Overview of Deepwater-Reservoir Elements

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Introduction
As we stated in Chapter 1, several reservoir elements have now been recognized by various workers and are used routinely in industry: channel-fill, levee (thin beds), sheets
(amalgamated and layered), and mass-transport deposits (slides). We describe each of these
elements in a systematic manner in Chapter 6 through Chapter 9. A series of three unusual
deepwater elements (remobilized sands, chalk turbidites, and carbonate debris aprons) are
described in Chapter 10. Pitfalls in the interpretation of different elements are briefly summarized in Chapter 11.
The discussion of each reservoir element is organized by scales of observation. We first
describe regional aspects of each element using data sets at the exploration scale (seismic: surface
and shallow subsurface; buried elements at exploration and development scale). We then describe
more development-scale data sets: outcrops, cores, conventional, and borehole image logs.
The purpose of this chapter is to give an overview to the following five chapters. We
will: (1) describe the elements and try to equate different terminologies that have been used by
different workers (a non-trivial issue); (2) discuss which data sets we use to describe deepwater elements and their resolution; (3) discuss how deepwater systems vary in grain size and
sediment-delivery systems; (4) describe the hierarchy of deepwater deposits and how these different elements stack stratigraphically through time; (5) discuss shallow analog studies and
their importance, and (6) address how production from various elements varies between different basins, and within the same basin, in systems of differing age.

Elements and Nomenclature Issues

The study of deepwater systems evolved from several separate disciplines that eventually
merged (outcrop geology, marine geology and geophysics, oceanography, subsurface geology
and geophysics). As a consequence, different terminology was used to describe these features
based on different data sets (Chapter 1; Figure 1-8). In addition, different disciplines also used
their own terms. Below, we define how we used these terms and equated them in this book.

Sequence stratigraphic terms

Sequence stratigraphic terminology was developed to describe all of those sediments
that were deposited within certain positions of a relative cycle of sea level (Chapter 3). Architectural terms are used within a sea-level context.
Within the lowstand-systems tract, three elements are recognized (Figure 3-4): basinfloor fans, slope fans, and prograding complex. The downdip portion of basin-floor fans are
equivalent to sheet sands (lobes) (Chapter 8); the updip portion are equivalent to amalgamated
channels (Chapter 6). These are usually the highest net:gross of the deepwater system.
The slope fan is a general term used for lower net:gross systems (Brown et al., 2005) and
includes several elements: channel-fill (Chapter 6), levee-overbank and their equivalent thin
beds and crevasses (Chapter 7), extensive slides, debris flows and mass-transport deposits
(Chapter 9). The prograding complex consists of prograding shallow-marine deposits (deltas,
shorelines and related deposits), slope, and deep-marine muds. In some conditions, localized
turbidites can develop, called shingled turbidites. These features have been characterized as
high frequency basin-floor fans, composed largely of sheet deposits with minor channels
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(Mitchum et al., 1993). Shingled turbidites tend to be muddier and more poorly sorted than
true sheets because they are associated with more muddy parts of the system.
This classification was largely based on seismic stratigraphic appearance, and stratigraphic position within a depositional sequence. The terminology was developed prior to the
usage of 3-D seismic data; many of the stratigraphic boundaries between the systems are more
diffuse and not as rigorously defined as is indicated by this classification.

Process/accommodation terms
The terminology for fill-and-spill literature also mixes architectural elements and timing
of sedimentation (Chapter 3: Figure 3-13 to Figure 3-16; Prather et al., 1998). The ponding
and fill facies (A facies) are equivalent to sheet sands; bypass facies (B facies) is equivalent to
channel-levee systems, and drape facies (D facies) is equivalent to condensed sections. The
terms were developed to explain the timing of sedimentation and relate it to changes in accommodation within intraslope settings.

Architectural terms

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The usage of two sets of terms for this book warrant further discussion: the use of sheet
sands versus depositional lobes, and the use of thin beds for deepwater reservoirs.
We use the terms that have been used for generally similar deposits, depositional lobes
and sheets. Depositional lobes were originally defined by Mutti and Ricci Lucchi (1972) and
later modified by Mutti and Normark (1987, 1991). The term was originally an outcrop-based
term, with interpreted 3-D geometries. In the collaborative work of Mutti and Normark (1987,
1991), the term was applied to modern-fan studies for those sediments deposited beyond the
terminus of a channel. Sheet sands is an architectural term used by Chapin et al (1994) and
Mahaffie (1994) to describe the geometry of sand beds in both outcrop and the subsurface.
Importantly, the extensive use of 3-D seismic has clearly imaged lobate-like bodies at
the terminus of channels in confined and unconfined basins (Figure 8-1, Figure 8-6, Figure 88, Figure 8-10, and Figure 8-14). The term now is applied to those sedimentary bodies in deepwater that have a lobate shape. Chapin et al. (1994) suggested that amalgamated sheet sands
are equivalent to proximal lobes and layered sheet sands are equivalent to medial and distal
lobes.
We use the terms synonymously throughout the book, with the architectural term sheets
more commonly. Richards et al. (1998) distinguish between the two terms in their classification (Figure 1-3), noting that lobes are more common in sand-rich systems and sheets more
common in mud-rich systems. We do not use the terms in that fashion.
The term thin beds also has two general uses. In general, thin beds refers to interbedded
to interlaminated sandstones and shale, both of which are up to a few cm thick. Thin beds can
occur in many depositional settings, ranging from continental to deepwater, and reflect variations in the energy of the environment. In deepwater settings, thin beds can occur in leveeoverbank, channel margin, late channel fill, and in distal layered sheets (distal lobe). For this
book, we use the term thin beds exclusively for those that occur as reservoir in leveeoverbank
settings (Chapter 7).

Sediment Grain Sizes and Delivery Systems

Several key papers in the 1990s defined the essential controls on deepwater systems.
From these publications grew a four-fold classification of fan systems based on grain sizes and
delivery systems: gravel-rich, sand-rich, mixed sand-mud, and mud-rich (Reading and Richards 1994; Richards et al., 1998) (Figure 5-1). Three different end-member, sediment-delivery
systems were identified: single point-fed source fans, multiple point source submarine ramp,

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Hierarchy and Scales of Heterogeneity Within Architectural Elements

PRINCIPAL ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

SYSTEM TYPE

WEDGES

CHANNELS

LOBES

SHEETS

CHAOTIC
MOUNDS

CHUTES

GRAVEL-RICH
SYSTEMS

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BRAIDED

CHANNEL-LEVEE

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CHANNELIZED-LOBES

SAND-RICH
SYSTEMS
DEPOSITIONAL LOBES

SLUMPS & SLIDES

MUD/SAND-RICH
SYSTEMS
MUD-RICH
SYSTEMS

CHANNEL-LEVEE

DEPOSITIONAL LOBES

SLUMPS & SLIDES

Figure 5-1. Principal architectural elements of deepwater clastic systems. After Reading and
Richards (1994). Reprinted with permission of AAPG.

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and line-sourced submarine slope aprons. The salient characteristics for these four systems are
summarized in Table 5-1 and Figures 5-2 to 5-5.
Chapter 6 through Chapter 9 are subdivided by major architectural elements. However,
within any element, there can be a wide range of grain sizes and variations in delivery systems
as the element evolves.

Hierarchy and Scales of Heterogeneity Within Architectural Elements

The concept of scales of heterogeneity is one of the more difficult to define and grasp.
Although there is a clear hierarchy of scales in deepwater depositional systems, as there is in
many naturally ordered systems, it is not uncommon to use the improper terminology when
describing a feature. For example, the following deposits might all be defined as becoming
finer-grained upward: (a) an individual Bouma Ta bed 5 cm (2 in) thick; (b) a 10 m (33 ft)
thick channel-fill; and (c) a 100 m (330 ft) thick lowstand-systems tract of a depositional
sequence. Because of the same descriptor for these deposits of differing scale, a similar set of
processes may be erroneously inferred.
Examples that are discussed in separate chapters include (1) different lithologies and
facies, and associated processes (Chapter 4); (2) hierachy of channel-fill deposits (Chapter 6);
different stacking patterns related to the time-frequency of stratigraphic cyclicity (Chapter 3);
inner and outer levees, master channels and internal channel-fill in leveed-channel deposits
(Chapter 6 and Chapter 7); hierarchy of sheet sands and sandstones (Chapter 8); and small- to
large-scale slides and mass-transport deposits (Chapter 9). Also, a hierarchy of shales affects
reservoir performance; for example, a shale layer lining a concave-upward scour surface will
have much less influence on vertical flow of reservoir fluids than will a shale layer that is laterally continuous across an entire reservoir.
It is also important to remember that different tools and techniques measure or image
reservoir heterogeneities at different scales (Figure 5-6), for example: microscopic (pore and
grain scale), mesoscopic (vertical sequence in core or outcrop), macroscopic (interwell) and
megascopic (field-wide) scales (Krause et al., 1993). The filtering of seismic reflection data to
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Overview of Deepwater-Reservoir Elements

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Table 5-1. Reservoir characteristics of contrasting types of deepwater siliciclastic systems (after Reading and Richards, 1994).
Feeder System
Type
Dominant Grain
Size category

Point Source Submarine Fans

Mud MF

Mud/Sand
MSF

Sand SF

Multiple Source Submarine Ramps

Gravel GF

Mud MR

Mud/Sand
MSR

Sand SR

Gravel GR

Linear Source Slope Aprons

Mud MA

Mud/Sand
MSA

Sand SA

Gravel
GA

Principal architectural elements

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Channels

Wedges

Offset
Lobes

Slumps

Debris
flows

Chaotic
mounds

Chaotic
mounds

Mounds

Wedges

Variable 550% (>50%

gravel)

Highly Variable 0-20%

Highly variable 0-20%

Highly variable

Highly
variable

Broad
sheet-like to
low relief
lobate sandbody geometries
dominated
internally by
channelized sandstone units.

Irregular
interconnected
gravels.
Proximal
areas dominated by
conglomerates and
breccias.
Sands dominant within
medial to
distal parts
of system

Limited
sand development.
Commonly
continued to
slide scars
and slump
generated
lows.

Laterally
extensive
separated
by silts and
muds

Lobate sandbodies dominated by

interconnected channelized units.

Laterally
extensive distally
limited

C, D

B, C

A, B, E, F

D, F

D, E

A, B, F

High

HighModerate

Low

High

High

High-Moderate

Low

High

Channellevees

Channellevees

Channels

Wedges

Channellevees

Channellevees

Channels

Wedges

Distal area

Distal
Sheets

Lobes

Channelized lobes

Distal
sheets

Distal
sheets

Lobes

Channelized lobes

Distal
sheets

Seismic
architecture

Channellevees, Distal parallel

reflections

Channellevees and
mounds

Constructional, low
and relief
mounds

Wedges

Channellevees, Distal parallel

reflections

Mounds

Constructional, low
and relief
mounds

Wedges

Sand
Percentage

<30% sand

>30 - <70%
sand

> 70% sand

Variable 550% (>50%

gravel)

<30% sand

>30 - <70%
sand

> 70% sand

Sandbody
Geometry

Large/lenticular channels with

multiple,
variable
scale sand\
silt and mud
fills. High
degree of
heterogeneity. Distal
fan dominated by
thin sand,
silt and mud
sheets.

Lenticular
channels
dominated
by sand or
mud fill.
Down-dip
lobes
formed of
interbedded and
alternating
sand, silts
and muds.

Broad
sheet-like to
low relief
lobate sandbody geometries
dominated
internally by
channelized sandstone units.

Irregular
interconnected gravels. Proximal
areas dominated by
conglomerates and
breccias.
Sands dominant within
medial to
distal parts
of system.

Moderate
size sandbodies
within overall large
channel
form.
Sands
commonly
isolated in
both downdip and updip directions.

Offset
stacked.
Lenticular
channel
sandbodies
bounded by
levee fines
passing
down-dip
into offset
stacked
lobate sandbodies
formed of
sandstones
and mudstones.

Turbidite facies

A, B, E, F

C, D

B, C

A, B, F

A, B, E, F

Reservoir
heterogeneity

High

HighModerate

Low

High

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Slumps,
slides

Proximal area

Slumps,
slides

Sandbody Communication
Vertical

Poor

Moderate

Good

Good

Poor-Moderate

Moderate

Good

Good

Poor

Moderate

Very Good

Good

Lateral

Poor

Poor

Good

Poor

Moderate

Moderate

Good

Moderate

Poor

Moderate

Very Good

Very
Good

Table continued on next page

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Hierarchy and Scales of Heterogeneity Within Architectural Elements

Table 5-1. (Cont.) Reservoir characteristics of contrasting types of deepwater siliciclastic systems (after Reading and Richards, 1994).
Feeder System
Type

Common
reservoir trap
type

Stratigraphic

Stratigraphic

Play Concepts

1) Stratigraphic
trapping
within terminal lobes
2) Stratigraphic
trapping of
channel
levee and
splay
deposits

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Linear Source Slope Aprons

Structural

Structural

Stratigraphic

Stratigraphic

Structural

Structural

1) Stratigraphic
trapping
within terminal lobes
2) Stratigraphic
trapping of
channel
levee/ splay
sands

1) Combined structural!
stratigraphic trap
in proximal
ramp channels
2) Updip
pinchout of
channel
and/or ramp
lobe sands

Combined
structural
and stratigraphic
traps of
ramp sandstones

1) Structural trapping of fan

conglomerates + sandstone
against to
footwall
scarps
2) Structural closure of
media/distal sandstones

Stratigraphic
trapping of
detached
slumped
clastics
derived
from active
or relict updip deltaic
systems

Stratigraphic
trapping of
detached
slumped
clastics
derived from
active or
relict up-dip
deltaic systems

Combined
structural and
stratigraphic
traps involving slope
apron turbidite sandstones

Structural closure of
fan conglomerate and
sandstones
against to
footwall
scarps

Reservoir
quality and
seal integrity

Reservoir
quality, trap
Presence,
extent and
identification

Reservoir
definition.
delineation
and quality;
seal integrity

Trap
requires
structural
component;
Seal integrity

Reservoir
quality and
seal integrity

Reservoir
and trap
presence,
extent and
identification; Seal
integrity

Reservoir
and trap
presence,
extent and
identification; Seal
integrity

Trap requires
structural
component;
Seal integrity

Reservoir quality and

seal
integrity

Not important

Important
LST

Potentially

Not important Important HST

Important
LST, HST
LST & TST

Highly
Important
HST

Low importance HST &

LSW/TST

Low importance LST/

LSW

Low
importance
LST

Stratigraphic

1) Up-dip
pinchout of
interfan
channel
sandstones
2) Stratigraphic
trapping of
mid-fan
channelized lobes

1) Structural trapping of fan

conglomerates adjacent to
footwall
scarps
2) Structural trapping of
medial/distal sandstones

Reservoir
presence,
extent,&
identification. seal
integrity

Trap
requires
structural
component;
Seal integrity

Potentially
important
HST, LST

Not important

Structural

1) Stratigraphic
trapping of
channel +
lobe deposits
2) Trapping
of sands in
canyons
from slope
failure +
flow stripping

Key exploration
risks

Reservoir
and trap
presence,
extent and
identification

Importance and
position on
relative sea
level cycle

Important
lowstands

Ref. List

Multiple Source Submarine Ramps

Stratigraphic

Structural

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Point Source Submarine Fans

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Overview of Deepwater-Reservoir Elements

PROXIMAL
TALUS APRON

a. Slope Apron
LINE SOURCED
COALESCING
ALLUVIAL
FANS

LINE
SOURCED
TALUS CONES

SUR

FA C
E

PLUM

2001,000m

COALESCING
LOBES

TOC
AVALANCHING

Start

TALUS FRINGE

TALUS
SLOPES

INERTIA FLOW
TURBIDITY FLOW

CHUTES

N
AI
PL

BA

1-2km

Ref. List

IN

BASIN PLAIN

b. Submarine Fan
MEDIAL RAMP

ALLUVIAL
FAN

SUBAERIAL
DELTA

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SURF
ACE

SAND + GRAVEL
SHEETS + BOULDERS

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TALUS

P LU M
E

HUMMOCKS, LOBES
AND SPLAYS

200500m

CHUTES

BASIN PLAIN
N

AVALANCHING

SI

BA

INERTIA FLOW

I
LA

TURBIDITY FLOW
1-5km

c. Submarine Ramp

PROXIMAL
FAN/RAMP

MOUNTAIN FED
FAN-DELTA ALLUVIAL FANS AND
FAN DELTAS

MEDIAL RAMP

NARROW
ZONE
LITTORAL
SURF
A

C E PL

UME

HUMMOCKY
LOBES AND
SPLAYS

2001,000m

BASIN PLAIN
AVALANCHING
INERTIA FLOW
TURBIDITY FLOW

TALUS
BASIN PLAIN
GULLIES AND
CHANNELS
2-5km

Figure 5-2. Schematic block diagram and wireline logs showing the distribution of a gravel-rich fan system:
(a) apron, (b) submarine fan, and (c) submarine ramp. Modified from Reading and Richards (1994) and Richards et al. (1998). Reprinted with permission of AAPG.

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Hierarchy and Scales of Heterogeneity Within Architectural Elements

COASTAL
BRAIDPLAIN

BRAID
PLAIN

APRON
SANDY TURBIDITES
SHELF AND SANDY
DEBRIS
FLOWS

a. Slope Apron

POTENTIAL FOR THE

DEVELOPMENT OF
SLUMPS AND SLIDES WITH
LOCALIZED SANDS

3
2502,000m

TOC

BR A
PLA ID
IN

CHANNELIZED
GULLIES

S HE
S A N LF
DS
COALESCING
TURBIDITE
SANDS

Start

N
SI
BA

1-10km

PL

N
AI
BASIN PLAIN

SLOPE APRON
SANDS

SHELF/DELTA

Ref. List
CANYON FED BY ACTIVE
NEARSHORE LITTORAL DRIFT
OR RELICT SHELF SANDS

BARRIER

LONGSHORE
DRIFT

SANDY COASTAL
PLAIN

b. Submarine Fan

INNER FAN

MID-FAN CHANNELISED\
AND UNCHANNELISED SANDS

CANYON

CO
AS
PLA TAL
SHE
IN
LF

5002,000m

SLUMP
SCAR

OUTER FAN
BASIN PLAIN

SLUMP
PL

AI

SLO
APR PE
ON

Help

SLUMP
SCAR

BA

SI

SLUMPS
10-50km
BASIN PLAIN

SHELF/DELTA
MULTIPLE RIVER/SANDY DELTA
AND COASTAL SYSTEMS

MEDIAL RAMP

c. Submarine Ramp
SHELF
RAMP
SLOPE

10-50km

PRO
XIM
RAM AL
P

AI
N

A ND

MED
IAL
PROXIMAL TO RAMP
MEDIAL RAMP
CHANNELS
DISTA

PL

TER
L

SI
N

HIN

2502,000m

COASTAL
PLAIN

BA

Search

MID-FAN
CHANNELISED
LOBES

INNER FAN
CHANNELS

BASIN PLAIN

L RAM
P

Figure 5-3. Schematic block diagram and wireline logs showing the distribution of a sand-rich fan system:
(a) apron, (b) submarine fan, and (c) submarine ramp. Modified from Reading and Richards (1994) and Richards et al. (1998). Reprinted with permission of AAPG.

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Overview of Deepwater-Reservoir Elements

a. Slope Apron

MIXED SAND AND MUD

SLUMPS AND SLIDES WITH
LOCALIZED SANDS

MEDIUM GRADIENT
COASTAL PLAIN, DELTAS,
CHENIERS, BARRIED ISLANDS

LONGSHORE
DRIFT

3
TOC

ND

CO
A
PL STA
AIN L

A
/S
UD F
M EL
E H
ID S

SLOPE APRON
SLUMP
SLUMP
SCARS

SH

ELF

Start

5004,000m

SLUMP

S
A P LO
R O PE
N

BASIN PLAIN

SLUMP

b. Submarine Fan
SHELF/DELTA
INNER TO
MID-FAN
CHANNELS

Ref. List
CHENIERS, BARRIERS

SLUMP
SCAR INNER

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FAN

CANYON

Help

COA
S
PLA TAL
IN
AN
DE L D S H E
TA
LF

MID-FAN
DEPOSITIONAL
LOBES
503,000m

SLUMP
SCAR

SL
AP OPE
RO
N

OUTER
PLAIN

SLUMP

10-100km
SHELF/DELTA

DEPOSITIONAL
LOBES IN THE
SUBSURFACE

c. Submarine Ramp

PROXIMAL TO
MEDIAL RAMP
CHANNELS

MIXED-LOAD DELTA
OR SHORELINE
SYSTEM

SH
CO
A
PL STA
AIN L

EL

F
SLOPE

SLUMP
SCARS
SHE

PRO
XIM
RAM AL
P

PROXIMAL RAMP
CHANNELS

RAMP
LOBES

2502,000m

SLUMP

LF

10-50km

SLUMP

SLUMP
ME
D
RA IAL
MP

DIS
RA TAL
MP

BASIN PLAIN

Figure 5-4. Schematic block diagram and wireline logs showing the distribution of a mixed mud-sand fan system: (a) slope apron, (b) submarine fan, and (c) submarine ramp. Modified from Reading and Richards (1994)
and Richards et al. (1998). Reprinted with permission of AAPG.

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Hierarchy and Scales of Heterogeneity Within Architectural Elements

MUD-RICH
SLUMPS AND SLIDES WITH
LOCALISED SANDS

ARID
COASTAL
PLAIN

a. Slope Apron

LOW GRADIENT
COASTAL PLAIN

CO
S
PLA TAL
IN SHE

TOC

F
EL
SH
O ON
E
S
V TI
NT
AR C
RE
ST ODU
R
NT R
CU
IE C P
UR
AD NI
O
T
GR G E
N
W IO
CO
LO B

SLUMP
SCAR
SLUMP
1,0005,000m

LF
SLO
APR PE
ON

SLUMP

TURBIDITY
CURRENTS

10-100km

Start

BASIN PLAIN
SHELF/DELTA

b. Submarine Fan

SLIDES IN THE
SUBSURFACE
MARSH

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INNER FAN
CHANNELS

LAGOON

MAJOR
MUD-RICH
RIVER DELTA

MID FAN
CHANNELS

SLIDE
SCARS
VALLEY
CANYON

LAKE
CO
PLA ASTA
L
DE IN AN
LTA
D
S HE

SLUMPS
INNER
MIDFAN
FAN
LF

HIGH
SINUOSITY
CHANNELS
AND LEVEES

SLO
APR PE
ON

1,0005,000m

BASIN
PLAIN
BASIN PLAIN
TERMINAL
LOBES

10-100km

OUTER FAN

SHELF/DELTA
ABANDONED
CHANNEL LEVEE
SYSTEM IN
SUBSURFACE

LOW MUDDY
COASTAL PLAIN
DELTAS, CHENIERS

MEDIAL RAMP
CHANNELS

LATERAL
FEEDING

c. Submarine Ramp
CO
A
PLA STAL
IN

50-250km

1,0005,000m

SLUMP

S HE

LF
SL
A P OP E
RO
N
PROXIMAL
RAMP
CHANNELS

BASIN PLAIN

SLUMP

B
PL AS
AI IN
N

Ref. List

DISTSTAL RAMP

CHANNEL-LEVEES
IN THE SUBSURFACE
HETEROGENOUS
DEPOSITIONAL
LOBE SANDS AND SILTS

Figure 5-5. Schematic block diagram showing the distribution of a mud-rich fan system: (a) apron, (b) submarine fan, and (c) submarine ramp. Modified from Reading and Richards (1994) and Richards et al. (1998).
Reprinted with permission of AAPG.

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Overview of Deepwater-Reservoir Elements

Scales of Resolution

Mineralogic Analysis
Core Facies and Petrophysical Analysis

Start

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Investigative Technique

Borehole Image Logs

TOC

Conventional Well Logs

Outcrop Studies
SSS

Shallow Seismic
Well Tests
Shallow Geophysics

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Seismic Reflection
Regional Analysis

Help
-6

10

10-3

100

10

106

Meters

Figure 5-6. Log-plot showing the relative scales of observation and resolution of different data
sets used in studying deepwater settings. SSS=side scan sonar. Figure modified from Minken
(2004, personal communication).

k
a more limited bandwidth of frequencies (spectral decomposition) allows one to image features of varying thicknesses. Finally, stratigraphic modeling for reservoir simulation
(Chapter 14) is scale-dependent because computing limitations often require the scaling up or
averaging of the smaller scale properties to accommodate a limited or pre-determined number
of simulation cells.
In Chapter 6 through Chapter 10, we begin our discussion of each element at the exploration (regional) scale, then characterize it at the development (reservoir) scale, combining the
various techniques and data sets listed above.

Integration of Data Sets

One of the main themes of Chapter 6 through Chapter 10 is the need for geoscientists
working in teams to integrate multiple data sets that have different scales of resolution. To
emphasize this challenge, we have constructed a series of figures that compare: the areal extent
of outcrops (Figure 5-7) with seismic data from two intraslope minibasins (Figure 5-8); wireline logs from the minibasin (Figure 5-9) with outcrop photographs (Figure 5-10) showing
stratal architecture; and, high-resolution seismic data (Figure 5-11) with outcrop information
(Figure 5-12).
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Integration of Data Sets

(a)

(b)

3
TOC

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Figure 5-7. Map view outline of three deepwater outcrops commonly used by companies for reservoir and stratigraphic analog studies: (a) Brushy Canyon, Permian, western Texas, USA
(Beaubouef et al., 1999), (b) Tanqua-Karoo, Permian, South Africa (Morris et al., 2000) and
(c) Ross Formation, Upper Carboniferous (lower Pennsylvanian) western Ireland (Martinsen et
al., 2000), (d) outline of the Mensa and Thunder Horse minibasins in northern Gulf of Mexico
(adapted from Lapinski, 2003; van den Berg, 2004). Location of shallow, allochthonous salt is
shown in pink. Locations for Figure 5-8 and wells are shown. Note that the areal distribution of
these outcrops is about the same scale as 1-3 mini-basins.

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Three of the better visited deepwater outcrops in the world are shown in Figure 5-7a-c:
the Permian Tanqua-Karoo strata of South Africa, the Permian Brushy Canyon Formation of
western Texas, USA, and the Upper Carboniferous (lower Pennsylvanian) Ross Formation of
western Ireland. The outline of the entire outcrop is shown in Figure 5-7a-c. Plotted at the
same scale are adjacent intraslope basins in the northern deep Gulf of Mexico, the Mensa and
Thunder Horse basins (Figure 5-7d).
Several key things can be observed. First, even the best exposures of outcrops are only
the size of one or two intraslope minibasins, typically the scale that geoscientists work at in
exploration. Second, the orientation of the outcrops is similar to those orientations of random
vertical profiles through a 3-D seismic data set. In Figure 5-8, the ground profile of the Brushy
Canyon outcrop is superposed on a seismic profile across the reservoir level (14.3-13.05 Ma)
in the Thunder Horse minibasin and field. The seismic profile illustrates that the outcrop is
about three to four seismic wavelets, and is slightly less thick than the reservoir intervals at
Thunder Horse Field. Two wireline logs from the field are shown in Figure 5-9. An outcrop
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Figure 5-8. Two sections, plotted at the same vertical and horizontal scales: illustrate that the total thickness of
the Brushy Canyon Formation is about the same as one depositional sequence in the Thunder Horse Field.
(a) North-northwest to south-southeast cross section across the Delaware Mountains, west Texas. Base surface
is the approximate base of the Brushy Canyon Formation. Upper surface shows present surface of erosion
across the Brushy Canyon Formation. Dashed line shows the approximate restored top of the Brushy Canyon
Formation. BB=Brushy Bench; BM=Brushy Mesa; UCH=Upper Cmanhat; CC= Colleen Canyon; CC1=Cordoniz Canyon. See Figure 1-1 of Beaubouef et al. (1999) for locations of topographic features. (b) Flattened
seismic profile on the 14.35 Ma horizon from the Thunder Horse minibasin, northern deep Gulf of Mexico. See
Figure 5-7d for location of profile, and Figure 5-9 for two nearby wells that penetrate the main reservoir interval. Modified from Lapinski (2003). Reprinted with permission of Todd Lapinski.

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photograph of the Brushy Canyon shows the strata are similar in thickness to the producing
interval at Thunder Horse (Figure 5-10). Thus, both the log and outcrops are quite comparable
in scale.
These displays illustrate the kinds of details that can not be recognized on regional seismic profiles, and why these two additional data sets begin to help address the gap in scale
between seismic and wireline logs. Only the thicker stratigraphic features can be seen at both
scales in the seismic.
The recent trend of interpreting shallow subsurface 3-D seismic hazard surveys has
clearly demonstrated the potential for further bridging this scale gap. The shallower 3-D seismic data can give far better resolution than deeper seismic data (120 vs. 40 Hz), providing the
opportunity for more detailed analog studies, especially when integrated with outcrops
(Figures 5-11, 5-12). In Chapter 6 through Chapter 10, we show 3-D seismic images from the
shallow sedimentary section, which are crucial for illustrating key features of each reservoir
element.
Steffens et al. (2004) reviewed the significance of using shallow analog studies in deepwater systems, citing three primary applications: (1) understanding depositional processes,
(2) building architectural models for deeper buried images, and (3) for addressing shallow hazards problems.
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Figure 5-9. Two wireline logs from the main reservoir in the Thunder Horse Field: (a) MC 778#1, (b) MC
822#1. Location of wells are shown in Figures 5-7d and 5-8. Total thickness of the 15.3 Ma-14.35 Ma sequence
is about 650 m thick (2200 feet); total sand thickness is about 250 m thick (800 feet). Compare these wells with
the thickness and lateral continuity of channel-fill strata in the Brushy Canyon Formation (Figure 5-10b).
Wireline logs are from Lapinski (2003). Reprinted with permission of Todd Lapinski.

1.

2.

As we review in Chapter 1 and Chapter 4, the integration and routine usage of 3-D seismic data were essential to causing geoscientists to re-evaluate many of their assumptions
about sedimentary processes in deepwater. Key images that are observed on shallow 3-D
seismic data include: wide ranges of channel evolution from straight to sinuous in planform (Chapter 7 and Chapter 8), facies variabilities and distribution of mass-transport
deposits (MTDs) (Chapter 9), and fill- and spill processes between intraslope basins
(Chapter 3).
Shallow 3-D seismic data allow the opportunity to image recurring depositional elements and their stacking patterns (channels and their fill, levee-overbank, sheets, and
MTDs), with the ultimate goal of constructing accurate 3-D architectural models. A
spectrum of morphologies of different elements can be imaged, which can then be used
for analogs to deeper, buried units, and for outcrop analog studies (Figures 5-11, 5-12).
Important dimensional data can be compiled (e.g., channel widths and morphologies,
thickness of different elements). These data can also be used to study the multitude of
well-imaged stratigraphic trap geometries at the edge of intraslope basins. Abundant calibration is needed for these studies to have high ultimate impact on exploration and
development.
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Another important aspect of shallow 3-D studies is that many companies use these to
calibrate their deeper seismic data for exploration. Because the physical properties of the
sediments of each deepwater basin differ, interpretation of the near-surface section can
be an important technique for understanding the seismic response of different sediments.
An important step in exploration in any new basin is to understand the seismic reflection
response of different sediments in the basin.
The use of 3-D seismic data imaging of the shallow section has become increasingly
important in drilling hazards assessment and seafloor features. In the early 1980s, 2-D
seismic surveys were used to study shallow gas problems in the North Sea that affected
bottom-founded rigs. More recently, 3-D data are now used to evaluate the regional
structural and stratigraphic trends to help in well-site assessment. For example, three
specific problems have been described: (a) shallow flow problems, (b) drilling through
MTDs, and (c) possible pipeline ruptures over the relief created by shallow MTDs.
(a) While drilling in the shallow subsurface interval, many companies have penetrated
shallow sand bodies (primarily late Pleistocene slope channels) that are overpressured in relation to the underlying and overlying stratigraphic section (Bruce et al.,
2000; Ostermeier et al., 2000). Drilling has been done using one mud weight; when
the overpressured sands are penetrated, fluid leaks into the hole causing many unexpected problems. The delays in drilling and problems associated with these sands can
cause significant increases in drilling costs.
A good example of this is the development of the Ursa field in northern deep Gulf of
Mexico (Eaton, 1999). A subsea production template was placed on the seafloor.
While drilling the template for development wells, a shallow, overpressured sand was
penetrated, ultimately causing buckling of casing of the wells that had already been
drilled and cemented. The ultimate cost to replace the subsea template by the four
companies operating the field was about $100 million. Clearly, recognition of these
potential shallow flow features is essential to reducing well costs.
(b) A second drilling hazard is the occurrence of shallow mass-transport deposits
(Chapter 9). MTDs commonly are overcompacted in the shallow subsurface (< 100
m; 330 feet), so that jetting or pile driving operations through them can significantly
decrease penetration rates (Shipp et al., 2004).
(c) Latest Pleistocene MTDs are common in many deepwater settings where they occur
in the upper tens of meters of sediments. They are commonly covered with a thin
drape of Holocene sediments. For proper design of subsea infrastructure (pipelines,
production manifolds), it is important that we understand the distribution of shallow
MTDs. When pipes are laid on the seafloor, differential compaction can occur, where
the MTDs are more stable and the sediments consisting of hemipelagic drape compacts more (Kaluza et al., 2004). With this compaction, pipes can rupture. Thus,
understanding their distribution is critical to avoid these kinds of engineering problems.

Several other issues in shallow hazard studies are of major concern. For surficial problems, the general issue of sea-floor stability is of critical concern for production facilities. One
issue is the proximity of rigs to sea-floor expulsion features or active faults. In the subsurface,
a key issue is the prediction of lithologies; for example, when drilling and setting casing
points, there is a real need to avoid setting a casing point in a sand body, which can give rise to
a bad cement job. Other concerns are the avoidance of drilling (a) across faults, (b) through
shallow gas pockets, and (c) through any sands (channel- fill or proximal levee). Finally, there
is a growing need to understand the distribution of hydrates in near surface sediments and the
effects of long-term development facilities overlying hydrates, and their possible responses.
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Figure 5-10(a) Regional photograph looking northwest of the Brushy Canyon Formation in the Guadalupe and Delaware Mountains, west Texas, USA.
Photograph includes the northern portion of the area shown in Figure 5-7a.

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Figure 5-10(b) Outcrop photograph of the Brushy Canyon showing three high-frequency sequences. Basal sequence consist primarily of sheet deposits
with some channels, and the amount of channelization increases in the upper two sequences. Note the scale of the deposits is similar to those shown in the
wireline logs in Figure 5-9. After Beauboeuf et al. (1999). Reprinted with permission of the AAPG.

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Figure 5-11. High-frequency seismic images (250 Hz) of the near-surface deepwater sediments (a, b) that are similar in scale to outcrops (Figure 5-12).
(a) Seismic horizon slice taken 20 ms below seafloor in one intraslope basin, late Quaternary, northern deep Gulf of Mexico. Two distinct upfan channel
belts (A, B) to the right (north) change downfan to channel mouth lobes. Also present are basin margins, mud volcano, and a slump. Location of
Figure 5-11b is shown. (b) Seismic profile across the distal portion of (a). Note that the lobes A and B have slightly mounded appearance amongst the laterally continuous sheet-like reflections that lapout against the side of the basin. The deposits are up to 50 ms in twtt. See Figure 5-11a for location of profile. After Beauboeuf et al. (2003). Reprinted with permission of the Gulf Coast Section SEPM Foundation. See Chapter 8 for further discussion of the
figure.

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mud clast
conglomerate

amalgamated,
massive sandstone

amalgamated,
low concentration
turbidites

8000

non-amalgamated,
low concentration
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laminated
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Figure 5-12. Outcrop photograph of sheet sandstones, Grootvontein section, Permian Skoorsteenberg Formation, South Africa. Underlying correlation
panel with measured sections show lithofacies and degree of amalgamation within the sheets. Photograph shows a portion of the outcrops described in
the correlation panel. Photograph shows sheet sands at the same scale as the seismic profile in Figure 5-11b. Amalgamated massive sandstones are most
similar to the channel mouth lobes shown in Figure 5-11a, b. After Sullivan et al. (2000). Reprinted with permission of Gulf Coast Section SEPM Foundation. See Chapter 8 for further discussion of the figure.

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Reservoir Elements and Production

Deepwater reservoir systems produce from different architectural elements. The percent
of production from these architectural elements varies greatly from basin to basin. For example, Lawrence and Bosmin-Smits (2000) estimated that 60% of the production in the northern
deep Gulf of Mexico is from sheet sands, about 25% from channel-fill deposits, and 15% are
from thin beds in levees. In contrast, Pacht et al. (1992) characterize the production in a small
area in current shallow water depths. They noted that about 15% of the production is from
sheet sands (basin-floor fans), 43% is from levee-thin beds and channel-fill sediments, 30%
from deltaicrelated strata, and 7% is undeterminable. The differences in statistics between
these two studies are due to different portions of a basin being studied.
Furthermore, in offshore Angola, primary production is from amalgamated channel-fill
reservoirs and some sheets sands. In the western Nile, reservoirs occur primarily in amalgamated channel-fill deposits and in thin levee beds. Channel-fill deposits are the reservoirs in
offshore Mauritania (Vear, 2005) and Kutei (Fowler et al., 2004; Saller et al., 2004). In offshore Brazil, reservoirs are primarily in channel-fill and sheets (lobes) deposited in a variety of
settings (Bruhn, 1998; 2001; Bruhn et al. 2003).
In addition, in some basins, different age deposits produce from different deepwater elements. For example, in the North Sea, there is a distinct evolution in the architecture and
net:gross in the producing systems (Hurst et al., 2005). The Upper Jurassic systems are gravelrich, the Lower Cretaceous systems are sand-rich, Paleocene into Oligocene reflect sand-rich
changing upward into more mud-rich systems. Reservoir architecture changes from areally
widespread, amalgamated channels (upper Paleocene) to relatively narrow incised channels
(upper Eocene). Abundant remobilized sands occur in the upper section of the North Sea
(Chapter 10). The upward change in grain size reflect two tectonic events of northwestern
Europe: Late Jurassic rifting, and the Paleocene uplift of the Scottish Highlands.

Examples of Producing Reservoirs in this Book

In each of the following five chapters, we include a series of systematic summaries of
representative deepwater fields. These examples were selected based on a variety of factors,
primarily those with thorough documentation, and ones that are representative of a variety of
challenges that companies may experience in development of certain reservoir elements. Most
of the examples that we cite in Chapter 6 through Chapter 10 occur in > 500m of water today.
Interestingly, some of the older, onshore petroleum-producing basins in the world are
from deepwater reservoirs. Examples include many of the California reservoirs (Midway-Sunset, Ventura Avenue, Elk Hills, Santa Fe Springs, Wilmington) discovered between 1894 and
1930. However, we did not include many of these classic deepwater fields, such as those in
California, in our discussions because of a lack of critical information for complete analyses.

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References
Beaubouef, R. T., C. Rossen, F. B. Zelt, M. D. Sullivan, D. C. Mohrig, and D. C. Jennette, 1999, Deep-water sandstones, Brushy Canyon Formation, West Texas: Field Guide, AAPG Hedberg Field Research Conference.
Beaubouef, R. T., V. Abreu, and J. C. Van Wagoner, 2003, Basin 4 of the Brazos-Trinity slope system, western Gulf
of Mexico: the terminal portion of a late Pleistocene lowstand systems tract, in H. H. Roberts, N. C. Rosen,
R. H. Fillon, and J. B. Anderson, eds., Gulf Coast Section-SEPM Foundation 23rd Annual Bob F. Perkins
Research Conference, p. 182-203.
Browne, G.H., P.R. King, K. E. Higgs, and R.M. Slatt, 2005, Grain-size characteristics for distinguishing basin
floor fan and slope fan depositional settings: outcrop and subsurface examples from the late Miocene Mount
Messenger Formation, New Zealand: New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, v. 48, p. 213-227.
Bruhn, C. H. L., 1998, Deep-water reservoirs from the eastern Brazilian rift and passive margin basin: AAPG International Conference and Exhibition, Rio de Janeiro, AAPG Short Course Notes.
Bruhn, C. H. L., 2001, Contrasting types of Oligocene/Miocene, giant turbidite reservoirs from deep water Campos
basin, Brazil: AAPG Distinguished Lecture Notes: www.aapg.org/
Bruhn, C. H. L., J. A. T. Gomes, C. Del Lucchese, and P. R. S. Johann, 2003, Campos Basin: reservoir characterization and managementHistorical overview and future challenges: OTC Proceedings Contribution No.
15220, 12 p.
Bruce, R., G. Bowers, and R. Borel, 2000, Well planning for shallow water flows and overpressures-the Kestrel
well: OTC Proceedings Contribution No. 13104.
Chapin, M. A., P. Davies, J. L. Gibson and H. S. Pettingill, 1994, Reservoir architecture of turbidite sheet sandstones in laterally extensive outcrops, Ross formation, western Ireland, in P. Weimer, A. H. Bouma and B. F.
Perkins, eds., Submarine fans and turbidite systems: Gulf Coast Section SEPM Foundation 15th. Annual
Research Conference, p. 53-68.
Eaton, L. F., 1999, Drilling through deepwater shallow-water flow zones at Ursa: SPE/IADC Drilling Conference,
Amsterdam, March 9-11.
Fowler, J. N., E. Guritno, P. Sherwood, M. J. Smoth, S. Algar, I. Busono, G. Goffey, and A. Strong, 2004, Depositional architectures of Recent deepwater deposits in the Kutei Basin, East Kalimantan, in R. J .Davies, J. A.
Cartwright, S. A. Stewart, M. Lappin, and J. R. Underhill, eds., 3D seismic technology: Geological Society
(London) Memoir 29, p. 25-33.
Hurst, A., A. J. Fraser, S. I. Fraser, and F. Hadler-Jacobsen, 2005, Deep-water clastic reservoirs: a leading global
plays in terms of reserve replacement and technical challenges, in A. G. Dore, and B. Vining, eds., Petroleum geology: north-west Europe and global perspective- proceedings of the 6th Petroleum Geology Conference: The Geological Society, London, p. 1111-1120.
Kaluza, M., J. Hoffman, T. Nguyen, J. Hall, G. McCullough, and R. Griffiths, 2004, Addressing the challenges in
the placement of seafloor infrastructure on the East Breaks Slide: OTC Contribution #16748.
Krause, F. F., H. N. Collins, D. A. Nelson, S. D. Machemer, and P. R. French, 1993, Multiscale anatomy of a reservoir: geological characterization of Pembina-Cardium Pool, west-central Alberta, Canada: AAPG Bulletin,
v. 71, p. 1233-1260.
Lapinski, T. G., 2003, 3-D stratigraphic and structural evolution of the Thunder Horse mini-basin, Mississippi Canyon, northern deep Gulf of Mexico: unpublished M.S. thesis, University of Colorado, 165 p.
Lawrence, D. T., and D. F. Bosman-Smits, 2000, Exploring deep water technical challenges in the Gulf of Mexico,
in P. Weimer, R. M. Slatt, J. L. Coleman, N. Rosen, C. H. Nelson, A. H. Bouma, M. Styzen, and D. T.
Lawrence, eds., Global Deepwater Reservoirs: Gulf Coast SectionSEPM Bob F. Perkins 20th Annual
Research Conference, p. 473477.
Mahaffie, M. J., 1994, Reservoir classification for turbidite intervals at the Mars discovery, Mississippi Canyon
807, Gulf of Mexico, in P. Weimer, A.H. Bouma, and B.F. Perkins, eds., Submarine fans and turbidite systems: Gulf Coast Section-SEPM Foundation 15th Annual Research Conference, p. 233-244.
Martinsen, O. J., T. Lien, and R. G. Walker, 2000, Upper Carboniferous deep water sediments, western Ireland: analogues for passive margin turbidite plays, in P. Weimer, R. M. Slatt, J. L. Coleman, N. Rosen, C. H. Nelson,
A. H. Bouma, M. Styzen, and D. T. Lawrence, eds., Global Deep-Water Reservoirs: Gulf Coast SectionSEPM Foundation 20th Annual Bob F. Perkins Research Conference, p. 533-555.
Mitchum, R. M. Jr., J. B. Sangree, P. R,,. Vail, and W. W. Wornardt, 1993, Recognizing sequences and systems
tracts from well logs, seismic data and biostratigraphy: examples from the late Cenozoic, in P. Weimer and
H. W. Posamentier, eds., Siliciclastic Sequence Stratigraphy: AAPG Memoir 58, p. 163199.
Morris, W. R., M. H. Scheihing, D. V. Wickens, and A. H. Bouma, 2000, Reservoir architecture of deepwater sandstones: examples from the Skoorsteenberg Formation, Tanqua Karoo Sub-basin, South Africa, in P. Weimer,
R. M. Slatt, J. L. Coleman, N. Rosen, C. H. Nelson, A. H. Bouma, M. Styzen, and D. T. Lawrence, eds.,

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Global Deep-Water Reservoirs: Gulf Coast Section-SEPM Foundation 20th Annual Bob F. Perkins
Research Conference, p. 629-666.
Mutti, E. and W. R. Normark, 1987, Comparing examples of modern and ancient turbidite systems: problems and
concepts, in J. K. Leggett, and G. G. Zuffa, eds., Marine clastic sedimentology: Graham-Trotman, London,
p. 1-38.
Mutti, E. and Normark, W.R., 1991, An integrated approach to the study of turbidite systems, in P. Weimer, and M.
H. Link, eds, Seismic facies and sedimentary processes of submarine fans and turbidite systems: SpringerVerlag, New York, p. 75-106.
Mutti, E., and F. Ricci Lucchi, 1972, Le torbiditi dellAppennine settentrionale: introduzione allanalisi di facies:
Memorie Societa Geologioca Italina, v. 11, p. 161-199.
Ostermeier, R. M., J. H. Pelletier, C. D. Winker, J. W. Nicholson, F. H .Rambow, and K. W. Cowan, 2000, Dealing
with shallow-water flow in the deepwater Gulf of Mexico: OTC contribution 11972, p. 75-86.
Pacht, J. A., B. E. Bowen, B. L. Schaefer, and W. R. Pottorf, 1992, Systems tract, seismic facies, and attribute analysis within a sequence stratigraphic frameworkExample from the offshore Louisiana Gulf Coast, in E. G.
Rhodes, and T. Moslow, eds., Marine clastic reservoirs: Springer-Verlag, New York, p. 2139.
Prather, B. E., J. R. Booth, G. S. Steffens, and P. A. Craig, 1998, Classification, lithologic calibration, and stratigraphic succession of seismic facies in intraslope basins, deep-water Gulf of Mexico: AAPG Bulletin, v. 82,
p. 701-728.
Reading, H.G. and M. Richards, 1994, Turbidite systems in deep-water basin margins classified by grain size and
feeder system: AAPG Bulletin, v. 78, p. 792-822.
Richards, M., M. Bowman, and H. Reading, 1998, Submarine-fan systems I: characterization and stratigraphic prediction: Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 15, p. 687-717.
Richards, M. and M. Bowman, 1998, Submarine fans and related depositional systems II: variability in reservoir
architecture and wireline log character: Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 15, p. 821-839.
Saller, A. H., J. T. Noah, A. P. Ruzuar, and R. Schneider, 2004, Linked lowstand delta to basin-floor deposition, offshore Indonesia: An analog for deepwater reservoir systems: AAPG Bulletin, v. 88, p. 2146.
Shipp, C., J. Nott, and J. Newlin, 2004, Variations in jetting performance in deepwater environments: geotechnical
characteristics and effects of mass transport complexes: OTC Conference, 16751.
Steffens, G. S., R. C. Shipp, B. E. Prather, J. A. Nott, J. L. Gibson, and C. D. Winker, 2004, The use of near-seafloor
3D seismic data in deepwater exploration and production, in R. J. Davies, J. A. Cartwright, S. A. Stewart,
M. Lappin, and J. R. Underhill, eds., 3D seismic technology: application to the exploration of sedimentary
basins: Geological Society [London] Memoir 29, p. 35-43.
Sullivan, M., G. Jensen, F. Goulding, D. Jennette, L. Foreman, and D. Stern, 2000, Architectural analysis of deepwater outcrops: implications for exploration and production of the Diana sub-basin, western Gulf of Mexico, in P. Weimer, R. M. Slatt, J. L. Coleman, N. Rosen, C. H. Nelson, A. H. Bouma, M. Styzen, and D. T.
Lawrence, eds., Global Deep-Water Reservoirs: Gulf Coast Section-SEPM Foundation 20th Annual Bob F.
Perkins Research Conference, p. 1010-1031.
van den Berg, A. A., 2004, 3-D stratigraphic and structural evolution of the Mensa mini-basin, Mississippi Canyon,
northern Gulf of Mexico: unpublished MS thesis, University of Colorado, 170 p.
Vear, A., 2005, Deep-water plays of the Mauritanian continental margin, in A. G. Dore and B. A. Vining, eds.,
Petroleum geology: north-west Europe and global perspectives-Proceedings of the 6th Petroleum Geology
Conference: The Geological Society (London), p. 1217-1232.

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