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Rigid Pavement Analysis

Critical Rigid Pavement Responses


Pavement responses that have a direct
bearing on individual distress modes
Critical responses occur at specific locations
within the pavement structure

Slab edge
Slab corner

Key Rigid Pavement Distresses

Fatigue cracking (bottom-up)


Fatigue cracking (top-down)
Joint faulting (undoweled and doweled JPCP)
Punchouts (CRCP)

Fatigue Cracking (Bottom-Up)

Fatigue Cracking (Bottom-Up)


Critical response is the
tensile stress at the
bottom of the PCC slab
Location of critical
stress is usually at midslab location at the
bottom of the slab
Traffic and climatic
forces contribute to
critical stresses

Traffic

Critical Stress Location

Critical Stress Location

Fatigue Cracking (Top-Down)

Fatigue Cracking (Top-Down)


Critical response is
tensile stress at the top
of the PCC slab
Critical location varies
with axle configuration
Traffic and climatic
forces contribute to this
critical response

Traffic

Shoulder
Critical stress location

Joint Faulting

Joint Faulting (Undoweled)


Critical responses are
deflections of loaded
and unloaded slab
Critical locations are at
slab corners
Traffic, foundation
erosion, and moisture
contribute to this critical
response

Critical Stress

Critical locations
Traffic

Foundation: Base and Subgrade

Joint Faulting (Doweled)


Critical responses and
responses locations
same as for undoweled
slabs
Dowel-Concrete
bearing stresses are
used by some
researchers

Traffic

Foundation: Base and Subgrade

Critical Response Location


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Punchouts (CRCP)

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Punchouts (CRCP)
Critical slab structural
response is tensile stress
Critical location is at the
top of the slab between
two adjacent cracks
Crack spacing, material
properties, subgrade
friction, and external
loads affect this response

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Transverse
Crack
Traffic
Punchout
Critical Stress
Location

Pavement
Edge

Sources of Slab Stresses

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Traffic Loads
Thermal Curling
Moisture Warping
Shrinkage from Curing
Contraction and Expansion from
Temperature Changes

Traffic-Induced Stresses
and Deflections
Major source of stresses in pavements
Traffic load creates a bending stress (tensile
stress at the bottom of the slab)
Repeated applications can result in fatigue
cracking
Critical location for traffic loading is generally
along outside slab edge

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Temperature-Induced Curling
Stresses
Differential temperatures at the top and
bottom of the PCC slab induce curl stresses
Positive (daytime) temperature gradients curl
the slab down at the corners
Negative (nighttime) temperature gradients
curl the slab up at the corners

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Diurnal Temperature Changes

Warmer

Positive gradient
Cooler

Cooler

Negative gradient
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Warmer

Slab Curling

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Temperature-Induced
Stresses and Deflections
Positive gradients produce tensile stresses
at the bottom of the pavement slab

Critical when wheel load at slab edge

Negative gradients produce tensile stresses


at the top of the pavement slab

Critical when wheel load at slab corner

Magnitude depends on slab properties,


support conditions, and thermal gradient
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Temperature Gradients
Top of PCC Slab
0
7 PM
11 AM

6 AM

Depth, in

Temperature
differentials are usually
expressed linear
temperature gradients
Field studies have
shown that temperature
gradients are non-linear

3 PM

9
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Linear idealization
of 3 PM gradient
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60

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Temperature, oF
19

68

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Built-in Temperature Gradient


Temperature gradient in the slab just prior to
final set will show up as built-in temperature
gradient of the opposite sign
For daytime construction, the residual
gradient is negative
Positive built-in gradients offset diurnal
daytime gradients and add to nighttime
gradients
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Warping Stresses
Caused by differences in moisture content
between the top and bottom of the slab
Greater moisture at top of slab results in
downward warping, and vice versa
Moisture contents through slabs in:

Wet climates - fairly constant


Dry climates - top is drier than the bottom

Difficult to measure strains due to moisture


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Moisture Warping

Slab top wetter than slab


bottom

Slab bottom wetter than slab top


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Variations in Deflection Responses


Due to Moisture
3.5 m
4
1

3.5 m

0.23 m

2
4
MONTHLY RAINFALL (mm)

1987

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1988

MEASUREMENT DATE

1989

Drying Shrinkage Stresses


Loss of moisture as concrete cures leads to
shrinkage of slab
Shrinkage resisted by friction of the base,
which induces the stress development
Introduction of joints in slab reduces
magnitude of shrinkage stresses

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Temperature Shrinkage Stresses


Daily and seasonal temperature changes
cause PCC slab to expand/contract
Frictional force between slab and base
creates stresses in slab
Magnitude of stress estimated by subgrade
drag formula.

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Effect of Volume Change on


Concrete
CL L

h
1 (unit width)
Frictional stress
Where

Tensile force

f a c hL
ch
2

fa=coefficient of friction, h: thickness(in), L: slab length(ft)


rc: density of concrete(lb/ft3)
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Combined Load and Curling


Stresses
Stresses result from traffic loading and
climatic forces
Combined stress state determined by
superimposing environmentally related
stresses on load-associated stresses
Load and thermal stresses are usually
considered

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Calculating Responses In PCC


Pavements

Structural Analysis of Rigid


Pavements
Analyzing rigid pavement systems is a
complex problem involving aspects of
geotechnical and structural engineering

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Structural engineering problems complex


geometry simple support conditions
Pavement problems simple geometry complex
support conditions

Requirements for Structural


Modeling of Rigid Pavements
Accurate representation of pavement layers
and foundation (subgrade)
Ability to model slab curling
Ability to model cracks and joints in the
pavement
Ability to model multi-wheel loading
Ability to model multiple slabs
Ability to model multiple layers
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Methods for Structural Analysis


Closed-form equations

Westergaards slab on Winkler foundation


Slab on elastic solid foundation

Finite Element Methods (FEMs)


FEM-based analytical expressions

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Zero-Maintenance equations for edge stress


NCHRP 1-26 equations for load and curl
RPPR equation for edge stress
NAPCOM equation for corner deflection

Westergaards Solutions
Stress and deflection equations for three
loading conditions

Interior
Edge
Corner

Solutions were also available for curl


stresses at edge and interior locations
Solutions based on medium-thick plate
resting on a Winkler foundation
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Westergaards Assumptions
Slab is homogeneous, isotropic elastic solid

Fully characterized by E and m

Shear forces ignored


Infinite slab dimensions

No load transfer

Winkler foundation
Circular contact area for interior and corner;
semicircular or circular contact area for edge
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Westergaards Loading Conditions


Interior loading

Edge loading
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Corner loading

Important ConceptsWinkler
Idealization
Foundation type
originally proposed in
1867
Subgade is represented
using a series of
independent springs
Modulus of subgrade
reaction or k value is
used to represent
subgrade
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PCC Slab
Subbase
Subgrade

PCC Slab

Important ConceptsRadius of
Relative Stiffness, l
Radius of relative stiffness was introduced to
measure the stiffness of the slab relative to
the subgrade
3

Eh
l4
2
12( 1 )
where,
E = PCC modulus of elasticity
m = PCC Poissons ratio
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Corner Loading by Westergaard (1939)


Stress

3P
a 2 0.6
c 2 [1 (
) ]
h
a: radius of contact area
l : radius of relative stiffness
k: modulus of subgrade reaction

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Deflection

P
a 2
c 2 [1.1 0.88(
)]
k

Corner Loading by Ioannides (1985)


Modified Westergaard eq. by FEM

3P
c 0.72
c 2 [1 ( ) ]
h
a: radius of contact area
c=1.772a
l : radius of relative stiffness
k: modulus of subgrade reaction
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Closed Form Solutions

39
, (2004),

Interior Loading by Westergaard (1939)


Stress

Deflection

If a>1.724h, b=a

3(1 v ) P
(ln 0.6159)
2
2 h
b

Else (a<1.724h), b 1.6a 2 h2 0.675h


when v=0.15

0.316 P


4
log

1.069
10

h2
b

P
1
a
a 2
{1

[ln(
)

0.673](
)}
2
8k
2
2

b: radius of equivalent distribution of pressure (in)


a: radius of contact area, v: Poisson's ratio

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l : radius of relative stiffness, k: modulus of subgrade reaction

Interior Loading by Losberg (1960)


Stress

Deflection

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Edge Loading by Westergaard (1939)

Stress
0.803P


a
e
e
4
log

0.666
log

0.034
10
10

2
h
a

Deflection
2 1.2vP 0.76 0.4v a
1

3
Eh k

b: radius of equivalent distribution of pressure (in)


v: Poisson's ratio l : radius of relative stiffness

k: modulus of subgrade reaction

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Westergaard eq.

Edge Loading by Ioannides et al. (1985)


Equation for edge stress due to semi-circular load

3(1 m )
Eh3
4m
a2
e
ln
3.84
0.50(1 2m )
2
4
(3 m )h 100ka2
3
l
Equation for edge deflection due to semi-circular load

P (2 + 1.2 m ) 0.5
e=
(E h3 k ) 0.5
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a2
1 - 0.323 + 0.17 m

Curling Stress in Slab Edge


by Westergaard (1939)
Equation for curl stress at slab edge

C E T T
e=
2
where,
C 1-

2 cos cosh
( tan + tanh )
sin 2 + sinh 2

T = PCC coefficient of thermal expansion


T = Temperature differential between slab top and bottom
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Curling stress coefficient, C

Curling Chart by Bradbury (1938)


1.2
1.0
0.8

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0

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8 10
Ratio L/l

12

14

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Edge Stress due to Traffic and Thermal


Loads by Ioannides and Salsilli-Murua (1989)
Traffic and Thermal Loading

A Ba / l C log 10 a / l

t max . / tWes.

A 1.0 0.9152T
B 1.6215T
C 0.8713T

t max .

= maximum combined tensile stress under curling and load

tWes. = maximum tensile stress predicted by Westergaard (T=0)


46

Solutions to Westergaard
Equations
Manual Methods
Influence Charts (Pickett and Ray)
Computer Programs (WESTY, WESTER)

47

PROBLEMS
1) Edge stress calculationsWestergaard
2) Edge stress sensitivity

Problem 1 Definition
Given
Slab thickness = 10 in.
PCC modulus of elasticity = 4,000,000 lbf/in2
Poisson's ratio of PCC = 0.15
Wheel load = 9,000 lb
Tire pressure = 80 lbf/in2
Temperature differential = 25 oF
Modulus of subgrade reaction = 100 lbf/in2/in
Slab length =15 ft
Slab width = 12 ft
PCC thermal coefficient of expansion = 5.5 x 10-6/oF
49

Problem 1 Definition
Determine

Stress and deflection responses for the edge,


interior, and corner loading using Westergaard's
equations
Curl stress at the slab interior and slab edge
using Westergaard's equations

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Problem 1 Solution

Use the Westergaard.xls MS Excel Spreadsheet to


solve the equations

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Problem 1 Solution

Slab
Position

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Stress,
lbf/in2

Deflection,
in.

Curl Stress,
lbf/in2

Interior

128.0

0.0060

149.7

Edge (semi-circle)

254.9

0.0196

Edge (circle)

251.7

0.0186

Corner

168.2

0.0452

135.5

Problem 2 Definition
Given
Using the inputs in Problem 1, discuss the sensitivity of
the edge stress solution to the following variables:
Slab thickness = 8, 10, and 12 inches
PCC modulus of elasticity = 2, 4, and 6 million psi
PCC thermal coefficient of expansion = 4.5 x 10-6/ oF, 5.5 x 10-6/ oF,
6.5 x 10-6/ oF
Modulus of subgrade reaction, k-value = 50, 100, 200 psi/
Slab length = 10, 15, 20 ft
Temperature differential = 10, 25, 40 oF
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Stress Versus Thickness

Edge Stress, psi

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
6

10

11

Slab Thickness, in
Load

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Curl

Combined

12

13

Stress Versus PCC Modulus

Edge Stress, psi

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
2000000

3000000

4000000

5000000

6000000

PCC Elastic Modulus, psi


Load

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Curl

Combined

7000000

Stress Versus Temp. Diff.

Edge Stress, psi

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0

10

20

30

Temperature Differential, o F
Load

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Curl

Combined

40

50

Stress Versus k-Value

Edge Stress, psi

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0

50

100

150

200

Modulus of Subg. Reaction (k), psi/in


Load

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Curl

Combined

250

Stress Versus Slab Length

Edge Stress, psi

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0

10

15

Slab Length, ft
Load

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Curl

Combined

20

25

Stress Versus PCC Coefficient


of Thermal Expansion
Edge Stress, psi

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
4.00E-06

5.00E-06

6.00E-06

7.00E-06

PCC Coef. Therm. Exp., in/in/ o F


Load

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Curl

Combined

8.00E-06

Percent Change of Combined


Edge Stress

Problem 2Sensitivity

-50

40
30
20
10
0
-30

-10 -10

10

30

-20
-30
-40
Percent Change of Independent Value
PCC Thickness
Temp. Diff.
Slab Length

PCC Modulus
k-value
PCC Coeff. of Therm. Exp

50

Limitations of Westergaard Theory


Only interior, edge, and corner stresses and
deformations can be calculated
Shear and frictional forces on slab surface may not
be negligible
Winkler foundation extends only to slab edge
Assumes slab is fully supported
Does not allow for multiple wheel loads
Load transfer between joints and cracks is not
considered
61

Other Forms of Subgrade


Characterization
In the Winkler idealization, shear interaction
in the subgrade is ignored
Other theories to more accurately model
subgrade have been proposed

Slab on elastic foundation (Hogg and Holl)


Two-parameter in-between approach
(Pasternek, Kerr, Vlasov)

These are difficult to implement in closedform solutions


62

Rigid Pavement Analysis Programs

Finite Element Methods (FEMs)


The complexity of modeling a slab-jointfoundation system has contributed greatly to
the popularity of numerical techniques to
analyze rigid pavements
The use of numerical methods has increased
with the advent of modern computers
FEMs are the method of choice today

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Finite Element Methods (FEMs)


Finite element techniques have been used to
solve problems in civil, mechanical, and
electrical engineering where closed-form
solutions are not readily available
Can handle geometric and load-related
complexities common to rigid pavement
systems

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General FEM Concepts


Finite element method discretizes a structure
as an assemblage of interconnected small
parts (elements)
Each element is of a simple geometry and is
much easier to analyze than the actual
structure
A complicated solution is thus approximated
by a model that consists of piecewisecontinuous simple solutions
66

Mesh Discretization
Nodes

Finite
elements

Transverse
Joint

Wheel
Loads
Shoulder
Joint
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FEM Options
General purpose programs

68

Very powerful
Usage requires advanced knowledge of solid
mechanics and mechanics of materials
Careful attention to element selection, mesh
discretization, and geometry and load definition
required
Examples: ABAQUS, LS-DYNA, ANSYS

FEM Options
Pavement-specific programs

Usage is simpler
Modeling options function of the program used
Three-dimensional examples: EVERFE
Two-dimensional examples: ILLI-SLAB, JSLAB,
KENSLAB

Two-dimensional FE programs are popular


today due to their expediency, accuracy, and
ease of use
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ILLI-SLAB
First developed at the University of Illinois
Continuously improved over the last two
decades by several researchers
Features

70

Can model up to 10 slabs in x- and y-directions


Several subgrade characterization options
Several load transfer options
Temperature and load analysis
Partial slab-foundation contact modeling

J-SLAB
Developed by Construction Technology
Laboratories
Features

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Winkler foundation
Temperature and load analysis
Dowel and aggregate load transfer options
Variable support conditions

KENSLAB
Developed at the University of Kentucky
Features

72

Two-layer system can be modeled


Dense-liquid or layered foundation
Load and temperature loading handled
Partial contact modeling
Variable slab thickness
Damage analysis

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KENSLABS Numbering Method

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ISLAB2000

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ISLAB2000
Proprietary software of ERES Consultants
Retains all the positive features of ILLI-SLAB
but is more computationally efficient and
user-friendly
Has capabilities that are not available in the
other 2D finite element codes

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ISLAB2000

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Improved input and output formats


Automatic mesh generator
Nonlinear temperature and moisture analysis
Unlimited number of nodes and layers
Mismatched joints
Corrected void analysis
Variable bond analysis
More efficient solver

Steps for Executing ISLAB2000


Pre-processing

Define pavement geometry, material properties,


joints, loading, and voids
Define finite element mesh

Generate input file


Run ISLAB2000
Post-process results

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Condition,
Tridem
FlatFlat
SlabSlab
Condition,
Tridem
AxleAxle
Loading
Loading
De f l e c t i o n s

KENSLABS Program
Based on the finite element method, in which
the slab is divided rectangular finite elements
Can be applied to a maximum of 6 slabs, 7
joints, and 420 nodes
Damage analysis up to 12 periods

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Flat Slab Condition, Tridem Axle Loading

St r e s s e s

i n

Y- d i r e c t i o n

Day Time Curling, Tridem Axle Loading


De f l e c t i o n s

Day Time Curling, Tridem Axle Loading


St r e s s e s

i n

Y- d i r e c t i o n

Applications of FEMs
Verification of Westergaard equations
Extension of Westergaard equations

Edge stress equationFHWA Zero-Maintenance


study, NCHRP 1-26 study, FHWA RPPR study
Corner deflection equationFHWA PRS study

Neural Network based rapid solutions

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Rapid Solution Methodologies


Several reasons to adopt FE-based rapid
solution methods to obtain critical responses

86

To facilitate wider adaptation of finite element


solutions in pavement design
To facilitate numerous response calculations
performed in incremental damage analysis based
M-E design

Rapid Solution Methodologies


Rapid solution schemes

87

Regression algorithmsused by many


researchers in the past
Neural networksbecoming more popular

Long-Term Dowel Bearing


Stresses
Effectiveness of dowel bars depends on
magnitude of dowel-concrete bearing stress
Excessive bearing stresses can lead to
fracture of the concrete, dowel "socketing,"
poor load transfer, and excessive faulting
Bearing stresses can be calculated using
pioneering work done by Friberg or by using
finite element techniques
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Dowel Bearing Stress


P

89

Load Diagram

EverFE
http://www.civil.umaine.edu/everfe/tutorial_1.htm
http://www.civil.umaine.edu/everfe/tutorial_2.htm

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FEAFAA

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FEAFAA Screen Shots

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Airplane
Selection

Pavement
Structure

Joint
Modeling

3D Mesh
Generation

FEAFAA Plots

3D-FEM Mesh Showing 6-Wheel


Gear Occupying 4 Slabs
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Contours of Stress in x-Direction


(Top of Slab)

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