Early Societies in Southwest

Asia and the Indo-European

Migrations

Civilization Defined

Urban
Political/military system
Social stratification
Economic specialization
Religion
Communications
Higher culture

Mesopotamia

Between the Rivers

Tigris and Euphrates

Modern-day Iraq
Cultural continuum of
fertile crescent
Sumerians the dominant
people

The Wealth of the Rivers

Nutrient-rich silt
Key: irrigation

Sumer begins small-scale irrigation 6000 B.C.E.

By 5000 B.C.E., complex irrigation networks

Necessity of coordinated efforts

Promoted development of local governments
City-states

Population reaches 100,000 by 3000 B.C.E.

Attracts Semitic migrants, influences culture

Sumerian City-States

Cities appear 4000 B.C.E.

Dominate region from 3200 to 2350 B.C.E.
Ziggurat home of the god

Uruk

Irrigation systems
Defense from nomadic marauders
Absolute monarchies

The Ziggurat of Ur

Political Decline of Sumer

Semitic peoples from northern Mesopotamia overshadow

Sumer

Sargon of Akkad (2370-2315 B.C.E.)

Hammurabi of Babylon (1792-1750 B.C.E.)

Destroyed Sumerian city-states one by one, created empire based

in Akkad
Empire unable to maintain chronic rebellions

Improved taxation, legislation

Used local governors to maintain control of city-states

Babylonian empire later destroyed by Hittites from

Anatolia, ca. 1595 B.C.E.

Legal System

Code of Hammurabi
Established high standards of behavior and stern
punishment for violators

Lex talionis law of retaliation

Social status and punishment

Later Mesopotamian Empires

Weakening of central rule an invitation to foreign

invaders
Assyrians use new iron weaponry

Beginning 1300 B.C.E., by eighth to seventh centuries

B.C.E. control Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, most of
Egypt

Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon (605-562) takes

advantage of internal dissent to create Chaldean
(New Babylonian) empire

Famously luxurious capital

Mesopotamian Empires, 1800-600 B.C.E.

Technological Development in
Mesopotamia

Bronze (copper with tin), ca. 4000 B.C.E.

Iron, ca. 1000 B.C.E.

Military, agricultural applications

Cheaper than bronze

Wheel, boats, ca. 3500 B.C.E.

Shipbuilding increases trade networks

Social Classes

Ruling classes based often on military prowess

Religious classes

Role: intervention with gods to ensure good fortune for

community
Considerable landholdings, other economic activities

Free commoners

Perceived as offspring of gods

Peasant cultivators
Some urban professionals

Slaves

Prisoners of war, convicted criminals, debtors

Patriarchal Society

Men as landowners, relationship to status

Patriarchy: rule of the father

Double standard of sexual morality

Women drowned for adultery

Relaxed sexual mores for men

Yet some possibilities of social mobility for women

Right to sell wives, children

Court advisers, temple priestesses, economic activity

Introduction of the veil at least ca. 1500 B.C.E.

Development of Writing

Sumerians experiment with pictographs

2900 B.C.E. Sumerians create writing system
Cuneiform: wedge-shaped

Preservation of documents on clay

Declines from 400 B.C.E. with spread of Greek
alphabetic script

Uses for Writing

Trade
Astronomy
Mathematics

Agricultural applications

Calculation of time

12-month year
24-hour day, 60-minute hour

Mesopotamian Literature

Epic of Gilgamesh, compiled after 2000 B.C.E.

Heroic saga
Search for meaning, especially the afterlife
This-worldly emphasis

The Early Hebrews

According to Hebrew scripture, Abraham

migrated to northern Mesopotamia ca. 1850 B.C.E.
Parallels between early biblical texts, code of
Hammurabi
Scriptures state Hebrews under Moses go to
Palestine, ca. 1300 B.C.E.

On-going conflict with indigenous populations

King David (1000-970 B.C.E.) and Solomon

(970-930 B.C.E.)

Moses and Monotheism

Hebrews shared polytheistic beliefs of other

Mesopotamian civilizations
Moses introduced monotheism, belief in single
god

Denied existence of competing parallel deities

Personal god: reward and punishment for conformity
with revealed law
The Torah (doctrine or teaching)

Foreign Conquests of Israel

Assyrian conquest, 722 B.C.E.

Conquered the northern kingdom

Deported many inhabitants to other regions
Many exiles assimilated and lost their identity

Babylonian conquest, 586 B.C.E.

Destroyed Jerusalem
Forced many into exile
Israelites maintained their religious identity and many
returned to Judea

Israel and Phoenicia, 1500-600 B.C.E.

The Phoenicians

City-states along Mediterranean coast after 3000

B.C.E.
Extensive maritime trade

Dominated Mediterranean trade, 1200-800 B.C.E.

Development of alphabet symbols

Simpler alternative to cuneiform

Spread of literacy

Indo-European Migrations

Common roots of many languages of Europe,

southwest Asia, India
Implies influence of a single Indo-European
people

Probable original homeland: modern-day Ukraine and

Russia, 4500-2500 B.C.E.

Domestication of horses, use of Sumerian

weaponry allowed them to spread widely

Indo-European Migrations 3000-1000 B.C.E.

Implications of Indo-European
Migration

Hittites migrate to central Anatolia, ca. 1900

B.C.E., later dominate Babylonia
Influence on trade

Horses, chariots with spoked wheels

Iron
Migrations to western China, Greece, Italy also
significant