CHE 185 - Process Dynamics & Control

LECTURE NOTES
PAGE NO. 1 of 13
CASCADE AND RATIO CONTROL

(ALL FIGURES AND SYMBOLS ARE FROM: RIGGS, JAMES b., CHEMICAL PROCESS CONTROL
2ND EDITION, FERRET PUBLISHING, 2001)

METHODS TO IMPROVE BASIC PID CONTROL

1.1

APPLIED WHEN THE STANDARD PID DESIGN IS NOT

DOES NOT PROVIDE ADEQUATE CONTROL

1.2

METHODOLOGY
1.2.1 ADDITIONAL MEASURES OF PROCESS OUTPUTS
1.2.2 ADDITIONAL MEASURES OF PROCESS INPUTS
1.2.3 EXPLICIT MODELS IN THE CONTROL CALCULATION
1.2.4 MODIFY THE PID ALGORITHM AND TUNING TO MEET
CONTROL CRITERIA

1.3

CATEGORIES OF ENHANCEMENT
1.3.1 CASCADE CONTROL
1.3.2 FEEDFORWARD CONTROL
1.3.3 NONLINEAR FUNCTIONS - ADJUST CONTROL FOR
VARYING PROCESS DYNAMICS
1.3.4 INFERENTIAL CONTROL - CHANGE THE MEASURED
VARIABLES
1.3.5 LEVEL CONTROL - TO ADJUST INVENTORIES TO
STABLE LEVELS
1.3.6 MODEL PREDICTIVE CONTROL - FOR COMPLEX
PROCESS DYNAMICS

CASCADE CONTROL
2.1

CONDITIONS THAT SUPPORT APPLICATION

2.1.1 SINGLE LOOP CONTROL IS NOT SATISFACTORY
2.1.2 A MEASURED SECONDARY VARIABLE IS AVAILABLE

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2.2

LECTURE NOTES
PAGE NO. 2 of 13
PROPERTIES OF THE SECONDARY VARIABLE
2.2.1 MUST BE AFFECTED BY SIGNIFICANT
DISTURBANCES
2.2.2 MUST BE RELATED TO THE PRIMARY MANIPULATED
VARIABLE
2.2.3 SECONDARY VARIABLE DYNAMICS MUST BE
FASTER THAN THE PRIMARY VARIABLE DYNAMICS.

2.3

CASCADE CONTROL GENERIC BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAM

2.3.1 THE CASCADE LOOP COMBINES TWO FEEDBACK

CONTROLLERS WITH THE PRIMARY CONTROLLER
OUTPUT SERVING AS THE SECONDARY
CONTROLLER SETPOINT.
2.3.2 THE DISTURBANCE REJECTION CLOSED LOOP
TRANSFER FUNCTION FOR THIS SYSTEM:

CHE 185 - Process Dynamics & Control

LECTURE NOTES
PAGE NO. 3 of 13

Gd ( s )G pp ( s )
Y ( s)
=
D( s ) Gcs ( s )G ps ( s ) + Gcp ( s )G pp ( s )Gcs ( s )G ps ( s ) + 1

2.4

THE EFFECTIVE PROCESS TIME CONSTANT ,J`p, CAN BE

SHORTER THAN THAT FOR THE PRIMARY PROCESS TIME
CONSTANT

2.4.1 THE SECONDARY LOOP TIME CONSTANT IS SHORTER

THAN THE PRIMARY LOOP
2.4.2 THE SECONDARY LOOP AND PRIMARY LOOP TIME
CONSTANTS ARE COMBINED TO OBTAIN THE EFFECTIVE
TIME CONSTANT (FOR FIRST ORDER Gpp(s) AND Gps(s)
AND P-ONLY CONTROLLERS - A SECOND ORDER
RESPONSE
RESULTS)

p' =

pp ps
1 + Kcs K ps (1 + Kcp K pp )

2.4.3 THE DISTURBANCE ENTERS THE SECONDARY CONTROL

LOOP AND MAY BE EFFECTIVELY COUNTERACTED BY
THE PRIMARY LOOP - SOMEWHAT LIKE A FILTER.
2.4.4 THE SECONDARY ERROR IS ADDED TO THE PRIMARY
ERROR FOR EACH CYCLE.
2.5

THE SECONDARY LOOP RESPONDS TO SHORT TERM

DISTURBANCES

2.6

THE PRIMARY LOOP RESPONDS TO LONGER TERM TRENDS

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2.7

LECTURE NOTES
PAGE NO. 4 of 13
THERE CAN BE MULTIPLE LEVELS OF CASCADE CONTROL

2.8

HAVING ADDITIONAL CONTROL COMPONENTS CAN REDUCE

THE OVERALL CONTROL SYSTEM RELIABILITY

3 APPLICATION- CSTR COOLING EXAMPLE

3.1

CRITERIA FOR ADDING CASCADE CONTROL

3.1.1 SINGLE LOOP DOES NOT EXHIBIT SATISFACTORY

RESPONSES

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LECTURE NOTES
PAGE NO. 5 of 13

3.1.1.1 TO FEED CHANGES

3.1.1.2 TO COOLING WATER TEMPERATURE CHANGES
3.1.1.3 LAG TIME IS EXCESSIVE
3.1.2 SECONDARY LOOP VARIABLE CAN BE MEASURED DISCHARGE COOLING WATER TEMPERATURE
3.1.3 SECONDARY LOOP VARIABLE IS RELATED TO PRIMARY
CONTROL VARIABLE - HEAT TRANSFER TO REACTOR IS
REFLECTED IN DISCHARGE COOLING WATER
TEMPERATURE
3.1.4 SECONDARY LOOP CAN BE INFLUENCED BY THE
MEASURED VARIABLE - CHANGE IN PRODUCT EXIT
TEMPERATURE WILL CHANGE SETPOINT TO SECONDARY
CONTROLLER.
3.1.5 SECONDARY LOOP HAS SHORTER TIME CONSTANT TEMPERATURE CHANGE IN COOLING WATER SHOULD BE
QUICKER IN RESPONSE TO A DISTURBANCE WITH LESS
CAPACITANCE ON THE COOLING WATER SIDE.
3.2

WHY NOT USE COOLING WATER FLOW AS THE SECONDARY

VARIABLE?

3.2.1 CAN IT HANDLE CHANGES IN FEED RATES?

3.2.2 HOW WILL IT RESPOND TO CHANGES IN EITHER FEED OR
COOLING WATER TEMPERATURE?
4 RATIO CONTROL
4.1

THIS IS A VARIATION OF CASCADE CONTROL

4.2

THE RATIO CONTROLLER RESPONDS A DISTURBANCE IN A

MASTER VARIABLE, BY SENDING A RATIO SETPOINT TO THE
CONTROLLER FOR A SLAVE VARIABLE.

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4.3

LECTURE NOTES
PAGE NO. 6 of 13
THE PRIMARY CONTROLLER SENDS A RATIO SETPOINT TO
THE RATIO CONTROLLER

4.4

CONSIDER THE TOP OF A DISTILLATION COLUMN - SEE

SKETCH ON THE NEXT PAGE

4.4.1 THE TARGET IS TO MAINTAIN THE COMPOSITION AT A

CERTAIN VALUE
4.4.2 THE PRIMARY METHOD IS TO ADJUST THE REFLUX RATIO
4.4.3 A SECOND OBJECTIVE IS TO HAVE THE SYSTEM
RESPOND TO CHANGES IN BOILUP RATES

4.4.4 NOTE THIS SKETCH DOES NOT SHOW THE PRESSURE

CONTROL, WHICH IS ASSUMED TO HAVE A VERY SHORT
LAG TIME AND BE LINEAR.
4.4.5 THE PRIMARY MEASURE OF ANALYSIS IS EITHER AN ONLINE SAMPLER OR AN OFF-LINE ANALYSIS - EITHER ONE
WITH A RELATIVELY LONG LAG TIME

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LECTURE NOTES
PAGE NO. 7 of 13
4.4.6 THE SIGNAL FROM THIS LOOP BECOMES THE SETPOINT
FOR THE TRAY TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER
4.4.7 THE OUTPUT FROM THE TRAY TEMPERATURE
CONTROLLER IS THE RATIO SIGNAL TO THE FFRC.
4.4.8 THE MASTER SIGNAL FOR THE FFRC IS THE PRODUCT
FLOW RATE AND THE SLAVE IS THE REFLUX FLOW RATE
4.4.9 THE PRODUCT FLOW RATE IS BASED ON THE OUTPUT
FROM THE LEVEL CONTROL IN THE DISTILLATE
ACCUMULATOR
4.4.10

FOR THIS SYSTEM TO WORK AS SHOWN:

4.4.10.1

THE TRAY TEMPERATURE NEEDS TO BE LINEAR

WITH COMPOSITION

4.4.10.2

THE LEVEL CONTROL SHOULD HAVE A SHORTER

LAG TIME THAN CHANGES IN BOIL-UP RATES

5 FEEDFORWARD CONTROL
5.1

CHARACTERISTICS

5.1.1 THIS TECHNIQUE DOES NOT USE FEEDBACK CONTROL

5.1.2 IT IS EFFECTIVE IN REDUCING DISTURBANCES, THOUGH
NOT AS EFFECTIVELY AS FEEDBACK CONTROL
5.1.3 IT IS TYPICALLY USED MOST EFFECTIVELY IN
COMBINATION WITH FEEDBACK CONTROL

CHE 185 - Process Dynamics & Control

5.2

5.3

GENERIC BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAM

THE GENERAL FORM FOR THE FEEDFORWARD

TRANSFER FUNCTION IS:

5.4

LECTURE NOTES
PAGE NO. 8 of 13

G ff ( s) =

Gd ( s)
G p ( s)

COMBINING THE TERMS IN THE DENOMINATOR INTO A

SINGLE PROCESS FUNCTION: :

G ff ( s) =
5.5

Gd ( s)
Gds ( s)Ga ( s)G p ( s)

ASSUMING THE PROCESS AND DISTURBANCE TRANSFER

FUNCTIONS HAVE FOPDT FORMS:

CHE 185 - Process Dynamics & Control

LECTURE NOTES
PAGE NO. 9 of 13

Kd e d s

( p s + 1) ff s
d s + 1
( ld s + 1) ff s
=
=
G ff ( s) =
K
e
K
e
ff
ff
ps
( d s + 1)
( lg s + 1)
K pe

ps + 1
5.6

TERMS IN THIS EQUATION ARE DEFINED AS:

LEAD-LAG ALGORITHM

FEEDFORWARD CONTROLLER GAIN

FEEDFORWARD CONTROLLER
DEADTIME
FEEDFORWARD LEAD TIME
FEEDFORWARD LAG TIME

( p s + 1)
( d s + 1)
K ff =

Kd
Kp

ff = d p

ld = P
ld = d

CHE 185 - Process Dynamics & Control

5.7

LECTURE NOTES
PAGE NO. 10 of 13

STATIC FEEDFORWARD CONTROL

5.7.1 FEEDFORWARD LOOP THAT DOES NOT PROVIDE

DYNAMIC COMPENSATION

5.7.2 CAN BE USED WHEN THE PROCESS HAS SIMILAR

DYNAMIC RESPONSE TO DISTURBANCE CHANGES AND
THE CHANGES IN THE MANIPULATED VARIABLE, WHERE
THE LEAD/LAG RATIO . 1

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5.8

LECTURE NOTES
PAGE NO. 11 of 13

DYNAMIC COMPENSATION

5.8.1 THIS EXAMINES HOW THE PROCESS RESPONDS

RELATIVE TO THE SIGNAL FROM A FEEDFORWARD
CONTROLLER.
5.8.2 WHEN THE LEAD/LAG RATIO IS > 1, THEN AN INITIAL
OVERCOMPENSATION IS NECESSARY
5.8.3 WHEN THE LEAD/LAG IS < 1 THEN AN
UNDERCOMPENSATION PROVIDES A BETTER CONTROL
5.8.4 TAKEN AT EXTREMES, WHEN THE LEAD . 0, THEN THE
FUNCTION BECOMES AN FOPDT RESPONSE:
s

K ff e ff
G ff ( s ) =
lg s + 1

5.8.5 WHEN THE VALUE OF THE LAG . 0, THEN THE FUNCTION

APPROACHES A PROPORTIONAL/DERIVATIVE FORM:

G ff ( s ) = K ff ( ld s + 1)e
5.9

ff s

TUNING FACTORS

5.9.1 FEEDFORWARD CAN AMPLIFY NOISE WHICH CAN CAUSE

OVERSHOOT.
5.9.2 BASED ON THE PROCESS APPROXIMATING AN FOPDT
MODEL, THEN LEAD/LAG RATIOS < 2.0 ARE
RECOMMENDED

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LECTURE NOTES
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5.9.3 INITIAL TUNING SEQUENCE

5.9.3.1 ESTIMATE Kff, Jld, Jlg, AND 2ff FOR PROCESS
5.9.3.2 ADJUST ONLY Kff WHILE HOLDING OTHER
PARAMETERS CONSTANT, TO ELIMINATE OFFSET
5.9.3.3 ADJUST 2ff TO ELIMINATE DYNAMIC MISMATCH
5.9.3.4 ADJUST AND UNTIL THERE ARE EQUAL AREAS
ABOVE AND BELOW THE SETPOINT
6 COMBINING FEEDFORWARD AND FEEDBACK CONTROL
6.1

FEEDBACK AND FEEDFORWARD CONTROL HAVE

COMPLEMENTARY CHARACTERISTICS

6.2

MOST EFFECTIVE LOOPS MIGHT COMBINE BOTH

TECHNIQUES

6.3

AND EXAMPLE OF THE COMBINATION IS SHOWN

GRAPHICALLY IN THE FOLLOWING FIGURE

6.3.1 FEEDBACK ONLY PRODUCES OVERSHOOT BECAUSE OF

THE DELAY DUE TO THE SYSTEM INVENTORY

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LECTURE NOTES
PAGE NO. 13 of 13

6.3.2 FEEDFORWARD ONLY, EVEN WITH DYNAMIC

COMPENSATION, RESULTED IN LESS OVERSHOOT
BECAUSE THE HEATING FLOW WAS INCREASED
RELATIVE TO THE FEED, BUT THE SYSTEMS HAD AN
EXTENDED SETTLING TIME
6.3.3 COMBINING THE TWO METHODS ELIMINATES EXCESSIVE
OVERSHOOT AND REDUCES SETTLING TIME.
6.4

CONSIDER THE DISTILLATION COLUMN PREVIOUSLY

PROVIDED WITH A CASCADE CONTROL

6.4.1 WHAT FEED FORWARD ELEMENTS COULD BE ADDED

6.4.1.1 TO ALLOW FOR CHANGES IN COLUMN FEED RATE?
6.4.1.2 TO ALLOW FOR CHANGES IN FEED COMPOSITION?
6.4.2 WOULD THESE DUPLICATE OR SUPPLEMENT THE
FUNCTIONS OF EXISTING LOOPS?