, Georg S. Ohm, developed this mathematical
relationship, which is present in most circuits. This relationship is known as Ohm's law:
V Voltage (volts)
Current (amps) I = --------------------------------------------------R Resistance (ohms, )
This skill sheet will provide you with an opportunity to test your knowledge of Ohm's law.
1. Using Ohms Law to understand circuits

To work through this skill sheet, you will need the symbols used to
depict circuits in diagrams. The symbols that are most commonly used
for circuit diagrams are provided to the right.
All of the circuits discussed in this skill sheet are series circuits. This
means the current has only one path through the circuit. Later you will
learn about another kind of circuit in which the current has more than
one possible path. This type of circuit is called a parallel circuit.
Note: For convenience, the symbol for battery is used to represent one
or more batteries. The batteries you have used to build circuits are
1.5 volt batteries. Dividing the total voltage by 1.5 volts will tell you
the number of batteries present in the circuit.
For example, the total voltage in the second diagram on
the right is 6 volts. Divide 6 volts by 1.5 volts to find the
number of batteries in the circuit. 6 1.5 = 4. There are
four batteries in the circuit.
2. Solving problems
In this section, you will find some problems based on diagrams and others without diagrams. In
all cases, you should show your work.
1. If a toaster produces 12 ohms of resistance in a 120-volt circuit, what is the amount of current
in the circuit?
Skill Sheet 8-A Ohm's Law
2. You have a large flashlight that takes 4 D-cell batteries. If the current in the flashlight is
2 amps, what is the resistance of the light bulb? (Hint: A D-cell battery has 1.5 volts.)
3. What is the voltage of a circuit with 15 amps of current and toaster with 8 ohms of resistance?
4. Use the diagram below to answer the following problems.
a. What is the total voltage in each circuit?
b. How much current would be measured in each circuit if the light bulb has a resistance of
6 ohms?
c. How much current would be measured in each circuit if the light bulb has a resistance of
12 ohms?
d. What would happen to the brightness of the bulb if voltage is increased?
Skill Sheet 8-A Ohm's Law
5. Use the diagram below to answer the following problems.
a. How much current would be measured in each circuit if each light bulb has a resistance of
6 ohms?
b. How much current would be measured in each circuit if each light bulb has a resistance of
12 ohms?
c. What happens to the brightness of each bulb as you add bulbs to a series circuit? (Hint:
Compare these diagrams to the diagrams in question 4 above.)
6. What happens to the amount of current in a series circuit as the number of batteries
increases?
7. What happens to the amount of current in a series circuit as the number of bulbs increases?
Name:
Skill Sheet 8-B
Electrical Power
Which appliance in your kitchen uses the most power? The equation for electrical power is the
tool you can use to answer this question. This skill sheet will help you sharpen your skills at
calculating electrical power and analyzing the voltage, current, and power associated with
electric circuits.
1. What is electrical power?

Power is the rate at which work is performed. Power tells us how quickly work is being done or
how much energy is being used per unit time. When you work with machines, power is calculated
by dividing work by the amount of time it takes to perform the work. For electrical systems, the
equation for power is:
Power = Voltage Current
P = VI
where P = Power, V = Voltage and I = Current. This equation allows us to assess the rate at which
an appliance or other device is using energy or performing work.
The graphic below shows you why power is called a rate. The unit for voltage is joules per
coulomb. The units for current is coulombs per second. When you multiply voltage times current,
the coulombs cancel so that the unit for power is joules per second.
2. The unit for electrical power

One joule per second is equal to one watt of power. The watt (W) is a familiar unit of power for
most people. You can look at any appliance and see how many watts of power it uses. For
example, the heating element on a coffee maker uses 1,050 watts of power. We can also say that
the coffee maker has a power rating of 1,050 watts.
One watt of power represents one joule of energy being used per second of time.
joules
Power = -----------sec
1 joule
1 watt = -------------sec
The more watts of power a circuit or appliance has, the more energy it uses or the more work it
can do per second of time. A 1,500-W microwave oven can perform the same amount of work as a
900-W microwave; however, the rate at which the 1,500-W microwave performs the work is faster.
Also, the amount of energy used per second of time is greater also (1,500 J in one second compared
to 900 J in one second). As a result, a high-wattage appliance is more expensive to operate.
Skill Sheet 8-B Electrical Power
3. Practice problems
Complete the following problems. Be sure to show your work. The first problem has been done for
you.
1. A toaster oven has a power rating of 750 W. If the oven heats a piece of pizza for 360 seconds,
how many joules of energy have been used by the toaster oven?
joules of energy
Power = ----------------------------------time
joules of energy
750 W = ----------------------------------360 sec
750 W 360 sec = joules of energy = 270,000 joules
2. You use your 60-watt DVD player to watch your favorite movie. If the player uses 324,000
joules of energy while playing the film, what is the running time of the movie?
3. The current flowing through an electrical circuit is 9 amps. If the voltage in the same circuit is
120 V, what is the power of the circuit?
4. A 7200 W electric clothes dryer operates with a current of 30 amps. What is the voltage
associated with this circuit?
5. A CD player uses 85 joules of energy per second. If the voltage in the CD player is 170 V, what
amount of current is required for the operation of player?
6. A girl wants to build a radio that operates using 9-volt batteries. If the girl wishes the radio to
function with 75 W of power, with what amount of current will she have to design her circuits?
Skill Sheet 8-B Electrical Power
7. Your stereo has a power rating of 150 watts. Your friend buys a stereo with a power rating of
300 watts. If you both play your stereo for one hour, who will spend more money to listen to
their music? Explain your answer.
8. The voltage supplied to household circuits is generally 120 V. However, individual circuits
(circuits supplying the kitchen as opposed to the dining room, for example) differ in the
amount of current they carry. What does that tell you about the amount of power operating in
different household circuits? Why do you think household circuits are designed in this way?
4. Comparing electrical power and mechanical power

Power is a term that is used when you talk about machines that use electricity, like blenders, and
mechanical machines, like pulleys. Look up the equation for mechanical power. Use this equation
to answer the following questions.
1. Power can be calculated for electrical systems and mechanical systems. Write the equation for
mechanical power. What are the units for mechanical power?
2. Compare the equations for electrical power and mechanical power. How are they alike and
different?
Name:
Skill Sheet 8-C
Electrical Power and Ohm's Law
In this skill sheet you will review the relationship between electrical power and Ohms law. As
you work through the problems, you will practice calculating the power used by common
appliances in your home.
1. How do you calculate electrical power?

During everyday life we hear the word watt mentioned in reference to things like light bulbs and
electric bills. The watt is the unit that describes how much power is used when electricity flows.
Therefore, the definition of power is the rate at which energy is flowing. And since energy is
measured in joules, power is measured in joules per second. In fact, one joule per second is equal
to one watt.
You may also have heard of the word kilowatt. A kilowatt is 1,000 watts or 1,000 joules of energy
flowing in one second. This term kilowatt is most often used with electrical use in houses and
other large facilities. And on an electric bill you may have noticed the term kilowatt-hour. A
kilowatt-hour means that one kilowatt of power has been used for one hour.
We can calculate the amount of electrical power by an appliance or other electrical component by
multiplying the voltage by the current.
Voltage Current = Power, or P = VI
2. Solving problems
Solve the following problems using the power equation and Ohms law.
Voltage (volts)
Current (amps) = --------------------------------------Resistance (ohms)
Remember, power is measured in watts.
1. Your hair dryer has a power rating of 1,200 watts.
a. How many kilowatts is this?
b. If the hair dryer is used for 20 minutes per day, how many kilowatt-hours (kWh) per day is
this? (Hint: convert 20 minutes to hours.)
c. Find the kilowatt-hours used by the hair dryer each month (assume 30 days/month).
d. If your town charges $0.15/kWh, what is the cost to use the hair dryer per month?
Skill Sheet 8-C Electrical Power and Ohm's Law
2. Using the formula for power, calculate the amount of current through a 75-watt light bulb
that is connected to a 120-volt circuit in your home.
3. What is the power rating of a home appliance (in kilowatts) that uses 8 amps of current when
plugged into a 120-volt outlet.
4. The following questions refer to the diagram.

a. What is the total voltage for the circuit?
b. What is the total resistance for the circuit in ohms ()?
c. What is the current that will flow through the circuit?
d. What is the power (in watts) for this circuit?
5. A toaster is plugged into a 120-volt household circuit. It draws 5 amps of current.

a. What is the resistance of the toaster in ohms ()?
b. What is the power (in watts) of the toaster? What is this power in kilowatts?
6. A clothes dryer in a home has a power of 4,500 watts and runs on a special 220-volt household
circuit.
a. What is the current traveling through the dryer?
b. What is the resistance of the dryer in ohms ()?
Skill Sheet 8-C Electrical Power and Ohm's Law
7. A hair dryer is connected to a 120-volt household circuit. The current through the dryer is
10 amps.
a. What is the resistance of the hair dryer?
b. What is the power rating (in kilowatts) of the dryer?
c. If the dryer is used for 30 minutes per day, how many kilowatt-hours are used by the dryer
each day?
d. How many kilowatt-hours are used per month? (Assume 1 month = 30 days)
e. If the town charges 14 cents per kWh, what is the cost to run the hair dryer per month?
Name:
Skill Sheet 9-A
Parallel and Series Circuits
There are two major types of electrical circuits: series and parallel. In a series circuit,
current follows only one path. In a parallel circuit, the current has two or more possible paths.
In both types of circuits, the current travels from the positive end of the battery toward the
negative end. The amount of energy used by a circuit (series or parallel) must equal the energy
supplied by the battery. In this way, electrical circuits follow the law of conservation of
energy. Understanding these facts will help you solve problems that deal with series and
parallel circuits.
1. Solving series circuit problems

It is now time for you to test your knowledge of series and parallel circuits by answering the
questions below. You will have to use Ohm's law to solve many of the problems, so remember that:
Voltage (volts)
Current (amps) = --------------------------------------Resistance (ohms)
Some questions ask you to calculate a voltage drop. We often say that each resistor creates a
separate voltage drop. As current flows along a series circuit, each resistor uses up some energy.
As a result, the voltage gets lower after each resistor. If you know the current in the circuit and
the resistance of a particular resistor, you can calculate the voltage drop using Ohms law.
Voltage drop (volts) = Current (amps) Resistance of one resistor (ohms)
1. Use the series circuit pictured right to answer
questions (a)- (e).
a. What is the total voltage of the circuit?
b. What is the total resistance of the circuit?
c. What is the current flowing through the circuit?
d. What is the voltage drop across each light bulb? (Remember that voltage drop is calculated
by multiplying current in the circuit by the resistance of a particular resistor: V = IR.)
e. Draw the path of the current flow on the diagram.
Skill Sheet 9-A Parallel and Series Circuits

questions (a) - (c). Consider each resistor equal to
all others.
a. What is the resistance of each resistor?
b. What is the voltage drop across each resistor?
c. On the diagram, show the amount of voltage in the circuit before and after each resistor.
questions (a) - (d).
a. What is the resistance of the circuit?
b. What is the current flowing through the circuit?
c. What is the voltage drop across each resistor?
d. On the diagram, show the amount of voltage in the circuit before and after each resistor.
2. Solving parallel circuit problems

A parallel circuit has at least one point where the circuit divides, creating more than one path for
current. Each path is called a branch. The current through a branch is called branch current.
Remember that if current flows into a branch in a circuit, the same amount of current must flow
out again, This rule is known as Kirchoffs current law.
For example, suppose you have three light bulbs connected in parallel, and each has a current of 1
amp. The battery must supply 3 amps since each bulb draws 1 amp. Before the first branch point,
3 amps are flowing. One amp goes down the first branch to the first bulb, and 2 amps flow on to
supply the next two bulbs.
Skill Sheet 9-A Parallel and Series Circuits
1. Use the parallel circuit pictured right to

answer questions (a) - (c).
a. What is the total voltage for the circuit?
b. What is the current flow through each

branch?
c. What is the voltage in each branch?
2. Compare the circuits in Part 1, question 1 and Part 2, question 1. What is the current flow
through each bulb in the series circuit vs. the current flow through each bulb in the parallel
circuit? Which bulbs would be brighter? Explain your reasoning.
3. Use the parallel circuit pictured right to

answer questions (a) - (d).
a. What is the voltage through each
branch?
b. What is the current flow through each branch?
c. What is the power of each resistor? (Remember that power is current multiplied by
voltage.)
d. What is the relationship between current and power?
Name:
Skill Sheet 9-B
Open and Closed Circuits
As you know, a circuit is a path for electric current. Electric current can move only through a
closed circuit. A closed circuit provides a complete path with no breaks so that the current
may travel out of and back to the power source. For this reason, the closed circuit is also
known as a complete circuit.
An open circuit, on the other hand, has a break in it. No current flows and we say that the
circuit is incomplete.
A familiar example of a closed and open circuit occurs when you turn a light switch on and off.
When the switch is turned on, it closes the circuit and the lamp lights up. When the switch is
turned off, the circuit is opened, and, therefore, the lamp turns off.
Open and closed circuits can be found in both series and parallel circuits. However, in a series
circuit, it takes only one break in the currents path to open the entire circuit. This is because
there is only one path for the current to flow. However, since a parallel circuit has more than
one path for the electric current, a break in one path of the circuit may open that path but
not the others.
Solving problems
It is now time for you to test your knowledge of open and closed circuits in both series and
parallel. You will use the circuit diagrams pictured below to answer the questions. You may wish
to write on the diagrams in order to keep track where the current is flowing. As a result, each
diagram is repeated several times.
1. Which devices (A, B, C, or D) in the circuit pictured below will be on when the following
conditions are met? For your answer, give the letter of the device or devices.
a. Switch 3 is open, and all other switches are closed.

b. Switch 2 is open, and all other switches are closed.
c. Switch 4 is open, and all other switches are closed.
Skill Sheet 9-B Open and Closed Circuits
d. Switch 1 is open, and all other switches are closed.

e. Bulb C blows out, and all switches are closed.
f. Bulb A blows out, and all switches are closed.
g. Switches 2 and 4 are open, and switches 1 and 3 are closed.

h. Switches 2 and 3 are open, and switches 1 and 4 are closed.
i. Switches 2, 3, and 4 are open, and switch 1 is closed.

j. Switches 1 and 2 are open, and switches 3 and 4 are closed.
2. Which of the devices (A-G) in the circuit below will be on when the following conditions are
met? For your answer, give the letter of the device or devices.
a. Switch 5 is open, and all other switches are closed.

b. Switch 6 is open, and all others are closed.
c. Switch 7 is open, and all others are closed.
d. Switch 4 is open, and all others are closed.

e. Switch 3 is open, and all others are closed.
f. Switch 2 is open, and all others are closed.
g. Switch 1 is open, and all others are closed.

h. Switches 2 and 4 are open, and all others are closed.
i. Switches 4 and 6 are open, and all others are closed.
j. Switches 4 and 7 are open, and all others are closed.

k. Switches 5 and 7 are open, and all others are closed.
l. Switches 2 and 3 are open, and all others are closed.
m.Bulb D blows out with all switches closed.

n. Bulbs A and B blow out with all switches closed.
o. Bulbs A and D blow out with all switches closed.
3. Use arrows to draw the direction of the current in each of the circuits below. Make sure to
show current direction in all paths of the circuits within each diagram.
4. How many possible paths are there in circuit diagrams in questions (1) and (2)?
5. Draw a circuit of your own. Use one battery, show at least 4 devices (bulbs and bells), and use
both parallel and series branches with switches in each. Finally, use arrows to show the
direction of the current in all parts of your circuit.
Name:
Skill Sheet 9-C
Electric Circuit Project
The Steady Hand Game

Do you have a steady hand? This easy-to-build game challenges your manual dexterity. Can you
move a small loop of wire over a complicated maze without tripping the light bulb? Try it and see!
1. Gather these materials
Electric Circuits Set: electricity table, one battery with holder, one light bulb with holder, one
long connecting wire (brown)
1 meter of 12-gauge copper wire. Wire must not have an insulated coating. This wire can be
purchased where picture hanging supplies are sold.
50 centimeter-long piece of 16-gauge insulated copper wire. This wire can be purchased at a
hardware store.
Electrical tape
Wire stripper tool
Permanent-ink marking pen
Metric ruler or measuring tape
Skill Sheet 9-C Electric Circuit Project
2. How to build the game

1. Place the battery, light bulb, and long connecting wire on the electricity table as shown in the
diagram on the previous page.
2. Cut a 20-centimeter piece from one end of the 1 meter-long piece of 12-gauge copper wire.
3. Bend one end of the 20-cm piece in to a loop with a diameter no larger than a dime. The
smaller the loop, the more challenging the game! Twist the wire to secure the loop. You have
just constructed the wand for your game board.
4. Strip 2 cm of plastic coating from each end of the 50 cm length of 16 gauge wire. (Your teacher
may help with this part).
5. Wrap one end of the exposed wire around the base of your wand and secure with electrical
tape.
6. Wrap the other end of the exposed copper wire around the right front corner post of the
electricity table. (The light bulb wire should also be connected to this post). Secure with
electrical tape.
7. Measure 15 cm in from each end of your remaining 80 cm piece of 12 gauge copper wire. Mark
the two spots with permanent ink. DO NOT cut the wire.
8. Make a 90 bend in the wire at each spot so that the wire is shaped like a wide, upside-down
U.
9. Bend the long horizontal section of the wire into a series of hills and valleys (see illustration).
Adjust the bends until the two 15 cm legs of the wire are 23 cm apart.
10. Place one of the 15-centimeter legs alongside the left, rear post of the electricity grid. The
long connecting wire should be attached to this post. Secure the leg with electrical tape.
11. Slide the loop of your wand over the other leg of the 12-gauge wire.
12. Use electrical tape to secure this leg to the right, rear post of the electricity grid. Make sure
that the tape covers the entire post.
13. Make sure that the loop in the wand will slide down the post. The loop should be placed in this
position when the game is not in use.
14. Now you are ready to play! Using one hand, move the loop in the wand over the hills and
valleysbut dont let the loop touch the copper wire! Try to make it all the way across without
lighting the bulb.
Variation: Inexpensive buzzers can be purchased at electronic or hobby stores and placed in the
circuit alongside the bulb.
Name:
Skill Sheet 11
Harmonic Motion
A number of common objects exhibit harmonic motion. A swing, a string on a guitar, sound, and
light all move in a harmonic or wave pattern. We can describe the motion of these objects with
special terms like period, frequency, amplitude, and hertz. In this skill sheet, you will practice
using these terms as you work through the activities, questions, and problems.
1. Reviewing terms
The diagram to the right shows the period of a pendulum. As the ball
on the string is pulled to one side and then let go, the ball moves to the
side opposite the starting place and then returns to the start. This
entire motion equals one cycle. The time it take to move through one
cycle is equal to one period of the pendulum.
As you can see in the diagram, the ball and string always pass through a center point. The
distance to which the ball and string move away from this center point is call the amplitude. For
pendulums, amplitude is measured in degrees. For other kinds of waves, amplitude is measured
in units of length like centimeters or meters.
Frequency is a term that refers to how many cycles can occur in one second. For example, the
frequency of the sound wave that corresponds to the musical note A is 440 cycles per second or
440 hertz. The unit hertz (Hz) is defined as the number of cycles per second.
The terms period and frequency are related by the following equation.
Skill Sheet 11 Harmonic Motion
2. Questions and practice problems

1. You decide to describe the harmonic motion of a swing. You find out that it take 2 seconds for
the swing to complete one cycle. The swing passes through 48 degrees as it goes from high-tohigh point in its motion (passing through center).
a. What is the period of the swing?
b. What is the frequency of the swing in hertz?
c. What is the amplitude of the swing?
2. If you let the swings motion continue on its own, what would happen to its amplitude? Why?
3. Use the graphic to answer the following

questions.
a. What is the amplitude of the wave?
b. How many wavelengths are featured in the
graphic? In your response, demonstrate that
you understand how to identify one
wavelength.
Skill Sheet 11 Harmonic Motion
4. The table below lists data from a pendulum experiment. Use the table to help you answer the
questions that follow.
Trial number
Length of string
Mass of pendulum
(cm)
(g)
Amplitude of
pendulum
(degrees)
10
30
10
10
40
20
30
20
10
40
30
30
30
10
40
a. Which of the three variables (length of string, mass of the pendulum, and amplitude)
affects the period of the pendulum the most?
b. For which of the six trials would the pendulum be the slowest? Explain your answer.
c. For which of the six trials would the pendulum be the fastest? Explain your answer.
d. Does the relationship between the mass and period of a pendulum support Newtons second
law of motion? Explain your answer.
Name:
Skill Sheet 12
Waves
What is a wave? How do you calculate the speed of a wave? In this skill sheet you will review
how to answer these questions as you review wave properties.
1. The parts of a wave

1. On the graphic below label the following parts of a wave: one wavelength, half of a
wavelength, the amplitude, the crest, and the trough.
2. In the graphic above, how many wavelengths are represented?

3. Define amplitude of a wave in your own words. What is the amplitude of the wave in the
graphic?
4. How do you calculate the frequency of a wave?
5. If took 0.05 seconds for the number of wavelengths in the graphic to pass a certain point,
what is the frequency of this wave?
2. The speed of a wave

Below is the formula for the speed of a wave. Use this formula to answer the questions on the next
page. Be sure to show your work.
Skill Sheet 12 Waves
1. The speed of a wave can be calculated by multiplying the frequency by the wavelength. You
can also calculate wave speed by dividing wavelength by the period of the wave. Why does this
make sense?
2. The frequency of a wave is 40 Hz. The speed of the wave is 100 meters per second. What is the
wavelength of this wave?
3. The wavelength of a wave is 50 centimeters. The frequency is 100 Hz. What is the speed of
this wave?
4. The frequency of wave A is 250 hertz and the wavelength is 30 centimeters. The frequency of
wave B is 260 hertz and the wavelength is 25 centimeters. Which is the faster wave?
3. Identifying harmonics
Lets say you have a machine that supports a 3 meter piece of string. Using this machine you can
measure the frequency at which the string vibrates at each harmonic. Table 1 is partially filled
with data. Use your understanding of harmonics to fill in the rest of the table.
Harmonic #
Frequency
Wavelength
(Hz)
(m)
Speed of the Wave

Frequency times
wavelength
(m/sec)
1
(fundamental)
18
18
12.0
15.0
1.5
18
18
1.0
1. When you are looking at a vibrating string, what is the easiest way to determine its
harmonic?
2. What is the wavelength of the fundamental harmonic of a string that is 5 meters long?
Name:
Skill Sheet 15-A
Ray Diagrams
This skill sheet will give you practice in making ray diagrams. A ray diagrams helps you
determine where an image produced by a lens will form and whether the image will be upside
down or right side up. For each question, read the directions carefully and plot your ray
diagram in the space provided.
1. Getting started
1. Of the diagrams below, which one correctly illustrates how light rays come off of an object?
Explain your answer.
2. Of the diagrams below, which one correctly illustrates how a light ray enters and exits a piece
of thick glass?
Skill Sheet 15-A Ray Diagrams
3. In your own words, explain what happens to light as it enters glass from the air. Why does
this happen? Use the terms refraction and index of refraction in your answer.
4. Of the diagrams below, which one correctly illustrates how parallel light rays enter and exit a
converging lens? Explain your answer.
5. Draw a diagram of a converging lens that has a focal point of 10 centimeters. In your diagram,
show three parallel lines entering the lens and exiting the lens. Show the light rays passing
through the focal point of the lens. Be detailed in your diagram and provide labels.
2. How to draw ray diagrams

A ray diagram helps you see where the image produced by a lens appears. The components of the
diagram include the lens, the principal axis, the focal point, the object, and three lines drawn from
the tip of the object and through the lens. These light rays meet at a point and intersect on the
other side of the lens. Where the light rays meet indicates where the image of the object appears.
Example: A lens has a focal length of 2 centimeters. An object is placed 4 centimeters to the left
of the lens. Follow the steps to make a ray diagram using this information.Trace the rays and
predict where the image will form.
Steps:
Draw a lens and show the principal axis.
Draw a line that shows the plane of the lens.
Make a dot at the focal point of the lens on the right and left side of the lens.
Place an arrow (pointing upward and perpendicular to the principle axis) at 4 centimeters on
the left side of the lens.
Line 1: Draw a line from the tip of the arrow that is parallel to the principal axis on the left,
and that goes through the focal point on the right of the lens.
Line 2: Draw a line from the tip of the arrow that goes through the center of the lens (where
the plane and the principal axis cross).
Line 3: Draw a line from the tip of the arrow that goes through the focal point on the left side
of the lens, through the lens, and parallel to the principal axis on the right side of the lens.
Lines 1, 2, and 3 converge on the right side of the lens where the tip of the image of the arrow
appears.
The image is upside down compared to the object.
3. Drawing ray diagrams

1. A lens has a focal length of 2 centimeters. An object is placed 4 centimeters to the left of the
lens. Trace the rays and predict where the image will form. Is the image bigger, smaller, or
inverted as compared to the object?
2. Challenge question: An arrow is placed at 3 centimeters to the left of a converging lens. The
image appears at 3 centimeters to the right of the lens. What is the focal length of this lens?
(Hint: Place a dot to the right of the lens where the image of the tip of the arrow will appear.
You will only be able to draw lines 1 and 2. Where does line 1 cross the principal axis if the
image appears at 3 centimeters?)
3. What happens when an object is placed at a distance from the lens that is less than the focal
length? Use the term virtual image in your answer.
Name:
Skill Sheet 15-B
The Law of Reflection
The law of reflection works perfectly with light and the smooth surface of a mirror. However,
you can apply this law to other situations. For example, how would the law of reflection help
you win a game of pool or pass a basketball to a friend on the court?
In this skill sheet you will review the law of reflection and perform practice problems that
utilize this law. Use a protractor to make your angles correct in your diagrams.
1. What is the law of reflection?

The law of reflection states that when an object hits a surface, its angle of incidence will equal the
angel of reflection. This is true when the object is light and the surface is a flat, smooth mirror.
When the object and the surface are larger and lack smooth surfaces, the angles of incidence and
reflection are close but not always exact. Nevertheless, this law is very helpful in performing
activities like bouncing a ball to someone or in playing pool.
1. When we talk about angles of incidence and reflection, we often talk about the normal. The
normal to a surface is an imaginary line that is perpendicular to the surface.
a. Draw a diagram that shows a surface, with a normal line, and a ray of light hitting the
surface at an angle of incidence of 60 degrees.
b. In the diagram above, label the angle of reflection. How many degrees is this angle of
reflection?
2. Light strikes a mirrors surface at 30 degrees to the normal. What will the angle of reflection
be?
3. The angle made by the angle of incidence and angle of reflection for a ray of light hitting a
mirror is 90 degrees. What are the measurements of each of these angles?
Skill Sheet 15-B The Law of Reflection
4. In a game of basketball, the ball is bounced (with no spin) toward a player at an angle of 40
degrees to the normal. What will the angle of reflection be? Draw a diagram that shows this
play. Label the angles of incidence and reflection and the normal.
2. Playing pool
Use a protractor to figure out the angles of incidence and reflection for the following problems.
1. Because a lot of her opponents balls are in the
way for a straight shot, Amy is planning to hit
the cue ball off the side of the pool table so that
it will hit the 8-ball into the corner pocket. In
the diagram, show the angles of incidence and
reflection for the path of the cue ball. How
many degrees does each angle measure?
2. You and a friend are playing pool. You

are playing solids and he is playing
stripes. You have one ball left before
you can try for the eight ball. Stripe
balls are in the way. You plan on
hitting the cue ball behind one of the
stripe balls so that it will hit a solid
ball and force it to follow the pathway
shown in the diagram. Use your
protractor to figure out what angles of
incidence and reflection are needed at
points A and B to get the solid ball into
the far side pocket.
Name:
Skill Sheet 16
Indirect Measurement
Have you ever wondered how scientists and engineers measure large quantities like the mass
of an iceberg, the volume of a lake, or the distance across a river? Obviously, balances,
graduated cylinders, and measuring tapes could not do the job! Very large (or very small)
quantities are calculated through a process called indirect measurement. This skill sheet will
give you an opportunity to try indirect measurement for yourself.
1. Using a shadow to find the height of a tree

Try this activity on a sunny day. You will need two meter sticks, a calculator, pencil and paper,
and a tall tree to measure. (If there are no trees nearby, substitute a building, flagpole, statue, or
other tall outdoor object.)
Ask a friend to hold the meter stick vertically, with one end touching the ground. Measure and
record the length of the shadow formed by the meter stick.
An object twice as tall as the meter stick will create a shadow twice as long. An object six times as
tall as the meter stick will create a shadow six times as long. Because there is a direct
relationship between the height of objects and the length of their shadows, you can set up a
proportion to figure out the height of an object based on the length of its shadow:
height of meter stick
height of object
---------------------------------------------------------------- = ----------------------------------------------------length of meter stick shadow
length of object shadow
Now measure the length of the trees shadow. Remember that shadow length changes throughout
the day, so if more than a few minutes has passed since you measured the meter stick shadow,
you will need to measure it again.
If the length of the meter stick shadow is 1.25 meters and the length of your trees shadow is 4.25
meters, you would set up your proportion like this:
1.00 meter
height of tree
----------------------- = ------------------------------1.25 meter
4.25 meter
Multiply both sides of your equation by the length of object shadow to find the height of the tree:
1.00 meter
height of tree
4.25 meter ----------------------- = ------------------------------- 4.25 meter
1.25 meter
4.25 meter
3.40 meters = height of tree
Activity: Use your own measurements in the proportion above to find the height of your tree.
This process is called indirect measurement, because rather than using a tool to measure the
height directly, you measured something else and used that measurement to calculate the height.
What is the height of your tree? Be sure to include units in your answer.
Skill Sheet 16 Indirect Measurement
2. Measuring the width of a compact disk

Indirect measurement is also used to measure small quantities. It is difficult, for example, to get
an accurate measurement of the width of one compact disk using a ruler. The CD is just too thin!
However, if you had a stack of CDs, you could measure the height of the stack. Dividing this
height by the number of CDs in the stack will tell you the width of one stack.
Activity: Locate a centimeter ruler and at least eight CDs. Calculate the width of one CD.
3. Using indirect measurement to solve problems

1. If you place one staple on an electronic balance, the balance still reads 0.0 grams. However, if
you place 210 staples on the balance, it reads 6.80 grams. What is the mass of one staple?
2. A sculptor wants to create a statue. She goes to a quarry to buy a block of marble. She finds a
chip of marble on the ground. The volume of the chip is 15.3 cm3. The mass of the chip is 41.3
grams. The sculptor purchases a block of marble 30.0-by-40.0-by-100. cm. Set up a proportion
to find the mass of her block of marble.
3. The instructions on a bottle of eye drops say to place three drops in each eye, using the
dropper. How could you find the volume of one of these drop? Write a procedure for finding the
volume of a drop that includes using a glass of water, a 10.0-mL graduated cylinder, and the
dropper.
4. A stack of 55 business cards is 1.85 cm tall. Use this information to determine the thickness of
one business card.
5. A student wants to use indirect measurement to find the

thickness of a sheet of newspaper. In a 50-centimeter tall
recycling bin, she finds 50 sheets of newspaper. Each sheet in
the bin is folded in fourths. Design a procedure for the student to
use that would allow her to measure the thickness of one sheet
of newspaper with little or no source of experimental error. The
student has a meter stick and a calculator.
Name:
Skill Sheet 17-A
Density
The density of a substance is a measure of how much mass is packed into a certain volume of
the substance. Substances with a high density, like steel, have molecules that are packed
together tightly. Substances with a low density, like cork, have fewer molecules packed into
the same amount of space.
The density of a substance can be found by dividing its mass by its volume. As long as a
substance is homogeneous, the size or shape of the sample of the substance doesnt matter.
The density will always be the same. This means that a steel paper clip has the same density as
a steel girder used to build a bridge.
1. Finding density
You can use the formula below to find the density of a substance.
**Note: Because one milliliter takes up the same amount of space as one cubic centimeter, density
can be expressed in units of g/mL or g/cm3. Liquid volumes are most commonly expressed in
milliliters, while volumes of solids are usually expressed in cubic centimeters.
(Show units as on p.289 FPS but include ccs as well as mLs)
Density = ---mass
-----------volume
For example, you have a block of aluminum with a volume of 30.0 cm3 and a mass of 81.0 grams.
To find its density, divide the mass (81.0 grams) by the volume (30.0 cm3).
g
Density = ----81.0
-------------30.0 cm 3
The density of aluminum is 2.70 g/cm3.
Try these problems on your own:
a. A solid rubber stopper has a mass of 33.0 grams and a volume of 30.0 cm3. What is the density
of rubber?
b. A chunk of paraffin (wax) has a mass of 50.4 grams and a volume of 57.9 cm3. What is the
density of paraffin?
c. A marble statue has a mass of 6200 grams and a volume of 2296 cm3. What is the density of
marble?
Skill Sheet 17-A Density
2. Using density to find mass

If you know the density of a substance and the volume of a sample, you can calculate the mass of
the sample. To do this, rearrange the equation above to find mass:
mass volume
volume Density = --------------- --------------volume
1
volume Density = mass
Heres an example: The density of iron is 7.9 g/cm3. If you have an iron horseshoe with a volume of
89 cm3, what is the mass of the horseshoe?
To solve the problem, multiply the volume of the horseshoe by the density of iron.
g
cm 3
89 cm 3 7.9 -------- = mass

The mass of the horseshoe is 703 grams.
a. The density of ice is 0.92 g/cm3. An ice sculptor orders a one cubic meter block of ice. What is
the mass of the block? Hint: 1 m3 = 1,000,000 cm3.
b. The density of platinum is 21.4 g/cm3. A disk of pure platinum has a volume of 113 cm3. What
is the mass of the disk?
c. The density of seawater is 1.025 g/mL. What is the mass of 1.00 liter of seawater? (Hint: 1 liter
= 1,000 mL)
3. Using density to find volume

If you know the density of a substance and the mass of a sample, you can find the volume of the
sample. This time, you will rearrange the density equation to find volume.
1
1
------------------ Density volume = mass ------------------
Density
Density
volume = ----mass
-------------Density
Sample problem: The density of lead is 11.3 g/cm3. Find the volume of a 525-gram block of lead.
To solve this problem, divide the mass of the block by the density of lead.
g
------------volume = ----525
g
11.3 -------cm 3
The volume of the block is 46.5 cm3.
a. The density of cork is 0.24 g/cm3. What is the volume of a 240-gram piece of cork?
b. The density of gold is 19.3 g/cm3. What is the volume of a 575-gram bar of pure gold?
c. The density of mercury is 13.6 g/mL. What is the volume of a 155-gram sample of mercury?
4. Using density to solve problems

Knowing the density of a substance can help you solve problems. Recycling centers, for example,
use density to help sort and identify different types of plastics so that they can be properly
recycled. The chart below shows common types of plastics, their recycling code, and density.
Plastic name
Common uses
Recycling code
Density (g/cm3)
PETE
2-liter soda bottles
1.38-1.39
HDPE
milk cartons
0.95-0.97
PVC
plumbing pipe
1.15-1.35
LDPE
trash can liners
0.92-0.94
PP
yogurt containers
0.90-0.91
PS
cd jewel cases
1.05-1.07
Use the table on the previous page to solve the following problems:
a. A recycling center has a 125,000 cm3 box filled with one type of plastic. When empty, the box
had a mass of 755 grams. The full box has a mass of 120.8 kg (120,800 g). What is the density
of the plastic? What type of plastic is in the box?
b. A truckload of 2-liter soda bottles was finely shredded at a recycling center. The plastic shreds
were placed into 55-liter drums. What is the mass of the plastic shreds inside one of the
drums? Hint: 55 liters = 55,000 milliliters = 55,000 cm3.
c. A recycling center has 100 kilograms (100,000 grams) of shredded plastic yogurt containers.
How many 10-liter (10,000 mL) containers do they need to hold all of this plastic?
d. A solid will float in a liquid if it is less dense than the liquid, and sink if it is more dense than
the liquid. If the density of seawater is 1.025 g/mL, which types of plastics would definitely
float in seawater?
Name:
Skill Sheet 17-B
Ratios and Proportions
Speed, the density of a solid, and pressure are all measurements that are given as ratios.
When you set two ratios equal to each other we call this equation a proportion. In this skill
sheet, you will investigate the techniques used to analyze and manipulate ratio- and
proportion-based formulas and examine a few specific examples of how these concepts are
applied in science.
1. Understanding ratios and proportions

What is a ratio? Ratios are expressions of relationships or comparisons. In general, ratios express
the relationship:
amount or magnitude of a sample
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------total amount or magnitude of system containing the sample
For example, suppose you have a jar filled with 100 marbles. This is the total number of marbles
in the system. You are asked to report the number of red marbles in the jar. This is the amount of
a specific sample of the marbles. After counting, you find that 25 of the 100 marbles are red. As a
relationship, you could say that you had 25 marbles compared to the total 100 marbles in the jar.
You can express this relationship25 red marbles compared to 100 total marblesas a fraction:
25 red marbles
-------------------------------------100 total marbles
You can use this ratio to analyze other systems of marbles.

Lets say this particular brand of marbles come in jars of 100 or 300. Because you know how many
marbles out of 100 are red, you can predict how many marbles out of 300 are red by setting up a
proportion.
The advantage of setting up a proportion is that you can get a good estimate of the number of
something without having to spend time counting each marble. The proportion for the marbles is
set up for you below:
25 red marbles
? red marbles
-------------------------------------- = ---------------------------------------100 total marbles
300 total marbles
Now that you have the proportion, you need to solve it. To solve a proportion, you use a technique
called cross multiplication.
Skill Sheet 17-B Ratios and Proportions
2. Cross Multiplication
Cross multiplication is a mathematical technique to solve proportions, also known as equivalent
fractions. Our sample problem is an example of equivalent fractions. Each fraction represents a
system. One system has 100 marbles and the other has 300 marbles. However, each of these
systems share the same relationshipthat 25 marbles in every 100 marbles are red.
When using cross multiplication, you multiply across the equal sign between the fractions. You
first multiply the numerator of the first fraction by the denominator of the second fraction:
25 red marbles
? red marbles
-------------------------------------- = --------------------------------------100 total marbles
300 total marbles
You then multiply the denominator of the first fraction by the numerator of the second fraction:
25 red marbles
? red marbles
-------------------------------------- = --------------------------------------100 total marbles
300 total marbles
This gives you a new formula:
( 25 red marbles ) ( 300 total marbles ) = ( 100 total marbles ) ( ? red marbles )
The next step in cross multiplication is to solve for the number of red marbles in the jar
containing 300 marbles.
For this problem, you divide each side of the equation by 100 total marbles. On the right hand side
of the equation, you have 100 total marbles divided by 100 total marbles. These values cancel out
leaving ? red marbles.
( 25 red marbles ) ( 300 total marbles )
( 100 total marbles ) ( ? red marbles )
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------100 total marbles
100 total marbles
75 red marbles = ? red marbles

Solving the left-hand side of the equation results in a value of 75 red marbles. Based on the
relationship for the smaller jar of marbles, this value is a good prediction of how many red
marbles you would find in the jar of 300 marbles.
3. Examples of ratios and proportions

Example 1: Density
Density is a relationship between the mass of a substance and the amount of space it occupies:
Mass
Density = --------------Volume
For a single type of substance, the density relationship is constant. Therefore, you can use this
relationship, or ratio, to predict the mass or volume for a sample of the substance using
equivalent fractions:
Density1 = Density 2
M1 M2
----- = -----V1
V2
where M1 and V1 are the mass and volume of a sample of a substance and M2 and V2 are the mass
and volume of the substance. Heres an example problem:
You have a block of aluminum with a mass of 15 g and a volume of 136.4 cm3. If the block is cut in
half, what is the mass of the resulting sample?
You have reduced the volume of the block by half, so the new volume is 68.2 m3. The density of the
sample and the relationship between the mass and volume is constant, so you can set up a set of
M1 M2
----- = -----V1
V2
M
15 g
--------------------- = ------------2------3
3
136.4 cm
68.2 cm
3
( 15 g ) ( 68.2 cm ) = ( 136.4 cm ) ( M 2 )
3
3
( 136.4 cm ) ( M )
( 15 g ) ( 68.2 cm )
----------------------------------------- = --------------------------------------2-3
3
( 136.4 cm )
( 136.4 cm )
7.5 g = M 2
The new block will have a mass of 7.5 g. If you calculate the densities of the two blocks, the
original and the new, they both have the same value 0.11 g/cm3.
Example 2: Pressure
Pressure is defined as a force acting over a given area. Mathematically, you may express pressure
with the formula:
Force
Pressure = -----------Area
Heres an example problem:
Consider a machine designed to produce 4 N/cm2 of pressure during a manufacturing process. For
one application, the machine produces 12 N of force over a 3 m2 area. How much area is needed to
deliver a force of 36 N?
Knowing that the relationship of force to area in this case is constant, you can use proportions and
ratios to evaluate the area over which the machine needs to apply this new force. Setting up the
F
A1
F
A2
----1 = ----212 N
36 N
--------- = ---------2
A2
3m
2
( 12 N ) ( A2 ) = ( 3 m ) ( 36 N )
2
( 12 N ) ( A2 )
( 3 m ) ( 36 N )
---------------------------- = --------------------------------( 12 N )
( 12 N )
A2 = 9 m
4. Working with ratios and proportions

1. A barrel contains 250 apples. 100 of the apples are red, and 150 of the apples are green.
Express the number of red and green apples to the total number in the barrel as two ratios.
2. The number of jazz and blues CDs to the total number of CDs at a music store can be
expressed with the ratio 1/4. If there are 1,000 total CDs in the store, how many belong in the
jazz and blues category?
3. The owner of the music store in question (2) sees that jazz and blues CDs are selling
particularly well. He changes the number of the jazz and blues CDs that he stocks. He now
carries 500 jazz and blues CDs out of his total stock of 1,000 CDs. What ratio expresses this
new amount of jazz and blues CDs to total CDs in the store?
4. A sample of material has a mass of 15 g and occupies a space of 45 cm3. If material is added to
the sample so that the new mass equals 60 g, how much space will the sample now occupy?
5. A woman needs to ship a 5 m2 glass block to an artist in California. She knows that a
2 m2 glass block has a mass of 6 kg. To give her customer a prediction of the shipping cost, she
needs to know the mass of the 5 m2 block. What mass value would she tell the post office to
calculate the cost of shipping?
6. The concept of power expresses the rate at which work is performed. It is calculated using the
equation:
work
Power = ---------time
A machine is capable of producing 250 joules of work in 45 seconds. If the machine operates
for 600 seconds, how much work will be performed?
7. A baker has to bring cheesecakes to a big Hollywood party. Each cheesecake will serve
12 guests. The total number of guests expected at the party is 720.
a. How many cheesecakes will the baker need to prepare for the party?
b. The host of the party decides that he wants 1/4 of the cheesecakes to be blueberry, 1/4 of the
1
/4 cheesecakes to be chocolate, and 1/2 of the cheesecakes to be plain. How many blueberry,
chocolate, and plain cheesecakes does the baker need to prepare?
c. While talking to potential guests, the party host finds that about 1/3 of them might prefer
carrot cake to the cheesecake he was planning to offer. He, therefore, instructs the baker to
prepare carrot cakes in addition to the cheesecakes. If the baker plans for 1/3 of the guests
having the option of carrot cake, how many carrot cakes does he need to bake (each carrot
cake also serves 12 people)?
Name:
Skill Sheet 17-C
Buoyancy
Why do some objects float in water, while other objects sink? Why do some objects (like
helium balloons) rise into the air when released from your hand, while other objects drop to
the ground? To answer these questions, you need to understand buoyancy. In this skill sheet,
you will examine the concept of buoyant forces. Next, you will practice calculating the buoyant
force acting on an object placed in a fluid. You will use your calculations to figure out whether
the object floats or sinks in that particular fluid.
1. Buoyant force
Physical scientists use the word fluid to describe any matter that can flow. The matter could be a
liquid, like water, or a gas, like air. When an object is placed in a fluid (liquid or gas), the fluid
exerts an upward force upon the object. This force is called a buoyant force.
At the same time, there is an attractive force between the object and Earth, which we call the
force of gravity. It acts as a downward force.
To determine whether an object will sink or float, you just compare the size of the buoyant force to
the size of the gravitational force. If the buoyant force is greater, the object floats. If the
gravitational force is greater, the object sinks.
The following example illustrates how to determine whether an object will sink or float in a fluid.
Example:
A 13-newton object is placed in a container of fluid. If the fluid exerts a 60-newton buoyant
(upward) force on the object, will the object float or sink?
Answer:
In this case, the upward buoyant force (60 N) is greater than the weight of the object (13 N).
Therefore, the object will float.
Now try these problems on your own:
1. A 4.5-newton object is placed in a tank of water. If the water exerts a force of 4.3 newtons on
the object, will the object sink or float?
2. The same object is placed in a tank of glycerin. If the glycerin exerts a force of 5.2 newtons on
the object, will the object sink or float?
3. Would this same object be more likely to float in molasses or in vegetable oil? Explain why you
think this is true.
Skill Sheet 17-C Buoyancy
2. Calculating buoyant force acting on an object that sinks

In the problems above, you were given the size of each force. How were those forces measured?
Its easy to find the gravitational force. You simply use a spring scale to measure the objects
weight.
Finding the buoyant force is a little more complicated. Take a look at
this example:
The rock weighs 2.25 newtons when suspended in air. In water, it
appears to weigh only 1.8 newtons. Why? The rock didnt shrink!
The water is exerting a force on the rock. You can calculate the
buoyant force by finding the difference between the rocks weight in
air and its apparent weight in water.
2.25 N 1.8 N = 0.45 N
The water exerts a buoyant force of 0.45 newtons on the rock.
1. You suspend a brass ring from a spring scale. Its weight is 0.83 N. Next, you immerse the rock
in a container of light corn syrup. The ring appears to weigh 0.71 N. What is the buoyant force
acting on the ring?
2. You wash the brass ring and then suspend it in a container of vegetable oil. The ring appears
to weigh 0.73 N. What is the buoyant force acting on the ring?
3. Which has greater buoyant force, the light corn syrup or the vegetable oil? Why do you think
this is so?
3. Calculating buoyant force acting on an object that floats

Have you ever tried to hold a beach ball underwater? It
takes a lot of effort! Thats because the buoyant force is
much larger than the gravitational force acting on the
beach ball.
We can use Archimedes principle to calculate the
buoyant force acting on the beach ball. Archimedes
principle states:
The buoyant force acting on an object in a fluid is equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
Lets say the beach ball has a volume of 14,130 cm3. If you pushed it underwater, the ball would
displace 14,130 cm3 of water. Archimedes principle tells us that the buoyant force is equal to the
weight of that water. The weight of 14,130 cm3 of water is 138 newtons. So, the buoyant force
acting on the beach ball is 138 newtons.
If you tied a string to the beach ball and suspended it from a spring scale, the ball
would weigh 1.5 newtons. Thats not a lot of force to counteract 138 newtons of
buoyant force! No wonder it takes a lot of effort to hold a beach ball underwater.
What would happen if you placed the ball in water to measure its apparent weight?
(This is what we did with the rock in section 2).
The spring scale would read 0.0 newtons. Thats because the ball would
float on the water.
Now calculate the buoyant force acting on the floating beach ball:
gravitational force acting on ball - apparent weight of ball in water =
buoyant force acting on ball:
1.5 N 0.0 N = 1.5 N
The buoyant force acting on the floating beach ball is equal to the
gravitational force pulling the ball downward.
The floating ball doesnt displace 14,130 cm3 of
water. It displaces only 153 cm3 of water. 153 cm3 of water weighs 1.5
newtons. The ball displaces an amount of water equal to its own
weight.
4. Solving buoyancy problems

Use what you have learned about buoyancy to solve the following problems. The first one is done
for you.
1. A 5-cm3 block of lead weighs 0.55 N. The lead is carefully submerged in a tank of mercury.
One cm3 of mercury weighs 0.13 N.
a. What is the weight of the mercury displaced by the block of lead?
b. Will the block of lead sink or float in the mercury?
Answer:
a. The lead will displace 5 cm3 of mercury. 5 0.13 N = 0.65 N.
b. The buoyant force, 0.65 N, is greater than the weight of the lead, 0.55 N. The lead will float.
2. A 10 cm3 block of paraffin (a type of wax) weighs 0. 085 N. It is carefully submerged in a
container of gasoline. One cm3 of gasoline weighs 0.0069 N.
a. What is the weight of the gasoline displaced by the paraffin?
b. Will the block of paraffin sink or float in the gasoline?
3. A 30 cm3 chunk of platinum weighs 6.3 N. It is carefully submerged in a tub of molasses. One
cm3 of molasses weighs 0.013 N.
a. What is the weight of the molasses displaced by the platinum?
b. Will the platinum sink or float in the molasses?

4. A 15 cm3 block of gold weighs 2.8 N. It is carefully submerged in a tank of mercury. One cm3
of mercury weighs 0.13 N.
a. What is the weight of the mercury displaced by the gold?
b. Will the gold sink or float in the mercury?

5. Compare the densities of each pair of materials in the questions above.
material
density (g/ cm3)
gasoline
0.7
gold
19.3
lead
11.3
mercury
13.6
molasses
1.37
paraffin
0.87
platinum
21.4
Does an objects density have anything to do with whether or not it will float in a particular
liquid? Give at least three examples to support your answer.
Name:
Skill Sheet 17-D
Gases and Pressure
Have you ever pumped up a bicycle tire? What is happening inside of the tire? As you pump
more air into the tire, more and more particles of air are pushed into the tire, increasing the
pressure inside. On a microscopic level, each particle of air collides with the inside walls of the
tire, exerting a force which pushes the inner surface of the tire outward. As you pump more
air into the tire, there are more particles that can exert forces on the inside walls of the tire.
The forces of all of the particles of air inside the tire add together to create pressure. This
skill sheet will help you practice solving problems that involve changes in the pressure of a gas
due to changes in volume or temperature.
1. Boyles law: pressure and volume

The relationship between the volume of a gas and the pressure of a gas, at a constant
temperature, is known as Boyles law. The equation for Boyles law is:
Heres how you solve a problem using this relationship:

A kit used to fix flat tires consists of an aerosol can containing compressed air, and a patch to seal
the hole in the tire. Suppose 10.0 liters of air at atmospheric pressure (101.3 kilopascals, or kPa)
is compressed into a 1.0 liter aerosol can. What is the pressure of the compressed air in the can?
1. Identify what you know and what you are trying to find out from the information given.
P1 = 101.3 kPa
V1 = 10.0 L
P2 = unknown
V2 = 1.0 L
2. Rearrange the variables in the equation to solve for the unknown variable.
Divide each side by V2 to isolate P2 on one side of the equation. The final equation is:
P V
P 2 = ---1-----1
V2
3. Plug in the values and solve the problem.
101.3 kPa 10.0 L
P 2 = -------------------------------------- = 1013 kPa
1.0 L
The pressure inside of the aerosol can is 1,013 kPa.
Skill Sheet 17-D Gases and Pressure
2. Charles law: pressure and temperature

The French scientist Jacques Charles was a pioneer in hot-air ballooning. He investigated how
changing the temperature of a fixed amount of gas at constant pressure affected its volume. The
equation for this relationship is:
Charles law shows a direct relationship between the volume of a gas and the temperature of a gas
when the temperature is given in the Kelvin scale. Zero on the Kelvin scale is the coldest
possible temperature, also known as absolute zero. Absolute zero is equal to -273 C which is
273 C below the freezing point of water. Why do you think this scale is used to solve these
problems?
Converting from degrees Celsius to Kelvin is very easy. You add 273 to the Celsius temperature.
To convert from Kelvins to degrees Celsius, you subtract 273 from the Kelvin temperature.
To solve problems with Charles law, you can follow the same problem-solving steps you learned
for Boyles law, except you use the equation for Charles law. You also need to convert degrees
Celsius to Kelvin. To practice both equations, do the problems below.
3. Practice problems with Bolyles and Charles laws

1. A truck tire holds 25.0 L of air at 25 C. If the temperature drops to 0 C, and the pressure
remains constant, what will be the new volume of the tire?
(HINT: remember to convert degrees Celsius to Kelvins!)
2. You pump 25.0 L of air at atmospheric pressure (101.3 kPa) into a soccer ball that has a
volume of 4.5 L. What is the pressure inside of the soccer ball if the temperature does not
change?
3. Hyperbaric oxygen chambers (HBO) are used to treat divers with decompression sickness.
Research has shown that HBO can also aid in the healing of broken bones and muscle
injuries. As pressure increases inside of the HBO, more oxygen is forced into the bloodstream
of the patient inside of the chamber. To work properly, the pressure inside of the chamber
should be three times greater than atmospheric pressure (101.3 kPa). What volume of oxygen,
held at atmospheric pressure will need to be pumped into a 190 L HBO chamber to make the
pressure inside three times greater than atmospheric pressure?
Skill Sheet 17-D Gases and Pressure
4. A balloon holds 20.0 L of helium at 10 C. If the temperature doubles, and the pressure does
not change, what will be the new volume of the balloon?
5. A SCUBA tank holds 12.5 L of oxygen at 1013 kPa. If the oxygen that was pumped into the
SCUBA tank was held at a pressure of 202.6 kPa, what was the original volume of gas that
was pumped into the SCUBA tank?
Use the space below to show your calculations for the problems:
Name:
Skill Sheet 18-A
Atoms, Isotopes, and Ions
You have learned that atoms contain three smaller particles called protons (positive charge),
neutrons (no charge) and electrons (negative charge). You have also learned that the number
of protons determines the type of atom. In this skill sheet, you will learn about atoms that
have the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons (isotopes) and different
numbers of electrons (ions).
1. What are isotopes?

In addition to the atomic number, every atom can also be described by its mass number. The
mass number is equal to the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. Recall
that atoms of the same element have the same number of protons. Atoms of the same element can
have different numbers of neutrons. These different forms of the same element are called
isotopes.
Sometimes the mass number for an element is included in its symbol.
When the symbol is written in this way, we call it isotope notation.
The isotope notation for carbon-12 is shown to the right. You can
determine the number of neutrons by subtracting the atomic number
(bottom) from the mass number (top).
How many neutrons does an atom of carbon-12 have? To find out, simply take the mass number
and subtract from it, the atomic number: 12 - 6 = 6.
Hydrogen has three isotopes as shown below.
1. How many neutrons does protium have? How about deuterium and tritium?
2. Use the diagram of an atom to answer the questions:
a. What is the atomic number of the element?
b. What is the name of the element?
c. What is the mass number of the element?
d. Write the isotope notation for this isotope.
Skill Sheet 18-A Atoms, Isotopes, and Ions
2. What is the atomic mass?

If you look at a periodic table, you will notice that the atomic number increases by one whole
number at a time. This is because you add one proton at a time for each element. The atomic
mass (see diagram below) however, increases by amounts greater than one. This difference is due
to the neutrons in the nucleus. The value of the atomic mass reflects the abundance of the stable
isotopes for an element that exist in the universe.
Since silver has an atomic mass of 107.87, this means that most of the stable isotopes that exist
have a mass number of 108. In other words, the most common silver isotope is silver-108. To
figure out the most common isotope for an element, round the atomic mass to the nearest whole
number.
1. Look up bromine on the periodic table. What is the most common isotope of bromine?
2. Look up potassium on the periodic table. How many neutrons does the most common isotope
of potassium have?
3. What are ions?

Many atoms tend to gain or lose some of their electrons. When atoms gain or lose electrons, they
are no longer neutral, but have an electrical charge that is either positive or negative. Atoms that
have a positive or negative charge are called ions.
You can determine the electric charge of an ion by simply comparing the number of protons and
electrons. If there are more protons than electrons, then the ion has a positive charge that is equal
to the number of extra protons. If there are more electrons than protons, then the ion has a
negative charge that is equal to the number of extra electrons. For example:
1. A sodium ion has 11 protons and 10 electrons. What is its charge?

2. A magnesium ion has 12 protons and 10 electrons. What is its charge?
Name:
Skill Sheet 18-B
Electrons and the Periodic Table
What do electrons have to do with the periodic table? In this skill sheet, you will learn how
electrons are organized in the energy levels that orbit the nucleus of an atom. You will also
discover the relationship between electrons and the organization of the periodic table.
1. How do you describe the location of an electron?

As you have learned, electrons live in one of the seven
energy levels surrounding the nucleus of the atom.
Generally speaking, the farther away from the nucleus
the energy level, the greater the amount of energy
required for an electron to occupy that level. Electrons
tend to fill in the first energy level first, the second energy
level second, and so on, because they fill the levels from
lowest to highest energy, that is, from first to outermost.
Energy levels are divided into smaller regions called
orbitals. Each orbital designates a specific region of the
energy level where an electron exists. The different
orbitals are designated by the letters s, p, d, and f.
Electrons fill the energy levels and orbitals in a certain order. The position that
has the lowest energy is filled first. The position that has the lowest energy is in
the first energy level (the level closest to the nucleus), in the s orbital. This
electrons position is represented by writing: 1s1.
The order in which electrons fill all seven energy levels (1-7) and all electron
orbitals (s, p, d, and f) is shown below. This order (going from left to right) is
called an electron configuration.
Lowest
energy
Electron configuration for ununoctium
Highest
energy
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p6
Each element on the periodic table has a unique electron configuration, based on its atomic
number This number tells you the number of electrons in a neutral atom of the element. For
example, hydrogens electron configuration is 1s1 and carbons electron configuration is 1s22s22p2.
The electron configuration above (which includes all the energy levels and orbitals on the periodic
table) is for ununoctium (Uuo), the very last element on the periodic table.
In the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh energy levels, you will notice orbitals with numbers from a
lower energy level. For example, the 4s and 4p orbitals and the 3d orbital are all in the fourth
energy level. This is because the energy level of the 3d electrons overlaps with the energy levels
for electrons in the fourth energy level. Also, the 4s orbital is filled before the 3d orbital. This is
because the 4s orbital has a lower energy than the 3d orbital. To complicate matters, electrons fill
the d and f orbitals in irregular patterns.
Skill Sheet 18-B Electrons and the Periodic Table
2. Writing electron configurations

Can you write the electron configuration for gallium? Since this may be your first time, well do
this one together by following the steps below.
1. Locate the element on the periodic table.
Look at a periodic table and locate gallium. Its symbol is Ga. Use the atomic number to
determine how many electrons a neutral atom of gallium has.
Gallium has 31 electrons.
2. Fill orbitals in the proper sequence with electrons.
Use table on the previous page as a guide for the order of filling each energy level and orbital.
Keep filling orbitals until you have placed all the electrons of the element. The electron
configuration for gallium is:
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p1
3. Check to make sure that the total number of electrons in the configuration (the superscripts)
is equal to the atomic number.
2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 10 + 1 = 31
Congratulations! You have successfully written an electron configuration. Youll have plenty
more practice as you work through this skill sheet.
3. An easier way to write electron configurations

You can save yourself a lot of time (and space in your notebook) if you use an abbreviated form of
writing electron configurations using noble gases. Heres an example of how to do this with the
electron configuration for gallium:
Gallium is in the fourth period. You can substitute the electrons that are in the third period of the
periodic table with the symbol for the noble gas that is in that period. What is the noble gas in the
third period? Remember that elements in the last column of the periodic table (group 18) are the
noble gases.
Argon is the noble gas in the third period. To write the abbreviated electron configuration for
gallium, substitute the symbol for argon, in brackets, for the electron configuration of the first
three periods. Next, write the rest of galliums electron configuration.
Electron configuration for gallium:
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p1
[1s22s22p63s23p6] = argon + 4s23d104p1
The abbreviated electron configuration for gallium is:
[Ar]4s23d104p1
Writing abbreviated electron configurations is a convenient way to see how many electrons are in
the outermost s and p orbitals of an atom. These are the electrons that are involved in forming
chemical bonds. How many electrons does gallium have in its outermost s and p orbitals?
4. Writing electron configurations for some of the elements

Write abbreviated electron configurations for the following elements. Use a periodic table to locate
the elements and determine the number of electrons. Finally, fill in the last column of the table.
For elements in the lanthanide or actinide series, write lanthanide or actinide instead of a
group number.
Element
Electron configuration (abbreviated form)
K
Rb
Mg
Ba
Tl
Ga
Pb
Sn
Mo
N
Sb
Pt
Se
Po
Br
Gd
Cl
Kr
U
Rn
To which group
does this element
belong?
5. Identifying patterns in the arrangement of elements on the periodic table

Look at the table you have just filled in. Do you see any patterns in the electron configurations
and group numbers? Use the patterns you see in the electron configurations to answer the
following questions.
1. In the main group elements (the tall columns on the periodic table), what is the relationship
between group number and number of electrons in the outermost s and p orbitals?
2. Which elements in the table you completed belong to the transition metals? What do their
electron configurations have in common?
3. Which elements in the table you completed belong to the lanthanide and actinide series (the
two separate rows at the bottom)? What do their electron configurations have in common?
4. Which elements have a completely full outermost energy level? Where are they located?
6. Valence electrons
In the main group elements, the electrons in the s and p orbitals of the outermost energy level are
called valence electrons. These electrons are involved in forming chemical bonds.
1. How many electrons can the s orbital of a given energy level hold?
2. How many electrons can the p orbital of a given energy level hold?
3. If valence electrons include the electrons in the s and p orbitals for an energy level, what is
the maximum number of valence electrons an atom can have?
4. How is the placement of an element on the periodic table related to the number of valence
electrons the element has?
Name:
Skill Sheet 19-A
Dot Diagrams
You have learned that atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. The electrons
occupy energy levels that surround the nucleus in the form of an electron cloud. The
electrons that are involved in forming chemical bonds are called valence electrons. Atoms can
have up to eight valence electrons. These electrons exist in the outermost region of the
electron cloud often called the valence shell.
The most stable atoms have eight valence electrons. When an atom has eight valence
electrons, it is said to have a complete octet. Atoms will gain or lose electrons in order to
complete their octet. In the process of gaining or losing electrons, atoms will form chemical
bonds with other atoms. The method we use to visually represent an atom's valence state is
called a dot diagram, and you will practice drawing these in the following exercise.
1. What is a Dot Diagram?

Dot diagrams are composed of two partsthe chemical symbol for the element and dots
surrounding the chemical symbol. Each dot represents one valence electron. If an
element, such as oxygen, has six valence electrons, then six dots will surround the
chemical symbol as shown to the right.
Boron has three valence electrons, so three dots surround the chemical symbol for boron as
shown to the right.
There can be up to eight dots around a symbol, depending on the number of valence
electrons the atom has. The first four dots are single, and then as more dots are added,
they fill in as pairs.
2. Drawing Dot Diagrams

Using a periodic table, complete the following chart. With this information, draw a dot diagram
for each element in the chart. Remember, only the valence electrons are represented in the
diagram, not the total number of electrons.
Element
Chemical
Symbol
Potassium
Nitrogen
Carbon
Beryllium
Be
Neon
Ne
Sulfur
Total Number of
Electrons
Number of
Valence Electrons
Dot Diagram
Skill Sheet 19-A Dot Diagrams
3. Using Dot Diagrams to Represent Chemical Reactivity

Once you have a dot diagram for an element, you can predict how an atom will achieve a full
valence shell. For instance, it is easy to see that chlorine has one empty space in its valence shell.
It is likely that chlorine will try to gain one electron to fill this empty space rather than lose the
remaining seven. However, potassium has a single dot or electron in its dot diagram. This
diagram shows how much easier it is to lose this lone electron than to find seven to fill the seven
empty spaces. When the potassium loses its electron, it becomes positively charged. When chlorine
gains the electron, it becomes negatively charged. Opposite charges attract, and this attraction
draws the atoms together to form what is termed an ionic bond, a bond between two charged
atoms or ions.
Because chlorine needs one electron, and potassium needs to lose one electron, these two elements
can achieve a complete set of eight valence electrons by forming a chemical bond. We can use dot
diagrams to represent the chemical bond between chlorine and potassium as shown above.
For magnesium and chlorine, however, the situation is a bit different. By examining the electron
or Lewis dot diagrams for these atoms, we see why magnesium requires two atoms of chlorine to
produce the compound, magnesium chloride, when these two elements chemically combine.
Magnesium can easily donate one of its valence electrons to the chlorine to fill chlorines valence
shell, but this still leaves magnesium unstable; it still has one lone electron in its valence shell.
However, if it donates that electron to another chlorine atom, the second chlorine atom has a full
shell, and now so does the magnesium.
The chemical formula for potassium chloride is KCl. This means that one unit of the compound is
made of one potassium atom and one chlorine atom.
The formula for magnesium chloride is MgCl2. This means that a one unit of the compound is
made of one magnesium atom and two chlorine atoms.
Now try using dot diagrams to predict chemical formulas. Fill in the table below:
Elements
Dot Diagram for Each

Element
Dot Diagram for

Compound Formed
Na and F
Br and Br
Mg and O
Chemical
Formula
Name:
Skill Sheet 19-B
Chemical Formulas
Compounds have unique names that identify them for us when we study chemical properties
and changes. Chemists have devised a shorthand way of representing chemical names that
provides important information about the substance. This shorthand representation for a
compounds name is called a chemical formula. You will practice writing chemical formulas in
the following activity.
1. What is a chemical formula?

Chemical formulas have two important parts: chemical symbols for the elements in the
compound and subscripts that tell how many atoms of each element are needed to form the
compound. The chemical formula for water, H2O, tells us that a water molecule is made of the
elements hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) and that it takes 2 atoms of hydrogen and one atom of
oxygen to build the molecule. For sodium nitrate, NaNO3, the chemical formula tells us there are
three elements in the compound: sodium (Na), nitrogen (N), and oxygen (O).To make a molecule of
this compound, you need one atom of sodium, one atom of nitrogen, and 3 atoms of oxygen.
2. How to write chemical formulas

How do chemists know how many atoms of each element are needed to build a molecule? For ionic
compounds, oxidation numbers are the key. An elements oxidation number is the number of
electrons it will gain or lose in a chemical reaction. We can use the periodic table to find the
oxidation number for an element. When we add up the oxidation numbers of the elements in an
ionic compound, the sum must be zero. Therefore, we need to find a balance of negative and
positive ions in the compound for the molecule to form.
Example 1:
A compound is formed by the reaction between magnesium and chlorine. What is the chemical
formula for this compound?
From the periodic table, we find that the oxidation number of magnesium is 2+. Magnesium
loses 2 electrons in chemical reactions. The oxidation number for chlorine is 1-. Chlorine tends
to gain one electron in a chemical reaction.
Remember that the sum of the oxidation numbers of the elements in a molecule will equal
zero. This compound requires one atom of magnesium with an oxidation number of 2+ to
combine with two atoms of chlorine, each with an oxidation number of 1-, for the sum of the
oxidation numbers to be zero.
( 2+ ) + 2 ( 1- ) = 0
To write the chemical formula for this compound, first write the chemical symbol for the
positive ion (Mg) and then the chemical symbol for the negative ion (Cl). Next, use subscripts
to show how many atoms of each element are required to form the molecule. When one atom of
an element is required, no subscript is used. Therefore, the correct chemical formula for
magnesium chloride is MgCl2.
Skill Sheet 19-B Chemical Formulas
Example 2:
Aluminum and bromine combine to form a compound. What is the chemical formula for the
compound they form?
From the periodic table, we find that the oxidation number for aluminum (Al) is 3+. The oxidation
number for bromine (Br) is 1-. In order for the oxidation numbers of this compound add up to zero,
one atom of aluminum must combine with three atoms of bromine:
( 3+ ) + 3 ( 1- ) = 0
The correct chemical formula for this compound, aluminum bromide, is AlBr3.
3. Practice writing chemical formulas for ionic compounds

Use the periodic table to find the oxidation numbers of each element. Then write the correct
chemical formula for the compound formed by the following elements:
Element
Oxidation
Number
Element
Oxidation
Number
Potassium (K)
Chlorine (Cl)
Calcium (Ca)
Chlorine (Cl)
Sodium (Na)
Oxygen (O)
Boron (B)
Phosphorus (P)
Lithium (Li)
Sulfur (S)
Aluminum (Al)
Oxygen (O)
Beryllium (Be)
Iodine (I)
Calcium (Ca)
Nitrogen (N)
Sodium (Na)
Bromine (Br)
Chemical Formula for

Compound
4. Polyatomic ions
Have you ever heard of sodium nitrate? Its a preservative used in foods like hot dogs. The
chemical formula for sodium nitrate is NaNO3. How many types of atoms does this compound
contain? You are right if you said three: sodium, nitrogen, and oxygen. The nitrogen and oxygen
atoms have a shared-electron bond. They act as one unit (called nitrate) with an oxidation number
of 1-. Ions that have more than one type of atom (like nitrate) are called polyatomic ions.
To write the chemical formula for a compound containing one or more polyatomic ions, consult a
reference table or guide to determine the ions oxidation number. Then, use the same procedure
for writing chemical formulas that you practiced in section 3. The oxidation numbers for the
polyatomic ions you will need for the problems in the skill sheet are shown in the following table:
Polyatomic Ion
Oxidation
Number
Polyatomic Ion
Oxidation
Number
Phosphate (PO4)
3-
Nitrate (NO3)
1-
Carbonate (CO3)
2-
Sulfate (SO4)
2-
Ammonium (NH4)
1+
Acetate (C2H3O2)
1-
Hydroxide (OH)
1-
Hydronium (H3O)
1+
Example 3:
Calcium and the hydroxide ion (-OH) combine to form a compound. Write the chemical formula for
this compound.
From the periodic table, we see that the oxidation number for calcium is 2+. From the table above,
you will see that the oxidation number for the hydroxide ion is 1-. To make a molecule of calcium
hydroxide, therefore, we need one calcium atom and two hydroxide ions:
( 2+ ) + 2 ( 1- ) = 0
The correct chemical formula for this compound would be Ca(OH)2. Note that we enclose the
members of the polyatomic ion in parentheses. The subscript for this ion is placed outside of the
parentheses. This shows that we need two complete polyatomic hydroxide ions to form the
compound.
5. Writing chemical formulas for compound containing polyatomic ions

Use the table on the previous page and the periodic table to find the oxidation numbers of each
ion. Then write the correct chemical formula for the compounds formed by these ions.
Element
Oxidation
Number
Polyatomic Ion
Sodium (Na)
Phosphate (PO4)
Calcium (Ca)
Nitrate (NO3)
Fluorine (F)
Ammonium (NH4)
Boron (B)
Sulfate (SO4)
Lithium (Li)
Hydroxide (OH)
Beryllium (Be)
Carbonate (CO3)
Nitrogen (N)
Hydronium (H3O)
Oxidation
Number
Chemical Formula for

Compound
Name:
Skill Sheet 19-C
Naming Chemical Compounds
Compounds have unique names that identify them for us when we study chemical properties
and changes. Predicting the name of a compound is fairly easy provided certain rules are kept
in mind. In this skill sheet, you will practice naming a variety of chemical compounds.
1. Chemical formulas and compound names

Chemical formulas tell a great deal of information about a compoundthe types of elements
forming the compound, the numbers of atoms of each element in one molecule, and even some
indication, perhaps, of the arrangement of the atoms when they form the molecule.
In addition to having a unique chemical formula, each compound has a unique name. These
names provide scientists with valuable information. Just like chemical formulas, chemical names
tell which elements form the compound. However, the names may also identify a family or group
to which the compound belongs. It is useful for scientists, therefore, to recognize and understand
both a compounds formula and its name.
2. Naming compounds
Naming ionic compounds is relatively simple, especially if the compound is formed only from
monoatomic ions. Follow these steps:
1. Write the name of the first element or the positive ion of the compound.
2. Write the root of the second element or negative ion of the compound.
For example, write fluor- to represent fluorine, chlor- to represent chlorine.
3. Replace the ending of the negative ion's name with the suffix -ide.
Fluorine Fluoride; Chlorine Chloride
Examples:
A compound containing potassium (K1+) and iodine (I1-) would be named potassium iodide.
Lithium (Li1+) combined with sulfur (S2-) would be named lithium sulfide.
Naming compounds that contain polyatomic ions is even easier. Just follow these two steps:
1. Write the name of the positive ion first. Use the periodic table or an ion chart to find the
name.
2. Write the name of the negative ion second. Again, use the periodic table or an ion chart to find
the name.
Examples:
A compound containing aluminum (Al1+) and sulfate (SO42-) would be called aluminum sulfate.
A compound containing magnesium (Mg2+) and carbonate (CO32-) would be called
magnesium carbonate.
Skill Sheet 19-C Naming Chemical Compounds
3. Practice writing compound names

Predict the name of the compound formed from the reaction between the following elements
and/or polyatomic ions. Use the periodic table and the polyatomic ion chart in section 19.2 of your
student text to help you name the ions.
Combination
Compound Name
Al + Br
Be + O
K+N
Ba + CrO42Cs + F
NH 31+ + S
Mg + Cl
B+I
Na + SO 42Si + C2H3O21-
4. Extension: Families of chemical compounds

Certain compounds have common characteristics, so we place them into groups or families. The
The group called enzymes contains thousands of representative chemicals, but all share certain
critical features that allow them to be placed into this group. Often, the name of a compound
identifies the family of chemical to which it belongs. The clue is usually found in the suffix for the
compound's name. The table below lists suffixes for some common chemical families.
Chemical Family
Suffix
Sugars
-ose
Alcohols
-ol
Enzymes
-ase
Ketones
-one
Organic acids
-oic or -ic acid
Alkanes
-ane
Glucose, the compound used by your brain as its primary fuel, is a sugar. The suffix -ose indicates
its membership in the sugar family. Propane, the compound used to operate your gas barbecue
grill, is an alkane, a compound formed from carbon and hydrogen atoms that are covalently
bonded with single pairs of electrons. We know this from the suffix -ane.
Knowing such information about a compound can be very useful when you are reading the labels
of consumer products. Compound names can be found in the ingredients list on the label. If you
are purchasing a hand lotion to alleviate dry skin, you should avoid one that lists a compound
with an -ol suffix early in the ingredients list.
The ingredients are listed from largest amount to smallest amount. The earlier a compound is
listed, the greater the amount of that compound in the product. A compound with an -ol suffix is
an alcohol. Hand lotions with high percentages of alcohols are less effective since alcohols tend to
dry out rather than moisturize the skin!
In later chemistry courses, you will learn more about the names and characteristics of families
of compounds. This knowledge will provide you with a powerful tool for making informed
consumer decisions.
5. Practice predicting family identities of compounds

Using the information in the table on the previous page to predict the chemical family to which
the following compounds are members:
Compound Name
Chemical Family
Lipase
Methanol
Formic Acid
Butane
Sucrose
Acetone
Acetic Acid
Name:
Skill Sheet 19-D
The Mole and Avogadros Number
Atoms are so small that you could fit millions of them on the head of a pin. As you have
learned, the masses of atoms and molecules are measured in atomic mass units. Working with
atomic mass units in the laboratory is very difficult because each atomic mass unit has a mass
of 1/12th the mass of one carbon atom. In order to make atomic mass units more useful to
work with, it would be convenient to set the value of one atomic mass unit to one gram. One
gram is an amount of matter we can actually see. For example, the mass of one paper clip is
about 2.5 grams. Avogadros number, 6.02 1023 allows us to convert atomic mass units to
grams.
1. What is a mole?
In chemistry, the term mole does not refer to a furry animal that lives underground. In
chemistry, a mole is quantity of something and is used just like we use the term dozen. One
dozen is equal to 12. One mole is equal to 6.02 1023, or Avogadros number. If you have a dozen
oranges, you have 12. If you have a mole of oranges, you have 6.02 1023. This would be enough
oranges to cover the entire surface of the Earth, seven feet deep in oranges!
Could you work with only a dozen atoms in the laboratory? You cannot see 12 atoms without the
aid of a very powerful microscope. A mole of atoms would be much easier to work with in the
laboratory because the mass of one mole of atoms can be measured in grams. Moles allow us to
convert atomic mass units to grams. This relationship is illustrated below:
1 carbon atom = 12.0 amu
1 mole of carbon atoms = 6.02 10
23
atoms = 12.0 grams
To calculate the mass of one mole of any substance (the molar mass), you use the periodic table
to find the atomic mass (not the mass number) for the element or for the elements that create the
compound. You then express this value in grams.
Example:
Substance
Elements
in
substance
Na
U
H2O
CaCO3
Na
U
H
Ca
C
O
Al
N
O
Al(NO3)3
Atomic
mass of
element
(amu)
22.99
238.03
1.01
40.08
12.01
16.00
26.98
14.01
16.00
No. of atoms
of each
element
Formula mass
(amu)
Molar mass
(g)
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
3
9
22.99
238.03
1.01
100.09
22.99
238.03
1.01
100.09
313.1
313.1
Skill Sheet 19-D The Mole and Avogadros Number
2. Calculating molar mass

For the following elements and compounds, complete the following table to calculate the mass of
one mole of the substance:
Substance
Elements
in
substance
Atomic
mass of
element
(amu)
No. of atoms
of each
element
Formula mass
(amu)
Molar mass
(g)
Sr
Ne
Ca(OH)2
NaCl
O3
C6H12O
The molar mass of a substance can be used to calculate the number of particles (atoms or
molecules) present in any given mass of a substance. You can determine the number of particles
present by using Avogadros number. This will be practiced in the next exercise.
3. Avogadros number
Avogadros number states that for one mole of any substance, whether element or compound,
there are 6.02 1023 particles present in the sample. Those particles are atoms if the substance is
an element and molecules if the substance is a compound. If we look again at our previous
examples we see that every substance has a different molar mass:
Substance
Elements
in
substance
Na
U
H2O
CaCO3
Na
U
H
Ca
C
O
Al
N
O
Al(NO3)3
Atomic
mass of
element
(amu)
22.99
238.03
1.01
40.08
12.01
16.00
26.98
14.01
16.00
No. of atoms
of each
element
Formula mass
(amu)
Molar mass
(g)
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
3
9
22.99
238.03
1.01
100.09
22.99
238.03
1.01
100.09
313.1
313.1
However, one mole of each of these substances contains exactly the same number of fundamental
particles, 6.02 1023. The difference is that each of these fundamental particles, atoms, and
molecules, has a different mass based on its composition (number of protons and neutrons,
numbers and types of atoms). Therefore, the number of particles in one mole of any substance is
identical; however, the mass of one mole of substances varies based on the formula mass for that
substance.
When a substances mass is reported in grams and you need to find the number of particles
present in the sample, you must first convert the mass in grams to the mass in moles. By using
proportions and rations, you can easily calculate the molar mass of any given amount of
substance.
Example:
How many molecules are in a sample of NaCl that has a mass of 38.9 grams?
First, determine the molar mass of NaCl:
Element
Sodium (Na)
Chlorine (Cl)
Atomic mass (amu)

22.99
35.45
Molar mass of NaCl
No. of atoms
1
1
Molar mass (g)

22.99
35.45
58.44 g
Next, determine how many particles are in 38.9 g of NaCl:

We know that 58.44 g of NaCl contains 6.02 1023 molecules of NaCl. Therefore, we can set up a
proportion to determine the number of molecules in 38.9 g of NaCl:
58.44
g NaCl- = 38.9
g NaCl----------------------------------------------------------------23
x
6.02 10
Solving for x using cross-multiplication gives us a value of 4.0 1023 molecules of NaCl.
4. How many particles are in a sample of matter?

Complete the following table by determining the molar mass of each listed substance and either
providing the number of particles in the given mass of sample or the mass of the sample that
contains the given number of particles.
Substance
MgCO3
Molar Mass
(g)
Mass of Sample
(g)
Number of
Particles Present
12.75
H2O
296 1050
N2
7.1 108
Yb
.00038
Al2(SO3)3
4657
0.23 1019
K2CrO4
Name:
Skill Sheet 19-E
Calculating Formula Mass
A chemical formula gives you useful information about a compound. First, it tells you which
types of atoms and how many of each are present in a compound. Second, it lets you know
which types of ions are present in a compound. Finally, it allows you to determine the mass of
one molecule of a compound, relative to the mass of other compounds. We call this the formula
mass. This skill sheet will show you how to calculate the formula mass of a compound.
1. Calculating formula mass: a step-by-step approach

A common ingredient in most toothpastes is a compound called sodium phosphate. If you examine
a tube of toothpaste, you will find that it is usually listed as trisodium phosphate.
What is the formula mass of sodium phosphate?
Step 1: Determine the formulas and oxidation numbers of the ions in the compound.
Sodium phosphate is made up of the sodium ion and the phosphate ion. The oxidation number for
the sodium ion can be determined from the periodic table. Since sodium, Na, is located in group 1
of the periodic table, it has an oxidation number of 1+ like all of the elements in group 1.
The chemical formula and oxidation number for sodium is: Na+
To find the formula and oxidation number for the phosphate ion, use the ion chart in chapter 19 of
your textbook.
The chemical formula and oxidation number for the phosphate ion is: PO43Step 2: Write the chemical formula of the compound.
Remember that compounds must be neutral that is, the oxidation numbers of the elements and
ions must be equal to zero. Since sodium = Na+ and phosphate = PO43- how many of each do you
need to make a neutral compound? You need three sodium ions for each phosphate ion to make a
neutral compound.
The chemical formula of sodium phosphate is: Na3PO4.
Step 3: List the atoms, number of each atom, atomic mass of each atom, and total mass
of each atom.
Atom
number
atomic mass
(from the periodic table)
total mass
(number atomic mass)
Na
22.99 amu
3 22.99 = 68.97 amu
30.97 amu
1 30.97 = 30.97 amu
16.00 amu
4 16.00 = 64.00 amu
Step 4: Add up the values and calculate the formula mass of the compound.
68.97 amu + 30.97 amu + 64.00 amu = 163.94 amu
The formula mass of sodium phosphate is 163.94 amu
Skill Sheet 19-E Calculating Formula Mass
2. Practice
Now try one on your own:
Eggshells are made mostly of a brittle compound called calcium phosphate. What is the formula
mass of this compound?
1. Write the chemical formula and oxidation number of each ion in the compound:
First ion:
Second ion:
2. Write the chemical formula of the compound:
3. List the atoms, number of each atom, atomic mass of each atom, and total mass of each atom.
Atom
number
atomic mass
(from the periodic table)
total mass
(number atomic mass)
4. Add up the values to calculate the formula mass of the compound.
3. More practice on your own

Write the chemical formula and the formula mass for each of the compounds below. Use separate
paper and show all of your work.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
barium chloride
sodium hydrogen carbonate
magnesium hydroxide
ammonium nitrate
strontium phosphate
Challenge!
What is the formula mass of CoCl2 6H2O?
Hint: Read about hydrates in chapter 19 of your textbook.
Name:
Skill Sheet 20-A
Chemical Equations
Chemical symbols provide us with a shorthand method of writing the name of an element.
Chemical formulas do the same for compounds. But what about chemical reactions? To write
out, in words, the process of a chemical change would be long and tedious. Is there a
shorthand method of writing a chemical reaction so that the all the information is presented
correctly and is understood by all scientists? Yes! This is the function of chemical equations.
You will practice writing and balancing chemical equations in this skill sheet.
1. What are chemical equations?

Chemical equations show what is happening in a chemical reaction. They provide you with the
identities of the reactants (substances entering the reaction) and the products (substances formed
by the reaction). They also tell you how much of each substance is involved in the reaction.
Chemical equations use symbols for elements and formulas for compounds. The reactants are
written to the left of the arrow. Products go on the right side of the arrow.
H 2 + O2 H 2 O
The arrow should be read as yields or produces. This equation, therefore, says that hydrogen
gas (H2) plus oxygen gas (O2) yields or produces the compound water (H2O).
2. Practice writing chemical equations

Write chemical equations for the following reactions:
Reactants
Products
Chemical Equation
Hydrochloric acid
HCl
and
Sodium hydroxide
NaOH
Water
H2O
and
Sodium chloride
NaCl
Calcium carbonate
CaCO3
and
Potassium iodide
KI
Potassium carbonate
K2CO3
and
Calcium iodide
CaI2
Aluminum fluoride
AlF3
and
Magnesium nitrate
Mg(NO3)2
Aluminum nitrate
Al(NO3)3
and
Magnesium fluoride
MgF2
Skill Sheet 20-A Chemical Equations
3. Conservation of atoms
Take another look at the chemical equation for making water:
2H 2 + O 2 2H 2 O
Did you notice that something has been added?
The large number in front of H2 tells how many atoms of H2 are required for the reaction to
proceed. The large number in front of H20 tells how many molecules are formed by the reaction.
These numbers are called coefficients. Using coefficients, we can balance chemical equations so
that the equation demonstrates conservation of atoms. The law of conservation of atoms says that
no atoms are lost or gained in a chemical reaction. The same types and numbers of atoms must be
found in the reactants and the products of a chemical reaction.
Coefficients are placed before the chemical symbol for single elements and before the chemical
formula of compounds to show how many atoms or molecules of each substance are participating
in the chemical reaction. When counting atoms to balance an equation, remember that the
coefficient applies to all atoms within the chemical formula for a compound. For example, 5CH4
means that 5 atoms of carbon and 20 atoms of hydrogen are contributed to the chemical reaction
by the compound methane.
4. Balancing chemical equations

To write a chemical equation correctly, first write the equation using the correct chemical symbols
or formulas for the reactants and products.
If a reaction is to occur between sodium chloride and iodine to form sodium iodide and chlorine
gas, we would write:
NaCl + I 2 NaI + Cl 2
Remember that certain elements, when found alone, are diatomic; iodine and chlorine are two
examples.
Next, count the number of atoms of each element present on the reactant and product side of
the chemical equation:
Reactant Side of Equation
Element
Product Side of Equation
Na
Cl
For the chemical equation to be balanced, the numbers of atoms of each element must be the
same on either side of the reaction. This is clearly not the case with the equation above. We
need coefficients to balance the equation.
First, choose one element to balance. Lets start by balancing chlorine. Since there are two
atoms of chlorine on the product side and only one on the reactant side, we need to place a 2
in front of the substance containing the chlorine, the NaCl.
2NaCl + I 2 NaI + Cl 2
This now gives us two atoms of chlorine on both the reactant and product sides of the
equation. However, it also give us two atoms of sodium on the reactant side! This is fine
often balancing one element will temporarily unbalance another. By the end of the process,
however, all elements will be balanced.
We now have the choice of balancing either the iodine or the sodium. Let's balance the iodine.
(It doesnt matter which element we choose.)
There are two atoms of iodine on the reactant side of the equation and only one on the product
side. Placing a coefficient of 2 in front of the substance containing iodine on the product side:
2NaCl + I 2 2NaI + Cl 2
There are now two atoms of iodine on either side of the equation, and at the same time we
balanced the number of sodium atoms!
In this chemical reaction, two molecules of sodium chloride react with one diatomic molecule
of iodine to produce two molecules of sodium iodide and one diatomic molecule of chlorine. Our
equation is balanced!
5. Polyatomic ions and balancing equations

Some compounds contain multiple numbers of polyatomic ions. For example, Mg(OH)2 is formed
when two complete hydroxide (-OH) groups attach to the element magnesium. Therefore, in a
chemical equation:
3Mg ( OH ) 2
represents 3 atoms of magnesium, 6 atoms of oxygen, and 6 atoms of hydrogen. Each hydroxide
group contributes 2 oxygen atoms and 2 hydrogen atoms to the compound. There are 3 molecules
of the compound in the reaction, so there are 6 total atoms of oxygen and hydrogen in the reaction.
Be aware of this as you balance equations.
If your equation contains a polyatomic ion with a subscript, like SO4, you really have to watch
your math! For example, if you have 3 molecules of aluminum sulfate, 3Al2(SO4)3, you actually
have nine atoms of sulfur and thirty-six atoms of oxygen! Can you figure out why?
6. Practice balancing equations

Balance the equations on the next page using the appropriate coefficients. Remember that
balancing one element may temporarily unbalance another. You will have to correct the
imbalance in the final equation. Check your work by counting the total number of atoms of each
elementthe numbers should be equal on the reactant and product sides of the equation.
1. Al + O2 Al2O3
2. CO + H2 H2O + CH4
3. HgO Hg + O2
4. CaCO3 CaO + CO2
5. C + Fe2O3 Fe + CO2
6. N2 + H2 NH3
7. K + H2O KOH + H2
8. P + O2 P2O5
9. Ba(OH)2 + H2SO4 H2O + BaSO4
10. CaF2 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + HF
11. KClO3 KClO4 + KCl
Name:
Skill Sheet 20-B
Predicting Product in a Reaction
A balanced chemical equation tells you the proportional relationship between the reactants
and the products in a reaction. This means that you can use the information provided in a
balanced chemical equation to predict how much product will be formed in a reaction, given the
mass of the limiting reactant (the one that reacts completely).
1. Proportional relationships in balanced, chemical equations

In the Investigations, you discovered an important mathematical relationship that allows you to
predict the amount of a product produced in a reaction.
mass of limiting reactant (LR)
mass of product (P)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------coefficient of LR formula mass of LR
coefficient of P formula mass of P
You can use this relationship to predict the amount of one of the products produced in a reaction,
when you know the amount of the limiting reactant that was used up in the reaction.
2. Predicting the amount of product formed: a step-by-step approach

Coal gasification is a process that converts coal into methane gas, the substance that is often used
to heat homes and cook food. This process involves a reaction between the carbon found in coal,
and water to produce methane gas (CH4), and carbon dioxide. If 50.0 g of carbon react completely
with water, how many grams of methane gas will be produced?
Step 1: Write and balance the equation.
Word equation: carbon + water methane + carbon dioxide.
Unbalanced equation: C(s) + H2O(l) CH4(g) + CO2(g)
Balanced equation: 2C(s) + 2H2O(l) CH4(g) + CO2(g)
Step 2: What do you know? What do you need to find out?
Look at the equation in part 1. Which variables in the equation do you know? Which variable are
you solving for?
limiting reactant
product
mass (from problem) = 50.0 g
mass = need to find out (X)
coefficient (from bal. equation) = 2
coefficient = 1
formula mass of C = 12.0 amu
formula mass of CH4 = 16.0 amu
Step 3: Set up the proportional relationship and solve.

50.0 g
X
50.0 g
X
-------------------------- = ------------------------- = ------------------- = -----------------2 12.0 amu 1 16.0 amu
24.0 amu 16.0 amu
50.0 g 16.0 amu
X = ------------------------------------- = 33.3 g of methane gas will be produced
24.0 amu
Skill Sheet 20-B Predicting Product in a Reaction
3. Practice
Now try one on your own:
Oxygen gas can be produced by the decomposition of potassium chlorate (KClO3). Another product
in this reaction is potassium chloride. How many grams of oxygen gas can be produced by
decomposing 150.0 grams of potassium chlorate?
1. Write the balanced equation for the reaction:
2. What do you know? What do you need to find out? Fill out the table below:
limiting reactant
product
mass:
mass:
coefficient:
coefficient:
formula mass:
formula mass:
3. Set up the proportional relationship and solve.
Skill Sheet 20-B Predicting Product in a Reaction
4. More practice on your own

1. When methane gas burns in oxygen gas, carbon dioxide and water are produced. If 85.0 grams
of methane burn completely in oxygen gas, how many grams of carbon dioxide will be
produced?
2. In the space shuttle, the carbon dioxide that the astronauts exhale is removed from the air by
a reaction that occurs inside canisters of lithium hydroxide. The products of the reaction are
lithium carbonate and water. If the crew on the space shuttle exhales 3,000 grams of carbon
dioxide in one day, and all of it reacts with the lithium hydroxide, how many grams of water
will be produced?
Use the space below to show your work for the practice problems:
Name:
Skill Sheet 21
Predicting Chemical Equations
Chemical reactions are the mechanism of chemical change. Elements and compounds enter into
a reaction, and new substances are formed as a result. Often, we know the types of
substances that entered the reaction and, with chemical analysis, determine what types of
substance(s) were formed. Sometimes, though, it might be helpful if we could predict the
products of the chemical reactionknow in advance what would be formed and how much of it
would be produced. For certain chemical reactions, this is possible, using our knowledge of
oxidation numbers, mechanics of chemical reactions, and balancing equations. In this skill
sheet, you will practice writing a complete balanced equation for chemical reactions when only
the identities of the reactants are known.
1. Chemical equations
Recall that chemical equations document, in shorthand form, the process of a chemical change or
chemical reaction. The equation reads from left to right with the reactants, substances entering
the reaction, separated from the products, substances formed from the reaction, by an arrow that
indicates yields or produces.
In the chemical equation:
2Li + BaCl 2 2LiCl + Ba
two atoms of lithium combine with one molecule of barium chloride to yield or produce two
molecules of lithium chloride and one atom of barium. The equation fully describes the nature of
the chemical change that we are generating with the reaction.
For reactions such as the one above, a single-displacement reaction, and double-displacement
reactions, we are generally capable of predicting the nature of the products in advance and write a
completely balanced equation for the chemical change. To do this we must:
1. Predict the products for the reaction.
2. Determine the chemical formulas for the products of the reaction.
3. Balance the equation.
2. Predicting the products of single- and double-displacement reactions

In displacement reactions, one member of a compound is replaced by some other substance,
usually an element or polyatomic ion. The pattern for this replacement is easily predictable: if the
substance doing the replacing forms a positive ion, it replaces the member of the compound that
also forms a positive ion. If the substance doing the replacing forms a negative ion, it replaces the
member of the compound that also forms a negative ion. The balance of negative and positive
charges must be maintained in the new compound that will be formed. For the reaction described
above:
2Li + BaCl 2 2LiCl + Ba
Skill Sheet 21 Predicting Chemical Equations
we could predict that the lithium would replace the barium in the compound barium chloride
since both lithium and barium have positive oxidation numbers. The resulting product would pair
lithium (1+) and chlorine (1-): the positive/negative combination required for ionic compounds.
For double-replacement reactions, the substance with the positive oxidation number of one
compound replaces the substance with the positive oxidation number of the second compound,
with the same holding true for the negative members:
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H 2 O
1+
1-
1+
1-
1+
1-
1+
H Cl + Na OH Na Cl + H2 O
2-
3. Predicting replacements
1. If calcium were to combine with the compound barium nitrate, which member of barium
nitrate would calcium replace?
2. If LiCl and MgBr2 were to enter into a chemical reaction, which member of MgBr2 will
chlorine replace?
3. If Fe2+ were to combine with K2Br, what component of K2Br would be replaced by the Fe2+?
4. Predicting chemical formulas for reaction products

In 19.2, you examined the method by which we can predict the chemical formula for ionic
compounds. Using oxidation numbers and the fact that the sum of the oxidation numbers for an
ionic compound must equal zero, we were able to determine the chemical formula for compounds
formed from ionic bonding.
You will follow this same procedure when writing the chemical formula for the products of singleand double-replacement reactions. Once you have determined which elements or ions will be
swapped to form the new compounds, the products of the reaction, use the oxidation numbers of
the elements/ions to be combined to generate the chemical formulas for the new compounds.
Example
If beryllium (Be) combines with potassium iodide (KI) in a chemical reaction, what will be the
identities of the products?
First, we decide which member of KI will be replaced by the beryllium. Since beryllium has an
oxidation number of 2+, it replaces the element in KI that also has a positive oxidation number
the potassium (K1+). It will therefore combine with the iodine to form a new compound.
Because beryllium has an oxidation number of 2+ and iodine's oxidation number is 1-, it is
necessary for two atoms of iodine to combine with one atom of beryllium to form an electrically
neutral compound:
( 2+ ) + 2 ( 1- ) = 0
The resulting chemical formula for beryllium iodide is BeI2.
In single-replacement reactions, the component of the compound that has been replaced by the
uncombined reactant now stands alone and uncombined. The resulting products of this chemical
reaction, therefore, are BeI2 and K.
For polyatomic ions, the process is identical to that used when replacing monoatomic ions. Find
the oxidation number of the polyatomic ion from a reference table and use that value in your
calculations.
5. Predicting product formulas for single- and double-replacement reactions

For the following combinations of reactants, predict the chemical symbols or formulas of the
products:
Reactants
Products
Li + AlCl3
BeO + Na2SO4
CaCO3 + KF
S + B2O3
AlPO4 + NH4Cl
KBr + Cs2O
6. Predicting chemical equations for single- and double-replacement reactions

Once you have determined the nature and formulas/symbols of the products for a chemical
reaction, the final step is to write a balanced equation for the reaction. Using the skills you
practiced in 20.2, write complete balanced equations for the following combinations of reactants.
1. NaCl and Mg(OH)2:
2. Ca and K2S:
3. LiF and BI3:
4. BeCrO4 and KNO3:
5. Fe3 + and MgO:
Name:
Skill Sheet 23-A
Solubility
In this skill sheet you will practice solving problems about solubility. You will use solubility
values to identify solutions that are saturated, unsaturated, or supersaturated. Finally, you
will practice your skills in interpreting temperature-solubility graphs.
1. What is solubility?
A solution is made by dissolving a substance in another substance. The substance in the smaller
amount is called the solute and the substance in the larger amount is called the solvent. The
degree to which a solute dissolved is described by its solubility value. This value is the mass in
grams of the solute that can dissolve in a given volume of solvent under certain conditions.
For example, the solubility of table salt (NaCl) is 1 gram per 2.7 milliliters of water at 25C.
Another way to state this solubility value is to say that 0.38 grams of salt will dissolve in one
milliliter of water at 25C. Do you see that these values mean the same thing?
1 gram NaCl
0.38 grams NaCl
----------------------------------------- = -----------------------------------2.7 mL H2 O 25C
1 mL H 2 O 25C
Information about the solubility of table salt and other substances is presented in the table below.
Use these values to complete the questions in part 2.
Substance
Solubility Value (grams/100 mL water 25C)
Table salt (NaCl)
38
Sugar (C12H22O11)
200
Baking soda (NaHCO3)
10
Chalk (CaCO3)
insoluble
Talc (Mg silicates)
insoluble
2. Questions and problem solving

1. Chalk and talc are listed as insoluble in the table. What do you think this term means? In
your response, come up with a reason to explain why chalk and talc cannot dissolve in water.
Skill Sheet 23-A Solubility
2. Come up with a reason to explain why table salt, sugar, and baking soda dissolve in different
amount for the same set of conditions (same volume and temperature).
3. How much table salt would dissolve in 540 mL of water if the water was 25C.
4. What volume of water would you need to dissolve 72 grams of salt at 25C.
5. What volume of water at 25C would you need to dissolve 50 grams of sugar?
6. How much baking soda will dissolve in 10 milliliters of water at 25C.
3. Saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated solutions

The solubility value for a substance indicates how much solute is present in a saturated solution.
When the amount of solute is less than the solubility value for a certain volume of water, we say
the solution is unsaturated. When the amount of solute is more than the solubility value for a
certain volume of water, we say the solution is supersaturated.
Use the table in part 2, to help you fill in the table below. In each situation, is the solution
saturated, unsaturated, or supersaturated?
Substance
Amount of substance in
200 mL of water at 25C
Table salt (NaCl)
38 grams
Sugar (C12H22O11)
500 grams
20 grams
Table salt (NaCl)
100 grams
Sugar (C12H22O11)
210 grams
25 grams
Saturated, unsaturated, or
supersaturated?
Skill Sheet 23-A Solubility
4. How temperature influences the solubility of solids and gases

Below is a table of some imaginary substances dissolved in water at different temperatures. Study
the table and then answer the questions.
Solubility values (grams per 100 mL of water)
at different temperatures
Substance dissolved in
100 mL of water
10C
30C
50C
70C
90C
gas A
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.08
0.05
gas B
0.1
0.05
0.02
0.01
0.005
solid A
30
32
40
55
74
solid B
40
43
39
41
45
1. Use graph paper to make two graphs of the data in the table. On one graph, plot the data for
gases A and B. On the other graph, plot the data for solids A and B. Use two different colors to
plot the data for A and for B. Label the x-axis, Temperature (C). Label the y-axis,
Solubility value (grams/100 mL H2O.
2. How does the solubility of gases A and B differ from the solubility of solids A and B in water?
Explain your response.
3. For which substance does temperature seem to have the highest influence on the substance?
4. For which substance does temperature seem to have the lowest influence?
5. If you had 500 mL of water at 70C and you made a saturated solution by adding 205 grams of
a substance, which of the substances above would you be adding?
6. Organisms that live in ponds and lakes, depend on dissolved oxygen to survive. Explain how
the amount of dissolved oxygen in a pond or lake might vary with the seasons (winter, spring,
summer, and fall). Justify your ideas.
Name:
Skill Sheet 23-B
Making Solutions
Chemists are required to make many of the solutions that they use in experiments. They may
be provided with a material in solid form and need to dissolve it in a suitable solvent, or they
may be provided with a solution and need to dilute it to make a new solution of a certain
concentration. Chemists use basic techniques to calculate the necessary amounts of the solute
and solvent. You will practice these calculation techniques in the following exercises.
1. What is molarity?
Making solutions is something you already know how to do! For example, when you add some hot
cocoa mix to a cup of hot water, you are making a solution. In a science lab, the ingredients for
solutions often include water and a chemical compound. These solutions are described according
to their molarity. Molarity is a scientific measure of concentration. The formula for molarity is:
moles of solute
molarity = M = -----------------------------------liters of solution
Remember that a mole is equivalent to the mass of Avogadros number of atoms or molecules. If I
had a mole of carbon atoms, I would have 6.022 x 1023 atoms. A mole of carbon atoms is 12 atomic
mass units (amu) and has a mass of 12 grams. Remember you can derive this mass by finding the
atomic mass for an element on a periodic table.
Likewise, if I had a mole of sodium chloride, I would have 6.022 x 1023 molecules of NaCl. What
would be the mass of a mole of NaCl molecules?
2. Making solutions from a solid solute

A scientist needs to prepare one liter of a solution of potassium chloride (KCl) for an experiment.
The concentration of the required solution is 3.2 M. How will the scientist prepare this solution
from the solid KCl she has in a jar on her lab shelf?
To answer this question, lets first break it down.
The scientist needs 1 liter of a solution. She wants the final concentration to be 3.2 M.
After reading part 1, you know how to figure out how much KCl you would need to make a 1 M
solution. A mole of potassium is 39 amu and a mole of chlorine is 35 amu. This means that a
molecule of potassium chloride molecules is 74 amu or 74 grams.
To make a 1 M solution of KCl you would dissolve 74 grams in one liter of water.
For 1 liter of a 3.2 M solution, we need 3.2 moles of solute. To find out how many grams of KCl we
need to make this solution, use the following calculation.
3.2 moles 74 g/mole = 237 g KCl
The scientist would make the solution by dissolving 237 grams of KCl in 1 liter of water.
Skill Sheet 23-B Making Solutions
3. Practice preparing solutions

Practice your skills in making solutions by solving the following problems. The first one is done
for you.
1. Two liters of a 0.8 M solution of KNO3 was prepared from solid KNO3 and water. How many
grams of KNO3 were used in the preparation of this solution?
You need 2 liters of a solution. The final concentration of the solution is 0.8 M.
K = 39 amu; N = 14 amu; O = 16 amu (x 3)
KNO3 = 39 amu + 14 amu + 48 amu = 101 amu
KNO3 = 101 grams
1 mole of KNO3 = 101 grams
2 L 0.8 moles L 101 g/mole = 162 g KNO3
To make two liters of a 0.8 M solution of KNO3, you need 162 grams of KNO3.
2. A chemist needs 500 ml of a 2.1 M NaOH solution. How many grams of NaOH are required to
make this solution?
3. A scientist uses 68 grams of CaCO3 to prepare 1.5 liters of solution. What is the molarity of
this solution?
4. An experiment requires 3 liters of a 0.75 M Mg(OH)2 solution. How many grams of Mg(OH)2
are required to prepare this reagent?
5. The density of two solutionsNaCl and MgCl2 was measured. If the concentrations and
volumes of the solutions were identical, which solution do you think would be more dense?
Explain your answer.
4. Preparing solutions from existing solutionsdilution

Stock solutions of substances are prepared solutions of a given concentration. Stock solutions can
be diluted to make a solution of a different concentration. The formula below will help you do this
easily.
Vi Ci = Vf Cf
where Vi and Ci represent the volume and concentration of the stock solution (the initial solution)
and Vf and Cf represent the volume and concentration of the final solution. Using this formula,
scientists can create any lower concentration solution from a more concentrated stock solution.
The concentration of a solution can be represented as molarity or as a percentage.
Example 1:
A scientist needs to prepare 2.5 liters of 0.3 M NaCl solution. Her stock solution is 4.5 M. How will
the woman prepare the final solution?
First, we need to use the formula to calculate the volume of stock solution necessary to prepare
the final solution. We know that the molarity of the stock solution (Ci) is 4.5 M, the desired
molarity of the final solution is 0.3 M, and the final volume required is 2.5 liters. Inserting this
information into the formula:
V i Ci = Vf Cf
( V i ) 4.5 M NaCl = 2.5 liters NaCl 0.3 M NaCl
V i = 0.17 liters, or 170 ml of 4.5 M NaCl
To prepare the final solution, the scientist would add 170 milliliters of her stock solution and add
sufficient solvent to get a final volume of 2.5 liters.
Example 2:
In science laboratories, it is often important to work in a sterile environment. As you might know,
alcohol kills bacteria. The least concentrated alcohol solution you need to kill bacteria is 70%. How
would you make 500 milliliters of a 70% alcohol solution if you had a 95% alcohol stock solution?
V i Ci = Vf Cf
( V i ) 95% ethanol = 0.5 L 70% ethanol
V i = 0.37 liters or 370 mL of 95% ethanol
To prepare the final solution, you would mix 370 milliliters of stock solution with 130 milliliters of
water to get a final volume of 0.5 liters.
5. Practice dilution calculations

1. A chemist purchases a 2.0 M stock solution of KNO3. He would like to prepare 100 milliliters
of 0.5 M KNO3. Describe how he would prepare this solution. Show your work.
2. How many liters of 3.5 M HCl are required to make 0.75 liters of 1.5 M HCl?
3. A scientist uses 1.3 liters of 0.65 M Ca(NO3)2 solution in an experiment. The stock solution
from which she prepared this solution was 2.0 M. What volume of the stock solution did she
use in the preparation of the solution for the experiment? What volume of solvent was used?
4. 135 ml of a 6.0 M NaHCO3 solution was used in the preparation of 1.5 liters of diluted
NaHCO3. What is the molarity of the diluted solution?
5. How many grams of NaHCO3 went into the preparation of the stock solution in the previous
problem? How many grams are found in the diluted solution?
6. You have a 80% solution of household vinegar. This means that there are 80 milliliters of
vinegar in every 100 milliliters of solution. How could you use this stock solution to make up 1
liter of a 20% vinegar solution?
7. If you take 40 milliliters of a 60% solution and add it to 100 milliliters of water. What is the
concentration and volume of the final solution?
Name:
Skill Sheet 25
Calculating pH
The pH of a solution is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in the solution.
The pH scale, which ranges from 0 to 14, provides a tool to assess the degree to which a
solution is acidic or basic. As you may remember, solution's with low pH values are very acidic
and contain high concentrations of hydrogen ions. Why does a low pH value mean a high
concentration of H+? The answer has to do with what pH means mathematically. In this skill
sheet, we will examine the mathematical method that explains how pH values are calculated,
1. What is the formula for pH?

The pH value for any solution is equal to the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion (H+)
concentration in that solution. The formula is written this way:
+
pH = log [ H ]
Concentration of hydrogen ions is implied by placing brackets ([ ]) around H+.
A term used by scientists to describe the concentration of a substance in a solution is molarity.
Molarity (M) means how many moles of a substance are present in a given volume of solution.
For hydrogen ions in solutions, the concentration generally ranges from 10 to 10-14 M. The larger
the molarity, the greater the concentration of H+ in the solution. If a solution had a H+
concentration of 10-3 M, the corresponding pH value would be:
3
pH = log [ 10 ]
10
pH
= [ 10 ]
pH = [ 3 ]
pH = 3
For a solution with an H+ concentration of 10-5 M, the corresponding pH value would be:
5
pH = log [ 10 ]
10
pH
= [ 10 ]
pH = [ 5 ]
pH = 5
The first solution has a higher H+ concentration than the second solution (10-3 M versus 10-5 M);
however, its pH value is a smaller number. Strong acids have small pH values. Larger pH values
(like 14) have lower concentrations of H+, and the solutions represent weaker acids.
Skill Sheet 25 Calculating pH
2. Practice problems
1. Practice working with numbers that have exponents. In the blank provided, write greater
than, less than, or equal to.
a. 10-2 ____________________ 10-3
b. 10-14 ____________________ 101
c. 10-7 ____________________ 0.0000001
d. 100 ____________________ 101
2. Solutions that range in pH from 0 to 7 are acidic. Solutions that range in pH from 7 to 14 are
basic. Solutions that have pH of 7 are neutral. The hydrogen ion concentrations for some
solutions are given below. Use the pH formula to determine which is an acid, which is a base,
and which is neutral.
a. Solution A: The hydrogen ion concentration is equal to 101.
b. Solution B: The hydrogen ion concentration is equal to 0.0000001
c. Solution C: The hydrogen ion concentration is equal to 10-13.
3. Orange juice has a hydrogen ion concentration of approximately 10-4 M. What is the pH of
orange juice?
4. Black coffee has a hydrogen ion concentration of roughly 10-5 M. Is black coffee a stronger or
weaker acid than orange juice? Justify your answer and provide all relevant calculations for
supporting evidence.
5. Pure water has a hydrogen ion concentration of 10-7 M. What is the pH of water? Would you
say water is an acid or a base? Explain your answer.
6. A solution has a pH of 11. What is the H+ concentration of the solution? Is this solution an
acid or a base?
7. A solution has a pH of 8.4. What is the H+ concentration of this solution?
8. Acids are very good at removing hard water deposits from bathtubs, sinks, and glassware.
Your father goes to the store to buy a cleaner to remove such deposits from your bathtub. He
has a choice between a product containing lemon juice (H+ = 10-2.5 M) and one containing
vinegar (H+ = 10-3.3 M). Which product would you recommend he purchase? Explain your
answer.
Name:
Skill Sheet 26-A
Temperature Scales
Temperature, a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance, has an
important role in our daily lives. Whether we are cooking dinner, dressing for school, or
suffering from a cold, we often wish to know something about the temperature of our
environment or some body of matter. To report values for temperature, the Fahrenheit and
Celsius scales are commonly used by scientists and society. In this exercise, you will examine
these scales and practice converting temperature values from one scale to the other.
1. Fahrenheit and Celsius

The Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scales are the most commonly used scales for reporting
temperature values. Scientists use the Celsius scale almost exclusively, as do many countries of
the world. Some countries, such as the United States, still rely heavily on the Fahrenheit scale for
reporting temperature information. When the weatherman on television tells you the forecast for
the week, the scale he is using for temperature is Fahrenheit. Your oven is calibrated in
Fahrenheit values, as is the thermometer your doctor uses to assess your health. In the United
States, we are comfortable with the Fahrenheit scale and design our appliances and tools using
this system of measurement.
However, if you were in Europe, you would see temperatures given in degrees Celsius. Scientists
use the Celsius scale for their experiments and report their results in degrees Celsius. Therefore,
it may be necessary at some point in time to convert information reported in degrees Celsius to
degrees Fahrenheit or vice versa. To accomplish this, we use conversion formulas.
2. Converting Fahrenheit values into Celsius

If you have been given temperature information in degrees Fahrenheit (F) and need the values to
be reported in degrees Celsius (C), you would use the following formula:
5
C = -- ( F 32 )
9
Example:
What is the Celsius value for 65 Fahrenheit?
5
C = -- ( 65F 32 )
9
C = 18.3
Skill Sheet 26-A Temperature Scales
3. Practice converting Fahrenheit to Celsius values

1. The weatherman tells you that today will reach a high of 45F. Your friend from Sweden asks
what the temperature will be in degrees Celsius. What value would you report to your friend?
2. Your father orders a fancy oven from England. When it arrives, you notice that the
temperature dial is calibrated in degrees Celsius. You wish to bake a cake at 350F. At what
temperature will you have to set the dial on this new oven?
3. Your new German automobile's engine temperature gauge reads in Celsius, not Fahrenheit.
You know that the engine temperature should not rise above about 225F. What is the
corresponding Celsius temperature on your new car's gauge?
4. Converting Celsius to Fahrenheit values

To convert Celsius temperature values to degrees Fahrenheit, you must again use a conversion
formula:
9
F = -- C + 32
5
Example:
200C is the same temperature as what value on the Fahrenheit scale?
9
F = -- ( 200C ) + 32
5
F = 392
5. Practice converting Celsius to Fahrenheit values

1. Your grandmother in Ireland sends you her favorite cookie recipe. Her instructions say to
bake the cookies at 190.5C. To what Fahrenheit temperature would you set the oven to bake
the cookies?
2.
A scientist wishes to generate a chemical reaction in his laboratory. The temperature values
in his laboratory manual are given in degrees Celsius. However, his lab thermometers are
calibrated in degrees Fahrenheit. If he needs to heat his reactants to 232C, what
temperature will he need to monitor on his lab thermometers?
3. You phone a friend who lives in Denmark and tell him that the temperature today only rose
as high as 15F. He replies that you must have enjoyed the warm weather. Explain his
answer using your knowledge of the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales and conversion formulas.
6. Extension: the Kelvin temperature scale

For some scientific applications, a third temperature scale is used: the Kelvin scale. The Kelvin
scale is calibrated so that raising the temperature one degree Kelvin raises it by the same amount
as one degree Celsius. The difference between the scales is that 0C is the freezing point of water,
while 0 K is much, much colder. On the Kelvin scale, 0 K (degree symbols are not used for Kelvin
values) represents absolute zero. Absolute zero is the temperature when the average kinetic
energy of a perfect gas is zerothe molecules display no energy of motion. Absolute zero is equal
to -273C, or -459F. When scientists are conducting research, they often obtain or report their
temperature values in Celsius, and other scientists must convert these values into Kelvin for their
own use, or vice versa. To convert Celsius values to their Kelvin equivalents, you would use the
formula:
K = C + 273
Example:
Water boils at a temperature of 100C. What would be the corresponding temperature for the
Kelvin scale?
K = C + 273
K = 100C + 273
K = 373
To convert Kelvin values to Celsius, you would perform the opposite operation; subtract 273 from
the Kelvin value to find the Celsius equivalent.
Example:
A substance has a melting point of 625 K. At what Celsius temperature would this substance
melt?
C = K 273
C = 625 K 273
C = 352
Although we rarely need to convert between Kelvin and Fahrenheit, use the following formulas to
do so:
9
F = -- K 460
5
5
K = -- ( F + 460 )
9
Solving problems
1. A gas has a boiling point of -175C. At what Kelvin temperature would this gas boil?
2. A chemist notices some silvery liquid on the floor in her lab. She wonders if someone
accidentally broke a mercury thermometer, but did not thoroughly clean up the mess. She
decides to find out of the silver stuff is really mercury. From her tests with the substance, she
finds out that the melting point for the liquid is 275 K. A reference book says that the melting
point for mercury is -38.87C. Is this substance mercury? Explain your answer and show all
relevant calculations.
3. You are at a Science Camp in Florida. Its August 1st. Todays activity is an outdoor science
quiz. The first question on the quiz involves a thermometer that reports the current
temperature as 90. You need to state the temperature scale in which this thermometer is
calibrated: Kelvin, Fahrenheit, or Celsius. Which scale is correct? Defend your answer with
your knowledge of the temperature scales.
Name:
Skill Sheet 26-B
Specific Heat
Many of our daily activities require the heating or cooling of matter to suit the needs of a
specific situation. Cooking, heating or air conditioning a room, and freezing a popsicle all
require some application or removal of heat energy from a system. It is easy to calculate the
amount of energy that was added to or removed from a system. To do this, you use the heat
equation, which relates heat energy to changes in temperature observed in bodies of matter.
1. Specific heat
Suppose you want to know how much energy is needed to see an increase in temperature in an
object. You must first know the specific heat of the substance in question. Specific heat is defined
as the amount of heat energy needed to raise 1 gram of a substance 1C in temperature.
The higher the specific heat, the more energy is required to cause a change in temperature.
Substances with higher specific heats require more loss of heat energy to experience a lowering of
their temperature than do substances with a low specific heat. Some sample specific heat values
are presented in the table below:
Substance
Specific Heat (calorie/g C)
Aluminum
0.22
Copper
0.09
Glass
0.20
Iron
0.11
Fresh water
1.00
Gold
0.03
Carbon
0.17
Water has the highest specific heat of the listed types of matter. This means that water is slower
to heat but is also slower to lose heat. This is why the temperature does not fluctuate to extremes
in geographic areas where there is a body of water nearby. However, in areas that are far from
large bodies of water, such as deserts, the air temperature goes from being very hot during the
day to being very cold at night.
1. Which of the substances listed in the table above would heat up more quickly if an equal
amount of heat energy were applied to all of the substances at the same time? Explain your
answer.
Skill Sheet 26-B Specific Heat
2. Which of the substances listed in the table above would you choose as the best insulator
(substance that requires a lot of heat energy to experience a change in temperature)? Explain
your answer.
2. Calculating changes in heat and temperature

With knowledge of the specific heat value for a substance, we can calculate how much heat energy
is required to affect a needed change in temperature or how much change in temperature we
would observe with the application of a specific amount of heat energy. To do this, we would use
the heat equation:
Q = mcT
where Q is the heat energy (calories), m is the mass of the substance (grams), c is the specific heat
of the substance (calories/gC), and T is the change in temperature (C).
Example 1:
How much energy is required to heat 35 g of gold from 10C to 50C?
The mass of our substance is 35 g. We see from the table of specific heat values that the specific
heat of gold is 0.03 calories/gC. The change in temperature observed is 40C
(50C 10C = 40C). Inserting these values into the heat equation:
Q = mcT
calories
Q = ( 35 g ) 0.03 ---------------- ( 40C )
g C
Q = 42 calories
To produce the necessary change in temperature, 42 calories of heat energy need to be put into
this sample of gold.
Example 2
A 250 g sample of aluminum is provided with 1,200 calories of heat energy. What will be the
change in temperature of this sample of aluminum?
The heat energy added to this system is 1,200 calories. The mass of the aluminum is 250 g. From
our table, we find that the specific heat of aluminum is 0.22 calories/gC. Inserting these values
into the heat equation:
Q = mcT
calories
1,200 calories = ( 250 g ) 0.22 ---------------- ( T )
g C
T = 21.8C
Skill Sheet 26-B Specific Heat
3. Practice calculating changes in heat and temperature

Using the heat formula and the table of specific heat values, solve the following heat problems.
1. A 500 g piece of iron increases its temperature 7C when heat energy is added. How much
heat energy produced this change in temperature?
2. When 300 calories of energy is lost from a 125 g object, the temperature decreases from 45C
to 40C. What is the specific heat of this object?
3. 1,200 cal of heat energy is added to a liquid with a specific heat of 0.57 calories/gC. If the
temperature increases from 20C to 33C, what is the mass of the liquid?
4. A scientist wants to raise the temperature of a 10 g sample of glass from 45C to 15C. How
much heat energy is required to produce this change in temperature?
5. A person wishes to heat pot of fresh water from 20C to 100C in order to boil water for pasta.
They calculate that their pot holds 2,000 g of water and that they would need to apply
160,000 calories of heat energy to produce the desired temperature change. Are they correct in
their calculations? Defend your answer and demonstrate all relevant calculations.
Name:
Skill Sheet 28
Calorimetry
If you look at the nutrition label on a jar of chunky peanut butter, you will see that it has 188
calories per serving (2 tablespoons or 32.0 grams). How did scientists figure out the number
of calories per serving? They had to calculate heat energy. In systems where the heat energy
is in its potential form (like food or fuel), you need a special process to calculate heat energy.
The process is called calorimetry. Calorimetry can also be used to calculate the heat energy of
a chemical reaction. In this activity, you will learn how scientists use calorimetry to determine
values for stored heat energy in a variety of situations.
1. How does a calorimeter work?

A calorimeter can be made using simple materials. The basic design
has a contained, insulated place to burn food, a way to expose water to
the heat produced by the burning food, and a thermometer. The
diagram to the right shows the type of calorimeter you made and used
in the Investigation on calorimetery.
Calorimetry is the process of determining the calories contained in an
object or piece of food. To use a calorimeter correctly, a known amount
of water is placed in a chamber. It is best if this chamber is insulated.
A thermometer is placed in the water. The material to be tested is
then burned so that the energy stored in its chemical bonds can be
released to heat up the water.
In a closed system, the heat energy lost by the burned object can be
gained by the water. The energy is transferred from the burning object
(a combustion reaction) causes an increase in the kinetic energy of the
water molecules and therefore, an increase in temperature. By measuring the temperature of the
water, we have a measurement of the amount of heat gained by the water from the burning of the
object.
Since we know the mass of the water in the calorimeter, the change in temperature, and the
specific heat of the water, it is simple to calculate how much heat energy (in calories) was needed
to produce the temperature change. To do this, we use the heat formula:
Q = mc T
where Q is the heat energy (calories), m is the mass of the substance (grams), c is the specific heat
of the substance (calories/gC), and T is the change in temperature (C).
Since the only place the heat energy could have come from is the material being tested, we now
have a value for the amount of heat energy contained in the material.
Skill Sheet 28 Calorimetry
Example:
A piece of food is tested in a calorimeter to determine how much heat energy it contains. If the
water in the calorimeter has a mass of 150 g and the temperature of the water increases by 3C,
how much heat energy was released by the burning of the food (energy stored in the food)?
1. Identify the information given to you in the problem:
mass of water = 150 g
change in temperature = 3C
specific heat of water = 1 cal/gC
2. Insert the information into the formula:
heat gained = mass change in temperature specific heat
heat gained = 150 g 3C 1 cal/gC
3. Solving the problem gives a heat energy value of 450 calories for the food.
Note: If we know the mass of the food, we can calculate the number of calories per gram of that
type of food. This, then, enables us to calculate the heat energy of any mass of that type of food.
A note about heat energy calories and food calories. One food calorie is equal to 1,000 heat energy
calories or 1 kcal. Food calories are often written as Calories (with a capital C) to help you
remember that they are larger than heat energy calories. If you consume a potato chip that has,
according to the nutritional label, 15 Calories, you are actually consuming 15,000 calories of
potential heat energy.
2. Calculating heat energy

1. A calorimeter contains 350 g of water. When a chemical reaction occurs in reaction chamber,
the water experiences a change in temperature of 35C. How much heat energy was released
by the chemical reaction?
2. When a sample of material is combusted in the reaction chamber of a calorimeter, the 500 g of
water in the device experiences an increase in temperature from 25C to 28C. How much
heat energy was stored in the material?
Skill Sheet 28 Calorimetry
3. A chemical reaction conducted in a calorimeter releases 9,000 calories of heat energy. If the
calorimeter contains 400 g of 20 C water at the start of the reaction, what will be the
temperature of the water in the calorimeter at the conclusion of the chemical reaction?
4. A nutritionist wishes to know the energy value for a piece of food. She uses a calorimeter in
which she places 200 g of water. The change in temperature in the water after the food has
been completely combusted is 15C. How much heat energy was stored in the food?
5. If the mass of the food in question (4) was 8 grams, how many calories of heat energy were
stored per gram in this type of food?
6. There are 9 calories of energy per gram of fat, whereas there are 4 calories in a gram of
protein or carbohydrates. If you were going to explore the Antarctic, what kind of food would
you pack for your trip and why? To help you answer this question, do some research on the
Internet to find out how modern day adventurers are exploring Antarctica.
Name:
Skill Builder
Calculating Slope
How do you use a graph to make predictions? One way is to find a mathematical relationship
between the variables by finding the slope of the line. This skill sheet will help you master
calculating slope and making predictions from graphs.
1. What is slope?
You are going on a road trip. Graph 1 shows how the position of your
car changes with time. On this graph, the starting point of the trip
is represented by the point (0,0).
1. What information is represented on the y (vertical) axis of the
graph?
2. What information is represented on the x (horizontal) axis of the
graph?
3. What does the line in the graph tell you about your road trip?
For example, is your speed changing or staying the same?
Since the line in the graph is straight with no curves, it is linear. We can also describe what this
line looks like by its slope. Slope tells how steep a line is. Slope is calculated by finding the ratio of
the rise of the line (its vertical change) to the run of the line (its horizontal change).
2. Slope equals rise over run

The slope of the graph to the right can be determined by first choosing
two points along the line. The two points chosen for this graph are
(0,0) and (5,10). The format for writing pairs of point is: (x, y).
The next step is to make a right triangle. The line segment between
the two chosen points is the hypotenuse of the triangle. The sides of
the triangle are formed as shown on the graph.
The height or rise of the triangle is 10. The length of the base or
run of the triangle is 5.
Calculate the slope of the line using the equation:
rise
slope of a line = -------run
1. What is the slope of the line in Graph 2?
2. Is the point (2.5, 5) on the line in Graph 2? How do you know?
Skill Builder Calculating Slope
3. Calculating slope using an equation for a line

Two points on a line can be represented as: (x1, y1) and (x2, y2). The equation for calculating the
slope using these two points is:
y y
slope of line = ---2----------1x2 x 1
The slope of a line is the rate of change. By knowing the rate of change of a line (the slope), you
can write an equation for a line that will help you make predictions if you are given a value for
either x or y.
The equation for a line is:
y = m( x) + b
where:
m = slope of the line
b = y-intercept (the y value when x is equal to zero)
1. Chose two points on the line in Graph 3.
Calculate the slope of the line.
2.
The y-intercept of a line is the y value when the

x value is equal to zero. What is the y-intercept
of the line in Graph 3?
3. You now know the the value for slope (m), and
the y intercept (b). Write the equation for the
line in Graph 3.
4. A friend wants to have a car wash next
weekend, but she only wants to wash cars for 3
hours. Use the graph to predict how much
money would be in the cash box (if they start
with $20 for making change) after three hours
of washing cars. Hint: You know the x value, the slope, and the y-intercept. You need to
calculate the y value.
5. Use the equation for the line to predict how much the car wash will earn washing cars if you
work for five hours per day for eight Saturdays. The class trip costs $500.00. Will you earn
enough money from washing cars to pay for the class trip?
4. Practice with calculating slope

Make a graph of the data below using the grid provided. Be sure to label the x-axis and the y-axis.
x
Road Trip Data
Time (hours)
Distance traveled
(kilometers)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
1. What is the slope of the line for the road trip data set?
2. What is the y-intercept of this data set?
3. Write the equation of the line for this data set.
5. Additional questions
1. You know that the slope of a line is equal to 3 and the y-intercept is equal to 1.
a. Write the equation for this line.
b. Using this equation for the line, come up with five pairs of coordinates (x and y values) that
work in this equation.
2. Two points on a line are: (2, 8) and (6, 10). What is the slope of this line?
3. You have been give two equations for calculating slope. How are these two equations similar?
rise
slope of a line = -------run
y y
slope of a line = ---2-----------1
x 2 x1
Name:
Skill Builder
Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis is used to solve problems that involve converting between different units
of measurement. Before trying this skill builder, read the section on dimensional analysis in
the reference section of your textbook.
1. Choosing a conversion factor

Circle the conversion factor you would choose to solve the following problems.
1. How many inches are in 6 meters?
1 meter
39.4 inches
------------------------------OR ------------------------------39.4 inches
1 meter
2. How many liters are in 10 U.S. gallons?

1 gallon 3.79 liters
---------------------------OR ----------------------------3.79 liters
1 gallon
3. 100 kilometers is equal to how many miles?

1 kilometer0.624 miles
------------------------------OR -------------------------------0.624 miles
1 kilometer
4. 1,000,000 grams is equal to how many kilograms?

0.001
kilogram1 gram
--------------------------------------OR --------------------------------------1 gram
0.001 kilogram
2. Solving problems
Use dimensional analysis to solve each of the following problems:
1. A grocery store just received a shipment of 200 cartons of eggs. Each carton holds one dozen
eggs. If 12 eggs = 1 dozen, how many eggs did the store receive?
2. A marathon is 26.2 miles long. How many kilometers is a marathon? (1 mile = 1.61 km)
Skill Builder Dimensional Analysis
3. The speed limit on many interstate highways in the United States is 65 miles per hour. How
many kilometers per hour is that? (1 mile = 1.61 km)
4. Ashley is going on a trip to London. She has saved $100.00 in spending money. When she
arrives in England, she goes to a bank to change her money into pounds. She is told that the
exchange rate is 1 British pound = 1.43 American dollars. The bank charges a fee of 4 pounds
to change the money from dollars to pounds. How much money, in British pounds, will Ashley
have if she changes all of her dollars to pounds?
5. Although it is widely believed that Germanys Autobahn highway has no speed limit
whatsoever, much of the highway has regulated speed limits of 130 km/hr or less, and in some
places speed is limited to just 60 km/hr.
a. How many miles per hour is 130 km/hr? (1 mile = 1.61 km)
b. How many miles per hour is 60 km/hr?
6. In England, a persons weight is commonly given in stones. One English stone is equal to 14
pounds. If an English friend tells you he weighs eleven stones, what is his weight in pounds?
Name:
Skill Builder
Fractions Review
In physical science classes, you will solve problems that involve fractions. Understanding the
rules for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of fractions helps you solve these
problems. The diagram below shows the parts of a fraction. This skill sheet guides you through
a review of the rules for working with fractions. You will see how the rules are used in both
simple and complex fractions.
1. Addition and subtraction of fractions

To add or subtract fractions you must first have a common denominator. For example, if you
wanted to add or subtract 5/8 and 6/4, you must first convert both denominators to the same
number.
Addition:
5 6
5 2 6
5 12
17
-- + -- = -- + -- -- = -- + ---- = ---8 4
8 2 4
8 8
8
Subtraction:
5 6
5 2 6
5
7
-- -- = -- -- -- = -- 12
---- = ---8 4
8 2 4
8 8
8
As you can see, the rules for adding and subtracting positive and negative numbers also apply to
fractions.
2. Multiplication of fractions
To multiply fractions, first multiply the numerators and then multiply the denominators. For
example:
5 6
-- -- = 30
----8 4
32
Fractions are commonly expressed in their lowest terms so that they are easier to recognize. To
find a fractions lowest terms, you need to divide the numerator and the denominator by any
common factors. The fraction in the example above can be rewritten like this:
30 =
325
----- ------------------------------------------32 2 2 2 2 2
Skill Builder Fractions Review
This form is called the prime factorization because all of the factors are prime numbers (this
means they cant be divided by any whole number except 1 to get an whole number answer).
Notice that theres a 2 in both the numerator and the denominator. Cross out any factor that
appears in both places. Multiply out the remaining factors. The simplified fraction is:
35
15
--------------------------------- = -----2222
16
At other times you may be asked to change the fraction to a decimal. This is very easy! Simply
divide the numerator by the denominator. Remember that the divisor line between the numerator
and the denominator in a fraction means divide by and is the same as a division sign ().
30
------- = 30 32 = 0.9375
32
3. Division of fractions
To divide fractions you first invert (turn upside down) the second fraction and then multiply.
Follow the rules for multiplying fractions. When necessary, reduce the fraction to its lowest terms.
For example:
5 6
5 4
-- -- = -- -- = 20
------8 4
8 6
48
225
5
20
5------- = ------------------------------------------- = ----------------------- = ----2 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 12
48
4. Division of complex fractions

An example of a complex fraction is shown below. A complex fraction is a fraction of fractions. You
can divide complex fractions using the rules you already know for dividing fractions. For example:
5
-8
6
--4
5 6
5 4
= --- --- = --- --- = 20
------8 4
8 6 48
Reduce:
20 = -----------------------------------------2 2 5 - = ----5----48
2 2 2 2 3 12
As you can see, the last two examples yielded the same answer. Can you see why? The two
examples are the same, but written differently. The line between the two fractions, 5/8 and 6/4,
acts the same as a division () sign.
5. Solving fraction problems

Now it's your turn to solve some problems. Be sure to show your work. Reduce your answers to
lowest terms.
Addition of fractions:
4 3
1. ------ + --12 4
2.
7 5
--- + --8 7
3.
3 6 5
--- + --- + --4 8 3
4. Express the above fractions in decimal form.
Subtraction of fractions:
4
1. ------ 3
--12 4
2.
7 5
--- --8 7
3 6 5
3. --- --- --4 8 3
Multiplication of fractions:
4 3
1. ----- --12 4
5
2. 7
--- --8 7
3. 3
--- 6
--- 5
--4 8 3
Division of fractions:
4 3
1. ----- --12 4
2. 7
--- 5
--8 7
3.
4.
3
--4
6
--8
3
--4
5 7
--- --3 6
Name:
Skill Builder
International System of Measurements
In ancient times, as trade developed between cities and nations, units of measurements were
developed to measure the size of purchases and transactions. Greeks and Egyptians based
their measurements of length on the human foot. Usually, it was based on the kings foot size.
The volume of baskets was measured by how much goatskin they could hold. Was this a
reliable method of measurement? Why or why not?
In this skill sheet you will learn about the international system of measurements and how to
use the system to make measurments and solve problems.
1. A short history of measurement

During the Renaissance, as scientists began to develop the ideas of physics and chemistry, they
needed better units of measurements to communicate scientific data more efficiently. Scientists
such as Kepler, Galileo, and Newton needed to prove their ideas with data based on
measurements that other scientists could reproduce.
In March 30, 1791, in Sevres, France,
the French Academy of Sciences
proposed a system that would be
simple and consistent. The French
Scientists based the units of length on
a fraction of the distance between the
Earths equator and the North Pole
along a line passing through Paris.
The systems basic unit for measuring
length was called a meter after the
Greek
word
metron
meaning
measure. The set of equations below
will show you how the meter is related
to other units in this system of
measurements.
1 meter = 100 centimeters

1 cubic centimeter = 1 cm
= 1 milliliter
1000 milliliters = 1 liter

1 milliliter = 1 gram
The liter was defined as the new standard for volume. One milliliter was equal to the volume of
one cubic centimeter. The gram was defined as the standard for mass. The gram was defined as
the mass of one milliliter of water.
Skill Builder International System of Measurements
2. Todays international system of measurement

Today, the length of a meter is defined as the distance light travels in a small fraction of a second.
The kilogram is the current base unit for mass. A kilogram is defined as the mass of a certain
lump of platinum and iridium that is kept in Paris under glass to protect it from chemical changes
that could alter its mass. The metric system is also called the SI system, from the French Le
System International dUnites.
The United States adopted the metric system in 1884. However, the adoption process has been
slow, and many Americans still use the English System (feet, inches, and pounds). Since 1992,
U.S. government agencies have been required to use the metric system in business transactions.
You may think that only scientists use the metric system, but the
majority of people in the world use the metric system of
measurements in their daily lives. If you travel overseas, you will
find that a cars speed is measured in kilometers per hour. At the gas
station, gasoline is sold in liters. Amounts of food are measured in
grams. The daily temperature is reported in degrees Celius.
The metric system is easy to use because all the units are based on
factors of 10. In the English system, there are 12 inches in a foot, 3
feet in a yard, and 1,760 yards in a mile. In the metric system, there
are 10 millimeters in a centimeter, 100 centimeters in a meter, and
1,000 meters in a kilometer. How many kilometers is it from the
North Pole to the equator?
3. Units of measurement in the metric system

These are the base units of measurement that you will use in your scientific studies. The prefixes
above are used with the base units when measuring very large or very small quantities.
When you are measuring:
Use this base unit:
Symbol of unit
mass
kilogram
kg
length
meter
volume
liter
force
newton
temperature
degree Celsius
time
second
You may wonder why the kilogram, rather than the gram, is called the base unit for mass. This is
because the mass of an object is based on how much matter it contains as compared to the
standard kilogram made from platinum and iridium and kept in Paris. The gram is such a small
amount of matter that if it had been used as a standard, small errors in reproducing that
standard would be multiplied into very large errors when large quantities of mass were
measured.
4. Metric Prefixes
The following prefixes in the SI system indicate the multiplication factor to be used with the basic
unit. For example, the prefix kilo- is for a factor of 1,000. A kilometer is equal to 1,000 meters
and a kilogram is equal to 1,000 grams.
Prefix
Symbol
Multiplication Factor
pico
0.000000000001
= 10-12
nano
0.000000001
= 10-9
micro
0.000001
= 10-6
milli
0.001
= 10-3
centi
0.01
= 10-2
deci
0.1
= 10-1
deka
da
10
= 101
hecto
100
= 102
kilo
1,000
= 103
mega
1,000,000
= 106
giga
1,000,000,000
= 109
tera
1, 000, 000, 000, 000
= 1012
5. Practice using metric prefixes

Use the following sample problems to help you answer the questions below.
Sample problem: How many centimeters are in a hectometer?
Find the multiplication factor in exponent form. In this case the multiplication factor for centiis 10-2. The multiplication factor for hecto- is 102.
Find the absolute value of the difference of the exponents.
22 = 4
The number that you get (in this case, 4) tells you how many zeros to place after the number
one (1) to get the correct answer. There are 104, or 10,000 centimeters in a hectometer.
1. How many milligrams are in one gram?

2. How many centimeters are in a kilometer?
3. How many microliters are in one liter?
4. How many nanoseconds are in one second?
5. How many micrograms are in one kilogram?
6. How many milliliters are in a megaliter?
6. Challenge:
1. A deciliter is how many times larger than a milliliter?
2. A micrometer is how many times smaller than a millimeter?
Name:
Skill Builder
Internet Research Skills
The Internet is a valuable tool for finding answers to your questions about the world. This skill
sheet will introduce you to some basic techniques for finding the information you need quickly.
It also provides some questions you should ask as you evaluate whether or not the source of
the information is reliable.
1. What is a search engine?

A search engine is like an on-line index to information on the World Wide Web. There are many
different search engines to choose from. Some search engines index sites geared toward children.
Others focus on educational sites, science-oriented sites, or government sites. Search engines
differ in how often they are updated, how many documents they contain in their index, and how
they search for information. Your teacher may suggest several search engines for you to try.
2. Defining your topic

Search engines ask you to type a word or phrase into a box known as a field. Knowing how search
engines work can help you pinpoint the information you need. However, if your phrase is too
vague, you may end up with a lot of unhelpful information.
How could you find out who was the first woman to participate in a space shuttle flight?
First, put key phrases in quotation marks. You want to know about the first woman on a
space shuttle. Quotation marks tell the engine to search for those words together.
Second, if you only want websites that contain both phrases, use a + sign between them. Typing
first woman + space shuttle into a search engine will limit your search to websites that
contain both phrases.
If you want to broaden your search, use the word or between two terms. For example, if you type
first female or first woman + space shuttle the search engine will list any website that
contains either of the first two phrases, as long as it also contains the phrase space shuttle.
You can narrow a search by using the word not. For example, if you wanted to know about marine
mammals other than whales, you could type marine mammals not whales into the field.
Please note that some search engines use the minus sign (-) rather than the word not.
1. If you wanted to find out about science museums in your state that are not in your own city or
town (or in the nearest city or town), what would you type into the search engine?.
2. If you wanted to find out which dog breeds are not expensive and are easy to care for, what
would you type into the search engine?.
3. How could you research alternatives to producing electricity through the combustion of coal or
natural gas?
Skill Builder Internet Research Skills
3. Evaluating information found on the Internet

The quality of information found on the Internet varies widely. This section will give you some
things to think about as you decide which sources to use in your research.
1. Authority: How well does the author know the subject matter? If you search for Newtons
laws on the Internet, you may find a science report written by a fifth grade student, and a
study guide written by a college professor. Which website is the most authoritative source?
Museums, national libraries, government sites, and major, well-known encyclopedia sources
are good places to look for authoritative information.
2. Bias: Think about the authors purpose. Is it to inform, or to persuade? Is it to get you to buy
something? Comparing several authoritative sources will help you get a more complete
understanding of your subject.
3. Target audience: For whom was this website written? Avoid using sites designed for
students well below your grade level. You need to have an understanding of your subject
matter at or above your own grade level. Even authoritative sites for younger students
(childrens encyclopedias, for example) may leave out details and simplify concepts in ways
that would leave gaps in your understanding of your subject.
4. Is the site up-to-date, clear, and easy to use? Try to find out when the website was
created, and when it was last updated. If the site contains links to other sites, but those links
dont work, you may have found a site that is infrequently or no longer maintained. It may not
contain the most current information about your subject. Is the site cluttered with distracting
advertisements? You may wish to look elsewhere for the information you need.
4. Putting ideas into practice

1. What is your favorite sport or activity? Search for information about this sport or activity. List
two sites that are authoritative and two sites that are not authoritative. Explain your
reasoning. Finally, write down the best site for finding out information about your favorite
sport.
2. Search for information about a physical science topic of your choice on the Internet (i.e.,
simple machines, Newtons Laws, Galileo.). Find one source that you would NOT
consider authoritative. Write the key words you used in your search, the web address of the
source, and a sentence explaining why this source is not authoritative.
Skill Builder Internet Research Skills
3. Find a different source that is authoritative, but intended for a much younger audience. Write
the web address and a sentence describing who you think the intended audience is.
4. Find three sources that you would consider to be good choices for your research here. Write
two to three sentence description of each. Describe the author, the intended audience, the
purpose of the site, and any special features not found in other sites.
Extra space for notes:
Name:
Skill Builder
Interpreting Graphs
The three main kinds of graphs are line graphs, bar graphs, and pie graphs. This skill sheet will
provide you with an opportunity to develop your skills in interpreting graphs.
To learn how to interpret graphs, we will start with an example of a line graph. The data
presented on the graph below is the money earned during a car wash that lasted for five hours.
Use this graph to follow the steps and answer the questions in part one.
1. Steps for interpreting a graph

Step 1:
Read the labels on the graph.
1. What is the title of the graph?
2. Read the labels for the x-axis and the y-axis. What two variables are represented on the
graph?
Skill Builder Interpreting Graphs
Step 2: Read the units used for the variable on the x-axis and the variable
on the y-axis.
1. What unit is used for the variable on the x-axis?
2. What unit is used for the variable on the y-axis?
Step 3: Look at the range of values on the x- and y-axes. Do the range of values make
sense? What would the data look like if the range of values on the axes was
spread out more or less?
1. What is the range of values for the x-axis?
2. The range of values for the y-axis is 0 to $120. What would the graph look like if the range of
values was 0 to $500? Where would the data appear on the graph if this were the case?
Step 4: After looking at the parts of the graph, pay attention to the data that is
plotted. Is there a relationship between the two variables?
1. Is their a relationship between the variables that are represented on the graph?
Step 5: Write a sentence that describes the information presented on the graph. For
example, you may say, As the values for the variable on the x-axis increase,
the values for the variable on the y-axis decrease.
1. Write your description of the graph in the space provided.
2. The theater club at your school needs to raise $1000 for a trip that they want to take. They
will be taking the trip next fall. It is now April. Based on the graph, would you recommend
that the group wash cars to raise money? Write out a detailed response to this question. Be
sure to provide evidence to support your reasons for your recommendation.
2. Interpreting a bar graph

Now, apply what you know about interpreting graphs
to a bar graph. Use the steps from part one to help you
answer the questions.
1. What is the title of this graph?
2. What variables are represented on the graph?

(Hint: there are three variables.) Describe each
variable in terms of the categories or the range of
values used.
3. Write a sentence that describes how the percentage of teenagers employed compares from city
to city. Do not state any conclusions about the data in your sentence.
4. Write a sentence that describes how the percentage of boys employed compares to the
percentage of girls employed. Do not state any conclusions about the data in your sentence.
5. Based on the data represented in the graph, come up with a hypothesis for why the
percentage of teenagers employed differs from city to city.
6. Based on the data represented in the graph, come up with a hypothesis to explain the
employment differences between boys and girls in these cities.
3. Interpreting a pie graph

Now, apply what you know about interpreting graphs
to a pie graph. Use the steps from part one to help you
answer the questions.
1. What is the title of this graph?
2. What variables are represented on the graph?

(Hint: there are two variables.)
3. Are any units used in this graph. Explain your

answer.
4. If you were going to report on this data, what would you say. Write two to three sentences that
describe this graph. Do not state any conclusions about the data in your sentence.
5. Come up with a hypothesis based on the data in this graph. Briefly describe how you would
test your hypothesis.
6. Do you have a job? If so, in which category does your job fit? Do you think this pie graph
accurately represents the working teenager population in your area. Explain your response.
Name:
Skill Builder
Lab Report Format
Use this skill sheet to help you write a lab report. You can think of a lab report as a document
that tells a story about an experiment you performed. The story itself is the experiment.
There is always a beginning to the story (called the Introduction) and an ending (called the
Conclusions). The details you provide about this story help others learn from what you did.
As a way to share scientific knowledge, lab reports are great contributions to our progress in
understanding of how the world works.
1. What is a lab report?

A lab report is an explanation of your findings from an investigation. If your lab report is written
clearly, anyone who reads your lab report will be able to understand what you were trying to
learn. They will see why and how you performed your experiment.
When you tell a reader how to repeat your experiment, you are giving another person the tools to
evaluate your work. It they can get data that is similar to yours and come to similar conclusions,
then you have support for your ideas.
Because Sir Isaac Newtons findings from his experiments were repeatable, what started out as
ideas are now scientific laws! For example, Newtons thoughts about a falling apple led to the law
of universal gravitation. This law is an equation that explains why the moon and each of us
experiment gravitational attraction to the Earth. Wow!
2. What are the parts of a lab report?

On a cover sheet or at the top of your report include your name, the title of the lab, the date of
completion, and your lab partners names.
The main parts of the lab report are listed below along with a description of each part.
Research question: What are you trying to find out through this experiment?
Introduction: This paragraph describes the topic you are studying and how it relates to your
experiment. State your hypothesis at the end of the introduction.
Procedure: This paragraph is a description of the experiment you performed to test your
hypothesis. You may wish to include a sketch of the apparatus you used. Be sure to name the
experimental variable and list the variables that you controlled in the experiment.
Results: In this paragraph, you describe your data. Often you will include a graph. Write a
short description of the data, but do not draw any conclusions in this paragraph.
Conclusions: Your conclusions about your experiment are described in this part of the lab
report. The conclusions paragraph describes what happened in your experiment, and whether
or not your hypothesis was correct.
Skill Builder Lab Report Format
3. A sample lab report

Use this sample lab report as a guide for writing your own lab reports. Keep in mind that you are
telling a story about something you did. Write clearly so that others can easily understand what
you accomplished.
Lab B-2: Pressure and speed

Lucy Outerbridge
Feb 20, 2002
6th period
Lab partner: Anna Gray
Research Question:
How does pressure affect the speed of the air rocket?
Introduction:
Air pressure is a term used to describe how tightly air molecules are packed into a certain space. When air
pressure increases, more air molecules are packed into the same amount of space. These molecules are moving
around and colliding with each other and the walls of the container. As the number of molecules in the container
increases, the number of molecular collisions in the container increases. A pressure gauge measures the force of
these molecules as they strike a surface.
In this investigation, we will measure the speed of the CPO air rocket when it is launched with different amounts
of initial air pressure inside the plastic bottle. We want to determine if a greater amount of initial air pressure will
cause the air rocket to travel at a greater speed. My hypothesis is that when I increase the pressure of the air
rocket, the speed will increase.
Procedure:
The air rocket is attached to an arm so that it travels in a circular path.
After it travels about 330, the air rocket hits a stopper and its flight
ends. We will measure the speed at two places in the rockets orbit.
We will test the air rockets speed at three different initial pressures. The
pressures that work effectively with this equipment range from 15 psi to
95 psi. We will test the rocket at 20 psi, 50 psi, and 80 psi. We will do
three trials at each pressure and average the speed measurements.
We will measure the speed when the rocket has traveled 10 and again at
90.
The experimental variable is the initial air pressure applied to the rocket.
The variables we will need to control are the placement of the
photogates used to measure the speed, the technique used to launch the
rocket, and the mass of the rocket itself.
Results:
My graph shows that the plots of the data for both photogates A
and B are linear. As the values for pressure increased, the speed
we measured increased also.
Conclusion:
The data shows that pressure does have an effect on speed. The
graph shows that my hypothesis is correct: As the initial pressure
of the rocket increased, the speed of the rocket increased as well.
There is a direct relationship between pressure and speed of the
rocket.
Name:
Skill Builder
Making Graphs
This skill sheet will help you master graphing skills. There are three main kinds of graphs: line
graphs, bar graphs, and pie graphs. On this skill sheet, we will focus on line graphs. Line graphs
represent data as a series of points. A line is drawn through the points to show the pattern
made by the points.
1. The parts of a graph

A graph is a picture of information. The labels on a graph provide important information. The
diagram below shows the labels you should put on a graph and how these labels should look.
When you are plotting your data on a graph, be sure to use all of the available space. Avoid
plotting all your data in one corner of the graph.
Skill Builder Making Graphs
2. Data sets
Table 1 and 2 below each contain a data set. A data set is organized into pairs of values. For every
value in the x column, there is a value in the y column. Each pair of values can be represented
by writing (x, y).
A pair of values (x,y) represents a certain location or point on a graph. The x and y values are the
coordinates of the point. A graph of a data set represents a picture of the points.
Fill in the third column of each data set by writing the pairs of x and y values. The first row in
each data table has been done for you.
Table 1: A car wash is being held to raise money for a school trip. The data set shows the
relationship between the amount of money in the cash box and the number of hours spent
washing cars. Why is $20 in the cash box at the beginning of the car wash?
Table 1: Money in cash box vs. number of hours washing cars
Number of hours washing
Amount of money in cash
Coordinates
cars (hours)
box ($)
(x,y)
x
20
35
50
65
80
95
(0,20)
Table 2: If you could measure how much water gets splashed out of a swimming pool as the
number of people in the pool increases, the data might look like the data in Table 2.
Table 2: Number of people in a swimming pool vs. amount of water splashed
out of the pool
Number of people in a
Amount of water
Coordinates
swimming pool
splashed out of the pool
(x,y)
x
(gallons)
y
16
25
36
(0,0)
3. Making graphs from data sets

Now, make a graph of each data set. Use the data in Table 1 to make Graph 1, and the data in
Table 2 to make Graph 2. The labels for Graph 1 have been added for you. You will need to add
labels, including the title of the graph, to Graph 2.
Steps for making a graph:
Label the graph with the titles from the headers of the data tables. The y-value header comes
first in the title.
Label the horizontal axis (the x-axis) with the label from the header for the x column. Label
the vertical axis (the y-axis) with the label from the header for the y column.
Decide what value each box on each axis will represent. Base your decision on the range of
numbers for the x values and the y values. When the data is plotted on Graph 1 and Graph 2,
the data points should spread out over the entire graph rather than cluster in a corner of the
graph. Example: The range of numbers for the x values for Graph 1 is 0 to 5. There are
12 boxes on the x-axis of Graph 1. To spread out the points along this axis, each box
represents 0.5 or every two boxes represents 1.
Plot the coordinates (the pairs of x- and y-values). Each coordinate represents a point.
Draw a line through the points to represent the pattern (or trend) that you see. Do not connect
the points dot-to-dot. See the examples below:
4. Interpreting graphs
1. Write a short description of each graph. Describe the shape of each graph as if you were
explaining them to someone who hasn't seen the graphs. How are Graph 1 and Graph 2 alike?
How are they different?
2. Write one conclusion you based on the data in Graph 1. For example, what can you conclude
about the relationship between the number of hours spent washing cars and the amount of
money in the cash box?
3. Write one conclusion based on the data in Graph 2. For example, what do you conclude about
the relationship between the number of people in a swimming pool and the amount of water
splashed out of the pool?
5. Challenge questions
1. If you were looking at a graph with the title, Distance walked versus time, would the graph
look more like Graph 1 or Graph 2?
2. If you were looking at a graph with the title, Number of bacteria in a Petri dish versus time,
would the graph look more like Graph 1 or Graph 2? To answer this question, think about how
populations of organisms increase in number.
Name:
Skill Builder
Problem Solving with Rates
Solving mathematical problems often involves using rates. In this skill sheet, you will learn
that you can turn rates upside down to help you solve a problem. An upside down rate is called
a reciprocal rate.
Steps for solving problems are included on the skill sheet. Build your confidence in solving
problems by following the steps. First, analyze the units and figure out the unit for the
answer. Next, solve the arithmetic portion of the problem. Finally, put the two together to
report your answer.
A rate may be written as its reciprocal because no matter how you write it the rate gives you the
same amount of one thing per amount of the other thing. For example, you can write 5 cookies/
$1.00 or $1.00/5 cookies. For $1.00, you know you will get 5 cookies no matter how you write the
rate. In these practice problems, you will choose how you will write each rate to solve problems.
1. Reciprocal rates
In the space provided, write the reciprocal rate of each given rate. The first one is done for you.
1 year = 365
days
1. ----------------------------------------365 days
1 year
2.
12
inches- =
---------------------foot
3.
3-------------------------------small pizzas- =
$10.00
4.
36
pencils =
-----------------------3 boxes
5.
18
gallons of gasoline- =
---------------------------------------------------360 miles
Skill Builder Problem Solving with Rates
2. Solving problems
Steps for solving problems are listed below. Use these five steps for each of the following
problems. Remember, after you have set up your problem, analyze and cancel the units by
crossing them out, then do the arithmetic, and provide the answer. Remember that the answer
always consists of a number and a unit.
Step 1
What quantity or rate are you asked for in the problem? Write it down.
Step 2
What do you know from reading the problem? List all known rates and quantities.
Step 3
Arrange the known quantities and rates to get an answer that has the right units.
This arrangement might include a formula.
Step 4
Plug in the values you know.
Step 5
Solve the problem and write the answer with a number and a unit.
In problems 1 and 2, you will be shown how to set up steps 1-4. For step 5, you will need
to solve the problem and write the answer as a number and unit.
1. Downhill skiing burns about 600 calories per hour. How many calories will you burn if you
downhill ski for 3.5 hours?
Step 1
Looking for calories.
Step 2
600 calories/hour; 3.5 hours
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
calories
---------------- hours = calorie
hour
600 calories
--------------------------- 3.5 hours = calories
hour
Answer:
2. How many cans of soda will John drink in a year if he drinks 3 sodas per day? (Remember
that there are 365 days in a year.)
Step 1
Looking for cans of soda per year.
Step 2
3 sodas/day; 365 days/year
Step 3
soda days sodas

--------- --------- = --------------day year year
Step 4
3 sodas 365 days

---------------- -------------------- = sodas
----------day
year
year
Step 5
Answer:
3. How many heartbeats will a person have in a week if he has an average heart rate of 72 beats
per minute? (Remember the days/week, hours/day, and minutes/hour.
Step 1
Looking for number of heartbeats per week.
Step 2
72 heartbeats/minute, 7 days/week, 24 hours/day, 60 minutes/hour
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
heartbeats minutes hours days

------------------------ ---------------- ------------- ---------- = heartbeats
-----------------------minute
hour
day
week
week
72 heartbeats 60 minutes 24 hours 7 days
--------------------------------- ------------------------ ------------------- -------------- = heartbeats
-----------------------minute
hour
day
week
week
Answer:
3. Practice with problem solving

Using the five problem-solving steps, solve the following problems on your own. Be sure to read
the problem carefully. Show your work in the blank provided.
Step 1
What quantity or rate are you asked for in the problem? Write it down.
Step 2
What do you know from reading the problem? List all known rates and quantities.
Step 3
Arrange the known quantities and rates to get an answer that has the right units.
This arrangement might include a formula.
Step 4
Plug in the values you know.
Step 5
Solve the problem and write the answer with a number and a unit.
1. How much will you pay for 5 pounds of shrimp if the cost is 2 pounds for $10.99?
2. How many miles can you get on one tank of gas if your tank holds 18 gallons and you get
22 miles per gallon?
3. What is your rate in miles/hour if you run at a speed of 2.2 miles in 20 minutes?
4. Suppose for your cookout you need to make 100 hamburgers. You know that 2 pounds will
make 9 hamburgers. How many pounds will you need?
5. What is your mass in kilograms if you weigh 120 pounds? (There are approximately
2.2 pounds in one kilogram.)
6. Mt. Everest is 29,028 feet high. How many miles is this? (There are 5,280 feet in one mile.)
7. Susan works 8 hours a day and makes $7.00 per hour. How much money does Susan earn in
one week if she works 5 days per week?
8. How many years will it take a major hamburger fast food chain to sell 45,000,000 burgers if it
sells approximately 12,350 burgers per day?
9. Your science teacher needs to make more of a salt-water mixture. The concentration of the
mixture that is needed is 35 grams of salt in 100 milliliters of water. How many grams of salt
will be needed to make 1,500 milliliters of the salt-water?
10. A cart travels down a ramp at an average speed of 5 centimeters/second. What is the speed of
the cart in miles/hour? (Remember there are 100 cm per meter, 1000 meters/kilometer, and
1.6 kilometer per mile.)
11. A person goes to the doctor and will need a 3-month prescription of medicine. The person will
be required to take 3 pills per day. How many pills will the doctor write the prescription for
assuming there are 30 days in a month?
12. If you are traveling at 65 miles per hour, how many feet will you be traveling in one second?
Name:
Skill Builder
Reading Strategies
Many students read a science textbook as if they were watching a movie--they just sit there
and expect to take it all in. Actually, reading a science book is more like playing a video game.
You have to interact with it! This skill sheet will teach you active strategies that will improve
your reading and study skills. Remember--just like in video game playing--the more you
practice these strategies, the more skilled you will become.
The SQ3R active reading method was developed in 1946 by Francis Robinson to help her students
get the most out of their textbooks. Using the SQ3R method will help you interact with your text,
so that you understand and remember what you read. SQ3R stands for:
Survey
Question
Read
Recite
Review
Your student text has many features to help you organize your reading. These features are
highlighted on page ii and iii of the introduction. Open your text to those pages so that you can see
the features for yourself.
1. Survey
Survey the chapter first.
Skim the introduction on the first page of every chapter. Notice the learning goals and the
vocabulary list that appear on the second page. Write down any vocabulary words that are
unfamiliar to you. This will help you recognize and learn them later on.
Next, skim the chapter to get an overview. Notice the section titles. These divide the chapter into
major topics. The subheadings in each section outline important points. Vocabulary words are
highlighted in blue. Tables, charts, and figures summarize important information.
Finally, read the concept review questions at the end of each chapter to learn what you are
expected to know when you finish your reading.
2. Question
Question what you see. Turn headings into questions.
Take another look at each of the section headings and subheadings, printed and underlined in
blue in your text. Change each heading to a question by using words such as who, what, when,
where, why, and how. For example, Section 2.3: Acceleration could become What is
acceleration? The subheading Acceleration in metric units could become How do I calculate
acceleration in metric units? Write down each question and try to answer it. Doing this will help
you pinpoint what you already know and what you need to learn as you read.
Skill Builder Reading Strategies
3. Read
Read and look for answers to the questions you wrote.
Pay special attention to the sidenotes in the left margin of each page. These phrases, short
sentences, and questions are designed to guide you to the most important ideas in the text.
Slow your reading pace when you come to a difficult paragraph. Read difficult paragraphs out
loud. Copy a confusing sentence onto paper. These methods force you to slow down and give you
time to think about what the author is saying.
4. Recite
Recite concepts out loud.
This step may seem strange at first, because you are asked to talk to yourself! But studies show
that saying concepts out loud can actually help you to record them in your long-term memory.
At the end of each section, stop reading. Ask yourself each of the questions you wrote in step two
on the previous page. Answer each question out loud, in your own words. Imagine that you are
explaining the concept to someone who hasnt read the text.
You may find it helpful to write down your answers. By using your senses of seeing, hearing, and
touch (when you write) as you learn, you create more memory paths in your brain.
5. Review
Review it all.
Once you have finished the entire chapter, go back and answer all of the questions that you wrote
for each section. If you cant remember the answer, go back and reread that portion of the text.
Recite and write the answer again.
Next, reread the learning goals at the beginning of the chapter. Have you accomplished each of
these?
Complete the vocabulary and concept review sections at the end of the chapter. Use the glossary
and index at the back of the book to help you locate specific definitions.
6. Bringing it all together

The SQ3R method may seem time-consuming, but it works! With practice, you will learn to
recognize the important concepts quickly.
Active reading helps you learn and remember what you have read, so you will have less to relearn as you study for quizzes and tests.
Name:
Skill Builder
Science Vocabulary
One stumbling block for many science students is the number of new vocabulary words they
encounter. Each field of science has its own body of terms, and there are many additional
terms that are used in all the fields of science. However, few people are likely to run across
these terms in their daily lives until they enter science classes in school. How do students
master this new language? The same way they master any vocabulary by looking to the roots!
1. Prefixes and Suffixes

Prefixes and suffixes play an important role in word structure. Prefixes are word parts that begin
a word, and suffixes are word parts that end a word. These parts, also called roots, often have
special meanings due to their use in other languages.
Prefixes and suffixes of words (and entire words themselves) in the English language are derived
from other languages. Some of these languages like French are used in the world culture today
and some languages belong to cultures long past. Latin and Greek are the two most common
languages from which we derive pieces and parts of our words.
The study of languages provides tremendous benefit to understanding the meanings of words.
Other languages provide us with greater understanding of our own language since the roots of
many of the words come from these languages. For example, English, French, Italian and Spanish
all have Latin as a common ancestral language. Therefore, studying French, Italian, or Spanish
increases the size of your vocabulary toolbox. Studying Latin (or Greek) is also a tremendous aid
for mastery and comprehension of the English vocabulary.
2. Isolating Word Parts

When you encounter a new word and are unsure of its meaning, find and isolate the prefix and
suffix of the word. It may help to write the word on a separate sheet of paper and circle or
underline these parts. The remaining, uncircled parts of the word may also have a special
meaning. Now, study each part of the word and work towards understanding its meaning.
Example: Consider the word blueberry. There are two pieces to this wordthe prefix blue and the
suffix berry. Each of these word parts has its own meaning which, when combined with the other
word part, gives the whole word its own, unique meaning. Blue denotes a color with which you are
familiar. A berry is a small fruit that birds (and humans!) like to eat. Put them together, and you
understand that blueberry probably means a small fruit that is colored blue! From your past
experiences, you realize that this is a pretty good description of blueberries. Science words can be
broken apart and analyzed in the same way to get an understanding of their meanings.
Below are some words you may encounter in a science class. For each word, circle the prefix and
put a box around the suffix:
thermometer
electrolyte
monoatomic
volumetric
endothermic
spectroscope
prototype
convex
supersaturated
Skill Builder Science Vocabulary
3. Defining Scientific Terms

The table below lists some prefixes and suffixes that are found in scientific vocabulary along with
their respective meanings. Use this table to write a definition for the following terms.
Prefixes
Suffixes
homo same, equal
-escence to exist
poly many
-meter measure
hydro water
-ology the study of
lumen - light
-mer unit
spectro a continuous
range or full extent
-geneous kind or type
hetero different
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
hydrology _____________________________________
polymer _____________________________________
homogeneous _____________________________________
heterogeneous _____________________________________
luminescence _____________________________________
spectrometer _____________________________________
Now, using a dictionary, look up the words for which you provided your own definition, and write
the formal definitions in the spaces below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
hydrology _____________________________________
polymer _____________________________________
homogeneous _____________________________________
heterogeneous _____________________________________
luminescence _____________________________________
spectrometer _____________________________________
4. Using Roots to Create Words

Using the table of prefixes and suffixes provided on the following page, write a word that
corresponds to each of the following definitions:
Prefixes
Suffixes
thermo heat
-scope to view
mono one
-meter measure
tele far
-atomic indivisible unit
sono sound, tone
-graph, -gram something written
1.
2.
3.
4.
A device to measure heat or temperature _____________________________________

A graph showing the loudness and frequencies of sounds ________________________________
Having only one type of indivisible unit _________________________________
A device used to view distant objects _____________________________________
Look up the words you created in the dictionary. Write your words and the accepted definitions in
the space below:
Word
Dictionary Definition
How closely did your definitions match the accepted ones found in the dictionary? Your definitions
based on your understanding of the roots for the prefixes and suffixes likely provided you with
good results. A thorough knowledge of prefixes and suffixes will be a tremendous help to you as
you proceed through your science education and will enable you to better understand the written
and spoken language you encounter in your daily life.
5. Example: Figuring out a word

It is now time to use word parts to help figure out the definition of a word. Consider the word
phrenopathia. Most people are unfamiliar with this term. If you ran across this term in your
reading, you would have to:
1. Use a dictionary.
2. Study the word by breaking it into parts.
Using a dictionary is always a good way to find the meaning of words. There are usually
dictionaries available in the classroom (including science dictionaries), and there are thorough
online dictionaries to use if you come across terms while researching information on the Internet.
However, if one is not available, you will have to study the word yourself to make meaning of the
term. Lets assume you do not have a dictionary available and have to puzzle out the meaning of
this word by yourself. First, break the word into its component parts, the prefix and suffix.
Prefix: phreno
Suffix: pathia
Next, you need to find or know the roots or special meanings associated with these word parts.
Heres where a study of languages provides tremendous benefit.
Both the prefix and suffix of our wordphrenopathiaare derived from Latin. Phren stems from
the Greek word phrenos, meaning mind. The suffix pathia stems from the Greek word pathos,
which means suffering. You would conclude, then, that phrenopathia has something to do with
the suffering of the mind, and you would be correct.
From Websters Dictionary: Phrenopathia - Any mental disease or disorder.
Once you have mastered the meaning of word roots, you can extend this knowledge to any words
containing those roots. For example, from your knowledge of the roots for phrenopathia, you could
begin to identify the definitions of words such as:
phrenologist a person who studies mental disorders
phrenitis an inflammation of the brain
phrenism a mental activity or intellectual power
neuropathy disease of the nervous system
sociopathy a disease characterized by violent antisocial behaviors
Roots of words can be found in dictionaries, in special books that are dedicated to listing roots and
their meanings, and from many online sources. The more familiarity you have with word roots,
the larger your toolbox for working through science (and nonscience) vocabulary.
Name:
Skill Builder
Scientific Processes
The scientific method is a process that helps you find answers to your questions about the
world. The process starts with a question and your answer to the question based on
experience and knowledge. This answer is called your hypothesis. The next step in the
process is to test your hypothesis by creating experiments that can be repeated by other
people in other places. If your experiment is repeated many times with the same results and
conclusions, these findings become part of the body of scientific knowledge we have about the
world.
Steps to the Scientific Method

1. Ask a question.
2. Formulate a hypothesis.
3. Design and conduct an experiment to test your hypothesis.
4. Collect and analyze data.
5. Make a tentative conclusion.
6. Test your conclusion, or refine the question, and go through each step again.
Maria and Elena are preparing for a party. Maria realizes she forgot to fill the ice cube trays in
order to have ice for the punch. Elena says that she remembers reading somewhere that hot water
freezes faster than cold water. Maria is skeptical. She learned in her physics class that the hotter
the liquid, the faster the molecules are moving. Since hot water molecules have to slow down more
than cold water molecules to become ice, Maria thinks that it will take hot water longer to freeze
than cold water.
The girls decide to conduct a scientific experiment to determine whether it is faster to make ice
cubes with hot water or cold water. Answer the following questions about the process they used to
reach their conclusion.
1. Asking a question
What is the question that Maria and Elena want to answer by performing an experiment?
Skill Builder Scientific Processes
2. Formulate a hypothesis
What is Marias hypothesis for the experiment? State why Maria thinks this is a good hypothesis.
3. Design and conduct an experiment

1. Variables: There are many variables that Maria and Elena must control so that their results
will be valid. Name at least four of these variables.
2. Measurements: List at least two types of measurements that Maria and Elena must make
during their experiment.
3. Procedure: If Maria and Elena want their friends at the party to believe the results of their
experiment, they need to conduct the experiment so that others could repeat it. Write a
procedure that the girls could follow to answer their question.
4. Collect and analyze data

The girls conducted a carefully controlled experiment and found that after 3 hours and 15
minutes, the hot water had frozen solid, while the trays filled with cold water still contained a
mixture of ice and water. They repeated the experiment two more times. Each time the hot water
froze first. The second time they found that the the hot water froze in 3 hours and 30 minutes. The
third time, the hot water froze in 3 hours and 0 minutes.
1. What is the average time that it took for hot water in ice cube trays to freeze?
2. Why is it a good idea to repeat your experiments?
5. Make a tentative conclusion

Which of the following statements is a valid conclusion to this experiment? Explain your
reasoning for choosing a certain statement.
a. Hot water molecules dont move faster than cold water molecules.
b. Hot water often contains more dissolved minerals than cold water, so dissolved minerals must
help water freeze faster.
c. Cold water can hold more dissolved oxygen than hot water, so dissolved oxygen must slow
down the rate at which water freezes.
d. The temperature of water affects the rate at which it freezes.
e. The faster the water molecules are moving, the faster they can arrange themselves into the
nice, neat patterns that are found in solid ice cubes.
6. Test your conclusion or refine your question

Maria and Elena are very pleased with their experiment. They ask their teacher if they can share
their findings with their science class. The teacher says that they can present their findings as
long as they are sure their conclusion is correct.
Here is where step 6 is important. At the end of any set of experiments and before you present
your findings, you want to make sure that you are confident about your work.
1. Lets say that there is a small chance that the results of the experiment that Maria and Elena
performed were affected by the kind of freezer they used in the experiment. What could the
girls do to make sure that their results were not affected by the kind of freezer they used?
2. Conclusion (b) in part 5 is a possible reason why temperature has an affect on how fast water
freezes. Refine your original question for this experiment. In other words, create a question
for an experiment that would prove or disprove conclusion (b).
Name:
Skill Builder
Significant Digits
Francisco is training for a 10-kilometer run. Each morning, he runs a loop around his
neighborhood. To find out exactly how far hes running, he asks his older sister to drive the
loop in her car. Using the cars trip odometer, they find that the route is 7.2 miles long.
To find the distance in kilometers, Francisco looks in the
reference section of his science text and finds that
1.000 mile = 1.609 kilometers. He multiplies 7.2 miles by
1.609 km/mile. The answer, according to his calculator, is
11.5848 kilometers.
Francisco wonders what all those numbers after the
decimal point really mean. Can a car odometer measure
distances as small as 0.0008 kilometer? Thats a distance
less than one meter!
This skill sheet will help you answer Franciscos question.
It will also help you figure out which digits in your own calculations are significant.
1. What are significant digits?

Significant digits are the meaningful digits in a number. Scientists have agreed upon a number
of rules to determine which numbers in a measurement are significant. The rules are:
1. Non-zero digits in a measurement are always significant. This means that the distance
measured by the car odometer, 7.2 miles, has two significant digits.
2. Zeros between two significant digits in a measurement are significant. This means
that the measurement of kilometers per mile, 1.609 kilometers, has four significant digits.
3. All final zeros to the right of a decimal point in a measurement are significant. This
means that the measurement 1.000 miles has four significant digits.
4. If there is no decimal point, final zeros in a measurement are NOT significant. This
means that the number 10 in the phrase 10-kilometer run has one significant digit.
5. In a measurement, zeros that exist only to put the decimal point in the right place
are NOT significant. This means that the number 0.0008 in the phrase 0.0008 kilometer
has one significant digit.
6. A number that is found by counting rather than measuring is said to have an
infinite number of significant digits. For example, the race officials count 386 runners at
the starting line. The number 386, in this case, has an infinite number of significant digits.
Skill Builder Significant Digits
2. Practice finding the number of significant digits

Table 1: Number of Significant Digits
Value
How many significant digits does each value have?
36.33 minutes
100 miles
120.2 milliliters
0.0074 kilometers
0.010 kilograms
42 students
3. Using significant digits when doing calculations

Taking measurements and recording data are often a part of science classes. When you use the
data in calculations, keep in mind that the answer cant be more precise than the least precise
measurement.
For example, say you are using a ruler to measure the length of each
side of a rectangle.The ruler is marked in tenths of a centimeter.
This means that you can estimate the distance between two 0.1 cm
marks and make measurements that are to two places after the
decimal. For example, you measure the two short sides of the
triangle and find that they each have a length of 12.25 cm. The long
sides each have a length of 20.75 cm.
The distance around the rectangle is 12.25 cm + 20.75 cm + 12.25 cm + 20.75 cm, or 66.00 cm. The
two zeros to the right of the decimal point show that you measured with a precision of 0.01 cm.
The area of the rectangle is found by multiplying the length of the short side by the length of the
long side.
12.25 cm 20.75 cm = 254.1875 cm
The answer you get from you calculator has seven significant digits. This incorrectly implies that
your ruler can measure to ten-thousandth of a centimeter. Your ruler cant measure distances
that small!
Follow these steps for determining the right answer for you calculation:
When multiplying or dividing measurements, find the measurement in the calculation with
the least number of significant digits. After doing your calculation, round the answer to that
number of significant digits.
In the example, each measurement has 4 significant digits. Therefore, the answer should be
rounded to four significant digits. The answer should be reported as 254.2 cm2.
When you are finding the average of several measurements, remember that numbers found by
counting have an infinite number of significant digits.
For example, a student measures the distance between two magnets when their attractive force
is first felt. He repeats the experiment three times. His results are: 23.25 cm, 23.30 cm, 23.20
cm.
To find the average distance, He adds the three times and divides the sum by three. Three is
the number of times the experiment is repeated.
23.25 cm + 23.30 cm + 23.20 cm
----------------------------------------------------------------------- = 23.25 cm
3
In this equation, the number 3 is found by counting the number of times the experiment is
repeated, not by measuring something. Therefore it is said to have an infinite number of
significant digits. Thats why the answer has four significant digits, not just one.
4. Practice doing calculations with significant digits

Have you ever participated in a road race? The following problems are all related to a road race
event. Can you come up with some other problems that you might have to solve if you were
running in or volunteering for a road race?
1. The banner over the finish line of a running race is 4.00 meters long and 0.75 meters high.
What is the area of the banner?
2. Heidi stops at three water stations during the running race. She drinks 0.25 liters of water at
the first stop, 0.3 liters at the second stop, and 0.37 liters at the third stop. How much water
does she consume throughout the race?
3. The race has been held annually for ten years. The high temperatures for the race dates (in
degrees Celsius) are listed in the table below. What is the average temperature for the day of
the race based on the temperatures for the past ten years? Write your answer in the bottom
row in the table.
Table 2: Race Day Temperatures for Each Year
Year Number of Race
Race Day Temperature

(C)
27.2
2
3
18.3
28.9
22.2
5
6
7
8
9
10
Average Temperature
20.6
25.5
21.1
23.9
26.7
27.8
1. Challenge! Ji-Sun has participated in the race for the past four years. His times, reported in
minutes:seconds, were 40:30, 43:40, 39:06, and 38:52. What is his average time to complete
the race? (Hint: Convert all times to seconds before averaging!)
2. Come up with one more problem that uses information that is related to a road race. Write
your problem in the space below and come up with the answer. Be sure to write your answer
with the correct number of significant digits.
Name:
Skill Builder
Solving Equations
How do you make sense of physics equations? Do they sometimes seem like alphabet soup?
This skill sheet takes you step-by-step through the process of solving word problems in
physical science.
1. What is a variable?
Suppose you are walking home after school. The distance from
school to your home is five kilometers. On foot, you can get
home in 25 minutes. However, if you rode a bicycle, you could
get home in 10 minutes. How could you figure out how much
faster you travel on your bicycle?
First, you need to find how fast you travel on foot and how fast
you travel by bicycle.
You are probably familiar with this formula:
dis tan ce
speed = ------------------------time
In physics, we often write the formula for speed like this:
d
v = --t
v, d, and t are known as variables. The word variable comes from the same root as the word vary,
which means to change. They are called variables because the numbers that they represent can
change. If we know the numbers represented by any two of the variables, we can find the third.
2. Solving equations
To calculate your average speed while walking, substitute the numbers that you know for the
letters in the formula.
walking speed = distance
----------------------time
d
v = --t
5 km v = -----------------------------25 minutes
v = 0.2 km minute
1. Now use the same method to figure out your speed while bicycling.
2. How much faster do you travel by bicycle?
Skill Builder Solving Equations
3. Rearranging variables
Sometimes you have to rearrange the equation in order to find the information you want. For
example, you may know the speed and time, but not the distance.
After getting home from school, you might decide to
walk to a friends home. This walk takes you 10
minutes. Assuming you walk the same speed as you
walked home from school, how far is it to your friends
home?
Start with the same formula: v = d
--- How can you find
t
d?
The formula for speed is called an equation because the
amount on the left side of the equals sign is the same as
the amount on the right. Equations are balanced.
If you multiply both sides of the equation by the same
number, both sides will still be balanced. Lets try it:
d
v t = --- t
t
We can simplify the right side of the equation. Dividing
by t, then multiplying by t, is the same as multiplying by 1. The ts cancel each other out, leaving:
vt = d
Now substitute the numbers that you know into the equation:
0.2 km minute 10 minutes = distance
2 km = distance
1. Suppose you ride your bicycle to the library. You go the same speed as you bicycled home from
school. It takes you 25 minutes to get to the library. How far did you travel?
2. Challenge: You ride your bike for a distance of 30 km. You travel at a speed of
0.75 km/ minute. How many minutes does this take?
4. Solving other equations

Which is more difficult to stop: A tractortrailer truck barreling down the highway
at 35 meters per second, or a small twoseater sports car traveling the same
speed?
You probably guessed that it takes more
force to stop a large truck than a small
car. In physics terms, we say that the
truck has greater momentum.
We can find momentum using this equation:
momentum = mass of object velocity of object
Velocity is a term that refers to both speed and direction. For our purposes we will assume that
the vehicles are traveling in a straight line. In that case, velocity and speed are the same.
The equation for momentum is abbreviated like this: p = m v .
P is momentum, expressed in units of kgm/s; m is the mass of the object, in kg; and v is the
velocity of the object in m/s.
Use your knowledge about solving equations to work out the following problems:
1. If the truck has a mass of 2,000 kg, what is its momentum? Express your answer in kgm/s.
2. If the car has a mass of 1,000 kg, what is its momentum?
3. An 8 kg bowling ball is rolling in a straight line toward you. If its momentum is 16 kgm/s,
how fast is it traveling?
4. A beach ball is rolling in a straight line toward you at a speed of 0.5 m/s. Its momentum is
0.25 kgm/s. What is the mass of the beach ball?
5. Extra practice problems with speed

Directions: Record your answers on separate paper or in your notebook. Show all of your work.
1. A train travels 225 kilometers in 2.5 hours. What is the trains average speed?
2. An airplane travels 3,260 kilometers in 4 hours. What is the airplanes average speed?
3. A kayaker paddles down river at an average speed of 10 km/h. After 3.25 hours, how far has
she traveled?
4. The same kayaker paddles upstream at an average speed of 4 km/h. How long would it take
her to get back to her starting point?
5. An airplane travels from St. Louis to Portland, Oregon in 4.33 hours. If the distance traveled
is 2,742 kilometers, what is the airplanes average speed?
6. The airplane returns to St. Louis by the same route. Because the prevailing winds push the
airplane along, the return trip takes only 3.75 hours. What is the average speed for this trip?
7. The airplane refuels in St. Louis and continues on to Boston. It travels at an average speed of
610 km/h. If the trip takes 2.75 hours, what is the flight distance between St. Louis and
Boston?
8. The speed of light is about 3.00 105 km/s. It takes approximately 1.28 seconds for light
reflected from the moon to reach Earth. What is the average distance from Earth to the moon?
9. The average distance from the sun to Pluto is approximately 6.10 109 km. How long does it
take light from the sun to reach Pluto? Use the speed of light from the previous question to
help you.
6. Extra practice problems with momentum

Directions: Record your answers on separate paper or in your notebook. Show all of your work.
1. A 4,000 kg truck travels in a straight line at 10.0 m/s. What is its momentum?
2. A 1,400 kg car is also traveling in a straight line. Its momentum is equal to that of the truck
in the previous question. What is the velocity of the car?
3. Which would take more force to stop: An 8.0 kg ball rolling in a straight line at a speed of
0.4 m/sec or a 3.7 kg ball rolling along the same path at a speed of 0.9 m/s?
4. The momentum of a car traveling in a straight line at 20 m/sec is 24,500 kgm/s. What is the
mass of the car?
5. A 0.14 kg baseball is thrown in a straight line at a velocity of 30 m/s. What is the momentum
of the baseball?
6. Another pitcher throws the same baseball in a straight line. Its momentum is 2.1 kgm/sec.
What is the velocity of the ball?
7. A 1 kg turtle crawls in a straight line at a speed of 0.01 m/sec. What is the turtles
momentum?
Name:
Skill Builder
Working with Quantities and Rates
Practice with quantities and rates
Knowing how to work with quantities and rates is important for solving equations. This skill
sheet will help you solve the equations you encounter in your physical science class.
1. What is a quantity?
A quantity describes an amount of something. It has two parts: a number, and a unit. The number
tells how many. The unit tells of what. For example, 10 apples is a quantity. 10 is the number,
apples is the unit. You have been using quantities ever since you learned to count!
2. Practice solving problems with quantities

When you solve problems with quantities, remember that you cant combine quantities unless
they have the same unit. For example, 5 apples + 5 pears cant be combined, but
5 apples + 5 apples can be combined to make 10 apples.
When you multiply or divide quantities, the units get multiplied or divided too. For example,
10 cm 10 cm = 100 cm cm, or 100 cm2.
Practice your skills with quantities in the problems below. Make sure that you include units in
your answer. If the quantities cant be combined, write cant combine in the answer space.
1. 5 inches 4 inches =
2. 12 eggs + 12 eggs =
3. 12 cookies 5 candy bars =
4. 12 cookies 5 cookies =
5. 120 erasers 10 boxes =
6. 120 erasers 12 erasers =
Skill Builder Working with Quantities and Rates
3. What is a rate?
A rate describes a relationship between two quantities. Rates are commonly described as
something per something, like 50 miles per hour. Per means for every or for each. In
science, we often use a fraction bar or slash to represent the word per, as in 10 cookies/dollar.
Rates are usually written in the fractions lowest terms. For example, if you received $100 for
working 10 hours, you could write:
100 dollars
10 dollars
----------------------- = --------------------10 hours
1 hour
Sometimes you will be asked to multiply two rates. This is often done to change one unit to
another. For example, if you wanted to know how much you were paid per minute, you could set
up a problem like this:
10 dollars
1 hour
dollars 0.17 dollar
--------------------- ------------------------ = --10
---------------------- = ---------------------1 hour
60 minutes
60 minutes
1 minute
Notice that the rules for multiplying fractions apply to units, too. Since hour appears in the
numerator and the denominator, the hour unit is cancelled.
4. Practice solving problems with rates

Practice your skills with rates in the problems below. Some of the units you will see are real (like
seconds) and some are made up (like blinks). Even with made up units, the rules for algebra and
arithmetic still apply. Make sure that you reduce fractions to their lowest terms and include units
in your answer.
$36
1. ---------------- =
3 hours
2.
48 students
---------------------------- =
2 classrooms
3.
10 meters 60 seconds
--------------------- ------------------------ =
second
1 minute
4.
15 winks 10 blinks
------------------ ------------------ =
5 clinks
5 winks
5. Practice with units

In the next practice set, the numbers have been eliminated so that you can focus on the units. In
the space provided, write the unit that should go in the parentheses so that each side of the
equation is equal. Use the example to help you get started. Note that singular and plural units do
cancel one another.
Problem:
miles
----------- hours = miles
(
)
1.
cm
-------------- seconds = (
second
2.
commercials
-------------------------- program = commercials
(
)
3.
(
)
-------------------- pound = shrimp
pound
4. seconds (
5. cm2 (
6.
7.
Answer:
) = seconds2
) = cm3
(
)
-------------------- pencils = boxes
(
)
( kg m )
----------------- (
2
) = m
miles
------------- hours = miles
(hour)
8.
1
( clinks ) ( winks ) ------------ = (
blinks
9.
miles hours minutes

--------------- ------------------ --------------------- = (
hours minute second
centimeter millimeter
10. ------------------------------ ------------------------------ = (
hour
centimeter
11. (
12.
pizzas dollars
) ------------------ ------------------ = dollars
person pizza
calories
--------------------- minute
------------------ (
minute
hour
) = calories
games
$
13. ----------------- ------------------------- years = $
year (
)
heartbeats
minute
hour
14. ------------------------------- ------------------------- ------------ days = heartbeats
minute
(
) day
centimeters second
meter
kilometer
miles
15. --------------------------------- ------------------- ------------------------- -------------------------- -------------------------- = miles
-------------second
hour
(
)
meter
kilometer
hour
Answer Keys
Skill Sheet 1: Speed Problems
Part 1 answers:
1. Sample problem; 28 m/sec
2. 17 km/hr
3. 55 mph
4. 4.5 seconds
5. 5.9 hours
6. 4.0 km
7. 4.5 meters
Part 2 answers:
1. Sample problem; 63 mph
2. 490 mph
3. 2.5 miles
4a. 2.54 cm/ inch
4b. 12 inches/min
Skill Sheet 2: Solving Acceleration Problems

Part 1 answers:
1. 25 m/sec2
2. 2.7 m/sec2
3. -0.75 m/sec2
4. -8.9 m/sec2
5. 23 mph/sec
6. 25 km/hr/sec
7. The cheetah. The cheetahs acceleration in km/hr/sec is 37
km/hr/sec, which is 12 km/hr/sec faster than the car.
Part 2 answers:
1. 22 m/sec
2. 5.7 seconds
3. 7.5 seconds
4. 88 mph
Skill Sheet 3-A: Newtons Second Law

Part 3 answers:
1. 6,000 N
2. 10 kg
3. 2.1 m/sec2
4. 83 m/sec2
5. 82 N
6. 6 kg
7. 9800 N
8. 900 kg
9. 1.9 m/sec2
Part 1 answers:
There are no questions to answer in part 1.
Part 2 answers:
What do you
want to know?
What do you
know?
The formula
you will use
acceleration (a)
Force (F)
and mass (m)
------------mass
mass (m)
acceleration (a)
and Force (F)
Force
mass = ----------------------------acceleration
Force (F)
acceleration (a)
and mass (m)
Force = mass acceleration
Skill Sheet 3-B: Mass vs. Weight

Part 3 answers:
Part 4 answers:
1. As the elevator begins to accelerate upward, the scale reading
is greater than the normal weight.
2. When the elevator is at rest, the scale reads the normal weight.
3. As the elevator accelerates downward, the scale reads less
than the normal weight.
4. The weight appears to change because the spring is being
squeezed between the top and the bottom of the scale. When
the elevator accelerates upward, it is as if the bottom of the
scale is being pushed up while the top is being pushed down.
The upward force is what causes the spring to be compressed
more than it is normally. When the elevator accelerates
downward, the bottom of the scale provides less of a
supporting force for the feet to push against. Therefore, the
spring is not compressed as much and the scale reads less than
the normal weight.
Part 1 answers:
1. 16 pounds
2. 2.6 pounds
3. 7.0 kilograms
Part 2 answers:
1. If you stepped on a bathroom scale on the moon, the spring
would be compressed one-sixth as much as it would on Earth.
The dial would tell you that your weight was one-sixth of
your Earth weight.
2. Yes, a balance would function correctly on the moon. The
unknown mass would tip the balance one-sixth as far as it
would on Earth, but the masses of known quantity would tip
the balance one-sixth as far in the opposite direction as they
did on Earth. The net result is that it would take the same
amount of mass to equalize the balance on the moon as it did
on Earth. (In the free fall environment of the space shuttle,
however, the masses wouldnt stay on the balance, so the
balance would not work).
1
Answer Keys
Skill Sheet 3-C: Momentum

Parts 1 and 2:
There are no questions to answer in parts 1 or 2.
Part 4 answers:
1. 1 m/sec
2. The first ball has a momentum of 5 kg-m/sec. The stationary
ball has zero momentum because it has zero velocity.
3. The total momentum before is 5 kg-m/sec. The momentum
after is 5 kg-m/sec.
4. The momentum of the 20-kg cart is 400 kg-m/sec. The
momentum of the 25-kg cart is 250 kg-m/sec.
5. The total momentum before the collision is 650 kg-m/sec.
The final momentum is 650 kg-m/sec.
6. The speed of the 25-kg cart is 18 m/sec after the collision.
7. Because the 20-kg cart has more momentum and is moving
right, it will push the 25-kg right after the collision. Both carts
will move right after the collision.
Part 3 answers:
1. 0.6 km-m/sec
2. 2.5 kg-m/sec
3. 350 kg-m/sec
4. 375 kg-m/sec
5. The fullback because the defensive back has more momentum.
6. 6.7 kg
7. 400 m/sec
Skill Sheet 3-D: Applying Newtons Laws of Motion

Part 1 answers:
Newtons
laws of
motion
The
first
law
The
second
law
The
third
law
Write the law here

in your own words
An object will
continue moving in a
straight line at
constant speed unless
acted upon by an
outside force.
The acceleration (a)
of an object is
directly proportional
to the force (F) on an
object and inversely
proportional to its
mass (m). The
formula that
represents this law is
F
a = ---m
For every action
force there is an
equal and opposite
reaction force.
Part 2 answers:
1. The purse continues to move forward and fall off of the
seat whenever the car comes to a stop. This is due to
Newtons first law of motion which states that objects will
continue their motion unless acted upon by an outside
force. In this case, the floor of the car is the stopping force
for the purse.
2. She should place her wallet in the glove box for easy
access and the rest of her items in the trunk. Because of the
first law, these objects will be stopped by an outside force
(the walls of the trunk or glove box) should she stop
suddenly. It is important to secure both large and small
items because of the second law which states that mass
resists acceleration. Because of this, smaller items with
less mass could accelerate faster than the heavy items and
cause injury even though they are small.
3. Newtons third law of motion states that forces come in
action and reaction pairs. When a diver exerts a force
down on the diving board, the board exerts and equal and
opposite force upward on the diver. The diver can use this
force to allow himself to be catapulted into the air for a
really dramatic dive or cannonball.
4.
Example of the law

A seat belt in a car
prevents you from
continuing to move
forward when your car
suddenly stops. The seat
belt provides the
outside force.
A bowling ball and a
basketball, if dropped
from the same height at
the same time, will fall
to Earth in the same
amount of time. The
resistance of the heavier
ball to being moved due
to its inertia is balanced
by the greater
gravitational force on
this ball.
When you push on a
wall, it pushes back on
you.
0.3 m
sec
F =
65 kg
0.3 m
sec
65 kg = 19.5 kg
m
sec
5.
2 kg m
a=
2N
10 kg
sec
10 kg
= 0.2
m
sec
Skill Sheet 4-A: Mechanical Advantage

Part 3 answers:
1. Sample problem; mechanical advantage = 0.3
2. output force = 150 N
3. mechanical advantage = 1.5
Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
1. Sample problem; mechanical advantage = 5
2. input force = 100 N
3. output force = 26 N
4. mechanical advantage = 3
Answer Keys
Skill Sheet 4-B: Gear Ratios

Part 3 answers:
Table 2: Set up for three gears
Set Gears Number Ratio 1
up
of teeth
(top
gear:
middle
gear)
Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
1. Sample problem; 4 turns
2. 9 turns
3. 1 turn
4.
Table 1: Using the gear ratio to calculate number of turns
Input
Output
Gear
How many How many
Gear
Gear
ratio
turns does turns does
the output
the input
(# of
(# of
(Input Gear:
gear make gear make if
teeth)
teeth) Output Gear)
if the input the output
gear turns gear turns 2
3 times?
times?
24
24
36
12
0.67, or 2/3
of a turn
24
36
0.67, or 2/3
48
36
1.33, or 4/3
1.5
24
48
0.5, or 1/2
1.5
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Top gear
12
Middle
gear
24
Bottom
gear
36
Top gear
24
Middle
gear
36
Bottom
gear
12
Top gear
12
Middle
gear
48
Bottom
gear
24
Top gear
24
Middle
gear
48
Bottom
gear
36
Ratio 2
(middle
gear:
bottom
gear)
Total gear
ratio
(Ratio 1 x
Ratio 2)
1
--2
2
--3
1
--3
2
--3
3
--1
2
--1
1
--4
4
--2
1
--2
1
--2
4
--3
2--3
The middle gear turns left. The bottom gear turns right.
3 times
4 times
1/2 time
6 times
Skill Sheet 5-A: Work

Part 3 answers:
1. Sample problem; 50 joules
2. 100 joules
3. 100,000 joules
4. No work was done by the mouse. The force on the ant was
upward, but the distance was horizontal.
5. 1.2 meters
6. 31 pounds
7. 2,500 N or 562 pounds
8. 54 joules
9. 683 joules
10. 0.50 meters
11. 60,000 joules
12. 70,000 joules by the people-mover, 100 joules per person.
Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
1. Work is force acting upon an object to move it a certain
distance. In scientific terms, work occurs ONLY when the
force is applied in the same direction as the movement.
2. Work is equal to force multiplied by distance.
3. Work can be represented in joules or newton-meters.
Answer Keys
Skill Sheet 5-B: Power

Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
1. Sample problem; 250 watts
2. 50 watts
3. 741 watts
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
720 watts
work = 500 joules; power = 33 watts
work = 1500 joules; time = 60 seconds
force = 25 newtons; power = 250 watts
distance = 100 meters; power = 1,000 watts
force = 333 newtons; work = 5,000 joules
Skill Sheet 5-C: Potential and Kinetic Energy

Parts 1 to 4:
There are no questions to answer in parts 1 through 4.
Part 3 answers:
1. Sample problem; Although the boy and his father were
running at the same speed, the father has more kinetic energy
because he has more mass.
2
m
Boy: 1--- ( 50 kg ) 5-------2
sec
m
= 625 kg ---------2
sec
m
Father: 1--- ( 100 kg ) 5-------2
4. The object with more mass had more kinetic energy while
being lifted. The kinetic energy of the 2 kg-object was 4 kgm2/sec2. The kinetic energy of the 4 kg-object was
18 kg-m2/sec2.
5. Although each object is lifted to the same height, the 4 kgobject has more potential energy because it has more mass.
sec
E p = 2 kg
2
m
= 1250 kg ---------2
sec
E p = 4 kg
Potential energy
(newton-meters)
1.0
1.5
7.5
2.0
10
sec
9.8 m
sec
10 m = 196 N m
10 m = 392 N m
sec
6b. 1.7 meters

6c. 5.7 m/sec
7a. 450 kg-m2/s2
7b. 450 kg-m2/s2
7c. 46 m
8. The potential energy is zero because the ball is not high.
9. 25,000 kg-m2/s2
10. 4m/sec
11. 75 kg
mgh = ( 10 N ) ( 2.5 m ) = 25 N m
Shelf height
(meters)
9.8 m
m6a. 588 kg --------= 588 N

2
2. Sample problem; The books weight (10 newtons) is equal to

its mass times the acceleration of gravity. Therefore, you can
easily use this value in the potential energy formula:
3.
( )
( )
Skill Sheet 7-A: Using an Electrical Meter

Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
Part 3 answers:
1. first battery: 1.553 volts; second battery: 1.557 volts
2. first bulb: 1.514 volts; second bulb: 1.586 volts
3. 3.113 volts
4.
5. post #1: 0.0980 amps

post #2: 0.0981 amps
Answer Keys
resistance of air is too high for a small amount of current to

cross, the meter reports very high resistance.
7. A fuse contains a wire that will melt or break if more than a
safe amount of current (12 amps, for example) is applied.
When the wire melts or breaks, the circuit is broken and the
current stops. If you measure the resistance of a fuse and the
meter displays OL or the infinity symbol, the fuse must
have a melted or broken wire. The current would have to pass
through air to complete the circuit. As a result, the meter
reports very high resistance.
8. Wires would normally have very low resistance, because they
are made of copper or other metals through which electricity
easily flows. If the measured resistance of a wire is very high,
it must have a break in it.
6. Sample answer:
Sometimes light bulbs are made with frosted glass, which
makes it impossible to see the tungsten filament inside. You
can use an electrical meter to figure out if the tungsten
filament is burned out.
First, set the meter dial to measure resistance. Then place one
lead on the side of the metal portion of the light bulb (where
the bulb is threaded to fit into the socket). Place the other lead
on the bump at the base of the light bulb.
Check the meter reading. If the meter reports a small value for
resistance, the tungsten filament is intact. If the meter
displays OL or the infinity symbol, the filament must be
burned out. A burned out filament has a break in it,
creating an open circuit. The electrical current would have to
pass through air to complete the circuit. Because the
Skill Sheet 7-B: Voltage, Current, and Resistance

Part 1 answers:
A battery with a larger voltage can create a greater energy
difference. In other words, the battery has greater potential
difference and, therefore, greater energy to contribute to the circuit.
A 9-volt battery has 6 times more energy than a 1.5-volt battery.
Part 2 answers:
1. You could increase the number of batteries, which would
increase the total voltage in the circuit. You could replace the
light bulb with a bulb of lower resistance. You could also use
thicker wires, shorter wires, or wires made from a material with
a higher conductivity. These changes to the wires would
decrease the total amount of resistance in the circuit.
2. If the circuit used a 9-volt battery, you could try replacing it with
five (or less than five) 1.5-volt batteries to lower the voltage in the
circuit. You could replace the bulb with a bulb of higher
resistance. Or, you could use thinner wires, longer wires, or wires
made from a material with a lower conductivity. These changes to
the wires would increase the total resistance in the circuit. To stop
the flow of current completely, you could simply open the switch.
Part 3 answers:
You could simply cut each piece of wire in the circuit as short as
possible. A shorter wire has less resistance than a longer wire. To
make a more significant decrease in resistance, you would need
to replace the wire with a thicker gauge wire or a wire made from
a material with greater conductivity.
Part 4 answers:
Ohms law states that, in a circuit, the amount of current that can
flow is directly related to voltage, and inversely related to the
resistance in the circuit.
Part 5 answers:
1. Sample problem; 1 amp
2. 1.5 amps
3. 0.75 amps
4. 50 volts
5. 12 ohms
Skill Sheet 8-A: Ohms Law

Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
1. 10 amps
2. 3 ohms
3. 120 volts
4a. Diagram A: 6 volts; Diagram B: 12 volts
4b. Diagram A: 1 amp; Diagram B: 2 amps
4c. Diagram A: 0.5 amp; Diagram B: 1 amp

4d. As you increase voltage, the brightness of the bulbs will increase.
5a. Diagram A: 0.5 amp; Diagram B: 1 amp
5b. Diagram A: 0.25 amp; Diagram B: 0.5 amp
5c. If voltage remains the same, adding bulbs in a series circuit
decreases the brightness of the bulbs.
6. Current increases.
7. Current decreases.
Skill Sheet 8-B: Electrical Power

Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
Part 3 answers:
1. Sample problem: 270,000 joules
2. 5,400 seconds, or 90 minutes
3. 1,080 watts
4. 240 volts
5. 0.5 amps
6. 8.3 amps
7. Your friend with the 300-watt stereo will pay more for the
energy used in an hour of play. This is because more twice as
much energy is used per second for the 300-watt stereo than
for the 150-watt stereo.
8. Since power is voltage times current, as current changes, the
power used per appliance will change. Each appliance can be
designed to carry the amount of current needed to run well.
Most electrical appliances in a dining room or living room
would run on 10 amps of current or less. However, in a
kitchen you may have an electric stove and oven that requires
40 amps of current. A special circuit with thicker wires is
installed there so that the circuit does not overheat and pose a
fire hazard.
Part 4 answers:
1. The equation for mechanical power is: power = work/time.
The unit for power is watts. The unit for work is joules, and
5
Answer Keys
time is measured in seconds. Work in this equation is found

by multiplying force (newtons) by distance (meters). One
joule is equal to one newton-meter.
The difference between the two equations is how you arrive at

the power calculation. For electrical machines, you multiply
the voltage times current to get units of joules per second. For
mechanical machines, you measure the amount of work
performed by the machine in joules and divide by the time
taken to do that amount of work.
2. The equations for electrical power and mechanical power are

virtually the same. The units, joules per second, are the same
whether you are talking about electrical or mechanical power.
Skill Sheet 8-C: Electric Power and Ohms Law

Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
1a. 1.2 kW
1b 0.4 kWh
1c. 12 kWh/month
1d. $1.80
2. 0.63 amps
3. 960 W = 0.96 kW
4a. 3 V
4b. 3 ohms
4c. 1 amp
4d. 3 W
5a. 24 ohms
5b. 600 W; 0.6 kW
6a. 20 amps
6b. 11 ohms
7a. 12 ohms
7b. 1,200 W = 1.2 kW
7c. 0.6 kWh
7d. 18 kWh
7e. $2.52
Skill Sheet 9-A: Parallel and Series Circuits

Part 1 answers:
1a. 12 volts
1b. 4 ohms
1c. 3 amps
1d. 6 volts
1e.
3a. 6 ohms
3b. 1.5 amps
3c. 2 ohm resistor: 3 volts
3 ohm resistor: 4.5 volts
1 ohm resistor: 1.5 volts
3d.
Part 2 answers:
1a. 12 volts
1b. 6 amps
1c. 12 volts
2. The current flow through each bulb in series is 3 amp.
Through each bulb in parallel, current flow is 6 amps. The
bulbs in the parallel circuit are brighter.
3a. 9 volts
3b. Branch with 2 ohm resistor: 4.5 amps
Branch with 3 ohm resistor: 3 amps
Branch with 1 ohm resistor: 9 amps
3c. The 2 ohm resistor uses 40.5 watts.
The 3 ohm resistor uses 27 watts.
The 1 ohm resistor uses 81 watts.
3d. The more current drawn by a resistor, the more power it uses.
As current increases, power increases.
2a. 2 ohms
2b. 1 volt
2c.
Skill Sheet 9-B: Open and Closed Circuits

Solving problems answers:
1a. A, B
1b. A, C, D
1c. A, B, C
6
Answer Keys
3.
1d. no current flows

1e. A, B, D
1f. B, C, D
1g. A, C
1h. A
1i. A
1j. no current flows
2a. A, B, C, D, E
2b. A, B, C,D, E, F
2c. A, B, C, D, E
2d. A, B, C, D, F
2e. A, B, C
2f. B, C, D, E, F
2g. no current flows
2h. B, C, D, F
2i. A, B, C, D, F
2j. A, B, C
2k. A, B, C, D, E
2l. B, C
2m.A, B, C
2n. no current flows
2o. B, C
4. diagram #1: 4 paths; diagram #2: 8 paths

5. Student drawings will vary. If time permits, allow students to
build and test their circuits.
Skill Sheet 9-C: Electric Circuit Project

This skill sheet is a project. There are no questions to answer.
Skill Sheet 11: Harmonic Motion

Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
1a. 2 seconds
1b. 0.5 Hz
1c. 24
2. Amplitude decreases due to the friction between the swing
chain and the frame to which it is connected. The gradual loss
of amplitude of a pendulum (an oscillator) due to friction is
called damping. Eventually, due to friction, the pendulum will
stop moving and hang straight down.
3a. 100 centimeters
3b. The graphic shows 3.5 wavelengths. A wavelength is defined

as the harmonic motion from peak-to-peak or from trough-totrough of a wave.
4a. The length of the string
4b. The two trials in which the string length is 30 centimeters.
4c. The two trials in which the string length is 10 centimeters.
4d. Due to the acceleration of gravity, the force that pulls on the
pendulum increases as mass increases. However, increased
mass means greater inertia and less acceleration. The two
factors, force and mass, offset each other. This is Newtons
second law of motion. For this reason, adding mass to the
pendulum does not alter its period.
Skill Sheet 12: Waves

Part 1 answers:
1.
4. The frequency of a wave is the inverse of the period or

1/period in seconds. The frequency is also the number of
waves that pass a certain point per second.
2 waves
40 waves
5. frequency = --------------------------- = ---------------------0.05 second
sec
Part 2 answers:
1. The wavelength divided by the period is the same a
multiplying the wavelength by the inverse of the period
(1/period). The frequency of a wave is equal to 1/period,
therefore, these two ways of calculating the wave speed are
the same.
2. 2.5 meters
3. 5,000 m/sec
2. Two wavelengths
3. The amplitude of a wave is the distance that the wave moves
beyond the average point of its motion. In the graphic, the
amplitude of the wave is 5 centimeters.
7
Answer Keys
harmonic (the fundamental) has one bump. The second

harmonic has two bumps and so on.
2. The wavelength of the fundamental harmonic of a 5-meter
vibrating string would be 10 meters. The one bump on the
string at this harmonic represents half of wavelength.
Therefore, the entire wavelength is: 2 x 5 meters.
4. The speed of wave A is 7,500 m/sec. The speed of wave B is

6,500 m/sec. Wave B is faster.
Part 3 answers:
Harmonic
#
Frequency
Wavelength
(Hz)
(m)
Speed of the
Wave Frequency
times wavelength
(m/sec)
18
18
18
12.0
1.5
18
15
1.2
18
18
18
1. You can easily determine the harmonics of a vibrating string

by counting the number of bumps on the string. The first
Skill Sheet 15-A: Ray Diagrams

Part 1 answers:
1. A is the correct answer. Light travels in straight lines and
reflects off objects in all directions. This is why you can see
something from different angles.
2. C is the correct answer.
3. As a ray of light approaches glass at an angle, it bends
(refracts) toward the normal. As it leaves the glass, it bends
away from the normal. However, if a ray of light enters a
piece of glass perpendicular to the glass surface, the light ray
will slow, but not bend because it is already in line with the
normal. This happens because the index of refraction for air is
different from the index of refraction of glass. The index of
refraction is simply a ratio that tells you how much light is
slowed when it passes through a certain material.
4. A is the correct answer. Light rays that approach the lens that
are in line with a normal to the surface pass right through,
slowing but not bending. This is what happens at the principal
axis. However, due to the curvature of the lens, the parallel
light rays above and below the principal axis hit the lens
surface at an angle. These rays bend toward the normal (this
bending occurs toward the fat part of the lens) and are focused
at the focal point of the lens. Past the focal point, the rays
cross.
5.
Part 3 answers:
1.
Part 2 answers:
3. A lens acts like a magnifying glass if an object is placed to the

left of a converging lens at a distance less than the focal length.
The lens bends the rays so that they appear to be coming from a
larger, more distant object than the real object. These rays you
see form a virtual image. The image is virtual because the rays
appear to come from an image, but dont actually meet.
2.
Answer Keys
Skill Sheet 15-B: The Law of Reflection

Part 1 answers:
1a and 1b.
4.
2. The angle of reflection will be 30 degrees.

3. Each angle will measure 45 degrees.
Part 2 answers:
1. The angle is 96 degrees. There for the angles of incidence and
reflection will each be 48 degrees.
2. The angles of incidence and reflection at point A are each
68.5 degrees; the angles of incidence and reflection at point B
are each 21 degrees.
Skill Sheet 16: Indirect Measurement

Part 1 answers:
Answers will vary based on height of selected object.
Part 2 answers:
The thickness of a compact disk is approximately 1.3 mm.
Part 3 answers:
1. The mass of one staple is 0.0324 g.
2. The mass of the block of marble is 324,000 grams or 324 kg.
3. Sample answers:
- Fill the dropper with water from the glass.
- Place drops of water one-by-one into the graduated cylinder.
Count the number of drops it takes to reach the 5.0 mL mark
on the graduated cylinder.
- Divide 5.0 mL by the number of drops to find the volume of
one drop.
4. One business card is 0.0336 cm thick.

5. Sample answer:
(1) Remove the newspaper from the recycling bin.
(2) Unfold each sheet and smooth the paper.
(3) Neatly stack the sheets of paper.
(4) Place the newspaper on a flat surface.
(5) Place something heavy, like a hardbound book, on the
newspaper to remove excess space between the sheets of paper.
(6) Measure the height of the stack of newspaper.
(7) Divide the stack of paper by the number of sheets.
Note to teacher: This question is designed to prompt students to
think about sources of experimental error. You may wish to ask
the students what would happen if they divided the height of
the recycle bin by the number of sheets of newsprint multiplied
by 4. Why wouldnt this method yield an accurate result?
Skill Sheet 17-A: Density

Part 3 answers:
3a. 1,000 cm3
3b. 29.8 cm3
3c. 11.4 mL
Part 4 answers:
4a. density = 0.96 g/cm3, HDPE
4b. 76,000 g or 76 kg
4c. 11
4d. HDPE, LDPE, PP. (PS would probably be suspended.)
Part 1 answers:
1a. 1.10 g/cm3
1b. 0.87 g/cm3
1c. 2.7 g/cm3
Part 2 answers:
2a. 920,000 grams or 920 kg.
2b. 2420 grams or 2.42 kg
2c. 1030 grams or 1.03 kg
Skill Sheet 17-B: Ratios and Proportions

Parts 1 through 3 answers:
3. 1/2
4. 180 cm3
5. 15 kg
6. 3,333 joules of work
7a. 60 cheesecakes
7b. 15 blueberry; 15 chocolate; 30 plain
7c. 20 carrot cakes
Part 4:
1. 100 red apples/250 total apples; 150 green apples/250 total
apples
2. 250 CDs
9
Answer Keys
Skill Sheet 17-C: Buoyancy

Part 1 answers:
Part 3 answers:
1. The object will sink.

2. The object will float.
3. Sample answer: I think the object is more likely to float in
molasses than vegetable oil. In the problems, I learned the
object sunk in water but floated in a dense, gooey liquid like
glycerin. Molasses is dense and gooey like glycerin while
vegetable oil is not.
Part 2 answers:
1. Buoyant force is 0.12 N.
2. Buoyant force is 0.10 N.
3. Sample answer: The light corn syrup had greater buoyant force.
We used both of these liquids to make a density column in a lab
earlier in this unit. The corn syrup is more dense than the
vegetable oil. Maybe that is why is has greater buoyant force.

Part 4 answers:
1. Completed as example for students.
2a. 0.069 N
2b. The paraffin will sink in the gasoline.
3a. 0.39 N
3b. The platinum will sink in the molasses.
4a. 1.95 N
4b. The gold will sink in the mercury.
5. In each case, a material sinks in a fluid if it is more dense than the
fluid. It floats in a fluid if it is less dense than the fluid. For
example, lead is less dense than mercury. Lead floats in mercury.
Paraffin is more dense than gasoline. Paraffin sinks in gasoline.
Platinum is more dense than molasses. Platinum sinks in molasses.
Skill Sheet 17-D: Gases and Pressure

Parts 1 and 2:
2. 563 kPa
3. 570 L
4. 20.7 L
5. 62.5 L
There are no questions to answer in parts 1 and 2.

Part 3 answers:
1. 22.9 L
Skill Sheet 18-A: Atoms, Ions, and Isotopes

Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
1. protium has 0 neutrons; deuterium has 1 neutron; tritium has 2

neutrons
2a. 3
2b. Lithium
2c. 7
2d. 7Li
1. Bromine-80
2. Potassium-39 has 20 neutrons.
Part 3 answers:
1. +1
2. +2
Skill Sheet 18-B: Electrons and the Periodic Table

Part 5 answers:
1. Although the energy level number differs, elements in the
same group have the same number (and pattern) of electrons
in the outermost s and p orbitals.
2. Molybdenum (Mo) and platinum (Pt) both have electrons in d
orbitals.
3. Gadolinium (Gd) and uranium (U) both have electrons in f
orbitals.
4. Radon (Rn) and krypton (Kr) are both in group 18.

Part 4 answers:
Element
Electron
configuration
[Ar] 4s1
To which group does this element

belong?
1
Rb
{Kr} 5s1
Mg
[Ne] 3s
[Xe] 6s
Ba
Tl
14
10
2
2
[Xe] 4f 5d 6s 6p
[Ar] 3d 4s 4p
Pb
[Xe] 4f145d106s26p2
Sn
[Kr] 4d105s25p2
14
Mo
[Kr] 4d55s1
6; transition element
[He] 2s22p3
Sb
10
15
14
10; transition element
[Xe] 4f 5d 6s
Se
[Ar] 3d104s24p4
10
[Xe] 4f 5d 6s 6p
Br
[Ar] 3d 4s 4p
Gd
4f75d16s2
Cl
Kr
10
[Xe]
16
4
3d104s24p6
[Rn] 5f 6d 7s
Rn
[Xe] 4f145d106s26p6
16
17
lanthanide series
17
[Ne] 3s23p5
[Ar]
14
15
[Kr] 4d 5s 5p
14
13
Pt
Po
Part 6 answers:
1. 2 electrons
2. 6 electrons
3. 8 electrons
4. All the electrons in a group have the same number of valence
electrons.
13
Ga
10
18
actinide series
18
10
Answer Keys
Skill Sheet 19-A: Dot Diagrams

Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
Element
Chemical
Symbol
Total
Electrons
Potassium
19
Nitrogen
Beryllium
Be
Neon
Ne
10
Sulfur
16
Carbon
Part 3 answers:
Elements
Number of
Valence
Electrons
Dot
Diagram
Na and F
Dot Diagram for Dot Diagram Chemical

Each Element for Compound Formula
Formed
NaF
Br and Br
Br2
Mg and O
MgO
Skill Sheet 19-B: Chemical Formulas

Part 5 answers:

Element
Part 3 answers:
Element
Oxidation
No.
Element
Oxidation
No.
Chemical
Formula
for
Compound
Potassium (K)
Calcium (Ca)
Sodium (Na)
Boron (B)
Lithium (Li)
Aluminum (Al)
Beryllium (Be)
Calcium (Ca)
Sodium (Na)
1+
2+
1+
3+
1+
3+
2+
2+
1+
Chlorine (Cl)
Chlorine (Cl)
Oxygen (O)
Phosphorus (P)
Sulfur (S)
Oxygen (O)
Iodine (I)
Nitrogen (N)
Bromine (Br)
112322131-
KCl
CaCl2
Na2O
BP
Li2S
Al2O3
BeI2
Ca3N2
NaBr
Part 4 answers:
Oxidation Polyatomic Ion Oxidation

No.
No.
Sodium (Na)
1+
Calcium (Ca)
Fluorine (F)
2+
1-
Boron (B)
Lithium (Li)
3+
1+
Beryllium (Be)
2+
Nitrogen (N)
3-
Phosphate
(PO4)
Nitrate (NO3)
Ammonium
(NH4)
Sulfate (SO4)
Hydroxide
(OH)
Carbonate
(CO3)
Hydronium
(H3O)
3-
Na3PO4
11+
Ca(NO3)2
NH4F
21-
B2(SO4)3
LiOH
2-
BeCO3
1+
(H3O)3N
Skill Sheet 19-C: Naming Chemical Compounds

Part 5 answers:
Compound
Lipase
Methanol
Formic Acid
Butane
Sucrose
Acetone
Acetic Acid
Part 1 and 2 answers:

Part 3 answers:
Combination
Compound Name
Al + Br
aluminum bromide
Be + O
beryllium oxide
K+N
potassium nitride
barium chromate
Ba + CrO42Cs + F
cesium fluoride
1+
ammonium
sulfide
NH 3 + S
Mg + Cl
magnesium chloride
B+I
boron iodide
2sodium
sulfate
Na + SO 4
1silicon acetate
Si + C H O
2 3 2
Parts 4 answers:
11
Chemical
Formula
for
Compound
Chemical Family
enzymes
alcohols
organic acids
alkanes
sugars
ketones
organic acids
Answer Keys
Skill Sheet 19-D: The Mole and Avogadros Number

Part 1 answers:
There are no questions to answer for part 1.
Part 2 answers:
Substance
Elements
in
substance
Sr
Ne
Ca(OH)2
Sr
Ne
Ca, O, H
NaCl
Na, Cl
O3
C6H12O
C, H, O
Part 3 answers:
Part 4 answers:
Atomic
masses of
elements
(amu)
87.6
20.2
Ca, 40.1
0, 16.0
H, 1.01
Na, 23.0
Cl, 35.5
16.0
No. of
atoms of
each
element
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
3
Formula
mass
(amu)
Molar
mass
(g)
Substance
Molar
mass
Mass
of sample
Number of
particles present
87.6
20.2
74.1
87.6
20.2
74.1
MgCO3
(g)
84.3
(g)
12.75
9.14 x 1022
H2 O
18.0
8.85 x 1029
296 x 1050
N2
28.0
7.1 x 108
Yb
173
3.30 x 10-14
0.00038
58.5
58.5
1.32 x 1018
48.0
48.0
Al2(SO3)3
294
4657
9.54 x 1024
C, 12.0
H, 1.01
O; 16.0
6
12
1
100
100
K2CrO4
194
0.000741
0.23 x 1019
Skill Sheet 19E: Calculating Formula Mass

Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
1. First ion: Ca+2; Second ion: PO432. Ca3(PO4)2
3.
Atom
Number
Atomic mass
(from periodic table)
Ca
P
O
3
2
8
40.08
30.97
16.00
4. The formula mass for Ca3(PO4)2: 120.24 g + 61.94 g +

128.00 g = 310.18 g
Part 3 answers:
1. BaCl2
formula mass:
208.23
2. NaHCO3
formula mass:
83.99
3. Mg(OH)2
formula mass:
58.33
4. NH4NO3
formula mass:
80.06
5. Sr3(PO4)2
formula mass:
452.80
formula mass:
237.95
6. CoCl2 6H2O
Total mass
(number x
atomic mass)
120.24
61.94
128.00
Skill Sheet 20-A: Chemical Equations

Parts 3, 4, and 5 answers:
There are no questions to answer in parts 3, 4, and 5.
Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
Reactants
Products
Chemical Equation
Part 6 answers:
1. 4Al + 3O2 2Al2O3
2. CO + 3H2 H2O + CH4
3. 2HgO 2Hg + O2
4. CaCO3 CaO + CO2
5. 3C + 2Fe2O3 4Fe + 3CO2
6. N2 + 3H2 2NH3
7. 2K + 2H2O 2KOH + H2
8. 4P + 5O2 2P2O5
9. Ba(OH)2 + H2SO4 2H2O + BaSO4
10. CaF2 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + 2HF
11. 4KClO3 3KClO4 + KCl
Hydrochloric acid
Water
HCl
H2O
and
HCl + NaOH NaCl +
and
Sodium hydroxide Sodium chloride
H20
NaOH
NaCl
Calcium carbonate
Potassium
CaCO3
carbonate
CaCo3 + KI K2CO3 + CaI2
K2CO3
and
Potassium iodide
and
KI
Calcium iodide
CaI2
Aluminum
Aluminum nitrate
fluoride
Al(NO3)3
AlF3
AlF3 + Mg(NO3)2 Al(NO3)3
and
+ MgF2
and
Magnesium
Magnesium nitrate
fluoride
Mg(NO3)2
MgF2
12
Answer Keys
Skill Sheet 20-B: Predicting Product in a Reaction

Part 4 answers:
1. 233.1 g
2. 1228 g

Part 3 answers:
1. 2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
2.
limiting reactant
product
mass: 150.0 grams
mass: X
coefficient: 2
coefficient: 3
formula mass: 122.55 amu
formula mass: 32
3.
150.0 g - = --------------------------------x
--------------------------------2 122.5 amu
3 32.00 amu
x = 58.75 grams
Skill Sheet 21: Predicting Chemical Equations

Part 5 answers:

Reactants
Li + AlCl3
BeO + Na2SO4
CaCO3 + KF
S + B2O3
AlPO4 + NH4Cl
KBr + Cs2O
Part 3 answers:
1. Barium
2. Bromine (Br)
3. Potassium (K)
Part 4 answers:
Products
Al +LiCl
Na2O + BeSO4
CaF2 + K2CO3
B2S3 + O2
(NH4)3PO4 + AlCl3
K2O + CsBr
Part 6 answers:
1. 2NaCl + Mg(OH)2 --> 2NaOH + MgCl2
2. Ca + K2S --> 2K + CaS
3. 3LiF + BI3 --> BF3 + 3LiI
4. BeCrO4 + 2KNO3 --> Be(NO3)2 + K2(CrO4)
5. Fe + MgO --> Fe2O3 + Mg
Skill Sheet 23-A: Solubility

Part 3 answers:
Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
1. Insoluble means that no amount of this substance will
dissolve in water at this temperature under these conditions.
Chalk and talc are substances that do no interact with water
molecules. It is possible that the bonds in chalk and talc
molecules are nonpolar.
2. The degree to which a substance is soluble depends on the
nature of the bonds and the size of the molecules in the
substance. Molecules of sugar, salt, and baking soda are
different with respect to the nature of the bonds and sizes of
these molecules. Therefore, these molecules will each
dissolve in water in different ways and to different degrees.
3. 205 g
4. 190 mL
5. 25 mL
6. 1 g
Substance
Table salt (NaCl)

Sugar (C12H22O11)
Baking soda
(NaHCO3)
Table salt (NaCl)
Sugar (C12H22O11)
Baking soda
(NaHCO3)
13
Amount of
substance in
200 mL of
water
at 25C
38 grams
500 grams
20 grams
Saturated,
unsaturated,
or
supersaturated?
100 grams
210 grams
25 grams
supersaturated
unsaturated
supersaturated
unsaturated
supersaturated
saturated
Answer Keys
Part 4 answers:
1.
2. Gases A and B are less soluble in water as temperature

increases. Solid A is more soluble as temperature increases.
Solid B is slightly more soluble as temperature increases.
3. This question may be challenging for students. Temperature
affects gas B most dramatically the range of solubility values
is large, ranging from one-tenth to five-thousandths.
4. Temperature affects the solubility of solid A more than it
affects solid B.
5. Solid B
6. In fall and winter, when the weather turns cold, the water will
have more dissolved oxygen. During the warmer months of
the spring and summer the amount of dissolved oxygen in the
water will decrease.
Skill Sheet 23-B: Making Solutions

Part 4 answers:
Part 3 answers:
1. 162 grams
2. 42 grams
3. 0.45 M
4. 131 grams
5. The density of NaCl is 58 g/L and the density of MgCl2 is
94 g/L. At the same concentration and volume, a MgCl2
solution would be more dense.
Part 5 answers:
1. Add 25 mL of 2.0 M KNO3 to 75 mL water.
2. 0.32 L
3. 423 mL of the 2.0 M solution; 877 mL of solvent
4. 0.54 M
5. 504 grams in the stock solution; 45 grams for the diluted
solution
6. Add 0.25 liter (250 mL) to 0.75 liter of water.
7. 17% concentration; Final volume is 140 mL.
Skill Sheet 25: Calculating pH

Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
1. Answers:
a. 10-2 > 10-3
b. 10-14 < 101
c. 10-7 = 0.0000001
d. 100 < 101
2. Answers:
a. acid
b. neutral
c. base
3. pH = 4
4. pH 5; weaker acid
5. pH 7; Water is neutral and has an equal number of H+ and

OH- ions.
6. 10-11; base
7. 1 x 10-8.4
8. The product with lemon juice contains a greater concentration
of acid which would mean that it might be a better cleaning
solution than the cleaner with the weaker acid, vinegar.
14
Answer Keys
Skill Sheet 26-A: Temperature Scales

Part 5 answers:
1. 375F
2. 450F
3. The friend assumed you were speaking of degrees Celsius.
15C = 59F, which is a much milder outdoor temperature
than 15F (15F = -9.4C).

Part 3 answers:
1. 7.2 C
2. 177 C
3. 107 C
Part 6 answers:
1. 98 K
2. 275 K = 2C No, the mysterious, silver substance has a much
higher melting point than mercury.
3. The thermometer is calibrated to the Fahrenheit scale. On the
Kelvin scale, 90 K is too cold (-298F and -183C), and 90C
is too hot, just 10 degrees less than the boiling point of water.
Part 4 answers:
Skill Sheet 26-B: Specific Heat

Part 1 answers:
1. Gold has the lowest specific heat of the substances listed, and
would heat up the quickest.
2. Fresh water has the highest specific heat of the substances
listed. Therefore, it would be the best insulator.
Part 2 answers:
Part 3 answers:
1. 385 calories
2. 0.48 calories/gC
3. 162 grams
4. 120 calories
5. Yes. According to the table, the specific heat of water is 1.0
calories/gC. Plugging the numbers into the equation gives
the same result:
160,000 calories = 2000 g c 80 C
160,000 calories = 160,000 g C c
calorie
1 ---------------- = c
g C
Skill Sheet 28: Calorimetry

Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
1. 12,250 calories
2. 1,500 calories
3. 42.5C
4. 3,000 calories or 3 Calories
5. 375 calories or 0.375 Calories
6. When trekking in very cold temperatures, travelers need to

carry high-calorie foods. In other words, foods that have a lot
of calories per gram. Modern day Antarctic explorers are
known to travel with food stuffs that are high in fat like butter,
oil, and chocolate. These foods provide enough calories for
the explorers to keep up their energy for moving and keeping
warm in the extreme weather conditions of the Antarctic. If
the explorers carried only protein and carbohydrates, they
would have to carry more than twice as much food just to
have the same amount of calories!
Skill Builder: Calculating Slope

Part 1 answers:
1. Position measured in miles.
2. Time measured in hours.
3. The graph shows that as time passes distance increases. Speed
is constant because the graph is a straight line with constant
slope.
Part 2 answers:
1. slope = rise
-------- = 10
------ = 2
run
3. y = 15x + 20
4. y = 15 ( 3 hours ) + 20 = 45 + 20 = $65
5. Yes, the students will earn $620.00.
5----------------hours
8 days = 40 hours
day
y = 15 ( 40 hours ) + 20 = $620.00
2. Yes, this point is on the line because the line between the two
points, (0,0) and (2.5, 5), has a slope of 2.
Part 3 answers:
1. The
two
points
are:
(0,20)
and
(2,
50);
20- = 30
slope = 50
---------------------- = 15
20
2
2. y-intercept = 20
15
Answer Keys
Part 4 answers:
1.
60 0- = 60
slope = ------------------- = 10
60
6
2. y-intercept = 0
3. y = 10x
Part 5 answers:
1. Answers:
a. y = 3x + 1
b. Pairs of coordinates:
x
y
1
4
7
10
13
0
1
2
3
4
10 8
2
1
2. slope = -------------- = --- = --62
3. The rise (vertical distance) of the graph is determined by the y

values. The run (horizontal distance) is determined by the x
values.
Skill Builder: Dimensional Analysis

Part 1 answers:
1. 39.4 inches
2.
3.
4.
Part 2 answers:
1. 2400 eggs
2. 42.2 km
3. 105 km
4. 65.93 pounds
5. a. 81 mph, b. 37 mph
6. 154 pounds
--------------------------1 meter
3.79
liters----------------------1 gallon
0.624 miles
---------------------------1 kilometer
0.001
kilogram----------------------------------1 gram
Skill Builder: Fractions Review

Part 1, 2, 3, and 4 answers:
There are no questions to answer in parts 1 to 4.
Multiplication of fractions
1. 12
223
1
Part 5 answers:
Addition of fractions
1. 4
3 3
4
9
13
------ + --- --- = ------ + ------ = -----12
2.
12
12
2.
3.
12
------ = ---------------------------------------- = --48

22223
4
35
7
5
5
------ = ------------------------------ = --56 7 2 2 2
8
90
2335
15
------ = ------------------------------------------------- = -----96
222223
16
4. a. 0.25, b. 0.63, c. 0.94

Division of fractions
3.
3 6
6 3
5 8
2 2 19
18
18
40
76
19
4 4
2 2 2 = 4----- --- + --- --- + --- --- = ------ + ------ + ------ = ------ = ------------------------------ = ------ 1. ----- --- = 16
------ = 2-----------------------------4 6
8 3
3 8
2223 6
24 24 24
24
12 3
36
2233
9
4. a. 1.1, b. 1.6, c. 3.2
2. 7 7 49
--- --- = -----8 5
Subtraction of fractions
40
3.
3
8
24
1.
3 3
--- --7--- 7
5 8
--- + --- --- = 49
------ + 40
------ = 89
-----8 7
7 8
56 56
56
4- --- --- = ----4- ----9- = ----5----4 3

12
12 12
12
4.
2.
7 7
5 8
9--- --- --- --- = 49
------ 40
------ = ----8 7
7 8
56 56
56
3.
3 6
6 3
5 8
2225
--- --- --- --- --- --- = 18
------ 18
------ 40
------ = 40
------ = ------------------------------ = 5--4 6
8 3
3 8
2223
24 24 24
24
3 5.
4.
a. -0.42, b. 0.16, c. -1.67
16
4 6
3
--4- =
----35
-----18
= ------ = 1
24
3 18
3 3 2 27
54- = 3-------------------------------- ------ = -------= -----4 35
2 2 5 7 70
140
a. 0.44, b. 1.23, c. 1, d. 0.39
Answer Keys
Skill Builder: International System of Measurements

Parts 1, 2, 3, and 4 answers:
There are no questions to answer in parts 1 - 4.
4. 1,000,000,000 nanoseconds = 1 second

5. 1,000,000,000 micrograms = 1 kilogram
6. 1,000,000,000 milliliters = 1 megaliter
Part 5 answers:
1. 1,000 milligrams = 1 gram
2. 100,000 centimeters = 1 kilometer
3. 1,000,000 microliters = 1 liter
Part 6 answers:
1. 100 times larger
2. 1,000 times smaller
Skill Builder: Internet Research Skills

Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
1. science museums + south carolina not columbia
2. dog breeds not expensive
3. producing electricity not coal or natural gas
Part 3 answers:
Part 4 answers:
1. Answers will vary. Sites that are authoritative may be nonprofits sites (recognizable by having org as the extension in
the web address). These sites often provide information to
large, diverse, groups and are not supported by advertising.
Sites that are supported by advertising can be authoritative,
but may be biased in the information presented. Another
characteristic of authoritative sites are that they are actively
being up dated on a regular basis.
2. Answers will vary. Reasons for why a source may not seem to
be authoritative include the author of the site is not affiliated
with an organization and does not have obvious credentials,
and the information seems to be biased.
3. Answers will vary. Intended audiences can be young children,
pre-teens, teenagers, young adults, adults, or select groups of
people (women, men, people who like dogs, etc.).
4. Answers will vary.
Skill Builder: Interpreting Graphs

Part 1 answers:
1. The title of the graph is Money in cash box vs. hours
washing cars.
2. The two variables are number of hours washing cars and the
amount of money in the cash box.
3. Hours
4. Dollars
5. 0 to 6
6. The data would be concentrated toward the bottom quarter of
the graph. All the data would appear within first three grid
boxes of the y-axis.
7. Yes, there is a relationship between the variables.
8. As the time spent washing cars increases, the money in the
cash box increases.
9. If the theater club worked for five hours a Saturday for at least
14 Saturdays, they could earn $1050. This amount is based on
earning $75 during the five hour period (assuming $20 is the
starting about of money in the cash box). Between April and
the fall, there would the Saturdays in May, June, July, and
August for doing the car wash; a total of about 16 Saturdays.
This would be enough time to earn $1000.
Part 2 answers:
1. The title of the graph is Percentage of teenagers that are
employed in four cities.
2. The two variables represented on the x-axis are cities (four are
represented) and gender (boys and girls). The variable
represented on the y-axis is the percentage of teenagers that
are employed. The range of vales is from 0 to 80.
3. The highest percentages of boys and girls employed is in city
C. The lowest percentages is in city D. The percentages of
boys and girls employed is about the same in city A which has
the second highest percentage of teenagers employed. Girls
employed outnumber boys employed in cities B and D.
4. In cities A and C, the percentage of boys employed is greater

than the percentage of girls employed. In cities B and D, the
percentage of girls employed is greater than the percentage of
boys employed.
5. The type of businesses in city C are suited to hiring workers
that can only work in the afternoons or evenings for a pay rate
that is suitable to teenagers. The type of jobs in city D are
more suited to people who can work full time.
6. In city C, the kinds of jobs that are available to teenagers are
more suited for boys. The opposite is true for city B; there the
jobs tend to be more suitable and appealing too girls. Examples
of jobs that would appeal to boys include jobs that require
heavy, manual labor. Jobs that would appeal to girls include
jobs where physical labor is not necessary or required.
Part 3 answers:
1. The graph title is Percent distribution of jobs held by teenagers.
2. Types of jobs held by teenagers and the percentages.
3. No units are used in this graph. Instead, the graph is showing
how categories (jobs in this case) are related to each other.
4. The majority of jobs held by teenagers are in the retail
industry (28%). Working teenagers are next likely to work in
the food service industry (23%) and administrative support
(21%). Other kinds of jobs held by teenagers include freight
and stock handling (15%) and farm work (10%). Three
percent of working teenagers participate in jobs that are not
included in these categories.
5. Answers will vary. A sample hypothesis based on this data is:
The numbers of teenage girls and boys working in each job
category is equal. I could test this hypothesis by interviewing
employed teenagers that represent each job category. I would
compare the numbers of girls and boys working in each
category to see if my hypothesis is correct.
6. Answers will vary.
17
Answer Keys
Skill Builder: Lab Report Format

There are no questions for this skill builder.
Skill Builder: Making Graphs

Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
Table 1
Number of hours Amount of money
washing cars
in cash box ($)
(hours)
y
x
0
20
1
35
2
50
3
65
4
80
5
95
Table 2
Number of
Amount of water
people in a
splashed out
swimming pool
of the pool
x
(gallons)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
y
0
1
4
9
16
25
36
Coordinates
(x,y)
(0,20)
(1, 35)
(2, 50)
(3, 65)
(4, 80)
(5, 95)
Coordinates
(x,y)
Part 4 answers:
1. The plot on graph 1 is a straight line, whereas, the plot on
graph 2 is a line that curves upward. The y-values in graph 2
steadily increase faster than the y-values for graph 1. For
example, both data sets have x-values: 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. For
each x-value for graph 1, the y-value increases by $15 starting
at $20. The increase in y-values for graph 2 is exponential.
2. The rate of earning money washing cars is $15/hour. For each
hour spent washing cars, the amount of money in the cash box
will increase by $15.
3. As one person is added to the pool, a greater amount of water
is splashed out of the pool. The increase in the amount of
water lost increases exponentially.
Part 5 answers:
1. Graph 1
2. Graph 2
(0,0)
(1, 1)
(2, 4)
(3, 9)
(4, 16)
(5, 25)
6, 36)
Part 3 answers:
18
Answer Keys
Skill Builder: Problem Solving with Rates

Part 1 answers:
1. 365 days
2.
3.
4.
5.
--------------------1 year
1 foot
---------------------12 inches
$10.00
---------------------------------3 small pizzas
3 boxes ----------------------36 pencils
360 miles
---------------------------------------------------18 gallons of gasoline
Part 2 answers:
1. 2,100 calories
2. 1095
sodas
-------------------------3.
year
725, 760 heatbeats
-------------------------------------------week
Part
1.
2.
3.
3 answers:
$27.48
396 miles
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
22.2 lbs
54.5 kg
5.50 miles
$280
9.98 years
525 grams
11.
12.
270 pills
6.6
miles--------------------hour
0.1125 miles
------------------------------hour
95.33 feet
-----------------------sec
Skill Builder: Reading Strategies

There are no questions to answer for this skill builder.
Skill Builder: Science Vocabulary

Part 4 answers:
1. thermometer
2. sonogram
3. monoatomic
4. telescope
Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
Prefix is in bold and suffix is underlined.
thermometer
electrolyte
monoatomic
volumetric
endothermic
spectroscope
prototype
convex
supersaturated
Word
thermometer
sonogram
Part 3 answers:
Answers may vary. Correct answers include:
1. The study of water
2. Many units
3. The same kind
4. Different kinds
5. Existing light
6. An instrument for measuring the full range of something
Dictionary definitions:
1. The science dealing with the properties, distribution, and
circulation of water
2. A chemical compound formed by the union of small
molecules, usually consisting of repeating units
3. Of the same kind, having uniform structure
4. Consisting of dissimilar ingredients
5. The emission of light (as by a chemical or physiological
process)
6. An instrument for measuring spectra
monoatomic
telescope
19
Dictionary Definition
An instrument for measuring temperature
A graph that shows the loudness of sound at
different frequencies
Containing only one type of atom
A cylindrical instrument for viewing distant
objects
Answer Keys
Skill Builder: Scientific Processes

Part 1 answers:
Maria and Elenas question is: Does hot water in an ice cube tray
freeze faster than cold water in an ice cube tray?
Part 2 answers:
Marias hypothesis: Hot water will take longer to freeze into solid
ice cubes than cold water, because the hot water molecules have
to slow down more than cold water molecules to enter the solid
state and become ice.
Part 3 answers:
1. Answers may vary. Correct answers include:
Amount of water in each ice cube tray slot must be
uniform.
Each ice cube tray must be made of same material, slots in
all trays must be identical.
Placement of trays in freezer must provide equal cooling.
All hot water must be at the same initial temperature.
All cold water must be at the same initial temperature.
2. Answers may vary. Correct answers include:
Initial temperature of hot water.
Initial temperature of cold water.
Volume of water to fill each ice cube tray slot.
Time taken for water to freeze solid.
3. Sample procedure:
1. Place 1 liter of water in a refrigerator to chill for 1 hour.
2. Boil water in pot on a stove (water will be 100C).
3. Using pot holders, a kitchen funnel, and a medicinemeasuring cup, carefully measure out 15 mL of boiling water
into each slot in two, labeled, ice cube trays.
4. Remove chilled water from refrigerator, measure
temperature.
5. Carefully measure 15 mL chilled water into each slot in

two labeled, ice cube trays.
6. Place trays on bottom shelf of freezer, along the back wall.
7. Start timer.
8. After 1/2 hour, begin checking trays every 15 minutes to
see if solid ice has formed in any tray.
9. Stop timing when at least one tray has solid ice cubes in it.
Part 4 answers:
1. The average time was 3 hours and 15 minutes.
2. Repeating experiments ensures the accuracy of your results.
Each time you are able to repeat your results, you reduce the
effect of sources of error in the experiment that may come
from following a certain procedure, human error, or from the
conditions in which the experiment is taking place.
Part 5 answers:
The only valid conclusion that can be drawn is (d). Although (c)
is a true statement, this conclusion cannot be reached from this
experiment alone.
Part 6 answers:
1. Maria and Elena could ask a few of their friends to repeat
their experiment. This would mean that the experiment would
be repeated in other places with other freezers. If their friends
are able to repeat the girls results, then the kind of freezer
used can be eliminated as a factor that influenced the results.
2. A new question could be: Do dissolved minerals in water
affect how fast water freezes?
For further study: Ask student to come up with a plan to test
the validity of statements b and c. Encourage your students to
research methods for measuring dissolved minerals and
oxygen in water. Simple forms of these methods are described
in unit 8, chapter 24.
Skill Builder: Significant Digits

Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
were to keep up the pace of running each mile in 7.5 minutes.

(Hint: One mile is equal to 1.609 km.) The answer would be
47 minutes.
Table 1: Number of Significant Digits

Value
How many significant digits
does each value have?
36.33 minutes
100 miles
120.2 milliliters
0.0074 kilometers
0.010 kilograms
42 students
infinite (students are counted,

not measured)
Part 3 answers:
Part 4 answers:
1. 3.0 m2
2. 0.9 liters
3. The average temperature is 24.2C.
4. 40 minutes, 32 seconds
5. Student answers will vary.
Sample problem: The road race is 10.0 kilometers long.
Figure out how long it would take you to run the race if you
20
Answer Keys
Skill Builder: Solving Equations

Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
1.
5 km = 0.5km
v = -------------------------------
Part 5 answers:
1.
90 km
---------------
2.
3.
4.
5.
10 min
min
0.3 km per min faster
Part 3 answers:
1.
0.5 km
---------------- 25 min = 12.5 km
30 km
time = ------------------0.75 km
------------------min
time = 40 minutes
3.
4.
633
km----------------hr
731 km
-----------------hr
7.
8.
9.
1,678 km
384, 000 km
2.03 104 seconds = 5.6 hr
Part 6 answers:
1.
m
-------
Part 4 answers:
1.
2.
32.5 km
8 hours
6.
min
2.
hr
815
km----------------hr
2.
40,000 kg
35 m
m
momentum = 2,000 kg ------------ = 70,000 kg ------sec
sec
35 m
m
momentum = 1,000 kg ------------ = 35,000 kg ------sec
sec
m
8 kg speed = 16 kg ------sec
mspeed = 2
-------sec
29m
----------sec
3.
The momentum of the 8 kg-ball is 3.2 kg-m/sec. The

momentum of the 3.7 kg-ball is 3.3 kg-m/sec. The
basketball would be slightly harder to stop because it has a
little more momentum.
1,225 kg
4.
5.
0.5 m
m
mass ------------- = 0.25 kg ------sec
sec
6.
mass = 0.5 kg
sec
2.
7.
m
4.2 kg ------sec
m15 -----sec
m
0.01 kg ------sec
Skill Builder: Working with Quantities and Rates

Part 1 answers:
Part 2 answers:
1. 20 in2
2. 24 eggs
3. cant combine
4. 7 cookies
5. cant combine (students learn to reduce these problems in
section 3)
6. 10 (no units; they cancel)
Part 3 answers:
Part 4 answers:
1.
$12
-----------
Part
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
2.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
3.
4.
7.
5 answers:
cm
program
shrimp
seconds
cm
( boxes )
--------------------( pencils )
kg
-----2
8.
9.
10.
hour
24 students
--------------------------classroom
600
meters------------------------minute
150 blinks 6 blinks
------------------------- = ------------------25 clinks
clink
21
s
( clinks ) ( winks )
-------------------------------------blinks
miles
------------sec
millimeter
------------------------hour
person
hour
games
hour
centimeter

Cpo Skillsheets

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cpo Skillsheets

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Skill and Practice Worksheets

Unit Six: Properties of Matter

Newton's Second Law

17-B Ratios and Proportions

17-D Gases and Pressure

Applying Newtons Laws of Motion

18-A Atoms, Isotopes, and Ions

Unit Two: Work and Energy

18-B Electrons and the Periodic Table

Unit Seven: Changes in Matter

19-A Dot Diagrams

19-B Chemical Formulas

19-C Naming Chemical Compounds

Potential and Kinetic Energy

19-D The Mole and Avogadros Number

Unit Three: Electricity and Magnetism

19-E Calculating Formula Mass

Using an Electric Meter

20-A Chemical Equations

Voltage, Current, and Resistance

20-B Predicting Product in a Reaction

21-A Predicting Chemical Equations

Unit Eight: Water and Solutions

Electrical Power and Ohm's Law

Parallel and Series Circuits

23-B Making Solutions

Open and Closed Circuits

Electric Circuit Project

Unit Nine: Heating and Cooling

Unit Four: Sound and Waves

26-A Temperature Scales

26-B Specific Heat

Unit Five: Light and Optics

Problem Solving with Rates

International System of Measurements

Internet Research Skills

Lab Report Format

time and distance

speed and time

distance and speed

Skill Sheet 1 Speed Problems

3. In problem 1.6, what is the distance traveled in miles?

1. Solving acceleration problems

Skill Sheet 2 Acceleration Problems

2. Solving for other variables

Skill Sheet 3-A

Newton's Second Law

1. Newtons first law of motion

2. Three ways to write Newtons second law of motion

What do you know?

Force (F) and mass (m)

acceleration (a) and Force (F)

acceleration (a) and mass (m)

The formula you will use

Skill Sheet 3-A Newton's Second Law

3. Solving problems using Newtons second law

4. What is the acceleration of a 0.3 kg ball that is hit with a force of 25 N?

5. How much force is needed to accelerate a 68 kg-skier at a rate of 1.2 m/sec2?

Skill Sheet 3-A Newton's Second Law

9. What is the acceleration of a 6.4 kg bowling ball if a force of 12 N is applied to it?

Skill Sheet 3-B

Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object. Mass is not related to