PHYSICS CHAPTER 1

The study of light based on

the assumption that light
travels in straight lines
and is concerned with the
laws controlling the
reflection and refraction
of rays of light.
light

CHAPTER 1:
Geometrical optics
(5 Hours)

1
 PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Learning Outcome:
www.kmph.matrik.edu.my/physic s

1.1 Reflection at a plane surface (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 State laws of reflection.
 State the characteristics of image formed by a plane
mirror.
 Sketch ray diagrams with minimum two rays.

2
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
1.1 Reflection at a plane surface
1.1.1 Reflection of light
 is defined as the return of all or part of a beam of light when
it encounters the boundary between two media. media
 There are two types of reflection due to the plane surface
 Specular (regular) reflection is the reflection of light from
a smooth shiny surface as shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1

3
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 All the reflected rays are parallel to each another or move
in the same direction.
 Diffuse reflection is the reflection of light from a rough
surface such as papers, flowers, people as shown in Figure
1.2.

Figure 1.2
The reflected rays is sent out in a variety of directions.
 For both types of reflection, the laws of reflection are obeyed.

4
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 Laws of reflection state :
 The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie
in the same plane.
plane
 The angle of incidence, i equals the angle of reflection, r
as shown in Figure 1.3.

i r i=r

Picture 1.1
Plane surface
Figure 1.3 Stimulation 1.1
5
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
1.1.2 Reflection at a plane mirror
 Image formation by a plane mirror as shown in Figures 1.4a and
1.4b.
 Point object

where
u : object distance
v : image distance
g : glancing angle
g
r
i
g
A i i A'
u v
Figure 1.4a

6
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 Vertical (extended) object

i
ho hi
i r
Object r Image

u v

Figure 1.4b

where ho : object height

hi : image height

Stimulation 1.2
7
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 The characteristics of the image formed by the plane mirror are
 virtual image
 is seem to form by light coming from the image but

light does not actually pass through the image.

image
 would not appear on paper, screen or film placed at the

location of the image.

 upright or erect image
 laterally reverse
 right-hand side of the object becomes the left-hand side

of the image.
 the object distance, u equals the image distance, v
 the same size where the linear magnification, m is given by
Image height, hi
m= =1
Object height, ho
 obey the laws of reflection.
reflection Picture 1.2
8
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1

Example 1 :
A women is 1.60 m tall and her eyes are 10 cm below the top
of her head. She wishes to see the whole length of her body
in a vertical plane mirror whilst she herself is standing
vertically.
a. Sketch and label a ray diagram to show the formation of
women’s image.
b. What is the minimum length of mirror that makes this
possible?
c. How far above the ground is the bottom of the mirror?

9
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution :
a. The ray diagram to show the formation of the women’s image is

H(head)
0.10 m E (eyes) A
L
h

1
1.60 m B AL = HE
2
1
y LB = EF
2
F(feet )

10
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution :
b. The minimum vertical length of the mirror is given by
h = AL + LB
1 1
h = HE + EF
2 2
1
h = ( HE + EF)
2
Height of the women
1
h = (1.60 ) = 0.80 m
2
b. The mirror can be placed on the wall with the bottom of the
mirror is halved of the distance between the eyes and feet of the
women. Therefore
1
y = (1.60 − 0.10 )
2
y = 0.75 m
11
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Example 2 :
A rose in a vase is placed 0.350 m in front of a plane mirror.
Ahmad looks into the mirror from 1.00 m in front of it. How far away
from Ahmad is the image of the rose?
Solution : u = 0.350 m
1.00 m
x

u formedvby the plane mirror,

From the characteristic of the image
thus
v=u
v = 0.350 m
Therefore,
x = 1.00 + v x = 1.00 + 0.350
x = 1.350 m 12
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Exercise 1.1 :
1.

Figure 1.5
The two mirrors in Figure 1.5 meet at a right angle. The beam
of light in the vertical plane P strikes mirror 1 as shown.
a. Determine the distance of the reflected light beam travels
before striking mirror 2.
b. Calculate the angle of reflection for the light beam after
being reflected from mirror 2.
ANS. : 1.95 m ; 40° to the mirror 2.
13
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Exercise 1.1 :
2.

Figure 1.6
A person whose eyes are 1.54 m above the floor stands 2.30
m in front of a vertical plane mirror whose bottom edge is 40
cm above the floor as shown in Figure 1.6. Determine x.
ANS. : 0.81 m

14
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Exercise 1.1 :
3. Standing 2.00 m in front of a small vertical mirror, you see the
reflection of your belt buckle, which is 0.70 m below your
eyes.
a. What is the vertical location of the mirror relative to the
level of your eyes?
b. What is the angle do your eyes make with the horizontal
when you look at the buckle?
c. If you now move backward until you are 6.0 m from the
mirror, will you still see the buckle? Explain.
ANS. : 35 cm below; 9.9°; U think
4. You are 1.80 m tall and stand 3.00 m from a plane mirror that
extends vertically upward from the floor. On the floor 1.50 m
in front of the mirror is a small table, 0.80 high. What is the
minimum height the mirror must have for you to be able to see
the top of the table in the mirror?
ANS. : 1.13 m
15
 PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Learning Outcome:
1.2 Reflection at a spherical surface (1 hour)
www.kmph.matrik.edu.my/physic s

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

 Sketch and use ray diagrams to determine the
characteristics of image formed by spherical mirrors.
 Use
1 1 1 2
= + = for real object only.
f u v r
 Use sign convention for focal length:
+ f for concave mirror and – f for convex mirror.
 Sketch ray diagrams with minimum two rays.
 r = 2f only applies to spherical mirror.

16
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
1.1 Reflection at a spherical surface
1.2.1 Spherical mirror
 is defined as a reflecting surface that is part of a sphere.
sphere
 There are two types of spherical mirror. It is convex (curving
outwards) and concave (curving inwards) mirror.
 Figures 1.7a and 1.7b show the shape of concave and convex
mirrors.
(a) Concave (Converging)
Converging (b) Convex (Diverging)
Diverging mirror
mirror imaginary sphere
A A
silver layer

C P P C
r r
B B
Picture 1.3
Figure 1.7a Figure 1.7b
reflecting surface 17
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Terms of spherical mirror
 Centre of curvature (point C)
 is defined as the centre of the sphere of which a curved
mirror forms a part.
part
 Radius of curvature, r
 is defined as the radius of the sphere of which a curved
mirror forms a part.
part
 Pole or vertex (point P)
 is defined as the point at the centre of the mirror.
mirror
 Principal axis
 is defined as the straight line through the centre of
curvature C and pole P of the mirror.
mirror
 AB is called the aperture of the mirror.

18
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
1.2.2 Focal point and focal length, f
 Consider the ray diagram for a concave and convex mirrors as
shown in Figures 1.8a and 1.8b.
Incident Incident
rays rays

C P C
f P f
F F

Figure 1.8a Figure 1.8b

 Point F represents the focal point or focus of the mirrors.
 Distance f represents the focal length of the mirrors.
 The parallel incident rays represent the object infinitely far
away from the spherical mirror e.g. the sun. 19
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Focal point or focus, F
 For concave mirror – is defined as a point where the incident
parallel rays converge after reflection on the mirror.
mirror
 Its focal point is real (principal).
(principal)
 For convex mirror – is defined as a point where the incident
parallel rays seem to diverge from a point behind the mirror
after reflection.
reflection
 Its focal point is virtual.
virtual
Focal length, f
 is defined as the distance between the focal point (focus) F
and pole P of the spherical mirror.
mirror
 The paraxial rays is defined as the rays that are near to and
almost parallel to the principal axis.
axis

20
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
1.2.3 Relationship between focal length, f and
radius of curvature, r
 Consider a ray AB parallel to the principal axis of concave
mirror as shown in Figure 1.9.
incident ray
A B
i
i
θ
C i
F D P
f
r

Figure 1.9

21
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 From the Figure 1.9,
BD
BCD tan i = ≈i Taken the angles are <<
CD small by considering the
BD
BFD tan θ = ≈θ ray AB is paraxial ray.
FD
 By using an isosceles triangle CBF, thus the angle θ is given by
θ = 2i
then BD  BD 
= 2 
FD  CD 
CD = 2FD
 Because of AB is paraxial ray, thus point B is too close with pole
P then CD ≈ CP = r
FD ≈ FP = f
r
 Therefore r=2f OR f =
2
This relationship also valid for convex mirror. 22
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
1.2.4 Ray diagrams for spherical mirrors
 is defined as the simple graphical method to indicate the
positions of the object and image in a system of mirrors or
lenses.
lenses
 Figures 1.10a and 1.10b show the graphical method of locating
an image formed by concave and convex mirror.
(a) Concave mirror (b) Convex mirror
1 1
1
2 3
2
3 C 2
I P P C
O F O I
2 F
3
1

Figure 1.10a Figure 1.10b

23
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 Ray 1 - Parallel to principal axis, after reflection, passes
At least any through the focal point (focus) F of a concave
two rays mirror or appears to come from the focal point F
for drawing of a convex mirror.
the ray  Ray 2 - Passes or directed towards focal point F reflected

diagram. parallel to principal axis.

 Ray 3 - Passes or directed towards centre of curvature C,
reflected back along the same path.
Images formed by a convex mirror
 Figure 1.11 shows the graphical method of locating an image
formed by a convex mirror.

P C
O I F
u v Picture 1.4
Figure 1.11 front back 24
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 The characteristics of the image formed are
 virtual
 upright
 diminished (smaller than the object)
 formed at the back of the mirror (behind the mirror)
 Object position → any position in front of the convex mirror.
 Convex mirror always being used as a driving mirror because it
has a wide field of view and providing an upright image.
image
Images formed by a concave mirror
 Concave mirror can be used as a shaving and makeup mirrors
because it provides an upright and virtual images.
images
 Table 1.1 shows the ray diagrams of locating an image formed

by a concave mirror for various object distance, u.

25
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Object Ray diagram Image characteristic
distance, u

 Real
 Inverted
C I P  Diminished
u>r O F  Formed
between point
Front back C and F.

O
 Real
F
 Inverted
u=r C P  Same size
 Formed at point
I C.
Front back 26
 Object Ray diagram Image characteristic
PHYSICS
distance, u
CHAPTER 1

 Real
 Inverted
 Magnified
f<u<r I C P  Formed at a distance
O F greater than CP.

Front back

O  Real or virtual
 Formed at infinity.

u=f P
C F

Front back 27
PHYSICS
Object Ray diagram CHAPTER
Image1characteristic
distance, u

 Virtual
 Upright
 Magnified
u<f  Formed at the
back of the
F mirror
C O P I

Front back

Table 1.1
 Linear (lateral) magnification of the spherical mirror, m is defined
as the ratio between image height, hi and object height, ho

hi v where
m= = v : image distance from the pole
ho u u : object distance from the pole28
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
1.2.5 Derivation of Spherical mirror equation
 Figure 1.12 shows an object O at a distance u and on the

principal axis of a concave mirror. A ray from the object O is

incident at a point B which is close to the pole P of the mirror.
 From the figure,
B BOC φ = α +θ (1)
β = φ +θ (2)
θ BCI
θ then, eq. (1)−(2) :
α φ β φ − β = α −φ
O C I D P α + β = 2φ (3)
v By using BOD, BCD and BID
u thus
BD BD BD
tan α = ; tan φ = ; tanβ =
OD CD ID
Figure 1.12
29
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 By considering point B very close to the pole P, hence
tan α ≈ α ; tan φ ≈ φ ; tanβ ≈ β
OD ≈ OP = u ; CD ≈ CP = r ; ID ≈ IP = v
then BD BD BD Substituting this
α= ;φ= ; β=
u r v value in eq. (3)

therefore
BD BD  BD 
+ = 2 
u v  r 
1 1 2
+ = where r = 2 f
u v r
1 1 1 2
= + = Spherical mirror’s
f u v r equation

30
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 Table 1.2 shows the sign convention for spherical mirror’s
equation .
Physical Quantity Positive sign (+) Negative sign (-)

Object distance, u Real object Virtual object

(in front of the mirror) (at the back of the mirror)

Image distance, v Real image Virtual image

(same side of the object) (opposite side of the object)
Focal length, f Concave mirror Convex mirror
Table 1.2
 Note:
 Real image is formed by the actual light rays that pass
through the image.
image
 Real image can be projected on the screen.
screen

31
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Example 3 :
A dentist uses a small mirror attached to a thin rod to examine one
of your teeth. When the tooth is 1.20 cm in front of the mirror, the
image it forms is 9.25 cm behind the mirror. Determine
a. the focal length of the mirror and state the type of the mirror
used,
b. the magnification of the image.
Solution : u = +1.20 cm; v = −9.25 cm
a. By applying the mirror’s equation, thus
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
f u v f 1.20 ( − 9.25)
f = +1.38 cm (Concave mirror)
b. By using the magnification formula, thus
v 9.25
m= m= = 7.71
u 1.20 32
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Example 4 :
An upright image is formed 20.5 cm from the real object by using
the spherical mirror. The image’s height is one fourth of object’s
height.
a. Where should the mirror be placed relative to the object?
b. Calculate the radius of curvature of the mirror and describe the
type of mirror required.
c. Sketch and label a ray diagram to show the formation of the
image.
Solution : hi = 0.25ho
Spherical
mirror
u v

O 20.5 cm I
33
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution : hi = 0.25ho
a. From the figure,
u + v = 20.5 (1)
By using the equation of linear magnification, thus
hi v 0.25ho v
m= = =
ho u ho u
v = 0.25u (2)
By substituting eq. (2) into eq. (1), hence
u + 0.25u = 20.5
u = 16.4 cm
The mirror should be placed 16.4 cm in front of the object.
object

34
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution : hi = 0.25ho
b. By using the mirror’s equation, thus
1 1 1
= +
f u v
1 1 1
= +
f u ( − 0.25u )
1 1 1
= +
f 16.4 ( − 0.25(16.4 ) )
r
f = −5.47 cm and f =
2
r = 2( 5.47 ) = 10.9 cm
The type of spherical mirror is convex because the negative
value of focal length.

35
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution : hi = 0.25ho
c. The ray diagram is shown below.

P C
O I F

front back

36
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Example 5 :
A person of 1.60 m height stands 0.60 m from a surface of a
hanging shiny globe in a garden.
a. If the diameter of the globe is 18 cm, where is the image of the
person relative to the surface of the globe?
b. How large is the person’s image?
c. State the characteristics of the person’s image.
Solution : ho = 1.60 m; u = 0.60 m

ho

37
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution : ho = 1.60 m; u = 0.60 m
a. Given d = 0.18 m
The radius of curvature of the globe’s surface (convex surface)
is given by
0.18
r=− = −0.09 m
2
By applying the mirror’s equation, hence
2 1 1
= +
r u v
2 1 1
= +
− 0.09 0.60 v
v = −0.042 m (behind the globe’s surface)

38
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution : ho = 1.60 m; u = 0.60 m
b. By applying the magnification formula, thus
hi v
m= =
ho u
hi 0.042
=
1.60 0.60
hi = 0.112 m OR 11.2 cm
c. The characteristics of the person’s image are
 virtual
 upright
 diminished
 formed behind the reflecting surface.

39
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Example 6 :
A shaving or makeup mirror forms an image of a light bulb on a
wall of a bathroom that is 3.50 m from the mirror. The height of the
bulb is 8.0 mm and the height of its image is 40 cm.
a. Sketch a labeled ray diagram to show the formation of the bulb’s

image.
b. Calculate
i. the position of the bulb from the pole of the mirror,
v =length
ii. the focal = 8.0 × 10 −3 m; hi = 40 × 10 −2
3.50ofm;thehomirror. m
Solution :
a. The ray diagram of the bulb is
O
I 8.0 mm P
C F u
40 cm

3.50 m 40
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution : u = 3.50 m; ho = 8.0 × 10 −3 m; hi = 40 × 10 −2 m
b. i. By applying the magnification formula, thus
hi v
m= =
ho u
−2
40 ×10 3.50
−3
=
8.0 ×10 u
u = 0.07 m OR 7.0 cm
The position of the bulb is 7.0 cm in front of the mirror.
ii. By applying the mirror’s equation, thus
1 1 1
= +
f u v
1 1 1
= +
f 0.07 3.50
f = 0.0687 m OR 6.87 cm 41
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Exercise 1.2 :
1. a. A concave mirror forms an inverted image four times larger
than the object. Calculate the focal length of the mirror,
assuming the distance between object and image is
0.600 m.
b. A convex mirror forms a virtual image half the size of the
object. Assuming the distance between image and object
is 20.0 cm, determine the radius of curvature of the mirror.
ANS. : 160 mm ; 267 mm
2. a. A 1.74 m tall shopper in a department store is 5.19 m from
a security mirror. The shopper notices that his image in the
mirror appears to be only 16.3 cm tall.
i. Is the shopper’s image upright or inverted? Explain.
ii. Determine the radius of curvature of the mirror.
b. A concave mirror of a focal length 36 cm produces an
image whose distance from the mirror is one third of the
object distance. Calculate the object and image distances.
ANS. : u think, 1.07 m ; 144 cm, 48 cm 42
 PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Learning Outcome:
1.3 Refraction at a plane and spherical surfaces (1
www.kmph.matrik.edu.my/physic s

hour)
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 State and use the laws of refraction (Snell’s Law) for
layers of materials with different densities.
 Apply

n1 n2 ( n2 − n1 )
+ = for spherical surface.
u v r

43
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
1.3 Refraction at a plane and spherical
surfaces
1.3.1 Refraction at a plane surface
 Refraction is defined as the changing of direction of a light
ray and its speed of propagation as it passes from one
medium into another.
another
 Laws of refraction state :
 The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal all lie
in the same plane.
plane
 For two given media, Snell’s law states

sin i n2
= = constant OR n1 sin i = n2 sin r
sin r n1
where n1 : refractive index of the medium 1
(Medium containing the incident ray)
n2 : refractive index of the medium 2
(Medium containing the refracted ray)
r : angle of refraction 44
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 Examples for refraction of light ray travels from one medium to
another medium can be shown in Figures 1.13a and 1.13b.
(a) n1 < n2 (b) n1 > n2
(Medium 1 is less dense (Medium 1 is denser than
medium 2) medium 2)

Stimulation 1.3 Stimulation 1.4

Incident ray
Incident ray
i i
n1 n1
n2 n2
r r
Refracted ray
Figure 1.13a Figure 1.13b Refracted ray
The light ray is bent toward the The light ray is bent away from
normal thus r < i
normal, normal thus r > i 45
the normal,
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Refractive index (index of refraction), n
 is defined as the constant ratio sin i for the two given
media.
media sin r
 The value of refractive index depends on the type of medium
and the colour of the light.
light
 It is dimensionless and its value greater than 1.
1
 Consider the light ray travels from medium 1 into medium 2, the
refractive index can be denoted by

velocity of light in medium 1 v1

1 n2 = =
velocity of light in medium 2 v2

(Medium containing (Medium containing the

the incident ray) refracted ray)

46
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 Absolute refractive index, n (for the incident ray travels from
vacuum or air into the medium)
medium is given by
velocity of light in vacuum c
n= =
velocity of light in medium v
 Table 1.3 shows the refractive indices for common substances.
Substance Refractive index, n
Table 1.3
Solids
(If the density Diamond 2.42
of medium is Flint glass 1.66
greater hence Crown glass 1.52
the refractive Fused quartz (glass) 1.46
index is also Ice 1.31
greater)
greater Liquids
Benzene 1.50
Ethyl alcohol 1.36
Water 1.33
Gases
Carbon dioxide 1.00045
Air 1.000293 47
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Relationship between refractive index and the wavelength of
light
 As light travels from one medium to another, its wavelength, λ
changes but its frequency, f remains constant.
constant
 The wavelength changes because of different material.
material The
frequency remains constant because the number of wave
cycles arriving per unit time must equal the number leaving
per unit time so that the boundary surface cannot create or
destroy waves.
waves
 By considering a light travels from medium 1 (n1) into medium 2
(n2), the velocity of light in each medium is given by
v1 = fλ1 and v2 = fλ2
v1 fλ1 c c
then = where v1 = and v2 =
v 2 f λ2 n1 n2

48
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
c
 
 n1  = λ1 n1λ1 = n2 λ 2
 c  λ2
  (Refractive index is inversely
 n2  proportional to the wavelength)

 If medium 1 is vacuum or air, then n1 = 1. Therefore the

refractive index for any medium, n can be expressed as
λ0
n=
λ
where λ0 : wavelength of light in vacuum
λ : wavelength of light in medium
Picture 1.5 Picture 1.6
49
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Example 7 :
A fifty cent coin is at the bottom of a swimming pool of depth
3.00 m. The refractive index of air and water are 1.00 and 1.33
respectively. Determine the apparent depth of the coin.
Solution : na = 1.00 ; nw = 1.33

r
Air (na) A
Water (nw) r D
B i
3.00 m i

C
where
AB : apparent depth
AC : actual depth = 3.00 m
50
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution : na = 1.00 ; nw = 1.33
From the diagram,
AD
ABD tan r =
AB
AD
ACD tan i =
AC
By considering only small angles of r and i , thus
tan r ≈ sin r and tan i ≈ sin i
then  AD 
 
tan i sin i  AC  AB
= = =
tan r sin r  AD  AC
 
 AB 
51
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution : na = 1.00 ; nw = 1.33
From the Snell’s law,
sin i n2 na
= =
sin r n1 nw
AB na
=
AC nw
AB 1.00
=
3.00 1.33
Note : (Important)
AB = 2.26 m
Other equation for absolute
refractive index in term of
depth is given by
n2 real depth
n= =
n1 apparent depth
52
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Example 8 :
A pond with a total depth (ice + water) of 4.00 m is covered by a
transparent layer of ice of thickness 0.32 m. Determine the time
required for light to travel vertically from the surface of the ice to
the bottom of the pond. The refractive index of ice and water are
1.31 and 1.33 respectively.
(Given the speed of light in vacuum is 3.00 × 108 m s-1.)
Solution : ni = 1.31 ; nw = 1.33

Ice (ni) hi = 0.32 m

Water (nw) hw = 4.00 − 0.32 4.00 m

hw = 3.68 m

Bottom 53
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution : ni = 1.31 ; nw = 1.33
The speed of light in ice and water are
c 3.00 × 108
ni = 1.31 =
vi vi
vi = 2.29 × 108 m s −1
c 3.00 × 10 8
nw = 1.33 =
vw vw
vw = 2.26 × 108 m s −1
Since the light propagates in ice and water at constant speed thus
s s
v= t=
t v
Therefore the time required is given by
hi hw  0.32   3.68 
t = ti + t w t= + = +
8   8 
vi vw  2.29 ×10   2.26 ×10 
t = 1.77 ×10 −8 s 54
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
1.3.2 Refraction at a spherical surface
 Figure 1.14 shows a spherical surface with radius, r forms an
interface between two media with refractive indices n1 and n2.

B θ n2
n1 i

α φ β
O PD C I
r
u v
Figure 1.14
 The surface forms an image I of a point object O.
 The incident ray OB making an angle i with the normal and is
refracted to ray BI making an angle θ where n1 < n2.
 Point C is the centre of curvature of the spherical surface and
BC is normal. 55
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 From the figure,
BOC i = α +φ (1)
BIC φ = β +θ
θ =φ −β (2)
 From the Snell’s law
n1 sin i = n2 sin θ
By using BOD, BCD and BID thus
BD BD BD
tan α = ; tan φ = ; tanβ =
OD CD ID
By considering point B very close to the pole P, hence
sin i ≈ i ; sin θ ≈ θ ; tan α ≈ α ; tan φ ≈ φ ; tanβ ≈ β
OD ≈ OP = u ; CD ≈ CP = r ; ID ≈ IP = v
then Snell’s law can be written as
n1i = n2θ (3)

56
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 By substituting eq. (1) and (2) into eq. (3), thus
n1 (α + φ ) = n2 (φ − β )
n1α + n2 β = (n2 − n1 )φ
then
 BD   BD   BD 
n1   + n2   = (n2 − n1 ) 
 u   v   r 
n1 n2 (n2 − n1 )
+ = Equation of spherical
refracting surface
u v r
where v : image distance from pole
u : object distance from pole
n1 : refractive index of medium 1
(Medium containing the incident ray)
n2 : refractive index of medium 2
(Medium containing the refracted ray)
57
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 Note :
 If the refracting surface is flat (plane) :

r=∞
then
n1 n2
+ =0
u v
 The equation (formula) of linear magnification for refraction
by the spherical surface is given by

hi n1v
m= =
ho n2u

58
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 Table 1.4 shows the sign convention for refraction or thin
lenses:
lenses
Physical Quantity Positive sign (+) Negative sign (-)

Real object Virtual object

Object distance, u (in front of the refracting (at the back of the
surface) refracting surface)
Real image Virtual image
Image distance, v (opposite side of the (same side of the
object) object)

Focal length, f Converging lens Diverging lens

Centre of curvature Centre of curvature
Radius of is located in more is located in less
curvature, r dense medium dense medium
(convex surface) (concave surface)

Table 1.4 59
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Example 9 :
A cylindrical glass rod in air has a refractive index of 1.52. One end
is ground to a hemispherical surface with radius, r =3.00 cm as
shown in Figure 1.15.

air glass
P
.00 cm C I
O 3
10 .0 cm
Figure 1.15
Calculate,
a. the position of the image for a small object on the axis of the
rod,
10.0 cm to the left of the pole as shown in figure.
b. the linear magnification.
(Given the refractive index of air , na= 1.00)
60
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution : ng = 1.52 ; u = 10.0 cm; r = +3.00 cm
a. By using the equation of spherical refracting surface, thus

na ng ( ng − na )
+ =
u v r
1.00 1.52 (1.52 − 1.00)
+ = v = +20.7 cm
10.0 v + 3.00
The image is 20.7 cm at the back of the convex surface.
b. The linear magnification of the image is given by
n1v na v
m= m=
n2u ng u

m=
(1.00)( 20.7 )
(1.52)(10.0)
m = 1.36 61
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Example 10 :
Figure 1.16 shows an object O placed at a distance 20.0 cm from
the surface P of a glass sphere of radius 5.0 cm and refractive
index of 1.63.
Glass sphere
air
P
O 5.0 cm
20 .0 cm
Figure 1.16
Determine
a. the position of the image formed by the surface P of the glass
sphere,
b. the position of the final image formed by the glass sphere.
(Given the refractive index of air , na= 1.00)
62
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution : ng = 1.63 ; u = 20.0 cm; r = +5.0 cm
a. By using the equation of spherical refracting surface, thus

na ng ( ng − na )
+ =
u v r
1.00 1.63 (1.63 − 1.00)
+ = v = +21.5 cm
20.0 v + 5.0
The image is 21.5 cm at the back of the first surface P.
OR
na ng
O P C I1
u = 20.0 cm r v = 21.5 cm

63
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution :
b.
na ng na
O P C Q
I2 I1
21.5 cm
11.5 cm
First surface
Second surface
From the figure above, the image I1 formed by the first surface P
is in the glass and 11.5 cm from the second surface Q. I1 acts
as a virtual object for the second surface and
n1 = ng = 1.63 ; n2 = na = 1.00; u = −11.5 cm;
r = +5.00 cm
Centre of curvature is located in
more dense medium 64
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution :
b. By using

na ( na − ng )
ng
+ =
u v r
1.63 1.00 (1.00 − 1.63)
+ =
− 11.5 v + 5.0
v = +3.74 cm
The image is real and 3.74 cm at the back of the second
surface Q.

65
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Exercise 1.3 :
1. A student wishes to determine the depth of a swimming pool
filled with water by measuring the width (x = 5.50 m) and then
noting that the bottom edge of the pool is just visible at an
angle of 14.0° above the horizontal as shown in Figure 1.17.

Figure 1.17
Calculate the depth of the pool.
(Given nwater = 1.33 and nair = 1.00)
ANS. : 5.16 m

66
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Exercise 1.3 :
2. A small strip of paper is pasted on one side of a glass sphere
of radius 5 cm. The paper is then view from the opposite
surface of the sphere. Determine the position of the image.
(Given the refractive index of glass =1.52 and the refractive
index of air =1.00)
ANS. : 20.83 cm in front of the 2nd refracting surface.

3. A point source of light is placed at a distance of 25.0 cm from

the centre of a glass sphere of radius 10 cm. Determine the
image position of the source.
(Given the refractive index of glass =1.52 and the refractive
index of air =1.00)
ANS. : 25.2 cm at the back of the 2nd refracting surface.

67
 PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Learning Outcome:
1.4 Thin lenses (2 hours)
www.kmph.matrik.edu.my/physic s

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

 Sketch and use ray diagrams to determine the
characteristics of image formed by diverging and
converging lenses.
 Use equation stated in 1.3 to derive thin lens formula,

1 1 1
+ = for real object only.
u v f
 Use lensmaker’s equation:

1 1 1 
= ( n − 1)  + 
f  r1 r2 
 Use the thin lens formula for a combination of
converging lenses. 68
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
1.4 Thin lenses
 is defined as a transparent material with two spherical
refracting surfaces whose thickness is thin compared to
the radii of curvature of the two refracting surfaces.
surfaces
 There are two types of thin lenses. It is converging and
diverging lenses.
 Figures 1.18a and 1.18b show the various types of thin lenses,
both converging and diverging.
(a) Converging (Convex) lenses

r1 r2 r1 r2 r1 r2
(+ve) (+ve) (+ve) ( ∞ ) (+ve) ( −ve)
Biconvex Plano-convex Convex meniscus
Figure 1.18a
69
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
(b) Diverging (Concave) lenses

r1 r2 r1 r2 r1 r2
(−ve) (−ve) (−ve) ( ∞ ) (+ve) ( −ve)
Biconcave Plano-concave Concave meniscus
Figure 1.18b
1.4.1 Terms of thin lenses
 Figures 1.19 show the shape of converging (convex) and
diverging (concave) lenses.
(a) Converging lens (b) Diverging lens

r1 r1

C1 O C2 C1 O C2
r2 r2
Figure 1.19 70
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 Centre of curvature (point C1 and C2)
 is defined as the centre of the sphere of which the surface
of the lens is a part.
part
 Radius of curvature (r1 and r2)
 is defined as the radius of the sphere of which the surface
of the lens is a part.
part
 Principal (Optical) axis
 is defined as the line joining the two centres of curvature
of a lens.
lens
 Optical centre (point O)
 is defined as the point at which any rays entering the lens
pass without deviation.
deviation

71
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
1.4.2 Focal point and focal length, f
 Consider the ray diagrams for converging and diverging lenses
as shown in Figures 1.20a and 1.20b.

F1 O F2 F1 O F2

f f
f f
Figure 1.20a Figure 1.20b
 From the figures,
 Points F and F represent the focus of the lenses.
1 2

 Distance f represents the focal length of the lenses.

72
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Focus (point F1 and F2)
 For converging (convex) lens – is defined as the point on the
principal axis where rays which are parallel and close to the
principal axis converges after passing through the lens.
lens
 Its focus is real (principal).
 For diverging (concave) lens – is defined as the point on the
principal axis where rays which are parallel to the principal
axis seem to diverge from after passing through the lens.
lens
 Its focus is virtual.

Focal length ( f )
 is defined as the distance between the focus F and the optical
centre O of the lens.
lens

73
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
1.4.3 Ray diagram for thin lenses
 Figures 1.21a and 1.21b show the graphical method of locating
an image formed by a converging (convex) and diverging
(concave) lenses.
(a) Converging (convex) lens

1
2
3
F2 I
O F1
2 1
3

u v
Figure 1.21a
74
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
(b) Diverging (concave) lens 1

1
3
2
3
O F2 I F1
v
u 2
Figure 1.21b
 Ray 1 - Parallel to the principal axis, after refraction by the lens,
At least passes through the focal point (focus) F2 of a
any two converging lens or appears to come from the focal point
rays for F2 of a diverging lens.
drawing  Ray 2 - Passes through the optical centre of the lens is
the ray undeviated.
diagram.  Ray 3 - Passes through the focus F1 of a converging lens or
appears to converge towards the focus F1 of a diverging
lens, after refraction by the lens the ray parallel to the principal
75
axis.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Images formed by a diverging lens
 Figure 1.22 shows the graphical method of locating an image
formed by a diverging lens.

O F2 I F1
Front back
Figure 1.22
 The characteristics of the image formed are
 virtual
 upright
 diminished (smaller than the object)
 formed in front of the lens.
lens
 Object position → any position in front of the diverging lens.
76
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Images formed by a converging lens
 Table 1.5 shows the ray diagrams of locating an image formed

by a converging lens for various object distance, u.

Object Ray diagram Image characteristic

distance, u

 Real
 Inverted

 Diminished
u > 2f I
 Formed between
O 2F1 F1 F2 2F2
point F2 and 2F2.
(at the back of the
Front back lens)

77
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Object Ray diagram Image characteristic
distance, u
 Real
 Inverted
O 2F2
u = 2f 2F1 F2
 Same size
F1 I  Formed at point
2F2. (at the back of
Front back the lens)

 Real
 Inverted

I  Magnified

f < u < 2f 2F1 O F1 F2 2F2  Formed at a

distance greater
Front than 2f at the
back
back of the lens.
78
 Object Ray diagram Image characteristic
PHYSICS
distance, u
CHAPTER 1

 Real or virtual
O  Formed at infinity.
u=f 2F1 F2 2F2
F1

Front back

 Virtual
 Upright
 Magnified
 Formed in front
u<f of the lens.

I 2F1 F1 O F2 2F2
Stimulation 1.5
Front back
79
Table 1.5
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
1.4.4 Thin lens formula, lens maker’s and linear
magnification equations
Thin lens formula and lens maker’s equation
 Considering the ray diagram of refraction for two spherical
surfaces as shown in Figure 1.23.
u1 v1 u2 = t − v1
v2
r1 r2
A D
n1 n2 n1

C1 I1 C2
O P1 P2 I2

B E
Figure 1.23 t 80
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 By using the equation of spherical refracting surface, the
refraction by first surface AB and second surface DE are given
by
 Surface AB (r = +r1)
n1 n2 (n2 − n1 )
+ = (1)
u1 v1 + r1
 Surface DE (r = +r2)
n2 n1 (n2 − n1 )
+ =
( t − v1 ) v2 + r2
Assuming the lens is very thin thus t = 0,
n2 n1 (n2 − n1 )
+ =
− v1 v2 r2
n2 n1  n2 − n1 
= −   (2)
v1 v2  r2 
81
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 By substituting eq. (2) into eq. (1), thus
n1  n1  n2 − n1  (n2 − n1 )
+  −   =
u1  v2  r2  r1
n1 n1 (n2 − n1 ) (n2 − n1 )
+ = +
u1 v2 r1 r2
1 1  n2  1 1 
+ =  − 1 +  (3)
u1 v2  n1  r1 r2 
 If u1 = ∞ and v2 = f thus eq. (3) becomes
1  n2  1 1  Lens maker’s
=  − 1 +  equation
f  n1  r1 r2 
where f : focal length
r1 : radius of curvature for 1stndrefracting surface
r2 : radius of curvature for 2 refracting surface
n1 : refractive index of the medium
n2 : refractive index of the lens material 82
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
 By equating eq. (3) and the lens maker’s equation, thus
1 1 1
+ =
u1 v2 f
therefore in general,
1 1 1
= + Thin lens formula
f u v
 Note :
 If the medium is air (n1= nair=1) thus the lens maker’s
equation can be written as
1 1 1
= ( n − 1)  + 
f  r1 r2 
where n : refractive index of the lens material
 For thin lenses and lens maker’s equations, use the sign
convention for refraction.
refraction
83
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Linear magnification, m
 is defined as the ratio between image height, hi and object
height, ho.
hi v
m= =
ho u
where v : image distance from optical centre
u : object distance from optical centre
1 1 1
 Since = + the linear magnification equation can be
f u v
written as  1 1 1
 = +  × v
 f u v
v v v
= +1 m = −1
f u f
84
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Example 11 :
A person of height 1.75 m is standing 2.50 m in from of a camera.
The camera uses a thin biconvex lens of radii of curvature
7.69 mm. The lens made from the crown glass of refractive index
1.52.
a. Calculate the focal length of the lens.
b. Sketch a labelled ray diagram to show the formation of the
image.
c. Determine the position of the image and its height.
d. State the characteristics of the image.
Solution : ho = 1.75 m; u = 2.50 m; n = 1.52;
−3
r1 = r2 = +7.69 × 10 m
a. By applying the lens maker’s equation in air, thus
1 1 1
= ( n − 1)  + 
f  r1 r2 
85
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution : ho = 1.75 m; u = 2.50 m; n = 1.52;
r1 = r2 = +7.69 × 10 −3 m
a. 1  1 1 
= (1.52 − 1)  −3
+ −3 
f  7.69 ×10 7.69 × 10 
f = +7.39 ×10 −3 m
b. The ray diagram for the case is

I
O 2F1 F1 F2 2F2

Front back

86
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution :
c. The position of the image formed is
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + −3
= +
f u v + 7.39 ×10 2.50 v
v = 7.41× 10 −3 m
(at the back of the lens)
By using the linear magnification equation, thus
hi v hi 7.41×10 −3
m= = =
ho u 1.75 2.50
hi = 5.19 ×10 −3 m OR 5.19 mm
d. The characteristics of the image are
 real
 inverted
 diminished
 formed at the back of the lens
87
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Example 12 :
A thin plano-convex lens is made of glass of refractive index 1.66.
When an object is set up 10 cm from the lens, a virtual image ten
times its size is formed. Determine
a. the focal length of the lens,
b. the radius of curvature of the convex surface.
Solution : n = 1.66; u = 10 cm; m = 10
a. By applying the linear magnification equation for thin lens, thus
v
m = = 10 v = 10u
u
By using the thin lens formula, thus
1 1 1
= + Virtual image
f u v
1 1 1
= +
f u ( − 10u )
88
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution : n = 1.66; u = 10 cm; m = 10
a. 1 1 1
= +
f 10 ( − 10)(10)
f = +11.1 cm
b. Since the thin lens is plano-convex thus r2 = ∞
Therefore
1 1 1
= ( n − 1)  + 
f  r1 r2 
1 1 1
= (1.66 − 1)  + 
11.1  r1 ∞ 
r1 = +7.33 cm

89
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Example 13 :
The radii of curvature of the faces of a thin concave meniscus lens
of material of refractive index 3/2 are 20 cm and 10 cm. What is
the focal length of lens
a. in air,
b. when completely immersed in water of refractive index 4/3?
Solution : n2 = 3 / 2

r1 = +20 cm r2 = −10 cm
a. By applying the lens maker’s equation in air,
1 1 1
= ( n − 1)  +  and n2 = n = 3 / 2
f  r1 r2 

90
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution : n2 = 3 / 2
a. 1 3  1 1 
=  − 1 + 
f  2  + 20 ( − 10 ) 
f = −40 cm
b. Given n1 = 4 / 3
By using the general lens maker’s equation, therefore
1  n2  1 1 
=  − 1 + 
f  n1  r1 r2 
1  ( 32 )  1 1 
=  4 − 1 + 
f  ( 3 )  + 20 ( − 10 ) 
f = −160 cm
91
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
1.4.5 Combination of lenses
 Many optical instruments, such as microscopes and
telescopes,
telescopes use two converging lenses together to produce
an image.
 In both instruments, the 1st lens (closest to the object )is called
the objective and the 2nd lens (closest to the eye)
eye is referred to
as the eyepiece or ocular.
ocular
 The image formed by the 1st lens is treated as the object for
the 2nd lens and the final image is the image formed by the 2nd
lens.
lens
 The position of the final image in a two lenses system can be
determined by applying the thin lens formula to each lens
separately.
separately
 The overall magnification of a two lenses system is the
product of the magnifications of the separate lenses.
lenses
where
Picture 1.7 m = m1m2 m : overall magnification
m1 : magnification due to the 1stndlens
Picture 1.8 m2 : magnification due to the 2 92lens
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Example 14 :
The objective and eyepiece of the compound microscope are both
converging lenses and have focal lengths of 15.0 mm and 25.5
mm respectively. A distance of 61.0 mm separates the lenses. The
microscope is being used to examine a sample placed 24.1 mm in
front of the objective.
a. Determine
i. the position of the final image,
ii. the overall magnification of the microscope.
b. State the characteristics of the final image.
Solution : f1 = +15.0 mm; f 2 = +25.5 mm; d = 61.0 mm;
u1 = 24.1 mm
d
f1 f1 f2 f2
O u1
F1 F1 F2 F2

objective (1st ) eyepiece(2nd ) 93

PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution : f1 = +15.0 mm; f 2 = +25.5 mm; d = 61.0 mm;
u1 = 24.1 mm
a. i. By applying the thin lens formula for the 1st lens (objective),
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
f1 u1 v1 + 15.0 24.1 v1
v1 = +39.7 mm (real)
d
f1 f1 f2 f2
O F
u1 F1
F1 F2
I1
F2

v1 u2
u2 = d − v1
u 2 = 61.0 − 39.7
u2 = 21.3 mm
94
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution : f1= +15.0 mm; f 2 = +25.5 mm; d = 61.0 mm;
u1 = 24.1 mm
a. i. and the position of the final image formed by the 2nd lens
1 1 1 1 1 1
(eyepiece) is
= + = +
f 2 u 2 v2 + 25.5 21.3 v2
v2 = −129 mm
(in front of the 2nd lens)
d
f1 f1 f2 f2
O u1 F1
F F1 F2
I1
F2

I2 v1 u2

v2 = 129 mm 95
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Solution : f1 = +15.0 mm; f 2 = +25.5 mm; d = 61.0 mm;
u1 = 24.1 mm
a. ii. The overall (total) magnification of the microscope is given by
v1 v2
m = m1m2 where m1 = and m2 =
u1 u2
v1 v2
m= ×
u1 u2
39.7 ( − 129)
m= × m = 9.98
24.1 21.3
b. The characteristics of the final image are
 virtual
 inverted
 magnified
 formed in front of the 1st and 2nd lenses.
lenses 96
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
Exercise 1.4 :
1. a. A glass of refractive index 1.50 plano-concave lens has a
focal length of 21.5 cm. Calculate the radius of the
concave surface.
b. A rod of length 15.0 cm is placed horizontally along the
principal axis of a converging lens of focal length 10.0 cm. If
the closest end of the rod is 20.0 cm from the lens calculate
the length of the image formed.
ANS. : 10.8 cm; 6.00 cm
2. An object is placed 16.0 cm to the left of a lens. The lens
forms an image which is 36.0 cm to the right of the lens.
a. Calculate the focal length of the lens and state the type of
the lens.
b. If the object is 8.00 mm tall, calculate the height of the
image.
c. Sketch a labelled ray diagram for the case above.
ANS. : 11.1 cm; 1.8 cm
97
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1
3. When a small light bulb is placed on the left side of a
converging lens, a sharp image is formed on a screen placed
30.0 cm on the right side of the lens. When the lens is moved
5.0 cm to the right, the screen has to be moved 5.0 cm to the
left so that a sharp image is again formed on the screen. What
is the focal length of the lens?
ANS. : 10.0 cm
4. A converging lens of focal length 8.00 cm is 20.0 cm to the left
of a converging lens of focal length 6.00 cm. A coin is placed
10.0 cm to the left of the 1st lens. Calculate
a. the distance of the final image from the 1st lens,
b. the total magnification of the system.
ANS. : 24.6 cm; 0.924
5. A converging lens with a focal length of 4.0 cm is to the left of a
second identical lens. When a feather is placed 12 cm to the
left of the first lens, the final image is the same size and
orientation as the feather itself. Calculate the separation
between the lenses.
ANS. : 12.0 cm 98
PHYSICS CHAPTER 1

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CHAPTER 2 :
Physical optics

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